Respiratory System

Organs of the Respiratory system

 Nose
 Pharynx
 Larynx
 Trachea
 Bronchi
 Lungs – alveoli

Function of the Respiratory System

 Oversees gas exchanges between the blood
and external environment
 Exchange of gasses takes place within the
lungs in the alveoli
 Passageways to the lungs purify, warm, and
humidify the incoming air
 The Nose
 The only externally visible part of the
respiratory system
 Air enters the nose through the external
nares (nostrils)
 The interior of the nose consists of a nasal
cavity divided by a nasal septum
Upper Respiratory Tract
 Figure 13.2

Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity

 Olfactory receptors are located in the
mucosa on the superior surface
 The rest of the cavity is lined with
respiratory mucosa
 Moistens air
 Traps incoming foreign particles
 Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
 Lateral walls have projections called
conchae
 Increases surface area
 Increases air turbulence within the nasal
cavity
 The nasal cavity is separated from the oral
cavity by the palate
 Anterior hard palate (bone)
 Posterior soft palate (muscle)

Paranasal Sinuses
 Cavities within bones surrounding the
nasal cavity
 Frontal bone
 Sphenoid bone
 Ethmoid bone
 Maxillary bone
 Paranasal Sinuses
 Function of the sinuses
 Lighten the skull
 Act as resonance chambers for speech
 Produce mucus that drains into the nasal
cavity

Pharynx (Throat)
 Muscular passage from nasal cavity to
larynx
 Three regions of the pharynx
 Nasopharynx – superior region behind
nasal cavity
 Oropharynx – middle region behind mouth
 Laryngopharynx – inferior region attached
to larynx
  The oropharynx and laryngopharynx are
common passageways for air and food

Structures of the Pharynx

 Auditory tubes enter the nasopharynx
 Tonsils of the pharynx
 Pharyngeal tonsil (adenoids) in the
nasopharynx
 Palatine tonsils in the oropharynx
 Lingual tonsils at the base of the tongue
 Larynx (Voice Box)
 Routes air and food into proper channels
 Plays a role in speech
 Made of eight rigid hyaline cartilages and a
spoon-shaped flap of elastic cartilage
(epiglottis)
 Structures of the Larynx
 Thyroid cartilage
 Largest hyaline cartilage
 Protrudes anteriorly (Adam’s apple) 
Epiglottis
 Superior opening of the larynx
  Routes food to the larynx and air toward
the trachea

Structures of the Larynx

 Vocal cords (vocal folds)
 Vibrate with expelled air to create sound
(speech)
 Glottis – opening between vocal cords
 Trachea (Windpipe)
 Connects larynx with bronchi  Lined with
ciliated mucosa
 Beat continuously in the opposite direction
of incoming air
 Expel mucus loaded with dust and other
debris away from lungs
 Walls are reinforced with C-shaped hyaline
cartilage

Primary Bronchi
 Formed by division of the trachea
 Enters the lung at the hilus (medial
depression)
 Right bronchus is wider, shorter, and
straighter than left
 Bronchi subdivide into smaller and smaller
branches
 Lungs
 Occupy most of the thoracic cavity
 Apex is near the clavicle (superior portion)
 Base rests on the diaphragm (inferior portion) 
Each lung is divided into lobes by fissures
 Left lung – two lobes
 Right lung – three lobes
Lungs
 Figure 13.4b

Coverings of the Lungs

 Pulmonary (visceral) pleura covers the lung
surface
 Parietal pleura lines the walls of the thoracic
cavity
 Pleural fluid fills the area between layers of
pleura to allow gliding
 Respiratory Tree Divisions
 Primary bronchi
 Secondary bronchi
 Tertiary bronchi
 Bronchioli
 Terminal bronchioli
 Bronchioles

 Smallest
branches of
the bronchi
 Bronchioles
 All but the
smallest
branches
have
reinforcing
cartilage
Bronchioles
 Terminal
bronchioles
end in
alveoli
 Respiratory Zone
 Structures
 Respiratory bronchioli
 Alveolar duct
 Alveoli
 Site of gas exchange
 Alveoli
 Structure of alveoli
 Alveolar duct
 Alveolar sac
 Alveolus
 Gas exchange takes place within the alveoli in
the respiratory membrane
 Respiratory Membrane
(Air-Blood Barrier)
 Thin squamous epithelial layer lining alveolar
walls
 Pulmonary capillaries cover external surfaces
of alveoli
Respiratory Membrane (Air-
Blood Barrier)
Gas Exchange
 Gas crosses the respiratory membrane by
diffusion
 Oxygen enters the blood
 Carbon dioxide enters the alveoli
 Macrophages add protection
 Surfactant coats gas-exposed alveolar
surfaces
 Events of Respiration
 Pulmonary ventilation – moving air in and out
of the lungs
 External respiration – gas exchange between
pulmonary blood and alveoli
 Events of Respiration
 Respiratory gas transport – transport of
oxygen and carbon dioxide via the
bloodstream
 Internal respiration – gas exchange between
blood and tissue cells in systemic capillaries
 Mechanics of Breathing
(Pulmonary Ventilation)
 Completely mechanical process
 Depends on volume changes in the thoracic
cavity
 Volume changes lead to pressure changes,
which lead to the flow of gases to equalize
pressure
 Mechanics of Breathing
(Pulmonary Ventilation)
 Two phases
 Inspiration – flow of air into lung
 Expiration – air leaving lung

