223

ACTIVE FILTERS
IN HVDC APPLICATIONS

Working group
14.28

April 2003
 ACTIVE FILTERS

IN HVDC APPLICATIONS

Working Group
14.28

Members of the Working Group 14.28:

G. Damstra (Convenor, The Netherlands)

M.Pereira (Secretary, Germany)

N. Andersen (Denmark), T . Aritsuka (Japan), R. Dass (India), J. Enslin (South Africa),

P. Fitz (United Kingdom), S. Gunnarsson (Sweden), N. Jendal (Norway), J. Schonek (France),
P. Sorensen (Denmark)
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 ACTIVE FILTERS IN HVDC APPLICATIONS

By Cigré Working Group 14.28

Fourteen active DC filters and one active AC filter exist already in HVDC converter stations. The
interest on active filters for HVDC systems is mainly due the fact that a single active filter is able to
mitigate effectively diverse harmonics simultaneously, which otherwise should require several passive
filters to achieve a comparable result. They can also contribute for reducing the size of the smoothing
reactors used at the DC side and to reduce losses. They are also able to cope with harmonic resonance
problems and to adapt themselves to changes in the harmonic impedance of the system, which are
important characteristics, specially for the connection to the AC side.
This report prepared by the Working Group 14.28 presents both DC and AC active filters, including the
existing installations. The items of the report are nearly arranged in two consecutive parts, the first one
treating the DC application, while the second one covers the AC filters. As active DC and AC filters
share many concepts, the reader interested in such a subject is encouraged to look for it in both parties.

Page 1
CONTENTS

1 ACTIVE DC FILTERS IN HVDC APPLICATIONS ..................................................................4

1.1 INTRODUCING ACTIVE DC FILTERS.................................................................................4
1.2 TECHNICAL DEMANDS TO DISTURBANCES ON THE DC SIDE...................................5
1.3 DESCRIPTION OF ACTIVE DC FILTERS ............................................................................5
1.3.1 Semiconductors available for a power stage ................................................................6
1.3.2 Types of converters available.......................................................................................6
1.3.3 Connections of the active DC filter..............................................................................7
1.3.4 Characteristics of installed active DC filters................................................................9
1.4 MAIN COMPONENTS IN AN ACTIVE DC FILTER..........................................................10
1.4.1 The passive part..........................................................................................................10
1.4.2 The current transducer................................................................................................11
1.4.3 The control system .....................................................................................................12
1.4.4 The amplifier ..............................................................................................................12
1.4.5 The transformer ..........................................................................................................12
1.4.6 Protection circuit and arrester ....................................................................................13
1.4.7 Bypass switch and disconnectors ...............................................................................13
1.5 ACTIVE DC FILTER CONTROL..........................................................................................13
1.5.1 Active DC filter control methods ...............................................................................13
1.6 PROJECT DESCRIPTIONS AND DC FILTER SOLUTIONS .............................................17
1.6.1 Skagerrak 3 HVDC Intertie ........................................................................................17
1.6.2 Baltic Cable HVDC Link ...........................................................................................17
1.6.3 Chandrapur-Padghe HVDC power transmission project ...........................................19
1.6.4 Tian - Guang long distance HVDC project ................................................................19
1.6.5 EGAT-TNB (Thailand-Malaysia) HVDC Interconnection........................................20
1.7 PERFORMANCE OF THE SKAGERRAK 3 HVDC INTERTIE ACTIVE DC FILTER.....21
1.8 CONCLUSIONS ON ACTIVE DC FILTERS........................................................................23
2 ACTIVE AC FILTERS IN HVDC APPLICATIONS ................................................................24
2.1 INTRODUCING ACTIVE AC FILTERS...............................................................................24
2.2 TECHNICAL DEMANDS TO HARMONIC DISTURBANCES ON THE AC SIDE ..........24
2.3 PASSIVE FILTERS ................................................................................................................25
2.3.1 Conventional passive filters .......................................................................................25
2.3.2 Continuously tuned passive filters .............................................................................26
2.4 REASONS FOR USING ACTIVE FILTERS IN HVDC SCHEMES....................................27
2.5 OPERATION PRINCIPLES OF ACTIVE FILTERS.............................................................29

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 2.5.1 Shunt connected active filter ......................................................................................29
2.5.2 Series connected active filter .....................................................................................30
2.6 PARALLEL AND SERIES CONFIGURATION ...................................................................30
2.6.1 Hybrid filter schemes .................................................................................................31
2.7 CONVERTER CONFIGURATIONS .....................................................................................32
2.7.1 Converters ..................................................................................................................32
2.7.2 STATCOM.................................................................................................................34
2.8 ACTIVE AC FILTER CONFIGURATIONS..........................................................................36
2.8.1 Active ac filters for low voltage application ..............................................................36
2.8.2 Active ac filters for medium voltage application .......................................................36
2.8.3 Active ac filters for HVDC applications....................................................................37
2.9 SERIES CONNECTED ACTIVE FILTERS ..........................................................................38
2.10 CONTROL SYSTEM .............................................................................................................38
2.10.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................38
2.10.2 Description of a generic active power filter controller ..............................................38
2.10.3 Calculation of reference current.................................................................................39
2.10.4 Synchronous reference frame (SRF) ..........................................................................41
2.10.5 Other control approaches ...........................................................................................42
2.10.6 HVDC AC active filter control approach...................................................................42
2.11 EXISTING ACTIVE AC FILTER APPLICATIONS.............................................................42
2.11.1 Low and medium voltage ...........................................................................................42
2.11.2 High voltage applications...........................................................................................42
2.12 OVERVIEW ON FILTER SOLUTIONS FOR HVDC SYSTEMS .......................................46
2.12.1 Solution with conventional passive filters .................................................................46
2.12.2 Solution with continuously tuned passive filters .......................................................47
2.12.3 Solution with active filters .........................................................................................47
2.12.4 Solution with continuously tuned passive filters and active filters............................48
2.12.5 Study cases with the Cigré HVDC model ..................................................................48
2.13 FUTURE TECHNOLOGIES ..................................................................................................50
2.14 CONCLUSIONS ON ACTIVE AC FILTERS........................................................................50
3 LIST OF MEMBERS ....................................................................................................................51
4 BIBLIOGRAPHY ..........................................................................................................................51

Page 3
1 ACTIVE DC FILTERS IN HVDC APPLICATIONS

1.1 INTRODUCING ACTIVE DC FILTERS

The conversion process in an HVDC transmission system introduces harmonic currents into the DC
transmission lines and the AC grid connected to the HVDC converters. These harmonic currents may
cause interference in the adjacent systems, like telecommunication equipment. The conventional solution
to reduce the harmonics has been to install passive filters in HVDC converter stations [1]. When the
power line consist of cables, this filtering is normally not necessary. The development of power
electronics devices and digital computers has made it possible to achieve a new powerful way for a
further reduction of harmonic levels, namely, active filters.
The active filters can be divided into two groups,
active AC and DC filters. Active DC filter Filter Passive DC filter
installations are in operation in several HVDC cost
links and have been economically competitive due
to increased demand on telephone interference
levels on the DC overhead lines (Figure 1.1.1). An
active AC filter is already in operation as well. In
addition to the active DC filter function of
mitigating the harmonic currents on the DC
overhead lines, the active AC filters may be Active DC filte
required as part of several solutions in the HVDC r
scheme to improve reactive power exchange with
the AC grid and to improve the dynamic stability.
Already in the 1960’s there were attempts to Allowable
develop and install an active filter in a HVDC Interference
level
converter station in Sweden, but the project turned
out unsuccessfully. In the middle of the 1980's the Figure 1.1.1 Conceptual diagram of allowable
technological development of the presently interference level and DC filter cost
installed active filters was initiated. Mainly two
reasons make the projects successful. Primarily,
the prices on semiconductors have decreased dramatically and secondly, digital computers are getting
more powerful.
The reasons to develop first the active DC Filter and subsequently the active AC filter, were:
• Active AC and DC filters consists of two parts, a passive part and a corresponding active part which
are loaded with the same currents. Due to the fact that the passive AC filter is used to supply the
HVDC converter demand of reactive power and thereby loaded with the fundamental current, the
required rating of the DC filter active part is lower than the one of the AC filter active part.
• The control philosophy for the active DC filter is less complex than for the AC one.
• The present HVDC applications where active AC filter are feasible will be limited, due to the fact that
AC filters are also required to supply the HVDC converter demand of reactive power. Often the filter
size is therefore already well above the filtering demand.

Page 4
1.2 TECHNICAL DEMANDS TO DISTURBANCES ON THE DC SIDE

The main reason why specifying demands on the DC circuit is to keep disturbances in nearby telephone
lines within an acceptable limit, which will vary depending on whether the telephone system consists of
overhead lines or underground cables which are generally shielded and therefore have a better
immunity [2]. A summary is given below to illustrate the demands which made feasible to install the
active filters. As described, the demand on disturbances can appear as an harmonic current on the DC
line or as an induced voltage “Uind” in a fictive telephone line. The reader should keep in mind that the
harmonic demand, the specific HVDC system and surroundings (earth resistivity, telephone system etc.)
all together define the DC filter solution.

The specified demand:

• The induced voltage “Uind” in a theoretically 1 km telephone line situated 1 km from the DC overhead
line shall be below 10 mV for monopolar operation.
• A one minute mean value of the equivalent psophometric current “Ipe” fed into the DC pole overhead
line shall be below 400 mA.
The mentioned induced voltage and the equivalent psophometric current are defined as:

50 50
1
Uind = å ( 2* π * f
n=1
n * M * In * p n )
2
, Ipe =
p16
* å (k n
2
* pn * I n )
n=1

where fn is the frequency of the n'th harmonic, M is the mutual inductance between the telephone line and
f1 * n
the power line, k n = 800 , In is the vectorial sum of the n'th harmonic current flowing in the line
conductors (Common mode/earth mode current). pn is the n'th psophometric weighting factor defined by
CCITT Directives 1963 [3] (see also Table 1.2.1) and p16 is the 16th psophometric weighting factor. The
characteristic harmonics n=12, 24, 36, 48 as well as the non-characteristic harmonics up to n=50 shall be
considered.

Frequency/Hz 50 100 300 600 800 1000 1200 1800 2400 3000
n 1 2 6 12 16 20 24 36 48 60
pn Factor 0.0007 0.009 0.295 0.794 1.000 1.122 1.000 0.760 0.634 0.525

pn * k n 0.00004 0.001 0.111 0.595 1.000 1.403 1.500 1.710 1.902 1.969

Table 1.2.1 The psophometric weighting factor at selected frequencies.

