Branding and Integrated

Communication Centre
Facultad de Ciencias de la Información
Universidad Complutense de Madrid

The brand as a social

phenomenon. Corporate
Activism, Trust, and
Cocreation
1
Preface

This report is the result of the Santander-UCM research project with reference PR87/19-
22686, assigned to the Faculty of Information Sciences of the Universidad Complutense
de Madrid.

The research team involved in its preparation is as follows:

 Main researcher:

o Villagra García, Nuria

 Internal researchers (by alphabetical order):

o Carcelén García, Sonia

o Clemente Mediavilla, Jorge

o Díaz Soloaga, Paloma

o López Vázquez, Belén

o Monfort de Bedoya, Abel

o Pintado Blanco, Teresa

o Sánchez Herrera, Joaquín

o Sebastián Morillas, Ana

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 The brand as a social phenomenon.
Corporate Activism, Trust, and Cocreation

Contents Introduction
INTRODUCTION .................................................... 3 The study of brands and their impact on
BACKGROUND ON CORPORATE ACTIVISM society has been one of the most active and
AND ITS EFFECTS ON REPUTATION AND central focuses of research in communication.
BRAND EQUITY ...................................................... 5 However, it is only now that companies are
BACKGROUND TO CORPORATE ACTIVISM ............... 6
discovering their potential to improve society,
EFFECTS OF CORPORATE ACTIVISM ON REPUTATION not only from an economic point of view, but
AND BRAND EQUITY, AND THE MODERATING ROLE also by creating values and attitudes that
OF POLITICAL IDEOLOGY .......................................... 7 enhance social harmony among citizens.
RESULTS ................................................................... 9
From an economic point of view, the most
TRUST AND DISTRUST IN BRANDS ............. 11 important brands, whether they are for profit
BRAND TRUST......................................................... 12 or not, such as nongovernmental
BRAND DISTRUST ................................................... 13 organizations (NGOs), etc., can achieve three
RESULTS ................................................................. 14 times the effect of organizations that lack this
COCREATION AS A TOOL TO GENERATE intangible asset. This positively affects job
ENGAGEMENT AND BRAND VALUE ............ 16 creation and the maintenance of the well-
THE COCREATION PROCESS CONCEPT ................... 16 being of nations.
WORD OF MOUTH IN THE DIGITAL ENVIRONMENT However, the ability of brands to influence
(EWOM) AND ITS RELATION WITH THE
society is not without risk, and questions
COCREATION PROCESS ........................................... 17
regarding which kind of values they transmit
PERCEIVED VALUE AND ITS RELATIONSHIP WITH
and their impact on global society remain
THE COCREATION PROCESS .................................... 18
RESULTS ................................................................. 18 unanswered. Therefore, from the academic
point of view, it is important to study this
METHODOLOGY .................................................. 22
new and complex context to understand the
SAMPLING AND DATA COLLECTION ...................... 22 changes that brands induce in society and
MEASUREMENT SCALES ......................................... 22 promote good practices that benefit all
BRANDING AND INTEGRATED citizens.
COMMUNICATION CENTRE AT THE
The current report therefore summarizes the
UNIVERSIDAD COMPLUTENSE DE MADRID
.................................................................................... 23 results of a project entitled “The brand as a
social phenomenon: corporate activism, trust,
REFERENCES .......................................................... 25
and perceptions” that analyzed the brand
concept from three different perspectives

3
sharing a new way of understanding the c) The internet and social networks have
process of construction, management, and facilitated a more direct, two-way relationship
evaluation of brands by questioning the between brands and their consumers. In this
traditional foundations of such research. The new context in which the consumer wishes to
three aspects of brand management are as play a more active role, brands must be able
follows: to establish mechanisms for listening and
dialog and favor a tighter relationship with
a) Traditionally, it has been argued that
their audience. In this sense, another
companies should maintain a neutral stance
important challenge is the integration of
on social issues that may polarize public
consumers into strategic decision-making
opinion. However, brands are increasingly
based on collaboration and cocreation
adopting corporate activism strategies and
processes that enable them to participate in
acting as social agents that adopt
brand marketing and communication
controversial positions on political, religious,
strategies but without losing their identity or
or social issues that were hitherto the
essence.
dominion of other types of social institution.
Companies must therefore understand the Each of these trends in brand management is
effects of such strategies on consumers and analyzed below, and the main results
society in general, as well as the aspects that obtained are summarized.
they must consider when undertaking such
initiatives.

b) Despite current efforts to connect with their

audiences, there is a crisis of trust in brands.
Paradoxically, consumers sometimes seem to
trust new and/or small brands more than
traditional brands, some of which are more
than 150 years old. This apparent
contradiction (placing greater confidence in
the unknown) is a question of enormous
interest to all types of organization. An
answer to this conundrum could improve
brand management as well as understanding
of individuals’ expectations and preferences.
It thus becomes necessary to understand
which factors influence the generation of
(mis)trust and analyze which aspects
companies should consider to convey a clear
purpose, engage in a real dialog with their
audience, and partake in forms of
communication that are interactive and
participatory and have a positive impact on
their activity as well as society.

