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132 views11 pagesChapter 9 - Pulse Digital and Switching Waveforms
Uploaded by
Radib KabirCopyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF or read online on Scribd
___Monostable and Astable Multivibrators 339
———
Note that although Q1 operates in saturation it does so only because of the additional current delivered to
it through C. If the capacitor C were removed (in which case, of course, the circuit would not oscillate) OL
would not be in saturation, Such a situation is fortunate. If it were possible for QI to be in saturation before
the circuit started oscillations, it might never start. As with QI in saturation the loop gain would not exceed
unity and regeneration would not be possible. It is necessary, as a matter of fact, for reliable operation, to ar
range de operating conditions (ie. with C removed) so that neither transistor is in saturation.
The advantages of the emitter-coupled astable multivibrator over the collector-coupled circuit of Fig. 9.19
are as follows: (1) It is inherently self-starting.. (2) It makes an output available at the collector of (02 whichis
connected to no other part af the circuit, Since this collector is not involved in the regenerative action, it may be
loaded heavily, even capacitively. (3) The output is free of recovery transients such as appear in Fig. 9.20 (4)It
has an isolated input at the base of QT which may be used conveniently for synchronization. (5) It uses only one
timing capacitor. This feature makes frequency adjustment convenient, Ina multivibrator with two capacitors
both capacitors need to be changed if the frequency is to be changed without changing the relative values of 7)
and T2. The disadvantages or the circuit of Fig. 9.25 over that of Fig. 9.19 are the following: (1) The former ci
cuit is more difficult to adjust for proper operating conditions, We require that, in the quiescent state (C removed.
neither Q1 nor 02 should saturate, but that when the circuit is operating asa multis ibrator. Q1 should be dnven
to saturation, while Q2 is driven into its active region. (2) Since there is only a single capacitor and since the
emitter resistors cannot be widely different from one another, the present circuit cannot be operated with 7. and
Tz widely different. (3) The emitter-coupled multivibrator uses more components than does the collector-coupled
circuit
Op-amp Based Monostable Multivibrator
The circuit of an op-amp based monostable multivibrator’is illustrated in Fig. 9.26(a). We find a parallel com-
bination of 2 diode D1 with a shunt capacitor C connected to the inverting terminal of the op-amp. The sharp
negative trigger pulse with a width ,, is chosen to be negligible compared to gate width T of the monostable
multivibrator. The trigger pulse. as indicated in the Fig. 9.24 (a). is first differentiated and only the resulting
negative spikes, due to the presence of the diode D2, are allowed to reach non-inverting terminal of the op-
amp. Readers can see that. in all the circuits discussed in this chapter so far, the circuits employed feedback
from the output that has been fed to the inverting terminal of the op-amp. This is known as degenerative
feedback. In the circuit, shown in Fig. 9.26(a), a portion of the output voltage 1’, is dropped across resistor
R; employing positive voltage-series feedback through a voltage divider network. The feedback voltage fed
into non-inverting terminal of the op-amp constitutes regenerative feedback. All multivibrators ake use of
regenerative feedback for their operation. The voltage divider network consists of two resistors Ry and Ry
The feedback factor B can be expressed as
R,
BO Rak
The resistor R, in the circuit is intended to limit the current drawn from the op-amp. The inclusion of two
Zener diodes, which are connected in series back-to-back fashion, limits the output voltage swing between
-Vzand +V,,
‘We can easily show that v,(1) = +1, when this monostable multivibrator is in its stable state. We see that
the op-amp is connected as a non-inverting amplifier employing regenerative feedback. The non-inverting,
terminal of the op-amp would be at a positive voltage equal to Br, We have a virtual short across the input
(9.91)
“Readers are advised to consult Sec 1-7 and Sec 8-12 before commencing their study ofthis topic. 340, Pulse, Digital and Switching Waveforms
terminals of the op-amp, and the voltage Br, appears at the inverting terminal as well. In other words, pos.
tive voltage Bv, appears across the capacitor C. The capacitor voltage vc{f) tries to charge to Bv,, but fails 1g
reach Bv,, duc to the diode D1 connected across it, We know that a forward biased diode has 0.7 across it. The
capacitor voltage v¢() is clamped to the diode voltage My. In the present circuit V; = 0.7 volt. If two diode,
were connected in series V, would be equal to 1.4 volts. The voltage on the capacitor c(t) remains at ¥, a;
long as the circuit remains in its stable state.