1.3 DESCRIPTION OF ACTIVE DC FILTERS

Active DC filters use a controllable converter to introduce currents in the network, presenting a
waveform which counteracts the harmonics. This clause describes types of power stages, converters to be
used in active filters and the possible connections in HVDC schemes.

Page 5
1.3.1 Semiconductors available for a power stage
Three types of semiconductors, suitable for use in an active filter, are available at present:
• The MosFET
• The IGBT
• The GTO
The MosFET is an excellent switching device capable of switching at very high frequencies with
relatively low losses, but with limited power handling capability.
The IGBT has a switching frequency capability which, although very good and sufficient to handle the
frequencies within the active DC filter range, is inferior to the MosFET. However the IGBT power
handling is significantly higher than the MosFET.
The GTO has the highest power handling capacity, but with a relatively limited switching speed far
below the required frequency range for active DC filter. The use of GTO will probably be limited to
handle frequencies below a few hundred of Hertz.
The relatively high frequency band for active DC filtering excludes the use of thyristors and GTO. Even
though the MosFET and IGBT are suited as switching elements in a power stage, the limited power
handling capacity on MosFET and the installed cost evaluations tend to point on the use of IGBT in
future power stages.

1.3.2 Types of converters available

Earlier investigations using linear amplifiers for the
active DC filter have shown a high quality filtering, as
these amplifiers practically do not add distortion to the
processed signal [4],[5]. However, due to losses and
equipment cost considerations, only two basic types of L
switching converters are feasible in an active DC filter,
AC (Amps) I
the current source converter (CSC) using inductive
energy storage and the voltage source converter (VSC)
using capacitive energy storage. Spurious frequencies
produced by the switching of the source
semiconductors are removed by a comparatively small
passive filter integrated in the equipment.
Figure 1.3.1 Simple current source converter

1.3.2.1 Current source converters (CSC)

In a CSC the DC element is a current source, which normally consists of a DC voltage source power
supply in series with an inductor. For correct operation the current should flow continuously in the
inductor. Hence if AC current is not required current must be by-passed within the converter. This fact
restrict the switching actions. A simple CSC is shown in Figure 1.3.1.

Page 6
1.3.2.2 Voltage source converters (VSC)
In the VSC the DC element is a voltage source.
This may be a DC power supply or, in the case of
an active DC filter application, an energy storage
+
unit. In practice, the voltage source for an active C
AC (Volts) V -
DC filter power stage is usually a capacitor with a
small power supply to offset the power stage
losses. A VSC also has the property that its AC
output appears as a voltage source.
The circuit of a simple VSC is shown in Figure
1.3.2. Figure 1.3.2 Simple voltage source converter

1.3.2.3 Comparison between current and voltage source converters

The CSC has a high internal impedance for currents through the converter, while the VSC has a low
impedance. The VSC has no constraints on the switching pattern which can be employed, while the CSC
is restricted as described above. The necessity for continuous current in the CSC, combined with the fact
that (neglecting superconductivity) an inductor has higher losses than a capacitor, ensures that the losses
in the CSC are higher than the in the VSC. Another parameter influencing losses is that a CSC needs
switching devices which can block reverse voltage. Most of the operating semiconductors do not fulfil
this requirement. In this case an extra diode in series with each device is necessary and this again
increases the losses. Some GTO’s are able to support reverse voltage, but these are less common than the
GTO’s which do not support reverse voltage. The former have higher losses than the more common
devices.
Conclusion: Considering the above properties of CSC and VSC, the type most suited for power stage
applications, particularly high power, is the VSC. The VSC has been preferred in all HVDC projects
applicable today.

1.3.3 Connections of the active DC filter

Advantages and disadvantage of connecting the active filters at locations shown in Figure 1.3.3 have
been discussed in several papers [6],[7],[8],[9],[10],[11],[12]. The active filters can either be connected
as shunt active filters or as series active filters.

1.3.3.1 The "active filter 1" connection

The active DC filter realised in HVDC schemes today is connected as the shunt “active filter 1” in Figure
1.3.3. By connecting the active filter in series with the passive DC filter, usually a 12/24th double tuned
filter, the active filter rating can be reduced. A VSC is chosen in order to make the smallest influence on
the original function of the passive filter, especially on frequencies where the control algorithm is not
active.

1.3.3.2 The "active filter 2" connection

The “active filter 2” in Figure 1.3.3 is similar to the shunt “active filter 1” solution. The power
consumption of the tuning circuit in the passive filter will probably reduce the efficiency to inject
harmonic currents to counteract the disturbance current and thereby increase the rating of the converter.
There may be additional inductance inserted in series with the active part.

Page 7
 Smoothing
Reactor
Active Pole
Filter
4

Passive
DC Filter
HVDC
Converter

Active Active
Filter Filter
3 2
Active Active
Filter Filter
5a 5b

Active
Filter
1 Electrode

Figure 1.3.3 Possible connections of active DC filters

1.3.3.3 The "active filter 3" connection

The “active filter 3” in Figure 1.3.3 is a series active filter described in [13], but there is a lack of
knowledge of such a system. The active filter converter must be connected to the HVDC system by a
coupling transformer “Tc”. To prevent saturation of the coupling transformer “Tc” by the DC load current
of the HVDC converter “Idconv”, the core must have an air gap.
In this way, the coupling transformer “Tc” is a DC reactor with a galvanic insulated auxiliary winding to
connect the active filter (converter). To achieve no ripple voltage at the point of connection of the
passive DC filter and therefor no ripple current in the DC pole line, the active filter must generate across
the main winding “Tc” a voltage which compensate the ripple voltage “Ur” of the DC side of the HVDC
converter.
The AC load current “Ir” of the main winding of “Tc” is determined by “Ur” and its inductance value
“Lr”, the converter transformer inductance and the smoothing reactor inductance. The rating of “Tc” is
determined by “(Idconv + Ir)2*Lr. The rating of the active filter (converter) is determined by “Udr2/Lr”.
Hence the economical optimisation between the active and passive part of the active filter can be
adjusted by increasing “Lr”. The rating of “Tc” will be increased and the rating of the active filter part
will be decreased or vice versa.
The smoothing reactor (which is already designed for “Udr”) is eventually an alternative for “Tc”,
although is must be relocated to the neutral side of the HVDC converter valve and provided with an
auxiliary winding.
The advantages of this connection are:
• There are no harmonics in the HVDC converter DC current.
• The control algorithm of a series filter will probably be simplified compared to the shunt filter
control.

Page 8
The disadvantages are:
• Even by an optimal design, the rating of “Tc” and the active filter part will be considerable.
• The “Tc” side of the HVDC converter has no earth potential, which should be considered in the design
of the HVDC converter and the transformer “Tc”.

1.3.3.4 The "active filter 4" connection

The “active filter 4” in Figure 1.3.3 is a series active filter fundamentally with the same configuration
and problems as the “active filter 3”. The filter is connected at the pole bus on the line side of the DC
filter capacitor. The major advantage of this arrangement is that the active filter rating (due to the fact
that the HVDC converter output ripple voltage is attenuated already by the passive filter) will be
considerably less than the “active filter 3” connection. The disadvantage of this arrangement is that the
filter is situated at line potential and that the filter must conduct the whole DC current.

1.3.3.5 The "active filter 5" connection

There has not been any article describing “active filter 5a and 5b” in Figure 1.3.3. The application of
such a filter is expected to be limited to either higher frequencies or lower frequencies and not the whole
frequency range as the “active filter 1 and 2”.

1.3.3.6 Conclusion on active filter connections

The advantages and disadvantages of the most possible connections of the active part of the DC filter
have been described above. The main conclusion is that series connections of active filters on the DC
side are possible but with the facts available today not recommendable.
The injected power for active filtering can be reduced by choosing the optimum line injection point on
the passive circuit or the DC line. All active DC filter applications implemented today and in the near
future will use the “active filter 1” solution in Figure 1.3.3. The remaining of this paper therefore
discusses the “active filter 1” solution.

1.3.4 Characteristics of installed active DC filters

The active DC filters today (Figure 1.4.1), are connected in feedback control loop. The line current is
measured by a current transducer. The current signal is passed through a light guide into a computer. The
computer calculates a signal to feed a VSC, so that the current injected at the pole line is in opposition to
the measured line current.

Characteristics of the active DC filters:

• Frequency range 300-3000 Hz.
• The achieved harmonic current attenuation is high, at least 10 times attenuation in addition to
achievements with the passive part alone, at all chosen frequencies in the whole frequency range (see
for example clause 1.7).
• Adaptable to variations of network frequency.
• Compensate detuning effects of the passive DC filter
• Comparatively small size. The active part of the active DC filter can be fully assembled and tested at
the factory and then transported to site.
• Significant changes in characteristics of the active DC filter can be achieved any time after
commissioning within the active filter ratings by software changes without hardware modification.

Page 9
1.4 MAIN COMPONENTS IN AN ACTIVE DC FILTER

The active DC filter is a hybrid filter consisting of a passive and an active part. The passive part can
usually be defined as a double tuned passive filter which connects the active part with the DC line. The
active part in the DC filter is defined as the components within the box shown in Figure 1.4.1. All the
components in the active part shall ensure proper function of the active filter in steady state conditions
and during faults.
Figure 1.4.1 shows the active filter components in the filters today.

Smoothing Passive Part Active Part Current

Reactor transducer
DC Filter DC Filter Pole
Power
Supply

Light guide

HVDC
Converter
Control
system

Protection
Arrester circuit Amplifier

Bypass
Disconnector Power
Supply

Electrode

Figure 1.4.1 Filter components in the active filter

1.4.1 The passive part

The main function of the passive part is to connect the active part with the high voltage DC line. The
reasons for choosing a double tuned filter are both an optimisation of the VSC cost compared with the
double tuned circuit and to ensure a reasonable performance if the active part is not in operation.
The choice of the characteristics for the passive part, together with the size of the smoothing reactor, will
influence the rating of the active part. The following example illustrates the rating requirements of the
active part with a fixed size smoothing reactor when
• only a capacitor is used
• a single tuned 12 harmonic filter is used
• a double tuned 12/24 harmonic filter is used
Table 1.4.1 shows a scheme calculated from some typical measured current values from a 600 MW,
400 kV HVDC converter connected to a 400 kV 50 Hz AC grid. The smoothing reactor has 200 mH, the

Page 10
main capacitor has 1 µF. The root sum of squares of a typical measured current spectrum through the
smoothing reactor gives 15.7 Arms. The current spectrum is used to calculate the assumed voltage which
is required for the active part to compensate the harmonics for the three mentioned filter configurations
shown in Figure 1.4.2.
The reader should pay attention to the fact that the calculated case in Table 1.4.1 is a simplified case,
with a short overhead line connected to a long HVDC cable. The HVDC cable mitigates the influence
from the other HVDC converter. The calculated example will only illustrate the impact of rating on the
active part with selection of different passive parts. In the “real” rating of the DC filter design, the
designer has to include various other parameters.
The primary costs in the design of a conventional DC filter are the smoothing reactor and the main DC
filter capacitor connected to the DC line. If one disregards the smoothing reactor, which costs the same
or more than the main capacitor, the cost of the main capacitor is approximately 90 % of the totals, while
the reactors, the low voltage capacitor and resistors have small influence on the total cost.