4
 influencing the attitudes and behaviors of
Background on corporate
different social actors (governments, other
activism and its effects on companies, and NGOs)
reputation and brand equity Despite these positive effects, companies that
adopt such strategies on controversial issues
Over recent decades, the social responsibility
must also assume some risk. On the one hand,
dimension of companies has been
such a strategy may lead to public rejection
increasingly developed through corporate
and distrust if the position taken is not
social responsibility (CSR), philanthropy, or
credible but rather perceived as opportunistic.
social actions. This involved becoming
This phenomenon is known as “woke
involved in issues that enjoyed support or
washing,” i.e., when there is a misalignment
consensus among their stakeholders but not
between the cause and the purpose, values,
taking positions on controversial social and
and behaviors of the company (Sobande, 2019;
political issues or that may polarize public
Vredenburg et al., 2020). For this reason, it is
opinion, under the assumption that this could
very important that the position adopted and
have negative effects. However, recent years
its communication are reflected in corporate
have seen increasing examples of companies
behavior and demonstrate a real commitment
taking a position on controversial social and
to social change beyond the short-term
political issues that are not directly related to
benefits to the company. On the other hand, it
their business activity, such as LGBTQIA+
must be borne in mind when dealing with
rights, racism, immigration, gun control, or
such issues that polarize public opinion that a
climate change. Eilert and Nappier Cherup
fraction of consumers will not share these
(2020, p. 463) define corporate activism as “a
positions, which may result in their loss as
company’s willingness to take a stand on
consumers or negatively impact on their
social, political, economic, and environmental
purchasing decisions.
issues to create societal change by influencing
the attitudes and behaviors of actors in its At present, there is no consensus regarding
institutional environment.” whether companies have the legitimacy to
adopt positions on controversial sociopolitical
This trend represents a step forward in the
issues that polarize public opinion and were
role that companies adopt as corporate
hitherto reserved for governments or other
citizens, also addressing a demand from
institutions such as NGOs. Our objective
society. Consumers, and society in general,
herein is to investigate the aspects that a
want companies to take sides on sociopolitical
company must consider before engaging in
issues to drive social change beyond profit-
activism to ensure that it will be supported or
making and transparently communicate their
valued by their consumers, as well as the
position on such issues. In addition, in their
resulting effects on corporate reputation and
purchasing decisions, consumers choose
brand equity. We also analyze whether the
brands with values and behaviors that they
political ideology of consumers can moderate
trust (Stanley, 2020). Therefore, corporate
these effects.
activism should improve a company’s results,
e.g., having a positive impact on sales,
consumer loyalty, brand value, or reputation,
while also contributing to social change by

5
Background to corporate activism company is not credible or there is no
business coherence. Given the scarcity of
As mentioned above, corporate activism
research considering credibility together with
addresses a demand from society, so the
corporate activism, we analyze herein
general context is favorable to this type of
whether the trend described in such studies
action. However, companies should also
on CSR and credibility is indeed observed.
consider some other important aspects before
undertaking such strategies. The two main b) Institutional credibility
conditioning factors are authenticity and
Institutional credibility can be defined as the
brand and institutional credibility.
degree of confidence that citizens place in
Credibility public institutions to do the right thing and
act for the good of society (Kim and Lee,
The credibility of business organizations has 2012). Low institutional credibility is probably
been widely studied and is important in the one of the reasons why corporate activism is
field of marketing because business messages increasing so quickly. Indeed, more than half
or communication from a company that is a of consumers already consider that companies
source of credibility will have greater can solve social problems more effectively
persuasive power on their consumers or and quickly than governments (Edelman,
recipients. However, the perceptions and 2019), so the origins of corporate activism
attitudes of consumers regarding the actions may lie in the current difficulties faced by
of a company depend on whether they are public institutions in addressing the most
fulfilling a role as corporate citizens and the pressing problems in society. Previous
degree of credibility that public institutions research has demonstrated empirically that
have for consumers. It thus becomes low trust in public institutions results in a
necessary to consider institutional as well as positive attitude toward responsible business
corporate credibility. actions (Rim and Dong, 2018) because
a) Corporate credibility consumers consider that companies are more
involved in issues that are important to
This is understood as the degree to which citizens (Edelman, 2019). Therefore, the
consumers perceive that a company acts in different roles that companies and
good faith and possesses the capacity and governments play and citizens’ perception of
experience necessary to carry out its business this will determine their relationship with
activities (Bigné, Currás, and Sánchez, 2009). corporate activism and whether they support
Corporate credibility has been studied as a companies that become involved in such
precedent of attitudes toward a brand or initiatives.
purchasing intentions, as well as perceptions
of CSR. On the one hand, previous studies Authenticity
have confirmed a positive relationship
In addition to the credibility that consumers
between corporate credibility and CSR
attribute to companies and institutions,
activities if they are consistent with the
another aspect that companies must consider
competences of the company and are aimed
before carrying out corporate activism actions
sincerely at its customers. On the other hand,
is authenticity, understood as the set of values
this relationship will become negative if the
and beliefs that the organization defends and