The negative going trigger pulse is applied at ¢= 0. This momentary negative input to the op-amp switches
its output from +, to -V, due to the presence of regenerative feedback in the circuit. The circuit is ints
quasi-stable state at present. The capacitor C, which holds a voltage ¥, can charge exponentially towards-y,
via the path available through resistor R’. The capacitor voltage, however, cannot reach -V;. When the voltage
‘on the capacitor just exceeds BV’ T the input to the op-amp becomes positive. Later, as indicated in
the waveforms in Fig 9.26(b), capacitor voltage vc(#) attempts to reach +Vz; and subsequently gets clamped at
’,, and this marks retum of the circuit to its stable state.
R
= Ry
c D2 +
al : I
+ ,
4+ trigger input |
ve 7 ve
| fe RS he Ry Ry " |
<
(6) Input rigger, capacitor voltage and output waveform
Fig. 9.26 Op-amp based monostable multivibrator Monostable and Astable Multivibrators a
‘An expression for the width of the output pulse 7 can be readily obtained from the capacitor voltage v(t)
by making use of the gencralized transient equation.
Ved) = Nel) 4 (C(O) = Ve (oopen"*
We know that v{0#) = Fis vA) = Vpn VAT) = ~BVz, and the time constant 7 = R'C. Substituting these values
in the above equation, we have
Fa Payer DRC
yt t Pe
“BV;
(e+ VyyeTRE = Vz Vz
(z+ Vio PRE =(1- BW
+h)
oi
LI, ,
T= wen[ Cite) (9.92)
Let us assume that R; = Ry and consequently 6 = +, We also assume that the voltage of the capacitor I is
negligible compared to the Zener diode voltage Vz. If we incorporate these assumptions Eq. (9.92) assumes
a simple form as
T=0.69R'C : (9.93)
In the Fig. 9.26(a) if the resistor R, is shorted, there would not be any need for the Zener diodes to limit the
output. Under these conditions Eq, (9.92) can still be used by replacing I’, with Vec-— Fe(sat). Here the june
tion voltage I’c;(sat) belongs to the transistor in the output stage of the operational amplifier.
Example 9.7 In an op-amp based monostable multivibrator, indicated in Fig. 9.26, determine the gate with T of
the circuit. The output voltage swings between ~V'¢ = -15 volts and ~I;-= #15 volts, and the other circuit parameters
7 volt, Ry = 82 kM, Ry = 56 kA, R’ = 120 kO, and C= 0.082 wF. Assume that the two Zener diodes are not
connected across the output of the circuit
Solution
Here the output s
ings between -15 volts and +15 volts due to the absence of Zener diodes. It is given that the cieuit
120 kQ, and C= 0.082 pF.
parameters are 1’, = 0.7 volt, Ry= 82 ki, Ry = 56 kM, Rr
hy .
B = 8-04
Ry+k, 82456
14 (KV,
T= wen UE) 12000820
Op-amp Based Astable Multi
An op-amp based astable multivibrator, indicated in Fig. 9.27(a), operates always in free-running mode, and
does not have any stable states. A regenerative feedback is incorporated in this circuit by positive voltage-
Series feedback by the voltage-divider network consisting of R, and Ry. The voltage that is fed back into the
non-inverting terminal is Bv,, where f3 is given by the expression
Ry +R,
The circuit also employs degenerative feedback with timing resistor R’ and timing capacitor C. The pres-
ence of the two Zener diodes, connected in series back-to-back, do not allow the output voltage go out of the M
342 Pulse, Digital and Switching Waveforms
voltage range -1'q) 10-41. In general, V2) = Vz_ = 70 that we obtain a symmetric square Wave a§ outpu,
This astable circuit makes ceaseless transitions between its two qu table states, The output of this free.