Impedance /
4
Assumed Single Single Double 10

frequency Capacitor Tuned Filter Tuned Filter

deviation
Single tuned filter
0,0 Hz 6,7 kV 4,4 kV 2,8 kV 10
3

Double tuned filter

±0,1 Hz 6,7 kV 4,4 kV 2,8 kV
±1,0 Hz 6,8 kV 4,6 kV 3,1 kV
2
Single Capacitor
10
Table 1.4.1 Voltage to be supplied by the active
part with different selections of passive parts

1
10

The main difference between a conventional passive

DC filter and the passive part in the active filter is the
lack of resistive elements in the filter. The reason is 0
10
that the control algorithm and VSC are able to 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000

compensate the frequency deviation on the AC side Frequency / Hz

of the HVDC converter and the component deviation. Figure 1.4.2 Impedance characteristic of
Hence it is not necessary for the filter designer to different passive filters
optimise the filter in that respect. When an active DC
filter is used, the frequency deviation will change
from a performance issue to a rating question on the VSC. In a recent project with long HVDC lines,
resistive elements in the passive part of the DC filter have been inserted to reduce the resonance in the
overall system.
The DC capacitor will always be a part of the active DC filter, connecting the active part with high
voltage DC line. In future active DC filters, parts of the resonance circuit or the additional components in
the passive filter are expected to be replaced by larger power stages, since the price of the power stages
decrease rapidly.

1.4.2 The current transducer

The function of the current transducer is to measure the line current. The Rogowski coil has been chosen
as the current transducer in all known projects [14],[15]. To get a correct functioning of the active DC
filter, it is required to have at least one current transducer at each pole line in the station where the active
DC filter(s) is/are installed. The current transducer may be connected to the control through a light guide
(Figure 1.4.1) and is fed from a power supply which utilises the harmonic current flowing in the filter or

Page 11
by a photocell array at the sensor and a second light guide connected to the control equipment. The
following data has to be taken into account when designing the transducer.
• A very high DC current through the current transducer. The DC current makes it difficult to use an
iron core transformer.
• The second harmonic current can be of considerable size (more than 10 Arms), where the harmonics at
other frequencies is in the size of 10 mA, when the control is active.
• Some current transducers may need a power supply at the high voltage DC transmission level. The
current transducer can be equipped with an electronic unit to communicate with ground level
equipment.
• The current measurement with the analogue/digital conversion must be accurate within a large
temperature range from minimum ambient temperature with minimum load in the winter to maximum
ambient temperature with sun and a maximum load in the summer.
• The current transducer shall be able to measure the current with sufficient bandwidth (typical 1,5 to 2
times the selected active range for the control) to secure a well performing control in the active
frequency range (normally in the range 300 to 3000 Hz).

1.4.3 The control system

An A/D conversion is necessary before the signal from the current transducer enters the digital signal
processors (DSP) and, in some installations, also a D/A conversion before the calculated signal from the
computer enters the VSC. The duration of the control process from measured current on line to injected
current on line adds a delay which the control algorithm shall be able to handle. At high frequencies the
phase shift will be considerable. The control will be further described in clause 1.5. To be able to control
the VSC at frequencies up to 3,0 kHz, the computer or parts of the computer shall process complex tasks
with a sample frequency of at least 10 kHz. The control sample rate can be less, if the demand to the
frequency range to control is reduced.
Although analog control circuits are theoretically possible, preference is given to digital computer
assisted controls. The main reasons to choose digital computers are that they can supply the needed
flexibility to the complexity of the overall system to control and the easy adaptability to new control
algorithms.

1.4.4 The amplifier

The voltage source converters in the first installed filters comprised a transformer and MosFET PWM
amplifiers with a switching frequency at 66 kHz and a voltage of 330 V peak. They are able to maintain
full power (3 dB limit) in the frequency range 100 Hz up to 3 kHz. New water cooled IGBT PWM
amplifiers with switching frequencies considerably lower than the MosFET amplifiers are expected to be
used in all future projects. The IGBT PWM amplifiers are expected to have sufficient high switching
frequency (at least 10 kHz), higher voltage and better power handling with lower losses.
When using switching devices, harmonic distortions in the PLC range (30-500 kHz) outside the active
control range may be introduced. With the present active DC filter design, including a transformer and a
passive filter working as a low-pass filter particularly for frequencies in the PLC range, this distortion is
normally suppressed.

1.4.5 The transformer

The transformer is used because the existing amplifiers, providing voltages in the range 300 to 1000 V,
are not able to deliver the necessary voltage above 3 kV. Because the transformer provides not only the
necessary voltage, but also the galvanic separation between the main circuit of the HVDC plant, it will be
still necessary in the future. The transformer is designed to produce the required voltage and to present a

Page 12
low impedance, making a minimum impact on the original passive filter characteristic.

1.4.6 Protection circuit and arrester

The protection circuit limits the currents and voltages and hence ensures that the amplifier is not stressed.
The protection circuit consists of two thyristors able to carry the full fault current coming from the main
circuit. The thyristors can be fired from the voltage/current supervision as well as the own supervision of
the amplifiers. The arrester limits the voltage across the transformer and amplifier.
Adequate protection of the amplifier or power stage is essential for active DC filter schemes and has to
include a protection circuit to conduct the fault current past the amplifier.

1.4.7 Bypass switch and disconnectors

The bypass switch and disconnectors are installed in all active DC filters and enable the operation of the
HVDC link without using the active part. This feature makes it possible to work on the active part
without taking the HVDC link out of operation.

1.5 ACTIVE DC FILTER CONTROL

The aim of an active DC filter control is to mitigate the harmonic currents on the pole line and/or the
electrode line current which are originated at the local HVDC converter station, so that the interference
on telephone lines, adjacent to the HVDC lines may be brought within allowable limits. The active DC
filter creates virtually a low impedance path between the pole and electrode lines (or ground, depending
on the configuration of the system) at the chosen harmonic frequencies. In this way, the harmonics are
guided through the DC filter and thereby prevented from entering the HVDC line, so that the disturbance
on the line is diminished.
Below are some of the items that meet an important part of the design specification of the active filter
control:
• The required distortion level
• The modes of operation of the HVDC transmission.
• The type of HVDC transmission.
• The number of terminals in the HVDC system.
• Single active DC filter / multiple active DC filters.
• The control system must be able to recover from abnormal system conditions.

1.5.1 Active DC filter control methods

Three basic different control principles are discussed in this section, namely, feedback control,
feedforward control or a combination of the two methods.

1.5.1.1 Feedback control

Feedback control forms the core of existing active DC filters in HVDC applications [16],[17] - such as
shown in Figure 1.5.1. This controller is not only able to practically eliminate the harmonic currents, but
it also compensates for inaccuracies of both the current measuring device and the control parameters.
The basic feedback control scheme is illustrated as a block diagram in Figure 1.5.1. The functionality of
the control has been proven, but the compromise between stability and response has to be considered.

Page 13
The quantity il is the measured harmonic current in the transmission line, Iconv is the disturbance current
from the HVDC converter and Ifilt is the compensation current from the active DC filter. The total line
current Iline is the sum of Iconv and Ifilt. The external process is the transfer function between the output
voltage from the active DC filter uactive and the current Ifilt.
The controller of Figure 1.5.1 consists of four blocks. The first block filters the input signal, to limit its
frequency contents to within the operational range of the active filter (typically 300 – 3000 Hz).
The second block identifies each individual harmonic and then refer it to a set of two orthogonal vectors
(cos nžωžt, sin nžωžt - where the integer n corresponds to the harmonic order and ω to 2žπžf0 and f0
represents the fundamental frequency). The block receives a synchronising signal derived from the
converter AC voltage to enable the controller to adapt to changes in the network frequency. Notch filters,
usually connected in parallel [6], may be used to isolate the individual harmonics.

Iconv
Uactive Ifilt Iline
External Process

PWM Current
Amplifier Transformer

il
Controller Measured
line current
ua cos(nωt) Compensation cos(nωt) Input
sin(nωt) PI Controller sin(nωt) Filter

Synchronisation

Figure 1.5.1 Basic control loop of an active DC filter

The third block performs the function of filter and PI controller. The block also compensates the external
process at the harmonic frequency nžf0.
The fourth block combines the output of the previous blocks into a signal with suitable amplitude, phase
and harmonic contents to form the compensating signal.
An example of a measured transfer function of the external process is shown in Figure 1.5.2.

Page 14
 Figure 1.5.2 Measured transfer function of external system, Baltic Cable HVDC link

1.5.1.2 Feedforward control

Active filters are designed for the normal stable harmonic load currents and voltages generated in the
HVDC power circuit. Disturbances in the HVDC scheme (voltage breakdown, AC filter switching,
transformer energising, overload conditions, etc.) may result in too severe conditions for the active filter.
Therefore the operation of the active filter has to be adapted or even blocked temporarily. Feedforward
information (for example, the DC output voltage of the HVDC converter) to correct the active filter
control loops during and after the disturbance is a great help to achieve optimal active filter operation
with a minimum of delay.
Contrarily to the feedback control, the feedforward control is an open loop control system and does not
require a high gain as the feedback controller (Figure 1.5.3). Compared to feedback control, feedforward
control results in a quicker corrective action and thus reduces the controller’s response time, but the use
of feedforward alone is not sufficient to compensate the disturbances to required level. The feedforward
control has not been used in any HVDC systems.

1.5.1.3 The combined control system using feedforward and feedback control
In the combined control system, the major control (feedforward control) mitigates the harmonics. The
feedback controller then plays a supporting role by correcting loop errors that result from measurements
and changing networks. The stability of the active DC filter control, the dynamic specifications of the
active filter and the cost/availability of high bandwidth voltage measurement equipment are some of the
factors that will determine whether the combined controller will be used. It should be mentioned that the
combined feedback and feedforward control system will be considerably more complex than the
conventional feedback control system and has not yet been used in any HVDC systems.