6
that make it unique, based on its consistent the positive relationship that has been
behavior over time. Vredenburg et al. (2020) demonstrated between reputation and the
highlight the importance of authenticity for a attitudes and behaviors of stakeholders
corporate activism action to be effective. In (clients, employees, investors, etc.) with
their research, they found that brands engage regards to a company.
in authentic activism by combining activist
Unlike CSR, there are still no proven models
messages, purposes, and values with
to study the effect of corporate activism on
prosocial corporate practice, thus enhancing
reputation. A first approach enables us to
their brand value.
deduce that corporate activism can have a
Authentic brand activism is opposite to the positive impact on reputation as more
practice of woke washing (Sobande, 2019; consumers demand that companies express
Vredenburg et al., 2018), which is understood their values on and become involved in social
as inauthentic brand activism. Authenticity is and political issues. However, such a strategy
a preliminary aspect that companies must can also have a negative effect on a fraction of
consider before engaging in corporate the audience that does not share these beliefs
activism because it can help avoid the public or political positions, so companies must
skepticism that this type of action may identify relevant issues that are related to the
otherwise produce. Authenticity makes the company’s values.
position adopted by a company credible and
The analysis above confirms the great
thus has a positive effect on corporate
importance of analyzing the impact on
activism.
reputation when companies adopt political
In short, if a company manages to build a and social positions, and which aspects
solid foundation of corporate credibility and organizations should consider when choosing
authenticity, it can then start to adopt such topics and communicating their
positions on controversial issues. This being positions to achieve a positive effect.
said, once a corporate activism action has
been carried out, one must also study its
Brand equity
effects on consumers and society in general. In addition to reputation, another effect that is
widely studied in the marketing and
communication literature is brand equity
Effects of corporate activism on because of its value to both the company and
reputation and brand equity, and the the consumer. Brand value is “a set of brand
moderating role of political ideology assets and liabilities linked to a brand, its
name and symbol, that add to or subtract
Corporate reputation from the value provided by a product or
service to a firm and/or to that firm’s
Corporate reputation is the mental
customers” (Aaker, 1991, p. 15). Recent
representation of a company in the minds of
studies have suggested that, given the
its stakeholders, which grows over time
increasing demand from consumers for
depending on its ability to satisfy their
companies to take sides on political and social
expectations (Fombrun, 1996). For several
issues, corporate activism can be valued by
decades, this concept has attracted interest
consumers and influence brand equity
from academics and professionals because of

7
(Corcoran, Newman, and Devasagayam, 2016; increasingly polarized society suggests that
Korschun, Martin, and Vadakkepatt, 2020; divergent reactions may affect consumer
Vredenburg et al., 2020). Meanwhile, behaviors. In the specific case of corporate
consumers are also becoming increasingly activism, it must be determined whether
skeptical and critical of brands and doubt the political ideology moderates the effect of
motives behind such campaigns, which can corporate activism and how to take this into
reduce their effect and even lead to rejection. account when developing such actions.
To minimize this skepticism, and for activism
The classification that is most applied to
action to be credible and effective,
categorize consumer behavior in relation to
authenticity is essential. Therefore,
political ideology is the distinction between
demonstrating a real commitment to the cause
liberals and conservatives.
or that the reasons behind such actions
transcend the business itself are aspects that Various investigations have indicated
can minimize public skepticism and different behaviors and attitudes depending
contribute to the creation of brand value. on ideology; For example, consumers with
liberal ideology have a greater tendency
The influence of political ideology on toward “boycotting” and “buycotting.”
consumer perceptions Political ideology also influences the way in
As noted above, CSR and corporate activism which consumers seek to differentiate
are aspects that stakeholders consider when themselves through brand choices, whereby
evaluating a company, thereby affecting both conservatives seek vertical differentiation
corporate reputation and brand equity. (choosing products that show them to be
However, this effect can be moderated by better than others) while liberals seek
various factors such as the values and horizontal differentiation (choosing products
political ideology of the consumer. that show them to be unique or different from
others). Likewise, stakeholders with different
Political ideology is related to one’s values ideologies usually adopt opposing positions
and beliefs and has a direct influence on on sociopolitical issues. Unlike conservatives,
people’s attitudes, opinions, and behaviors. liberals focus more on protecting the
The support for social, political, and environment or defending civil rights or
environmental issues by companies in an issues such as social justice, diversity, or
social change.
Therefore, a
company adopting a
corporate activism
strategy should
consider that
political ideology
will play an
important role in
moderating its
effects on brand

8
equity or reputation as perceived by its antecedents of corporate activism and thus
consumers. explain which circumstances contribute to the
implementation of such initiatives. According
Taking all the above into account, we consider
to the parameter values obtained, when
herein that corporate credibility and
institutional credibility decreases, individuals
authenticity will have a positive impact and
perceive that corporations should become
therefore translate into greater support or
more directly involved in matters of a social
favorable attitudes from consumers toward
and political nature, even when controversial
corporate activism actions. In contrast, in the
or socially polarizing.
face of institutional credibility, consumers will
show less support for companies to become However, the relationship between corporate
involved in this type of initiative. In addition, activism and reputation and brand equity
companies should consider the role of changes when political ideology is
political ideology in moderating the effects incorporated as a moderating variable. In this
that activism actions can have on reputation sense, it is interesting to note that individuals
and brand equity. Activism will have a with a more conservative ideology do not
positive impact on consumers with liberal perceive possible positive effects on
ideology but be neutral (or not significant) for reputation or brand equity resulting from
consumers with conservative ideology. such corporate activism practices. One
possible interpretation is that such people
believe that corporations should focus on
Results their central function (marketing, etc.) rather
than on peripheral functions such as CSR, etc.
Structural model estimation In contrast, individuals with a more liberal
ideological tendency do perceive that the
The estimation of the structural equation
involvement of companies in activist
model (SEM) provided good or very good fit
initiatives has a positive impact on their
indices of GFI = 0.80, AGFI = 0.77, CFI = 0.92,
reputation and brand equity. For this group,
TLI = 0.92, and RMSEA = 0.03. The hypothesis
the responsibility of organizations seems to
test showed that all the coefficients have the
extend beyond their corporate function to
expected sign and are consistent with theory.
include involvement in social and political
The results show that institutional credibility, practices that transcend the traditional limits
corporate credibility, and authenticity are of their managerial or commercial functions

9
by adopting ideological positions on
controversial or polarizing issues.