running circuit is a square wave that keeps on changing levels between -V’z and +Vz continous Hy ,
Let us assume that the output of the circuit -', before ¢= 0, and as a consequence, the voltage that is feq
back into the non-inverting terminal is -BV'p. As indicated in Fig 9.27(b), the circuit makes a transition ay
s always treated as zero due to the virtual short across
1=0 and the output attains +’z, Readers know that ¥; is aes
the input terminals of the op-amp. The voltage across the capacitor C cannot change from -B¥; 10 +BY; in
zero time. The capacitor C which holds a voltage ~BV’z at ¢= 0+ aims to attain +BV, exponentially charging
through the resistor A’, When the capacitor voltage v¢(#) reaches +31’, at = 7; the circuit slips into the other
quasi-stable state, An expression for the charging interval 7, can be derived with the help of the generalized
transient equation.
VAI) = Vol) + (ve(0) ve Ne" .
We know that ve(0#) = -BV’p, velo) = +V, vo{T,) = +B¥'z, and the time constant ¢ = R°C. Substituting these
values in the above equation, we have
4BV,= Vo + Bly ~ Vode RC
+
<— fr
(a) Astable multivibrator
vet)
We
+B,
<~7~ Ro
(©) Capacitor voltage and output waveform
Fig. 9.27. Op-amp based astable multivibrator. Monostable and Astable Muttivibrators 343
(1B) = (I= Bye WE
Wire (4)
1B
T= RC w(t) (9.94)
‘The astable circuit makes a transition into its previous quasi-stable state at /= 7,. The voltage on the capacitor
C exponentially discharges from +BV to ~BV; through the path available through A’. It can be again proved
that
1-B
r= R'C In| —
( * 3]
We find that the output is a symmetric square wave, as depicted in Fig 9.27(b), and we know that T,
7/2. Obviously. the expression for the total time period T can be expressed as
iy
T= reu( 4) (995)
The op-amp based astable multivibrator essentially functions as a square wave generator. It is clear from
Eq. (9.95) that the time period T does not depend on the limiting voltage 1’, If we intend to generate an un-
hat, #1
determine the time period Tf the
ymmetrical square wave, we hav
Example 9.8 | n op-amp based astable multivibrator, indicated in Fig, 9.2
circuit. Assume that the two Zener diodes are not connected actoss the output of the citcuit. The output volta
between £18 volts, and the other circuit parameters arc Ry = kD. Ry = 47 KO. R’ = 82 KA, and C= 0.12 pF. Also calculate
positive and negative peaks ofthe capacitor voltage.
Solution
Here the output swings between -18 volts and +18 volts due tothe absence of Zener diodes. We assume thatthe 80
Zener diodes are not connected across the output of the circuit. Itis given thatthe circuit parameters are Ry = 6S kil Ry
= 47 OR’ = KO and C= 0.12 pF
R 7
3-47 04
Re+R, 68447
16.6msec.
1-08
‘The positive and negative peaks of the capacitor voltage is given by
$BVc¢ = 400.4 X 18) = 27.2 volts
The above equation states that v,(max) = +7.2 volts and ve(min) = -7.2 volts.
C IC 555 Timer
One of the most popular analog integrated circuits, over the past three decades, is obviously the IC $55 timer.
‘The $55 timer is essentially alinear integrated circuit compatible with digital integrated circuits that are built
on TTL logic. Some of the common applications of IC $55 timer include monostable and astable operations.