Page 15
 Iconv
Uactive Ifilt Iline
External Process

PWM Voltage
Amplifier Measurement

Controller
u conv
ua cos(nωt) Compensation cos(nωt) Input
sin(nωt) PI Controller sin(nωt) Filter

Synchronisation

Figure 1.5.3 Feedforward control for the active DC filter

1.5.1.4 Control and supervision for the active DC filter

The active filter needs different control and supervision loops to ensure its proper function. The
following points consider an outline of a possible controller that consists of two control/supervision
loops.
• Primary controller. The harmonic contents of the line current are diminished using the injection
source. In a HVDC system that has active DC filters, one controller for each pole in each station
should be sufficient to mitigate the pole line harmonic currents.
• Harmonic supervision. A relevant criterion, for instance the severity of the interference caused by
the individual harmonics, is used to identify the most troublesome harmonics. This is done at an
interval of approximately 1 minute. The harmonic supervision verify if the primary control is
working satisfactory.

1.5.1.5 Measurement systems

The following quantities can be measured for either control or supervising functions:
• The pole line Iline and/or the electrode current Ielec, using a Rogowski coil or a suitable DC current
transformer.
• The filter current (Ifilt)
• The HVDC converter current (Iconv)
• The HVDC converter voltage (Uconv)
• The active DC filter output voltage (Uactive).
• AC side frequencies

Page 16
1.6 PROJECT DESCRIPTIONS AND DC FILTER SOLUTIONS

Several active DC filters are in operation in HVDC schemes today. All of the installed active DC filters
for HVDC applications have been manufactured by ABB Power Systems AB and by Siemens AG. This
clause will describe the background of the installed active filters.
In 1991 a test installation of an active DC filter was in operation at the Lindome Converter Station [18].
The first commercial active DC filter was installed at the Tjele Converter Station in the Skagerrak 3
HVDC Intertie commissioned in 1993, the second active DC filter was installed at the Baltic Cable
HVDC Link commissioned 1994. In the Chandrapur-Padghe HVDC Bipole Project two active DC filters
in each station have been commissioned in 2001. In the Tian-Guang long distance HVDC project two
active filters plus one spare active filter in each station have been installed in 2001. One active filter at
both Thailand and Malaysia sides of the EGAT-TNB HVDC Interconnector project have also been
commissioned in 2001.

1.6.1 Skagerrak 3 HVDC Intertie

The new pole 3 has approximately the capacity of the two existing poles. The design was not a single
pole solution. To minimise the losses and the electrode current, the current on one of the existing poles
was reversed and the link with the three poles was operated as a hybrid bipole (Figure 1.6.1).
The DC filters at pole 1 and pole 2 have been extended from just a capacitor to tuned filters to meet the
changes in the old poles and to be able to fulfil the demands in the specification. The active DC filter on
pole 3 is a passive double tuned 12/36 filter with an active part. The passive filter has two functions: To
couple the VSC to the 350 kV pole line and to work as a passive filter when the active part is not in
operation. The pole 3 DC filter is coupled between the pole line and neutral bus.
The overall control strategy is to minimise the earth mode current, thus three current transducers are
installed, one at each pole. Consequently the harmonic current on the pole 3 line shall only be zero when
pole 3 is operated as a monopole.
The control algorithm of the active DC filter will work on whole multiples of the fundamental frequency
in the frequency domain 300-3000 Hz. The reason not to control lower frequencies is that the rating of
the VSC will increase manifold times. Furthermore when considering the psophometric weighting factor
in the overall disturbance, the contribution from lower harmonics is negligible.
The active DC filter in Skagerrak replaces one additional passive filter branch compared to a purely
passive solution.

1.6.2 Baltic Cable HVDC Link

The active DC filter is a passive double tuned 12/24 filter with an active part, located at the Kruseberg
station at the Swedish side. Since no overhead line is present at the German side, no DC filter was
installed in Germany. The passive filter couples the active part to the 450 kV DC pole line. The tuning of
the passive filter is chosen to minimise the rating of the active part. The active DC filter is coupled from
the pole line to earth (Figure 1.6.2).
The control strategy is to minimise the DC pole line current harmonics coming from Kruseberg (the
Swedish station) and from Herrenwyck (the German station). The control algorithm of the active DC
filter works on whole multiples of the fundamental frequency in the frequency domain 300-3000 Hz.
Since no DC filter is installed in Herrenwyck, especially the harmonics 600 Hz and 1200 Hz current
coming through the cable are significant, therefore the controller has to mitigate these currents as well.
The active filter solution in Baltic Cable replaces one additional passive filter branch and one smoothing
reactor placed on the line side of the passive filter branches in Kruseberg. If only shunt filters were used,

Page 17
filters in both stations had to be installed. Due to the low impedance of the DC line and cable seen from
Kruseberg, the number of filter branches would be impractical and definitely not economical.

Pole 3
Skagerrak HVDC Intertie
Smoothing Reactor Current transducer

350 kV, 1260 A Line/Cable data:

85 km overhead line, Tjele
28 km electrode line, Tjele
Filter 130 km Cable
passive part 28 km overhead line, Kristiansand
29 km electrode line, Kristansand

Filter
active part

Pole 1 Pole 2
250 kV, 1000 A 250 kV, 1000 A
Smoothing Reactor Smoothing Reactor

Passive Passive
Filter Filter

Current transducer
Figure 1.6.1 Simplified diagram, showing active filter connection

Smoothing Reactor Baltic Cable HVDC Link

450 kV, 600 MW Line/Cable data:
12 km overhead line, Kruseberg
256 km Cable
Filter 23 km electrode cable
passive part

Filter
active part

Figure 1.6.2 Simplified diagram, showing active filter connection

Page 18
1.6.3 Chandrapur-Padghe HVDC power transmission project
The DC filter is a passive double tuned 2/6 filter and passive double tuned high-pass 12/24 filter with an
active part. The 2/6 filter is necessary due to resonance with the DC line. Four active filters are installed
and each active DC filter is connected from the pole line to neutral bus (Figure 1.6.3).
The control strategy is to minimise earth mode current. The active DC filters works on whole multiples
of the fundamental frequency in the frequency range 350-2500 Hz. The project was the first project with
four active filters co-operating in one transmission.
The active filter solution in Chandrapur-Padghe replaces one additional passive filter branch in each pole
and station compared to a purely passive solution.

Chandrapur - Padghe HVDC power transmission project

Current Current
Chandrapur transducer transducer Padghe
500 kV, Line/Cable data: 500 kV,
1500 A 750 km overhead DC line 1500 A
30 km electrode line in Padghe
Passive Filter 1 43 km electrode line in Chandrapur Filter 2 Passive
filter 2/6 passive part passive part filter 2/6

Filter 1 Filter 2
active part active part

Filter 3 Filter 4
active part active part

Passive Filter 3 Filter 4 Passive

filter 2/6 passive part passive part filter 2/6

500 kV, 1500 A Current Current 500 kV, 1500 A

transducer transducer

Figure 1.6.3 Simplified diagram, showing active filter connection

1.6.4 Tian - Guang long distance HVDC project

Each terminal station is provided with a DC filter scheme as shown in Figure 1.6.4. The DC filter
consists of a passive part with a double tuned 12/24 filter with damping resistor and an active part. At
each station a spare DC filter is installed, able by means of disconnectors to replace the DC filter at either
pole. Six active filters are thus installed with four DC filter in continuous operation.
The control objective is to mitigate the harmonics in both lines.
The current transducers are Rogowski coils, but in contrary to the previous current transducers, the
electronics are powered by light guides directly from the control equipment.

Page 19
The active filter solution in the Tian - Guang HVDC project replaces one additional passive filter branch
in each pole and station and reduces the size of the smoothing reactor compared to a purely passive
solution.

Tian - Guang long distance HVDC project

Smoothing reactor Current

transducer
500 kV,
900 MW
Filter passive Filter spare
part 1 passive part
Line data:
960 km overhead DC line
Filter active Filter spare 50 km electrode line in Tian Shen Qiao
50 km electrode line in Guand Dong
part 1 active part

Filter active
part 2

Filter passive
part 2
500 kV,
900 MW

Smoothing reactor Current

transducer

Figure 1.6.4 Simplified diagram, showing active filter connection

1.6.5 EGAT-TNB (Thailand-Malaysia) HVDC Interconnection

Each terminal station is provided with a DC filter scheme as shown in Figure 1.6.5. The DC filter
consists of a passive part with a double tuned 12/24 filter without damping resistors and an active part.
The control objective is to mitigate the harmonics in the line conductor connected to the smoothing
reactor.
At its first stage, the interconnection operates as a monopolar metallic return scheme, where either line
pole 1 or 2 can be used as HV conductor. The current transducers are Rogowski coils with light guide
powered electronics. The proper current signal is automatically selected according to the operation mode
of the line.
The active filter solution in the EGAT-TNB HVDC Interconnection replaces one additional passive filter
branch in each station and reduces the size of the smoothing reactor compared to a purely passive
solution.

Page 20
 TNB - EGAT HVDC Interconnection (1st stage)

Smoothing reactor Current

transducer
300 kV,
300 MW
Filter passive
part Line data:
110 km overhead DC line
Filter active
part

Current
transducer

Current
transducer

Figure 1.6.5 Simplified diagram, showing active filter connection

1.7 PERFORMANCE OF THE SKAGERRAK 3 HVDC INTERTIE ACTIVE DC

FILTER

To illustrate the performance of the active DC filter, a pole line current was measured in the Skagerrak 3
HVDC Intertie. pole 3 was operated as monopole and the transmitted power level was 240 MW. The pole
line current with and without the active part is shown in Figure 1.7.1. The first current spectrum shows
the line current with the active part not in operation and the second spectrum shows the line current with
the active part in operation.
1 60
The psophometric current (see clause 1.2) I pe = ⋅ å (k n ⋅ p n ⋅ I n )2 of the current spectrum shown
p16 n =1
in Figure 1.7.1, was reduced from 4780 mA to 255 mA. The major harmonic line currents are shown in
Table 1.7.1.

Page 21
 Figure 1.7.1 Measured line current spectra, pole 3 operated as monopole.

Frequency Weight factor No active filtering Active filtering

[Hz] pn * k n Current Weighted Current Weighted
Current [Arms] Current [Arms]
[Arms] [Arms]
300 0.111 3.668 0.406 0.0881 0.0097
600 0.595 0.844 0.503 0.0180 0.0107
1200 1.500 0.836 1.253 0.0245 0.0368
1800 1.710 2.216 3.788 0.0436 0.0746
2400 1.902 0.350 0.675 0.0253 0.0488
2700 1.957 0.338 0.662 0.0217 0.0424
3000 1.969 1.164 2.292 0.0242 0.0477

Table 1.7.1 Major harmonic line currents, pole 3 operated as monopole

Page 22
1.8 CONCLUSIONS ON ACTIVE DC FILTERS

• The need for active DC filters is a consequence of stringent demand on telephone systems. Further
introduction of digital and optical systems can reduce these requirements.
• Series connections of active filters in the main HVDC circuit are conceivable, but some basic
problems have to be solved before the solution becomes recommendable.
• All active DC filters implemented today and in the near future will be configured as a hybrid filter,
where the passive filter is used to connect the active part with the high voltage DC line.
• The type most suited to the active filter power stage, particularly high power ones, is the voltage
source converter.
• The relative high frequencies for active filtering exclude thyristors and GTO. Consequently MosFET
and IGBT are used in voltage source converters.
• Although analog control circuit in theory is possible, digital computer assisted controls are preferred.
• All control systems in existing and expected systems with active DC filters use feedback control, but
feedforward control or a combination might be a future option.
• Adequate protection of the voltage source converter is essential for active DC filter schemes.