These results also have practical implications

that could be very useful for companies and
managers who wish to implement corporate
activism actions. Thus, companies should
consider corporate and institutional
credibility as antecedents that can affect
consumer perceptions of corporate activism,
especially when institutional credibility may
be lower, as this implies an improved
perception of activist campaigns. Likewise,
the effects of corporate activism on corporate
reputation and brand equity should also be
considered, especially when the political
ideology of consumers might moderate these
effects; In this sense, companies should make
a greater effort to understand the ideology of
their audiences before launching activism
campaigns.

10
 trust variables that influence offline
Trust and distrust in brands
environments are perceived value,
In recent decades, consumer confidence in hedonistic/utilitarian value, satisfaction,
brands has decreased drastically in many brand identity, etc. Meanwhile, brand trust
countries (Jackson, 2020), having a negative variables identified in online environments
impact on consumers’ purchasing intentions. indicate that consumer and website
In today’s environment, consumers are more characteristics can reduce brand distrust. This
demanding with brands, which must thus background enables the consideration of the
transform and adapt to these new demands. It new digital reality and its possible impact on
thus becomes important to study the factors the relational behavior of the individuals
that influence distrust and develop a strategy engaged with it.
linked to the desired aim and generate an
Based on this analysis of the connection
authentic and participatory dialog with
between variables and consumer perceptions,
consumers and society at large.
we propose the following different
A review of academic research carried out to trust/distrust models for the offline and online
date reveals the consideration of trust environment:
variables, whereas only a few factors related
Literature refers to a loss of confidence that
to brand distrust have been studied. Existing
impacts on public satisfaction. A review of
theoretical models have thus been compared
seminal scientific publications confirms this,
to identify the factors that characterize trust
with most authors reporting a progressive
while revealing the specific variables that
loss of trust in all areas of society,
define distrust.
highlighting that trust is a fundamental factor
Two theoretical models have been proposed regarding public satisfaction. The analysis
to determine which variables are most reveals a direct relationship between trust and
relevant to building trust and distrust in a some variables that affect consumer behavior,
brand, in both online and offline including perceived value, customer service,
environments. The development of these brand identity, etc.
models has revealed that some of the brand

11
The generation of trust in brands has been consumer behavior during the buying
studied in multiple disciplines, each offering process
different but complementary perspectives on
 To compare existing models of brand
this phenomenon. However, this study
trust and distrust and propose new
uncovered scant academic literature on
theoretical models
distrust. Some authors define distrust as a
different theoretical construct from trust.  To evaluate the proposed models
through statistical analysis

The methodology
applied to achieve
this includes a
review of relevant
publications on
factors related to
brand trust and
distrust.
Subsequently, a
quantitative
methodology is
This study found that numerous authors have applied to evaluate the data from a
studied brand trust, whereas few have representative sample to enable a verification
analyzed brand distrust. However, variables of the proposed models.
related to distrust are relevant to
understanding many consumer behaviors and
perceptions. It thus becomes necessary to Brand trust
determine the factors that characterize trust as
a whole, as well as the specific factors that In relation to brand trust, various studies have
define distrust. demonstrated the relationship between trust
and some variables that affect consumer
One contribution of this work is thus to behavior, such as perceived value, customer
reinforce the conclusions of previous work on service, brand identity, brand communication
brand trust/distrust and to provide two and image, hedonistic/utilitarian value, brand
theoretical models, one of them novel, on the satisfaction, cognitive and affective factors,
variables that can influence brand distrust in perceived competence, and perceived
online environments, thus laying the benevolence.
foundation for future research.
The results of this study show that all these
In general, the specific objectives of this part variables are important, but that three of them
of the study are as follows: can explain customer satisfaction with their
 To review existing literature on favorite brands and lead them to trust them
models of brand trust and distrust more: perceived value, customer service, and
satisfaction.
 To study brand trust and distrust
variables and confirm how they affect