Inspiration
 Diaphragm and intercostal muscles contract 
The size of the thoracic cavity increases
 External air is pulled into the lungs due to an
increase in intrapulmonary volume
Inspiration
 Expiration
 Largely a passive process which depends on
natural lung elasticity
 As muscles relax, air is pushed out of the
lungs
 Forced expiration can occur mostly by
contracting internal intercostal muscles to
depress the rib cage
Expiration
 Pressure Differences in
the Thoracic Cavity
 Normal pressure within the pleural space is
always negative (intrapleural pressure)
 Differences in lung and pleural space
pressures keep lungs from collapsing
 Nonrespiratory Air Movements
 Can be caused by reflexes or voluntary
actions
 Examples
 Cough and sneeze – clears lungs of debris
 Laughing
 Crying
 Yawn
 Hiccup
Respiratory Volumes and Capacities

 Normal breathing moves about 500 ml of air

with each breath (tidal volume [TV])
 Many factors that affect respiratory capacity
 A person’s size
 Sex
 Age
 Physical condition
Respiratory Volumes and Capacities

 Residual volume of air – after exhalation,

about 1200 ml of air remains in the lungs
 Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)
 Amount of air that can be taken in
forcibly over the tidal volume
 Usually between 2100 and 3200 ml 
Expiratory reserve volume (ERV)
Respiratory Volumes and Capacities

 Amount of air that can be forcibly

exhaled
 Approximately 1200 ml
 Residual volume
 Air remaining in lung after expiration
 About 1200 ml
Respiratory Volumes and Capacities

 Vital capacity
 The total amount of exchangeable air
 Vital capacity = TV + IRV + ERV  Dead
space volume
 Air that remains in conducting zone and
never reaches alveoli
Respiratory Volumes and Capacities

 About 150 ml
 Functional volume
 Air that actually reaches the respiratory
zone
 Usually about 350 ml
Respiratory Volumes and Capacities

 Respiratory capacities are measured

with a spirometer
Respiratory Capacities
 Figure 13.9

Respiratory Sounds
 Sounds are monitored with a stethoscope
 Bronchial sounds – produced by air rushing
through trachea and bronchi
 Vesicular breathing sounds – soft sounds of
air filling alveoli

Factors Influencing Respiratory

 Rate and Depth
 Physical factors
 Increased body temperature
 Exercise
 Talking
 Coughing
 Volition (conscious control)
 Emotional factors
Factors Influencing Respiratory
Rate and Depth
 Chemical factors
 Carbon dioxide levels
 Changes in carbon dioxide act directly on the
medulla oblongata
 Respiratory Disorders: Chronic
Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)
 Exemplified by chronic bronchitis and
emphysema (loss of elasticity in lungs)
 Major cause of death and disability in the
United States
Respiratory Disorders: Chronic Obstructive
 Pulmonary Disease (COPD)
 Features of these diseases
 Patients almost always have a history of
smoking
 Labored breathing (dyspnea) becomes
progressively more severe
 Coughing and frequent pulmonary
infections are common
Respiratory Disorders: Chronic Obstructive
Pulmonary Disease (COPD)

 Features of these diseases (continued)

 Most victims retain carbon dioxide, are
hypoxic (forms into pneumonia) and have
respiratory acidosis
 Those infected will ultimately develop
respiratory failure
Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease
(COPD)
 Emphysema
 Alveoli enlarge (lung fibrosis) as adjacent chambers
break through
 Airways collapse during expiration
 Patients use a large amount of energy to exhale
 Over inflation of the lungs leads to a permanently
expanded barrel chest
 Cyanosis appears late in the disease (blue coloration
of skin)

Chronic Bronchitis
 Mucosa of the lower respiratory passages
becomes severely inflamed
 Mucus production increases
 Pooled mucus impairs ventilation and gas
exchange
 Risk of lung infection increases
 Pneumonia is common
 Hypoxia (deprived of oxygen) and cyanosis
(blue coloration of skin) occur early

Lung Cancer
 Accounts for 1/3 of all cancer deaths in the
United States
 Increased incidence associated with smoking
 Carbon Monoxide competes with the intake
of oxygen
 Asthma
 Chronic inflamed hypersensitive bronchiole
passages
 Response to irritants with dyspnea, shortness
of breath), coughing, and wheezing
 Sudden Infant Death syndrome (SIDS)
 Apparently healthy infant stops breathing
and dies during sleep
 Some cases are thought to be a problem of
the neural respiratory control center
 One third of cases appear to be due to heart
rhythm abnormalities
 Developmental Aspects of the
Respiratory System
 Lungs are filled with fluid in the fetus
 Lungs are not fully inflated with air until two
weeks after birth
 Surfactant that lowers alveolar surface
tension is not present until late in fetal
development and may not be present in
premature babies

Developmental Aspects of the

Respiratory System
 Important birth defects
 Cystic fibrosis – over secretion of thick
mucus clogs the respiratory system
  Cleft palate

Aging Effects
 Elasticity of lungs decreases
 Vital capacity decreases
 Blood oxygen levels decrease
 Stimulating effects of carbon dioxide
decreases
 More risks of respiratory tract infection