Page 23
2 ACTIVE AC FILTERS IN HVDC APPLICATIONS

2.1 INTRODUCING ACTIVE AC FILTERS

Non-linear loads and sources cause voltage distortion of the sine wave in electrical distribution and
transmission networks. The primary sources of electrical energy, synchronous generators or over-
synchronous running asynchronous generators, produce nearly undistorted sine waves.
Classical loads such as uncontrolled motors, heaters and incandescent lamps connected to a sinusoidal
source will take nearly undistorted currents. This is in contrast to fluorescent lamps, controlled motor
drives, computers and TV sets. Most of the distortion in LV and MV distribution networks is caused by
such loads, and may even be propagated into HV networks. In particular the 5th harmonic is of great
concern for the utilities, particularly during the evening hours. The increasing non-linear loads over the
last ten years are topic of many conferences on power quality.
For larger loads such as traction rectifiers, 12 pulse instead of 6 pulse operation shifts the distortion to
the 11th and 13th harmonics. Sometimes passive filters in single or double tuned configurations are used.
These filters are less effective for distributed loads and non-characteristic harmonics.
HVDC converters feeding into an existing HVAC network are a source of distortion themselves. From
the beginning of the HVDC transmission, these problems have been recognised and passive filters for the
11/13th and 23/25th harmonics are applied in all existing schemes. The filters also contribute to the
compensation of the inductive character of the rectifier and inverter.
The interest in active power filters has grown over a number of years due to more stringent requirements
and guidelines placed on customers and supply utilities such as the IEEE 519 or IEC1000 series. These
place maximum limits on various current and voltage harmonics generated and drawn at the point of
common coupling (PCC). Requirements to develop low-cost and robust active filters with
multifunctional control capabilities, such as sag and dip compensation has emerged from industry. The
developments in active power filters have also motivated their application for HVDC, on the AC, DC or
both sides of the HVDC converter [22],[23],[24],[25].
In contrast to passive filters designed to operate at distinct frequencies, active filters can cover a range of
frequencies, including non-characteristic harmonics. Active filters for the HVDC side are already in
operation and have been discussed in the first part of this report (published in [26]). The power
requirements for HVAC side may be considerably higher. Only one plant is under operation at the AC
side of an HVDC converter station, as a pilot project, and it is also described in this report.
In future HVDC projects new converter technology may be applied, implying that the reactive power can
be separated from the AC filters and thereby make the use of active AC filter more interesting. The most
promising technologies are the Capacitor Commutated Converters (CCC) and the Controlled Series
Capacitor Converter (CSCC), but also GTO controlled converters are able to keep the reactive power
demand from the converter within a minimum.
For tutorial reasons, LV and MV applications of active filters with different control schemes are also
discussed briefly .

2.2 TECHNICAL DEMANDS TO HARMONIC DISTURBANCES ON THE AC SIDE

Many loads produce harmonics at low and medium voltage networks. Fluorescent tubes and lamps as
well as computers and other electronic devices generate harmonics. For the low and medium voltage, the

Page 24
grid owner may need to install filters at the distribution bus if the voltage distortion caused by all small
harmonic sources in the system is unacceptable. When connecting HVDC converter stations or large
loads to the AC system, that generate harmonics like industrial rectifiers, large motor drives and
electrical arc furnace plants, AC filters are usually installed as a part of these loads or HVDC system in
order to ensure that the injection of harmonics into the AC system is limited to acceptable levels.
Filtering is required due to the following effects of harmonics:
- Additional stresses
The waveform distortion causes losses, resulting in additional heating, and stresses in both
customer's and utility's equipment.
- Maloperation of electronic equipment
Also the harmonics may cause maloperation of electronic equipment and protective equipment, e.g.
protection relays.
- Telecommunication system disturbance
In the case of overhead lines with nearby telecommunication lines, the harmonics may interfere with
the telecommunication via inductive couplings between the two systems. Even the induced voltages
in telecommunication and other low voltage system caused by harmonics flowing in the AC system
may result in voltages higher than the regulations with respect to human safety.
A discussion on the permissible distortion limits is included in the report "Guide to the Specification and
Design Evaluation of AC Filters for HVDC Systems" by the WG 14.30 [27]. Some typical values are
considered in the item 2.12.5 of the present report.

2.3 PASSIVE FILTERS

2.3.1 Conventional passive filters

Traditionally, the filters installed in large
harmonic generating loads have been of the
passive type, usually designed as shunt elements
creating a low impedance path for the harmonics
to be filtered. The filter is build up as a resonant
circuit consisting of capacitor(s) and inductor(s),
and in most cases also resistor(s) for giving the
filter a more 'soft' damped characteristic. Usually
the passive filters are tuned to one frequency only
(single-tuned filter), to two frequencies (double
tuned filter) or even to three frequencies (triple-
tuned filter). Variations in frequency and
temperature, causing impedance variation of the
filters (detuning), in most cases result in need for
damping resistors in the filter in order to make the
characteristics more 'soft'. The introduction of the Figure 2.3.1 Conventional double tuned passive
damping resistor makes the filtering performance filter with damping resistor
at tuning frequency less effective, however a
wider frequency range can be filtered and hence
the frequency variations are coped with.
The reduced filtering efficiency caused by the resistor may lead to the need for larger filters or
installation of more parallel filter banks. The design of passive filters is highly dependent on the
connected harmonic impedance of the network. It is vital that critical resonances between network and

Page 25
filter are avoided. In order to obtain an adequate passive filter design, detailed studies are required to be
performed.
In a typical double tuned filter is shown in Figure 2.3.1.
In Cigré technical brochure no. 139 [27], passive AC filters for HVDC systems are described and
discussed in detail.
With high demand on filter efficiency, it may
be difficult to maintain the reactive power
balance with the AC system and at the same
time to meet the filtering requirements. In this
case more sophisticated solutions should be
applied, such as continuously tuned filters,
active filters or hybrid filters.

2.3.2 Continuously tuned passive filters

2.3.2.1 Introduction
Figure 2.3.2 Continuously tuned filter
As mentioned above, conventional bandpass
filters (for example, 11th and 13th) have to be
equipped with damping resistors to achieve a
broad band characteristic allowing them to
cope with the frequency variations of the AC
network and the variations in component
values due to temperature changes.
Consequently, filtering at high harmonic levels
may require a number of large harmonic filter
banks.
Figure 2.3.2 shows a continuously tuned filter.
A continuously tuned AC filter is always tuned
to the harmonic frequency (e.g. 11th or 13th)
and has a high Q-factor thus giving high
performance and low losses. In the Figure 2.3.3 Principal overview of a filter reactor
continuously tuned filter, the tuning frequency with variable inductance
is automatically adjusted to provide perfect
tuning irrespective of frequency excursions
and component variations. The filters therefore
need no additional damping resistor. The
perfect tuning is achieved by variations of the
inductance of the filter reactor. Just one
continuously tuned filter is sufficient to
provide the required filtering for a particular α
harmonic.

2.3.2.2 Filter reactor with variable

inductance
No physically moving parts are needed for
changing the inductance. An iron core is
placed in the centre of the reactor. Around the Figure 2.3.4 Schematic overview of a continuously
iron core there is a control winding, see Figure tuned filter
2.3.3. By feeding direct current into the control

Page 26
winding, the total magnetic flux in the reactor is influenced, thereby changing the inductance. The
linearity of the rate of change of inductance with respect to the control current is high, which simplifies
designing to avoid instability in tuning control.

2.3.2.3 Automatic tuning control

The schematic overview of the continuously tuned filter is shown in Figure 2.3.4.
The AC bus harmonic voltage and the filter harmonic current are measured and the phase angle α,
calculated. The direct control current fed through the control winding is then adjusted to achieve zero
phase shift between voltage and current of the particular harmonic. This is the criterion for perfect tuning
of the filter.

2.3.2.4 Existing continuously tuned filter installations

A prototype 11th harmonic ConTune AC filter (ConTune: is a trade mark for ABB's continuously tuned
filter) has been in operation at the Lindome station of the Konti-Skan HVDC link since December 1993.
The operation experience from this has been very good.
A commercial 11th filter is in operation at Celilo station of the Pacific Intertie HVDC transmission.
A filter scheme consisting of 11th and 13th ConTune and 24th and 36th conventional high-pass filters is
installed for the 600 MW SwePol cable transmission with conventional HVDC converters (see also
2.12.2.1). Capacitor banks provide the reactive power balance.
A filter scheme with 11th and 13th ConTune and 24th and 36th conventional high pass filters is installed for
2x550 MW Brazil-Argentina Interconnection (Garabi back-to-back station) – see also 2.12.2.2. The
reactive power balance is provided by series capacitors.