12
Regarding perceived value, some authors Brand distrust
argue that, despite the importance of trust as a
The academic literature on distrust is sparse
fundamental characteristic, there is no scale to
compared with that on brand trust. Some
measure trust in a brand environment when
scholars have defined distrust as a different
purchasing a product or service, especially for
construct from trust. However, both terms are
consumer brands (Delgado-Ballester, 2004).
used together, whereas only a few studies
Various other aspects, such as honest and
have included trust and distrust as different
credible communication, s hared values,
concepts (Cho, 2006; Ou and Sia, 2010).
brand reputation, and altruistic brand
However, research uses both terms in the
behavior, can also increase brand trust
online context. The authors of a recent study
(Delgado-Ballester and Munuera-Germany,
argued that online trust and distrust generate
2001).
asymmetric effects when considering some
Other studies argue that a precedent for trust variables such as consumer and website
is customer service (Amegbe and Osakwe, characteristics, causing generate different
2018). In addition, customer service must effects of trust and distrust on consumer
occur on a regular basis in interactions behaviors (Chang and Fang, 2013).
between brands and consumers. In addition
Those authors argue that an Internet-savvy
to customer service, one must also consider
consumer is likely to exhibit less distrust. On
satisfaction and trust.
the other hand, consumers in the online
Recent research has shown that brand context trust electronic marketers associated
satisfaction emerges from the relationship with websites that provide detailed
between customer service, customer information (Park et al., 2005). In addition,
satisfaction, and brand trust. In general, some consumers consider security to be an
authors explain that high levels of customer important aspect of internet shopping (Bart et
service are positively correlated with al., 2005). Based on those results, brands can
relational results such as trust, while high achieve an advantage by understanding
levels of customer service are positively consumers’ attitudes regarding trust and
correlated with trust in different sectors (Zarei distrust. In summary, when a consumer feels
et al., 2015). less distrust, they will be more willing to buy
from a website (Chang and Fang, 2013).
Finally, the relationship with a brand can act
as a mediator by forming part of a mechanism Finally, some scholars claim that motivational
through which trust, satisfaction, and brand insights lead to confidence in online
evaluation influence brand loyalty. This brand environments. Some aspects, such as ease of
relationship acts as a mediating variable use, clear design, and fast, useful, accurate,
between trust, satisfaction, and loyalty, where and relevant information, can generate trust
trust and satisfaction appear to be indirect in brands in the digital environment. This
antecedents of loyalty (Veloutsou, 2015). occurs because consumers save time and
effort when a brand is well valued. Likewise,
various elements are positively valued,
including search tools to help find
information, easy contact by email with
purchasing assistants, simple order and

13
payment mechanisms, return policies or other relevance of the information provided
security and accountability measures, and by the brand.
personalization of the purchase (Ou and Sia,
b) Determination of the variables that enhance
2010).
confidence and satisfaction according to the
Ultimately, the strength of a brand guarantees proposed model.
that the product will be of high quality and
The proposed models were then validated
that orders will arrive on time and in good
through empirical research. This updated
condition (Bart et al., 2005). All this generates
model proposed herein analyzes the
brand trust and makes consumers perceive
following aspects:
and enjoy it, making website visits exciting,
enjoyable, and fun. • The results collected show that the
perceived value, satisfaction, customer
service, and image of favorite brands
Results have a positive and significant effect
on the trust placed in them. Likewise,
The results obtained from this literature
the brand’s customer service shows a
review highlight three aspects:
positive and significant relationship
a) Updating of studies on trust and distrust with customer satisfaction, while the
brand’s communication strategy is
• Regarding brand trust, studies have
positively and significantly related to
shown that a number of variables
its image.
should be considered when evaluating
trust, including the perceived value of • Based on the second model proposed
the brand, comprising attributes to explain satisfaction, an explanatory
related to the honesty, benevolence, investigation is suggested on customer
credibility, integrity, and competence satisfaction with favorite brands.
associated with the brand, satisfaction, Satisfaction is broadly related to trust,
customer service, identification with so knowing how it arises is crucial. For
the brand, and brand image. this reason, we studied the
relationship between three variables:
• In relation to brand distrust in digital
customer service, brand satisfaction,
environments, the literature review
and perceived value.
reveals that the factors that can
generate distrust are associated with
consumer knowledge of the online
medium, and that this can be modeled
using the information provided by the
brand and the security offered in this
environment, in other words, by
designing website characteristics and
functionalities that can increase
consumer motivation. This includes
specifically a clear design, high speed,
and the utility, accuracy, and

14
The results show that perceived value acts as
a complementary mediating variable between
customer service and satisfaction. In addition,
high levels of customer service were found,
indicating its significant relationship with
increasing satisfaction, in addition to
increasing the perceived value, which in turn
leads to satisfaction (β = 0.061).

15
 Subsequently, Hatch and Schultz (2010)
Cocreation as a tool to generate
proposed a simplified version of the DART
engagement and brand value model with two axes: the commitment
between the company and its stakeholders
The internet and social networks have
(dialog + access) and the information
enabled users to establish conversations with
provided by the company (risks–benefits +
their brands quickly and easily. This new
transparency), concluding that there is
digital context has given rise to a new type of
growing interest from companies in offering
consumer (called a prosumer) who is much
multiple channels to create a greater
more proactive and wishes to interact with
commitment between the company and its
and participate in cocreation processes with
stakeholders.
brands, either simply by leaving
recommendations or suggestions, or by Almost 15 years after the conceptualization of
becoming involved in a deeper way in the the term “cocreation,” Ramaswamy and Ozca
marketing and communication strategies of (2018) offered a new definition for it that can
companies. be summarized as a process of creative
interaction through environments based on
Therefore, the rules of the game in the
interactive systems (facilitated by interactive
creation of brand value have changed
platforms) that involve commitments
substantially, giving way to a new way of
regarding the agenda and structure of
building brands through cocreation processes
organizations. With the help of digital
generated between consumers and companies
technologies, interactive platforms offer a
in the digital environment.
multiplicity of interactive environments that
connect creations with the results that arise
from their relational activity.
The cocreation process concept
For Carcelén and Díaz-Soloaga (2022), this
At the beginning of the twenty-first century,
way of understanding the cocreation process
Prahalad and Ramaswarny defined the
could be nuanced by prioritizing the
concept of cocreation as collaboration
relevance of people ahead of artifacts,
between the client and supplier in the process
processes, and interfaces (Graphic 1). From
of creating an idea or design or the
this point of view, cocreation can be defined
development of new products or services.
as an interaction process that establishes an
Rather than an effort by the company to
open and permanent dialog with consumers,
satisfy the customer, this therefore describes a
being able to generate improvements and
joint effort through which both parties obtain
changes in business activity through
a benefit. In 2004, the same authors designed
interactive exchange dynamics.
the DART model for the construction of brand
value through cocreation, based on four
pillars: dialog, access, risks–benefits, and
transparency. This model is well recognized
and accepted by the research community.