The gating pulse obtained from monostable operation can be used as a trigger in the generation of several
pulse waveforms. In sequential logic circuits, built on TTL logic, IC 555 timer is the obvious choice for the
ang (UB 1404
To 2R'C il 5 |= 282012177
oO 285 Pulse, Digital and Sw
IC is mainly due to its versatility and simplicity. The operation
help of its functional
nasan astable
generation of the clock. The popularity of thi '
of this circuit, in monastable and astable aperation can be understood easily with t
block diagram. This integrated circuit requites only a few discrete components to make it fu
multivibrator or a monosiable multivibrator : ; /
The finetional block dingram of the 555 timer, indicated in Fig, 9.28, basically consists of a vollage-divider
network, two voltage comparators, an RS flip-flop, and a discharge transistor. This integrated circuit can be
chosen when supply voltages range from § volts to 18 volts. We find this timer operating mostly with 5 volts
power supply since its output is compatible with TTL digital inteyrated eicuits. The pin configuration of this
8-pin timer can also be seen in Fig 9.28. Three of the pins of the circuit include supply voltage Vee. ground,
threshold, control voltage, trigger, discharge, and reset,
and output. The other five pins are:
Vee Reset
fl 4
R
‘Threshold [6} >
2y, —
Vee
Control voltage [5}—* S
oe Rr OK ol 3] Output
comparator
s
Hey -
‘Trigger [3} ~
Discharge [7 ‘comparator-2
“ 100
b Q
2
1
Fig. 9.28 Functional block diagram of IC 555 timer.
ar
The voltage-divider network derives $Vcc and 4Vcc from the supply voltage Vcc. The timer has two
voltage comparators. A reference voltage of $Vcc is connected at the inverting terminal of comparator-1.
‘The non-inverting terminal of comparator-1 is connected to threshold. A reference voltage of {Vee is con-
nected at the non-inverting terminal of comparator-2. The inverting terminal of comparator-2 is connected t0
trigger. The outputs of comparator-1 and comparator-2 appear as R and $ inputs of the flip-flop. The output
of the flip-flop Q forms the ouput of the timer.
2
When threshold exceeds Vcc the output of comparator-1 becomes wicut and when it falls below 2¥cc
the output of comparator-I becomes Low. When trigger lies below 4}¥c the output of comparator-2 is HiGH le and Astable Multivibrators 345
and when it exceeds Hg¢ the output of comparator-2 is Low. The function of control voliage depends on
the specific application for which the timer is used,
ith the two external inputs threshold and
of the two comparators, in turn, determine
The two intemal reference voltages 2Ve¢ and 41 ;q. along
trigger control the outputs of the two comparators. The outpu
the output of the flip-flop and the onqpud of the timer. The QO from the flip-flop is fed to the base of n-p-n
discharge transistor Q,. The discharge transistor Q, provides a low resistance discharge path for the capacitor
connected at the discharge terminal of the timer. The state of the discharge transistor Q,, cut-off or satura
tio, is determined by the state of O.. The output of the RS flip-flop Q can be asynchronously made Low with
the help of the reset. In most of the applications, reset is disabled by keeping it open or connected to supply
voltage Woe
1 Monostable Multivibrator with IC 555 Timer
9.14 @
‘A monostable multivibrator, realised employing the IC 555 timer, is shown in Fig. 9.29(a). The functional block
diagram of the timer is explained in the previous section. We can see that three resistors and three capacitors
connected exteally to the timer to make it function as a monostable multivibrator. The purpose of the two
bias resistors R, and R, is mainly included to Keep the rigger to remain above the reference level $Vec when
the external negative pulse is not applied. The capacitor connected between control voltage and ground is
‘meant to smooth out the output waveform from spurious voltage spikes. As indicated in Fig 9.29(b) a sharp
negative pulse, applied through the coupling capacitor C’, at trigger to bring the trigger input below + Vcc
The discussion in this section shows that resistor R and capacitor C are connected to both threshold
‘and discharge simultaneously. While threshold controls the output of comparator-I, trigger determines the
output of comparator-2. We assume that the voltage across the capacitor C is zero for t < 0. Obviously, the
citeuit would be in its stable state in the absence of any external input, and the output of the timer is tow in
the stable state. The quasi-stable state of the circuit commences at t = 0 as described below.