2.4 REASONS FOR USING ACTIVE FILTERS IN HVDC SCHEMES

Unlike passive filters, where the harmonic reduction depends on the combination of filter impedance and
network impedance, active filters use power electronics to produce a voltage or a current with the proper
waveform to mitigate selected harmonics or harmonics inside a given frequency range.
The active filter output has to present all selected harmonics, each one with the amplitude and phase that
are required to counteract the harmonic sources. To get this, voltages and/or currents are measured in the
HVDC station and processed by a suitable control equipment using signal processing techniques. An
IGBT converter (see 2.7, "Converter configurations") produces the necessary voltages or currents as
determined by the control equipment. For HV applications, like HVDC, the active filter will be generally
connected to the network through a passive filter, thus building a hybrid filter scheme.
Due to its nature, active filters present the following characteristics:
• High effectiveness. The harmonics can be mitigated effectively, even if the network impedance is
very low at the harmonic frequencies.
• One active filter alone can mitigate several harmonics simultaneously. This results in smaller place
requirements and simpler filter arrangements in comparison to passive filter solutions.
• In contrast to passive filters, active filters do not introduce any resonance with the network.
This results from the fact that active filters reduce each particular harmonic just by injecting a
controlled voltage or current with the frequency of that harmonic.
• Active filters do not add reactive power to the network, by the same reason as in the last point.
• Elimination of existing resonance effects.
This is achieved through the cancellation of the harmonic voltage on the filter busbar or harmonic

Page 27
 current in the lines. Other control method was presented in [24].
• Flexibility for changing frequency characteristics within the rated capability.
Changes, like for instance selection of harmonics to be filtered, can be made just by settings in the
software.
• Self-adaptation to changes in the network frequency.
• Self-adaptation to changes in the network harmonic impedance. Self-tuning control algorithms can
extend this characteristic, so that the necessary performance is reached even though the harmonic
impedance of the network varies over a wide range.
• The characteristic of the same active filter can be optimised for harmonic voltage (e.g. total harmonic
distortion THD, Telephone Harmonic Form Factor THFF, telephone interference factor TIF ) or
harmonic current (e.g. IT product, equivalent disturbing current), depending on the measured
magnitudes and control settings.
The active filter may be connected to the network through a comparatively small passive filter, which can
be switched on before starting the HVDC converter and then stay permanently in service. This
combination between active and passive filters is called a hybrid filter. The additional demand on
reactive power is than covered by capacitor banks and eventually few passive filters.
The use of hybrid filters in HVDC schemes could be considered due to the above listed reasons. Some
cases where these filters should be considered:
• Very small harmonic distortion levels are envisaged.
• The reactive power compensation can be performed with less filters than the amount of passive
filters required for harmonic elimination.
• A passive filter solution gets complex due to resonance with the network
• Other harmonic sources in the network have to be regarded and a current-optimised filter solution is
preferred (rather than a voltage-optimised solution).
• In the series compensated HVDC schemes (Capacitor Commutated Converter CCC, Controlled
Series Capacitor Converter CSCC).
• When an existing filter installation could be up-graded by adding an active part (due to more
harmonics, resonance problems, etc.)

Important advantages of using such hybrid filters are:

• The performance is not reduced neither in case of variation of network frequency nor in case of
variations in the associated passive filter due to temperature or failures in capacitor cells (which
causes detuning of the passive filter).
• Damping resistors can be avoided at the associated passive filter, as the active filter covers the whole
specified frequency range and is not affected by "detuning".
• Smaller amount of filters in comparison to a passive filter solution by the above mentioned reason.

Page 28
2.5 OPERATION PRINCIPLES OF ACTIVE FILTERS

2.5.1 Shunt connected active filter

The most common configuration is the shunt connection, where the active filter is connected in parallel
with the AC network and provided with a current control.
The active filter constantly injects harmonic currents in opposition to the harmonic currents generated by
the load. These harmonic currents are compensating each other and the result is that the current supplied
by the power source remains sinusoidal.

Is Il

Voltage If Harmonic
Sourc e generator

Active
filter
Figure 2.5.1 Shunt connection

Figure 2.5.2 Example of current waves

- top, solid line: Load current current Il
- top, dotted line: resulting source current Is
- bottom: compensating filter current If

Page 29
The active filter needs to be sized only for the harmonic currents, generated by the non-linear load and
not for the full load current. For higher voltages than the voltage level of the active part, a coupling
transformer will be used.

2.5.2 Series connected active filter

This type of filter, connected in series with the line, is mainly aimed at reducing the voltage distortion
already present on the AC system and applied to the load. It acts as a "harmonic isolator" device.
Associated with a passive filter, it can also reduce the harmonic currents generated by the load (see
hybrid configurations).
The connection of the active filter to the supply is made through a coupling transformer, which must be
sized for the total load current rating and injected series voltage Uf. The current through the active filter
should be designed for the transformed load current as well.

Us Ul

Net Uf Load
Source

Harmonic Active
producing filter
load

Figure 2.5.3 Series connection

2.6 PARALLEL AND SERIES CONFIGURATION

In some cases, the combined features of parallel and series configurations may be needed at one location.
A DC link between the two active filters may be used for transfer of active power between the active
filters.

Page 30
 Net Load
Source

DC
Active Link Ac tive
filter filter

Figure 2.6.1 Series and parallel connection

The following table summarises the preferred configurations depending on the origin of the harmonic
distortion (load or source side) considering common LV and MV applications.

Source Load

Non distorting Distorting

Non distorted - Shunt

Shunt
Distorted Series +
Series

Table 2.6.1 Preferred topologies for common LV and MV applications

2.6.1 Hybrid filter schemes

This solution, combining an active filter and a passive filter, may be either of the series or parallel type.
An example of parallel combination, which is feasible for low and medium voltage systems is presented
in Figure 2.6.2. For high voltage applications, a hybrid filter built up by the combination of a passive an
active filter in series is required. Such a hybrid configuration is further discussed in 2.8.3.
In the example of Figure 2.6.2, the passive filter may carry out basic filtering of the predominant
harmonic (generally, the 5th in low and medium voltage systems), while the active filter, due to its limited
rating, covers the other harmonics.
This configuration gives better performances than a passive filter alone, at a lower cost than with a
purely active filter. This association is a technical and economical compromise solution when high
performances are required.

Page 31
 Is Il

Voltage If Harmonic
Source generator

Ac tive
filter
Figure 2.6.2 Hybrid configuration

2.7 CONVERTER CONFIGURATIONS

2.7.1 Converters
Basically, two types of converters can be used in active AC filters, the voltage source converter and the
current source converter. In both cases, the converter can present a three-phase (three or four wire type)
or a single-phase structure.

2.7.1.1 Current source converter

This kind of converter has an inductor as the energy storage component. The use of this configuration is
limited due to the coil and additional semiconductor losses.

AC
grid

Figure 2.7.1 Three phase current source converter

Page 32
2.7.1.2 Voltage source converter
This is the preferred configuration, because it is the most cost-effective. Almost all active filters, which
have been put into operation, have adopted the voltage source PWM inverter structure.

Figure 2.7.2 Three phase 2 level voltage source converter (three-wire type).

The neutrally clamped 3 level converter is used to minimise the losses or to increase power handling
capability. This topology can also compensate unbalanced currents.

Figure 2.7.3 Three phase 3 level voltage source converter (three-wire type).

Page 33
2.7.1.3 Single-phase voltage source converter
Single phase active filters are based on a single phase voltage source bridges shown below. Although
three-phase converters have been used for most low and medium voltage applications, three separate
single-phase converters can be used in the three phase active filter applications also.

Figure 2.7.4 Single-phase voltage source converter

2.7.2 STATCOM
The term STATCOM (Static Synchronous Compensator) stands for a device using GTOs , IGCT
(Integrated Gate Commutated Thyristor) or IGBT to produce reactive power at the network frequency.
WG14-19 has prepared a full document on STATCOM principles and applications [28].
This section presents basic principles of the STATCOM and explains how it can be conceived to
incorporate active filter features. The STATCOM can also be used as active filter, if the device is fast
enough (either a high switching frequency or multi levels or a combination).

2.7.2.1 STATCOM principles

The principle behind the operation of a STATCOM is very simple; it depends on the idea of two
generators connected together by an inductor. For the case in question one generator is the power system,
while the other is the STATCOM. The operation can be divided into five sections:
1 - The system and the STATCOM have the same amplitude and phase, so under this condition no
current flows in the inductor and the STATCOM is operating at "float".
2 - The system voltage is higher than the STATCOM voltage, but the phase shift is still zero. A voltage
now appears across the inductor, in phase with the system voltage. Since current in an inductor lags
the voltage by 90o a lagging current is seen by the system and only inductive reactive power is
transferred.
3 - The system voltage is lower than the STATCOM voltage, but the phase shift is again zero. A
voltage appears across the inductor that is in anti-phase with the system, hence the inductor will
pass a leading current when viewed from the system and only capacitive reactive power is
transferred.
4 - When the system and STATCOM voltages are the same, but the phase of the STATCOM lags by a

Page 34
 small amount, a voltage appears across the inductor which leads by 90o and a current will flow
which is in phase with the system voltage, i.e. active power is delivered to the STATCOM
5 - The last case is when the system and STATCOM voltages are the same amplitude and the
STATCOM leads the system by a small amount. The inductor voltage now lags the system by 90o
and the current is in anti-phase with the system voltage and active power is returned from the
STATCOM to the system
6 - All operating modes can be performed simultaneously.

In practice no4 and no5 are limited to control the DC voltage of the STATCOM. For other applications,
large energy storage elements are required.
The conditions above are not exclusive, and accordingly combinations of real and reactive current can
be made to flow.

2.7.2.2 The practical STATCOM

In a practical STATCOM the generator is provided by a voltage source converter (VSC). In general the
voltage source is a capacitor and this is of sufficient size to give a substantially constant voltage over the
time of a mains frequency cycle. Since as described in 4 and 5 above, it is possible to cause real power
(either positive or negative) to flow into the inverter, the capacitor can be either charged or discharged at
will. The output voltage of the inverter is directly proportional to the capacitor voltage, thus by changing
the capacitor voltage the reactive current is also changed and can vary between leading and lagging.
Although a simple inverter can act as a STATCOM it suffers from two main difficulties. The first is that
for most applications a simple inverter will not provide enough power. The second results from the quasi-
square wave shape of the simple inverter, which generates considerable distortion and hence a high
harmonic content. Using some form of multi-level inverter can largely solve both of these problems. Two
examples are shown in Figure 2.7.5.
These types of inverter produce a number of quasi-square pulses superimposed upon each other. The
outcome is a "staircase" waveform, in which the switching time of every level can be separately
determined. As the number of levels increases the power rating of the inverter increases at the same rate.
The two examples shown will both result in a waveform of five levels (two positive, two negative and
one zero). The power capability will be four times the rating for a simple inverter. When the number of
levels has been increased to obtain a suitable power rating, the output waveform contains sufficient steps
to very closely approximate to the ideal sinusoid.

2.7.2.3 Deviations from ideal

In a real system, the actual system voltage may not be a pure sinusoid. In this case to enable the
STATCOM to draw a sinusoid of current, the inverter must generate an output voltage which contains
an identical spectrum of harmonics as the system. Since the switching time of each level is individually
adjustable, a close approximation to this condition is possible.

2.7.2.4 STATCOM as active AC filter

As described above it is possible to generate a STATCOM output waveform containing harmonics.
When acting as a STATCOM, harmonics to oppose those on the system are adequate, but this is not the
limit. If the statcom is in a part of the system where the flow of harmonic currents is disturbing the
system voltage, for example at the input to an HVDC scheme, a suitably distorted inverter wave shape
can cause those currents to be diverted into the statcom. The order of harmonics which can be accurately
controlled will depend upon the number of adjustable switching times (number of levels) available or by
increasing the switching frequency. Thus a low power statcom based on GTO can only deal with low

Page 35
order harmonics, but for high power statcoms the range of controllable harmonics can be very wide. With
the use of IGCT and IGBT even low power statcom can handle a wide range of harmonics.