16
 purchasing
decisions (Tseng et
al., 2013; Tajvidi et
al., 2018).

Such is the
influence of
recommendations
that some studies
have investigated
the effect of
positive and
negative comments
from consumers on
a brand’s social
network accounts
on users in the
Source: Adapted from Ramaswamy and Ozca community itself (Relling et al., 2016). For
(2018) this, two types of customers were
differentiated: (1) the brand’s fan customers,
who follow it emotionally and like to share
Word of mouth in the digital environment their passion for the brand with other people
(eWOM) and its relation with the (social goal community), and (2) rational
cocreation process customers of the brand, who follow it for
functional reasons and seek information and
eWOM can be defined as any informal knowledge about the characteristics of the
communication directed to consumers product and brand (functional goal
through the internet and related to the use or community). The results of that work
characteristics of certain goods or services or indicated that both negative and positive
their distributors (Poturak and Softic, 2019). comments can have different effects
Such informal communication by users depending on the type of community.
through comments or recommendations in Negative comments affect a brand’s fan
the digital environment is part of the community less than rational consumers,
cocreation process discussed above, in which whereas negative comments are more valued
the client interacts with a brand by by the rational community, as they provide
voluntarily providing information to other more information, credibility, and trust
users based on their own purchasing toward the brand. Meanwhile, positive
experience. comments provoke a greater response and
Some studies positively relate eWOM to participation among the fan community.
purchasing intentions, having an even greater
effect than advertising, and revealing that a
large fraction of consumers depend on eWOM
recommendations to make their own

17
Perceived value and its relationship with Results
the cocreation process
Attitudes toward the cocreation process
As mentioned above, the relationship among Spanish consumers
between perceived brand value and
In general, we find a favorable attitude
cocreation by consumers is an aspect that
toward cocreation processes when they are
should be considered in depth, because users
linked to eWOM, with 66% of respondents
are no longer passive agents in the process of
being willing to recommend a worthwhile
purchasing products and services, rather
brand and 52% to recommend and share their
playing a leading role in building brand value
purchasing experience. Recommendations
(Boksberger and Melsen, 2011; Sarkar and
through eWOM are widely accepted by a
Banerjee, 2019; Tajvidi et al., 2021; Tran
large part of the population. However, it is
andVu, 2021). Since cocreation also involves
interesting to note that, when the level of
consumer behavior rather than their internal
cocreation requires greater involvement by
perceptions, there are growing indications of
the individual, the opposite effect occurs, with
a direct relationship between such activity
an increasing percentage of people not being
and perceived brand value.
willing to make this creative effort. Indeed,
Sánchez-Fernández and Iniesta-Bonillo (2007) only 17.9% of those surveyed stated that they
carried out a meta-analysis of the concept of participated in the process of creating a new
“perceived value,” concluding that this product for a company and 24.9% in the
phenomenon involves a relationship between process of creating specific content for a
a subject (consumer–user) and object brand.
(product–brand).
In addition, consumers (who identify
Tajvidi et al. (2021) established the mediating themselves as prosumers) wish to interact
role of interactivity in creating brand value, with companies, since about 60% of those
differentiating two relational perspectives: (1) surveyed want to be considered by, listened
that of the consumer in relation to other to, and receive a response from their brands
consumers, and (2) that of the consumer in when required.
relation to the seller. Each of these capitalizes
Finally, when studying the link between
on a specific angle of interactive activity in the
eWOM and the purchasing decision process
digital environment, in both cases implying
for a brand, 40% of those surveyed indicated
increased brand value as perceived by
that they make their purchasing decision
consumers when they interact with them in a
based on the opinions of other consumers.
bidirectional way through social networks
This percentage increases to 50% when the
and other digital communication channels.
opinion is found on the social networks of
Therefore, the main objective of this study is friends and acquaintances. In addition, the
to delve into the brand-building process interactions of other users with some brands
through eWOM including recommendations, can make consumers aware of new products.
comments, and customer participation on the Indeed, almost 50% of those surveyed became
internet, and determine the possible aware of the existence of new brands due to
relationship between the cocreation process comments from other users. It remains to say
and brand value. that the interaction with and response of