Asmentioned above, the sharp negative pulse is applied at the trigger at ¢= 0 and this negative pulse makes
the comparator-2 mu, the flip-flop is ser, and Q is Low, and the discharge transistor Q, is in cut-off. With
these conditions prevailing at ¢ = 0+, the timing capacitor C can charge towards Vc through the charging
path available through timing resistor X, We know that the initial voltage on the capacitor v¢{0) = 0 and the
final voltage on the capacitor v{~) = Vcc. It can be scen from the waveforms, indicated in Fig. 9.29(b), that
25 v¢(t) exponentially rises from zero to V¢c, the outputs of the comparator-1 and comparator-2 are Low and
wait and the flip-flop is ser. The capacitor voltage exponentially reaches {Vcc the output of comparator-1
becomes nici. The output of comparator-2 becomes Low, shortly after the application of the negative pulse,
since trigger rises above 4Vc¢ during the interval 0 <¢< 7. The flip-flop is ser in this interval. The flip-flop
is neser when v(t) reaches 2)... at = 7'~, Here the pulse width of the trigger pulse is neglected. AS @
Cosequence, Q is nici and the discharge transistor Q, is driven into saturation. The timing capacitor Q, finds
2 low resistance discharge path through the discharge transistor Q,, and fully discharges to zero, This instant,
where v¢(7+) = 0, marks the end of the quasi-stable state and the circuit returns to its stable state.
‘An expression for the width of the output pulse 7'can be readily obtained from the capacitor voltage vc(!)
by making use of the generalized transient equation,
Vdl) = ve (2) + (ve (0) ~ vee) eV"
We know that v(0) = 0, ve) = Veo ve(1) = $V cc ,and the time constant + = RC. Substituting these values
in the above equation, we have 346 Pulse, Digital and Switching Waveforms
1)
Vee
Rese
4] [al
Sk
| Tost
+ fo} Py
gh }—,.
ce 7 or oI
Souse competsior-
rT 4
comparaioe2
on
Qo
1
(a) Monostable multivibrator with IC 555 timer
1
Fee -
Vee
0 >
vant
Wee
0 ~
t
0)
Vee -—
0 >
|x 7 > t
(b) Input trigger, capacitor voltage, and output waveforms
Fig. 9.29 Monostable multivibrator with IC 555 timer. Monostable and Astable Multivibrators
347
Boe Veet - Voce
th a3
T=RCWW3=1ARC
T=[Link] (9.96)
9.15 Astable Multivibrator with IC 555 Timer
An astable multivibrator, realised employing the IC 555 timer, is shown in Fig 9.30(a), We can see that 0
resistors and two capacitors connected externally to the timer to make it function as an astable multivibrator
‘The capacitor connected between control voltage and ground is meant to smooth out the output waveform
from spurious voltage spikes. The upper end of R, is connected to Vcc. The point where R, and R, meet 18
connected to discharge.
The two inputs to the two intemal comparators, threshold and trigger, are tied together into a common
point, This common node is connected to the joining point of Rand C.
‘This circuit operates in free-running mode and does not require any external trigger input. The timing
capacitor, during the initial transient condition, begins to charge from zero towards Vcc. Later the capacitor
voltage is confined to the voltage range from 0 }V¢¢ t0}Voc_as indicated in the waveform. Readers can
casily verify that the capacitor voltage vc{#) swings between Vee and 2V¢¢., and cannot assume a level
is voltage range. The output voltage is u1GH when the capacitor is being charged from $¥¢< 10
outsi
through the series combination of the resistors R, + Ry. Ina similar way, the output voltage is tow when the
capacitor is being discharged from 2V/¢c t04Vec through the resistor Ry.
Let us consider the interval 0 <1 <7, during which the capacitor discharges. An expression for 7, can be
obtained from the capacitor voltage v(t) by making use of the generalized transient equation.
¥dl) = Ve (9) + (Ve(0)= vee"
We know that ¥e(0) =2 Fees ve) = 0, vo(Ti)= 4Vccy and the time constant r = R,C. Substituting these
values in the above equation, we have
Wee = 0+ (Wee -0) WME
che =2
T= R,Cin2=0.69R,C
T, = 0.69 RC . 0.97)
We shall denote the interval 7,