Figure 2.7.5 Two STATCOM converter approaches with GTO

2.8 ACTIVE AC FILTER CONFIGURATIONS

2.8.1 Active ac filters for low voltage application

At the present state of the art, direct connection of the active filter converter to the AC bus is only
feasible for low voltage systems, due to the voltage capability of the semiconductor devices used in
active filters. Moreover, if a voltage source IGBT converter is used like in almost all case, at least an
inductor has to be installed between the converter and the network bus. In some examples, transformers
have been used for connecting the active filter to the network in order to eliminate zero-sequence
components of currents.

2.8.2 Active ac filters for medium voltage application

More practical examples are available of active filters connected directly to medium voltage system
through, for instance, a dedicated transformer. In most of the existing examples of medium voltage
schemes, the active filter is connected in parallel with the load at the low voltage side of the system.
Recent developments in power semiconductors improve the manufacturing of pure electronic converters

Page 36
for higher voltages, but these are rather suited for advanced forms of reactive power compensation and
voltage regulation. The implementation of harmonic elimination features with these installations is
conceivable, at least for low order harmonics (see 2.7.2.4).

2.8.3 Active ac filters for HVDC applications

An active filter may be connected to the high voltage AC bus via a coupling capacitor. The size of the
capacitor will influence the capacity of the active filter. If elements are added to the capacitor to perform
a tuned passive filter, and the active part is connected via this filter, a low impedance path to the AC bus
is obtained at tuned frequencies.
The advantages of the technique of hybrid filters, where an active filter is combined in series with a
passive one, has been applied at the AC side and at the DC sides of HVDC converter stations, the later
already in several projects.
A possible hybrid filter scheme is illustrated in Figure 2.8.1. In this scheme, the hybrid filter comprises
an active filter connected in series with a single tuned passive filter. This arrangement is efficient to
mitigate harmonics around the tuned frequency of the passive filter.
A filter with the components shown in Figure 2.8.1 would contribute to only 20 MVAr (three phase) at a
400 kV, 50 Hz system. The fundamental component of the current in the converter should be limited
because it would result into larger component ratings and contribute to additional losses. The 50 Hz
current component in the present example is around 30 A, which is a good compromise.
For frequencies far from the tuned frequency, the impedance of the passive filter in the example of
Figure 2.8.1 increases significantly, so that higher active filter voltages would be required. The efficiency
of the scheme is thus low for these harmonics. A possible solution to extend the application of the filter
is shown in Figure 2.8.2. In this example, the passive filter is a double tuned filter, presenting minimum
impedance at the 19th and 37th harmonics. In this case, the active filter can mitigate a wide range of
harmonics. The reactive power and the fundamental frequency current in the filter are nearly the same as
in the previous case. Therefore, this scheme offers a better cost-benefit ratio compared to the previous
one.

Passive filter characteristic:

1000 Passive filter characteristic:
1000
0.4 µF
0.4 µF

|Z | 100 38 mH |Z| 100

70 mH

10 0.7 µF 21 mH 10
10 20 30 40 50 10 20 30 40 50
Harmonic order

ACTIVE
ACTIVE FILTER
FILTER

Figure 2.8.1 Active filter connected to the HV Figure 2.8.2 Active filter connected to the HV
system through a single-tuned passive filter system through a double tuned passive filter

Page 37
In some HVDC applications, larger reactive
power may be desirable at the active filter
branch. Or an active filter may be installed in
series with an existing passive filter, to improve
an scheme already in operation. In both cases,
the fundamental current in the filter will be
considerable, which should be disadvantageous
compared with the previous examples, as the
fundamental current flows through the active Fundamental
ACTIVE
part of the filter as well. Figure 2.8.3 shows a FILTER Harmonics current
solution that can be used in this case to prevent component
the fundamental current from flowing in the
active filter. In this figure, an LC circuit tuned at
the fundamental frequency was introduced in
parallel with the active part. The LC path takes Figure 2.8.3 Using an LC circuit to deviate the
over the fundamental component of the current, fundamental current component
while the harmonics flow in the active part. This
solution is used in the active AC filter installed
at the Tjele station (Eltra), in Denmark.
During network disturbances or filter switching, high transient currents will flow in the active filter. To
cope with this, the active filter should be equipped with a fast by-passing device, like a thyristor switch.
The by-pass should be initiated if overcurrent is detected and be removed after the overcurrent has
disappeared, with a delay of some hundred milliseconds to match the network typical disturbance times.

2.9 SERIES CONNECTED ACTIVE FILTERS

This solution is feasible if the current in the insertion point is low. However, in most cases, at least some
hundreds of amperes flow in the line, which makes this arrangement costly with respect to installation
and losses. In addition the equipment must be located at line potential, which increase the cost as well.
Due to these reasons, this solution is not recommended for transmission systems, however it could be
feasible for applications close to end-users in the distribution systems to improve voltage quality.

2.10 CONTROL SYSTEM

2.10.1 Introduction
Various control algorithms are applied to active power filtering. It is not the aim of this report to discuss
the various advantages and disadvantages of each but rather to provide a holistic idea of the most well
known techniques. Some of these algorithms were evaluated in reference [29].
Some of the most common algorithms that can be used are described below.

2.10.2 Description of a generic active power filter controller

A non-linear load generates fundamental frequency and harmonic currents il, as described in the
preceding paragraphs. A single-line representation of an active power filter is shown in Figure 2.10.1.
The active power filter injects a filter current if at the point of common coupling to compensate the non-
linear load-current il..

Page 38
The controller normally has as input the supply voltage us, and the line current il. The active filter
controller consists normally of a digital outer-loop and analogue or digital inner loop (PWM) controller,
imbedded into digital signal processors and gate arrays. The input to the PWM inner loop controller is
the injected current if and the DC-link voltage udc. Based on the generated reference current iref, the
converter generates a current which is filtered by a low-pass filter with at least 1 – 2 kHz cut-off
frequency. Normally a step-up transformer is provided. In order to have a bandwidth of for instance 1 – 2
kHz, the required switching frequency of the active filter should be at least 3 - 5 kHz.

Figure 2.10.1 Single-line schematic diagram of an active filter and controller

The injected current if of an idealised active filter is such that the instantaneous sum of this injected
current and the distorted load current is equal to the active current ia,. In practice the active current is an
ideal sinusoid with the amplitude proportional to the load conductance G at fundamental frequency, as
discussed in the following equation (assuming us as the fundamental frequency component of the supply
voltage) [30],[31]:

i f (t ) = il (t ) − ia (t ) = il (t ) − G.u s (t ) (4)

External inputs to the active filter controller may also be included to input the set references for
maximum harmonic levels, THD, individual harmonic limits, reactive power demands, etc.

2.10.3 Calculation of reference current

As indicated in Figure 2.10.1, the reference current iref is an instantaneous current to be generated from
the measured supply voltage us(t), the load current il(t) and external inputs. Different control algorithms
may be used to generate this reference current iref. These algorithms are generated from time-domain and
frequency domain approaches (Instantaneous reactive power theory - IRPT)
Fryze [31] is accredited as being the first to calculate fictitious power in the time domain in 1932. He

Page 39
sub-divided the apparent power into two orthogonal components namely active power and fictitious
power. Active power is based on the rate of energy transferred per time unit and is only available after
some time. This means that it is not possible to compensate for fictitious power components in real time.
This approach is recommended by the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC). Several time
domain implementations of active filter control have been used [30],[32],[33],[34],[35],[36], [37], [38].
One of the most successfully commercialised algorithms for active filter controllers is based on the
instantaneous reactive power theory (IRPT). Akagi [33] introduced the IRPT, depicted in Figure 2.10.2.
He defined a new electrical quantity, the instantaneous reactive power (q) as a unique value determined
by using the instantaneous values of the three phase voltages and load currents. The related equations are
also included here.

3 to 2 phase
ilr (t) iα
ils (t) 3 HP-Filter 2 to 3 phase
ilt (t) iβ iα q iα q(ac) irh* (t)
2
Calculate 2
ish* (t)
p (7)
vr(t) vα iβ q iβ q(ac) 3 ith* (t)
vs(t) 3
vt(t) vβ
2

Figure 2.10.2 Block diagram of the IRPT.

é vo ù é1 / 2 1 / 2 1 / 2 ù év r ù
ê ú 2ê ú
ê vα ú = ê 1 − 1 / 2 − 1 / 2 ú êêv s úú (5)
3ê
êv β ú
ë û ë 0 3 / 2 − 3 / 2úû êë vt úû

éio ù é1 / 2 1/ 2 1 / 2 ùéir ù
ê ú 2ê 1 ú
−1 / 2 −1 / 2 úêêis úú
êiα ú = 3ê (6)
êiβ ú ê 0 3 / 2 − 3 / 2úûêëit úû
ë û ë

é po ù évo 0 0 ù éio ù
ê pú = ê0 vα
úê ú
vβ ú êiα ú
ê ú ê (7)
êë q úû ê 0 −vβ vα úû êëiβ úû
ë

Page 40
 −1
éirh* ù é1/ 2 1 0 ù évo 0 0 ù é po ù
ê*ú 2ê úê ú
êish ú = 3 ê1/ 2 −1/ 2 3 / 2 ú.ê 0 vα vβ ú êê pac úú (8)
êith* ú ê1/ 2 −1/ 2 − 3 / 2ú ê 0 − v v ú êq ú
ë û ë ûë β α û ë ac û

The measured three phase voltages and currents are converted into α−β co-ordinates using (5) and (6).
The instantaneous power is defined as the vector sum of the dot products of the α−β co-ordinates and
reactive power as the vector product of the α−β co-ordinates as shown in (7). The fundamental of the
source current is transformed by these calculations to DC components of the instantaneous active and
reactive power and harmonic values. A high-pass filter and the conversion back to three phases with (8)
can extract the harmonic components. The theory is also extended to include zero-phase sequence
components and instantaneous active power (p). It was implemented in various three-phase topologies
[32],[33].

2.10.4 Synchronous reference frame (SRF)

Divan [34] implemented the synchronous reference frame (SRF) technique to be used as a control
algorithm in a compensator as shown in Figure 2.10.3.