18
brands to customers’ comments generate involve greater effort, when participation
positive attitudes toward their possible decreases, is more associated with a user
purchases, with one-third of those surveyed profile with a high income level.
being inclined toward buying a product when
Finally, the education variable shows
their comments or suggestions are taken into
significant differences in only three of the
account.
attitudes toward cocreation. In all cases, the
The demographic profile of cocreators higher the educational level of the individual,
the more favorable their attitude toward
It has been studied whether there is a
recommending a product, and comments on
statistical association (based on cross
the internet have a greater influence on the
tabulation analysis with the chi-squared test)
probability of their buying a certain brand.
between stated attitudes toward cocreation
and certain sociodemographic and economic Finally, several explanatory models related to
characteristics of the individual including the probability of participation in a cocreation
gender, age, and income or educational level. process through eWOM have been identified
(through binary logistic regression analysis).
Regarding age, it has generally been observed
To construct these models, the
that the most favorable attitudes toward
sociodemographic (sex, age, and educational
cocreation are significantly associated with
level) and economic (income level)
people in the middle and young age ranges.
characteristics of the individuals were
Among all the attitudes studied, a less
considered as possible explanatory variables.
favorable predisposition toward cocreation
and eWOM is significantly more associated In the first model proposed, the probability of
with being older than 65 years. greater participation and involvement in a
cocreation process (creating specific content
On the other hand, in general terms, the
for a brand) increases (in order of importance)
cocreation process is significantly more
with lower age, higher income level, and
associated with women, who statistically have
female gender.
the most favorable predisposition toward the
cocreation process in general, and specifically In addition, the probability of being
the idea of leaving recommendations and predisposed to leaving a recommendation or
participating more actively in cocreation positive review of a product/brand through
processes with brands, greater interaction eWOM increases for female gender, higher
with companies, and taking eWOM more into education level, and higher income.
account when making purchasing decisions.
Finally, the probability that a comment shared
Regarding the income level variable, on the internet will influence an individual’s
significant differences were observed between purchasing decisions increases with (in order
the different cocreation attitudes suggested to of importance) lower age, higher education
users. It can be said that a favorable level, and higher income level.
predisposition toward eWOM and the
interaction between the company and
customer is significantly associated with the
segment with the highest income levels. At
the same time, cocreation and eWOM that

19
The cocreation process and perceived individuals), indicating that it is a passive
brand value: defining a typology of segment whose members may know how to
interact with brands but do not feel interested
consumers
in doing so, preferring to remain on the
Multivariate statistical techniques (multiple sidelines and let other consumers participate.
correspondence analysis and cluster analysis) On the other hand, this segment also
were applied to identify a typology of clients. manifests mostly indifference in their
Three consumer segments were identified on perception of brand value and also does not
the basis of their attitudes toward cocreation have definite beliefs about whether their
and perceived brand value along with their preferred brands meet the characteristics of
individual sociodemographic and economic honesty and sincerity or respond to their
characteristics. needs. The sociodemographic profile of the
respondents in this segment is mainly
Each of the identified segments is described
associated with being young (18–24 years old)
below:
and having a low or basic level of education.
Cluster 1, “anti-cocreators”: This segment has
Cluster 3, “active cocreators”: This segment is
a higher proportion of individuals with the
more representative of those who are more in
most unfavorable attitude toward the
agreement with the cocreation process. In
cocreation process in general. Members of this
addition, it includes 75–95% of the individuals
cluster indicate that they disagree most with
who show a very favorable predisposition
the studied process, having a negative
toward cocreation in terms of participation,
predisposition toward participation in
interaction, and influence in the purchasing
cocreation processes with brands (from the
process. The members of this segment
most basic level involving recommendations
participate more actively in brand
to the most complex leading to collaboration
recommendation processes, contributing their
in the creation of specific content), interaction
own (positive or negative) experience to other
with them through dialog with companies,
consumers and promoting and valuing in a
and a low influence of e-WOM in the
very positive way the resulting dialog in the
purchasing process. In addition, this group
online environment. In addition, these
also states that they are more in disagreement
individuals state that they are more in
with respect to attitudes related to the
agreement with the influence of e-WOM
perceived value of the brand, since they do
when making purchasing decisions. Also, this
not consider that favorite brands are the most
group is especially aware of the cocreation
sincere, honest, and the best purchasing
process, being those that cocreate the most,
option, so their level of satisfaction is not
participating in content creation for brand
ideal. Regarding the sociodemographic
marketing and communication campaigns.
variables of members of this segment, the
Regarding perceived brand value, this
profile of the respondents is more associated
segment includes 70–75% of those indicating
with men and being 65 years of age or older.
that they agree more with the idea that their
Cluster 2, “indifferent/passive toward favorite brands are sincere, respond to their
cocreation”: Members of this group show, on needs, and are the best purchasing option,
the one hand, an indifferent attitude toward and their level of satisfaction with them is
the cocreation process itself (for 50–60% of high. Finally, this segment is associated with

20
being a woman and having a high income
profile, high level of education, and
intermediate age range (35–44 years).

The results obtained in this study reveal the

interest in active participation among
consumers. It could be said that there is an
explicit desire among many users to interact
and become involved in creation processes
that, in addition to generating value for the
brands that launch them, positively influence
the customer experience and purchasing
intentions. On the other hand, the study
identified other consumer segments
comprising those who identify themselves as
“anti-cocreators” or are “indifferent” toward
this process, where users are not attracted by
this marketing and communication strategy
that brands sometimes offer to consumers, so
their level of participation and interaction is
very low, as is their possible influence when
making a purchasing decision.

