TIME 

OF FLIGHT DIFFRACTION (ToFD)

What is ToFD?
• ToFD is a highly accurate ultrasonic  inspection method essentially used for weld  inspection. ToFD Probe & Beam  Layout
*
• ToFD employs a modified pitch–catch technique using a transmitter (Tx) and separate 
receiver (Rx) in opposing orientation. NON‐PARALLEL SCAN PARALLEL SCAN
• Probe Centre Separation (PCS)

• Using ToFD , an extended volume of material is inspected from a fixed axial position. FIXED PROBE SEPARATION* • To calculate PCS:  2(t x tanθ)
Tx Rx where t = focus point

INSONIFICATION
θ = probe angle

How Does It Work?
Pulse Echo ToFD
• Pulse Echo relies on transmitted (Tx) energy being reflected back to the probe. The • As the name suggests, ToFD uses diffracted energy to provide defect location and
amplitude of this received (Rx) energy may be an indication of relative defect size. size information.

• The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection therefore transmitted sound beams • A two probe pitch‐catch arrangement is used with one probe transmitting energy
must encounter a perpendicular surface to reflect the energy with optimum efficiency and the other receiving both reflected and diffracted energy.
back to the probe.
• After the transmitted (Tx) energy encounters an obstacle, diffracted energy is
• If the sound beam is not perpendicular to this surface it will reflect away from the probe and radiated from its extremities in all directions and will therefore eventually reach the
either no signal signal will be received or only a portion thereof. receiver (Rx) regardless of the source orientation (top and bottom of defect).

• The transit time (Tx to Rx pf the diffracted signals is measured with great accuracy

allowing us to determine the actual location of the top and bottom of a defect.
FAVOURABLE REFLECTOR
ORIENTATION • NOTE: In practice, both diffracted and reflected signals are used in ToFD.
Tx/Rx Tx/Rx
xRx ORIENTATION INDEPENDENT

Tx Rx
DIFFRACTED ENERGY
UNFAVOURABLE REFLECTOR
ORIENTATION

Tx/Rx Tx/Rx TOP & BOTTOM LOCATION

Tx Rx
TIMED SIGNALS

Signal Identity & Phase Reversal Collecting & Digitising Data
EACH SUBSEQUENT SIGNAL IS PHASE
REVERSED
• An encoder measures the distance scanned in user configured steps.
INITIAL PULSE

• One analogue A‐scan per encoder step is digitised and stored.
TIME (μs) 

Tx Rx LATERAL WAVE • Each stored A‐scan is converted into a grey‐scale image corresponding to one
encoder step.
TOP OF DEFECT
• The images are ‘stacked’ to form a composite image of the entire scan length.

BOTTOM OF DEFECT

ENCODED STEPS

BACKWALL REFLECTION

• Typically each subsequent signal starts in the  Tx Rx
opposite phase.
• Phase reversal provides precise points of ONE A‐SCAN SAVED 
reference for measurement. ‐ + PER ENCODER STEP
• Phase reversal aids identification of the top % FSH DISPLAYED AS A GREY SCALE PALETTE
and bottom of defects

Data Elevation Convention Example ToFD Data

B‐Scan LACK OF SIDE WALL FUSION TRANSVERSE CRACK POINT INDICATIONS
Cross‐sectional  view of the weld.  Sound direction is axial to the probe movement.
C‐Scan 
Plan  view of the test area, either through its depth or perpendicular to the sound
path (not usually used in ToFD).
D‐Scan
View along the length of the weld from the side.  Sound direction is perpendicular NON PARALLEL SCAN PARALLEL SCAN NON PARALLEL SCAN D‐SCAN

to the probe movement. ROOT CRACK LACK OF ROOT FUSION

Note that the depth 
C‐SCAN dimensions are displayed 
in time (micro  seconds or
µs) along the beam
axis.  

NON PARALLEL SCAN PARALLEL SCAN NON PARALLEL SCAN Parabolic cursors are

TOE CRACK LACK OF ROOT PENETRATION (DOUBLE V) used to measure depth in 
units of distance 
(millimetres or inches) 
perpendicular the surface 
thereby simplifying data 
NON‐PARALLEL SCAN  interpretation.
PARALLEL SCAN 
PRODUCES A D‐SCAN 
PRODUCES A B‐SCAN 
IMAGE
IMAGE NON PARALLEL SCAN PARALLEL SCAN NON PARALLEL SCAN 

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