From this perspective, identifying the profiles

of the most active users and those who tend to
interact through content cocreation should
become a primary objective of company
marketing managers since it allows, in
addition to generating engagement and
influencing purchasing decision processes,
increasing the value of brands that involve
consumers in this process.

21
 activism, thus a battery of 20 items was
Methodology
designed using some related scales (Austin, et
Sampling and data collection al. 2019; Borden, 2019) and from Edelman’s
(2019) annual report on trust in businesses.
The data analysis considered a sample of
From this initial battery of items, and
1,521 individuals who were selected by means
applying confirmatory factor analysis (CFA),
of random stratified sampling of the entire
a scale was extracted with three differentiated
Spanish population aged over 18 years. The
constructs: “social activism,” “declarative
sampling error is therefore 2.51% for p = q =
political activism,” and “reactionary political
0.5 and a 95% confidence interval. This
activism.”
sample was drawn from an online panel
managed by a specialized research company, “Social activism” refers to the involvement of
made up of individuals selected to match the a company in activist initiatives that promote
sociodemographic characteristics of the social causes. “Declarative political activism”
Spanish population. implies the adoption of clear and public
positions on political ideology by large
The strata were selected based on geographic
corporations, whereas the construct
(province), age, and gender criteria, and
“reactionary political activism” is defined as
participants received a reward in the form of
the set of initiatives that a company can adopt
points redeemable for gifts. Data collection
to counteract the lack of competence shown
was carried out through a structured
by governments and public institutions.
questionnaire including the scales necessary
to confirm the theoretical model proposed Meanwhile, the “trust” construct was based
herein. All items were evaluated using a five- on the proposals of Gurviez and Korchia
point Likert scale ranging from “totally (2003). “Satisfaction” was based on the study
disagree” to “totally agree,” coded inversely by Kuikka and Laukkanen (2012). “Customer
when necessary. service” was formed from the contributions of
Chaudhuri and Holbrook (2001) and Ruiz et
al. (2014,2016). To elaborate the “brand
Measurement scales image” construct, the items proposed by
Salinas and Pérez (2009) were used.
The “credibility of institutions” and Meanwhile, for “advertising and promotion,”
“credibility of corporations” constructs were the study by Zehir et al. (2011) was followed.
built from the scale of McCroskey and Teven Finally, “perceived value” was elaborated
(1999), “corporate authenticity” was designed based on the proposal of Johnson, Herrmann,
using the scale of Moulard et al. (2016), and Huber (2006).
“corporate reputation” was built from that of
Ponzi et al. (2011), while for “brand value” we In this section, no validated scales were
decided to use the scale of Pappu et al. (2005), identified in seminal academic publications.
which in turn comprises those of Aaker (1991, The items of the questionnaire were thus
1996), Yoo et al. (2000), and Yoo and Donthu elaborated from a review of articles on the
(2001). subject.

To the best of the authors’ knowledge, there is

still no validated scale to measure corporate

22
 Salamanca) with specialists in all disciplines
Branding and Integrated
related to brand research.
Communication Centre at the
In addition, we have worked with all types of
Universidad Complutense de companies and institutions, carrying out
Madrid research in the following areas:

The Branding and Integrated Communication • Brand perception studies

Centre at the Universidad Complutense de • Advice on the design of brand
Madrid strategies
(https://www.ucm.es/gestiondemarcas/), • Measurement of consumer loyalty to
directed by Jorge Clemente and Nuria brands
Villagra, is active in the field of research and • Brand awareness studies
dissemination of trends in brand management • Measurement of brand equity
and communication. We understand the • Identification of indicators that allow
brand as a strategic and transformative the measurement of the management
element in organizations and analyze its and communication of the brand with
economic and social impact by using an its audience (scorecards)
applied and multidisciplinary approach. • Analysis of the effectiveness of
advertising campaigns (ROMI)
Our main lines of research are: • Evaluation reports of the internal
• Brand management: identity and brand of organizations
purpose; management of corporate • Advice on the definition of the
and commercial brands; purpose, values, and territory of the
communication strategies; brand
effectiveness measurement. • Analysis of the corporate reputation of
• Economic and social impact of brands: all types of organization
economic impact of brands and • Design of corporate social
communication; effects on the public; responsibility strategies
globalization, values, and social • Brands with values and corporate
transformation. activism
• Content production: new media and • Support with strategic brand
digital platforms; branded content; communication decisions
corporate, brand, and film storytelling. • Brand health measurement on social
• Responsible brands: corporate social media
responsibility; sustainability; corporate • Generation of audiovisual content
activism; brand/society cocreation and aimed at building brands
collaboration. This report summarizes the main results of
Our team of researchers comes from various the project “The brand as a social
universities (Universidad Complutense de phenomenon: corporate activism, trust, and
Madrid, ESIC University, Universidad de perceptions.” with reference PR87/19-22686,
Valladolid, Universidad Pontificia de carried out thanks to funding provided by
Banco Santander and the Universidad
Complutense de Madrid.

23
The members of the research team who
participated in this project and the
preparation of this report were Sonia Carcelén
García, Jorge Clemente Mediavilla, Paloma
Díaz Soloaga, Belén López Vázquez, Abel
Monfort de Bedoya, Teresa Pintado Blanco,
Joaquín Sánchez Herrera, Ana Sebastián
Morillas, and Nuria Villagra García.

24
 Report, Edelman Trust Barometer Annual Global Study.
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