The corresponding equations are:

éiqe ù écos( ω t ) − sin( ω t )ù éiqs ù

ê ú=ê úê s ú (9)
ëêid ûú ë sin( ω t ) cos( ω t ) û ëêid ûú
e

éi s ù ée ù
ê qdc ú é cos(ω t ) sin(ω t ) ù êiqdc ú
ê s ú = ê− sin(ω t ) cos(ω t )ú ê e ú (10)
êi ú ë û i
ëê ddc ûú
ë ddc û

é ù
ê 1 0 úú
éiar ù ê
êi ú = 2 ê− 1 3 ú. éiqdc
s ù

ê as ú ê 2 ê s ú
3 2 ú êëiddc úû (11)
êëiat úû ê ú
ê− 1 − 3ú
êë 2 2 úû

The three phase currents are converted into the two phase α−β co-ordinates in a similar way as in
equation (6), excluding the zero-phase sequence components. By using (9), these two stationary reference
frame quantities (is) are then converted into two synchronous rotating reference frame quantities (ie). The
fundamental frequency components are now transformed into a DC quantity and the harmonics to AC
components which are separated using a low pass filter . A PI controller ensures zero steady state control
error. The resulting DC components are then converted back to the stationary reference frame with (10).
The three active current components of the load current are calculated by using (11).

Page 41
2.10.5 Other control approaches
Bhattacharya [38] introduced a method to control an active filter based on the synchronous reference
frame technique [34] extended into the flux domain by integrating the voltage. Several other approaches
are developed which differs somewhat form these original approaches[39]. Some implementations
estimators used neural networks and Kalman filters in electrical networks with highly dynamic
characteristics, with varied success[36]. In some cases the harmonic current reference is generated in a
selective harmonic approach and sometimes injected without any line current feedback [40],[41],[42].

2.10.6 HVDC AC active filter control approach

The installed AC active filter for HVDC at Tjele are presented in a later paragraph. In this case selected
harmonics are split into d-q components similar to the SRF. There is such a controller for each selected
harmonic and these operate simultaneously.

2.11 EXISTING ACTIVE AC FILTER APPLICATIONS

2.11.1 Low and medium voltage

Several low and medium voltage active power filters exist in industry [23],[43],[44].

2.11.2 High voltage applications

Active filters for the HVDC side already in operation have been presented in the first part of this report,
which was published as well [26]. The power requirements for HVAC side are considerable higher.
Furthermore, while the configuration of a HVDC connection practically do not change during operation,
the AC network changes frequently. This is the case when lines are energised or de-energised or when
capacitor banks are switched. Due to these facts, additional features, like automatic adaptation to changes
in the network impedance, had to be added to the active filter technology.

Stationary to LP Filter Synchronous to

Synchronous and PI e Stationary
ir s
id eid i s
d(dc) id(dc) iar
is 3 cosω t cosω t 2 ias
e e s
iqs sin ω t iq iq(dc) sin ω t iq(dc)
it 2 3 iat
3 to 2 phase 2 to 3 phase

Figure 2.10.3 Block diagram of SRF.

Page 42
The only active AC filter at the HVAC network to date is in operation at the HVDC converter station of
Tjele (Eltra) in Denmark.

2.11.2.1 Active AC filter at Tjele (Eltra), Denmark - introduction

The active AC filter at the HVDC converter station of Tjele, Denmark, was manufactured and installed
by SIEMENS at the end of 1998 as a joint demonstration project with the Danish utility Eltra. All
components of the active filter are assembled inside an 8 m long and 4 m wide housing of container type,
which can be transported as a single piece. The container has two compartments provided with air
conditioning, one for the medium voltage equipment and another for the control, the IGBT converters
and the remaining low voltage components.
The active filter is connected to the network through one of the four existing passive filters, thus
implementing a hybrid filter scheme. The ground connection of each phase of the passive filter was
sectioned and brought into the container by an underground cable. The rated voltage at the connection
point to the passive filter is 10 kV.
Rather than a three-phase block, the active filter comprises three single-phase units with common control
equipment. The main components for each phase are shown in Figure 2.11.1. It includes a voltage source
type converter (1) with IGBT-diode pairs controlled by PWM with a pulse frequency of 10 kHz. Each
converter is rated for a crest voltage of 750 V and has nominal output of 200 kW. The transformer (4)
matches the voltage specifications at the converter side and the passive filter side. Together with the LP
filter (5) and the inductor (2) in series with the converter, the transformer has also the function to block
high frequency voltages that result from the PWM process.
Because the passive filter is also used to compensate reactive power demanded by the HVDC converter,
the biggest component of the current flowing in the filter is the 50 Hz one. An "adaptation
impedance" (9) consisting of a LC series circuit allows this current component to flow directly to the
grounding point instead of flowing through the converter. In case of transients in the network, the
thyristor switch (3) provides fast short-circuiting of the transformer LV winding, limiting the current in
the converter during the time of the disturbance. The vacuum switch (6) and a set of switches (8) perform
by-pass and isolation of the active filter, if required.
The function of the active filter is the elimination or reduction of several harmonics simultaneously at the
400 kV bus voltage. The following operation modes are possible:
• Simultaneous elimination of the 23rd, 25th, 35th, 37th, 47th and 49th harmonics
• Mitigation of the 5th harmonic (mainly coming from the network)
• Simultaneous reduction of the 5th harmonics and one or more harmonics of the 1st case.

Page 43
 400 kV Bus

Capacitive Existing
potential Optical passive
transformer interface filter
ZF2
From the
other phases

ACTIVE AC FILTER

To/From main
Simadyn D components of
cubicle the other phases
Common (control and (in the container)
control and auxiliary protection)
equipment

1 3 4 5 6 7
IGBT 9
conv. LP 8

Main components
(one set for each phase)

LV room MV room
Legend: -Control -Transformers
-IGBT converters -Switchgear
1 - IGBT-Converter -Low voltage equipment -Medium voltage equipment
2 - Inductor for the adaption
2,5 m
of the inductivity
3 - Thyristor switch for
converter protection
(U> , I> ) 3,3 m
4 - Transformer
5 - Low-pass Filter
6 - Vacuum switch
7 - ZnO-Arester
8 - Isolating and ground switches
9 - LC-branch to deviate the 3,9 m
50 Hz current component
8,3 m

Figure 2.11.1 Structure of the active AC filter at the HVDC station of Tjele (Eltra), Denmark

Page 44
2.11.2.2 Harmonic control system
The principle of the harmonic control is illustrated in Figure 2.11.2. The voltage at the 400 kV bus is
sensed by a voltage transformer and transmitted to the active filter through optical fibres ending directly
in the control equipment. Each selected harmonic present in the input signal is split into two components
in the frequency domain and separated by the block (3). This one feeds a complex controller (4), which
has essentially a low-pass filter and a PI characteristics. The output of the controller is than shifted back
to the time domain by multiplication by cos(hωt) and sin(hωt), where h is the order of the harmonic, ω is
the network angular frequency and t is the time. There is such a controller for each selected harmonic and
these operate simultaneously.
The PWM amplifier block (8) embodies the IGBT converter and other above listed components of the
active filter. The output voltage Uactive of the active filter influences the filter current Iflt, which is
combined with the harmonic current Iharm in the network (essentially due to the HVDC converter), in
order to eliminate the harmonics in the 400 kV voltage bus, Ubus. Because the harmonic impedance at the
AC bus changes with the network configuration, a self-tuning system (7) follows up these changes and
adapts the harmonic controllers accordingly.

IHARM
EXTERNAL PROCESS

9 IFLT 10
Coupling UBUS
Network
(passive filter)

Voltage transformer
UACTIVE
Optical 1
interface
PWM 8
Amplifier

CONTROL EQUIPMENT

IGBT 6 Self-tuning 7
control system

HARMONIC CONTROLLER

cos(hωt) 5 Compensation 4 cos(hωt) 3 optical 2

Σ sin (hωt) (PI controller) sin (hωt) input

From other To other

harmonic controllers Synchronisation harmonic controllers

Figure 2.11.2 Basic harmonic control loop of the active AC filter at Tjele, Denmark

Page 45
2.11.2.3 Field measurements
The graphics in Figure 2.11.3 show results of site
measurements.
The figure shows plots from a measurements of
the 400 kV busbar voltage at the of the Eltra's
Tjele substation, Denmark without (top) and with
(bottom) active filter control. It can be seen that
the active filter causes a strong reduction of the
selected harmonics. A reduction of more than
30 dBV is shown (Figure 2.11.3) for the 23rd
harmonic in this case.
The measurement was performed using a 5 7 11 13 23 25
Harmonic numbers
35 37 47 49

frequency analyser connected to the input of the

active filter control equipment through D/A
converter (optical input, block 2 on the block
diagram in Figure 2.11.2).
Measurements were also performed for the
current in the parallel filters of the station. These
measurements show that when the active filter is
in operation, eliminating the voltage on the
400 kV bus for the selected harmonics, no
current of these harmonics flow in the parallel
filters. This result is interesting, because it means
that no other filters are required at the station for
the harmonics controlled by the active filter.

Figure 2.11.3 Plots from site measurements. Top

without; bottom with active filter control.

2.12 OVERVIEW ON FILTER SOLUTIONS FOR HVDC SYSTEMS

This section gives an overview on the application of the previously discussed filter technologies in
HVDC stations. A comparison using study cases based on the Cigré benchmark model is also included.

2.12.1 Solution with conventional passive filters

In the Cigré technical brochure No 139 [27], passive AC filters for HVDC systems are described and
discussed in detail. For a typical HVDC converter station, a reactive power installation of 50% - 60% of
the active power rating is required in order to obtain reactive power balance with the AC system. The
reactive power installation will be divided into shunt capacitor banks, and a part of these banks will be
designed as filters. In this way the demands of fundamental frequency reactive power and harmonic
distortion will be achieved. The AC filters, including their switchyard equipment can occupy over half
the total land required by a typical converter station. Where the land is expensive, this could lead to a
considerable cost. The cost for the filter equipment is a significant part of the total station cost, in the
order of 10%.
With high demand to filter efficiency it may be difficult to maintain the reactive power balance with the
AC system and at the same time meet the filtering requirements, requiring more sophisticated solutions.

Page 46
2.12.2 Solution with continuously tuned passive filters

2.12.2.1 Solution for conventional HVDC substations

The filter solution for conventional HVDC converter substations can comprise the continuously tuned
filters tuned to the dominant characteristic (11th and 13th) harmonics and conventional high pass filters
(for example HP24 and HP36). Such a solution has the following main advantages:
• De-couples filtering and reactive power requirement. The filters are assigned a small portion of the
total reactive power requirement of the station and the balance reactive power is provided by simple
shunt capacitors. All the filters are switched at the converter de-block and remain connected
throughout the load. The intervening switchings are only that of the shunt capacitors so as to fulfil
the reactive power exchange requirement.
• Gives high performance and low losses.
• Avoids frequent switching of filters thus reducing wear and maintenance requirement on the
switchgear.

2.12.2.2 Solution for series compensated HVDC substations

For series compensated HVDC Stations, a small portion of the total reactive power compensation can be
assigned to the filters that consist of continuously tuned and conventional high pass filters. The balance
reactive power compensation is provided by the series capacitors. This solution has the following main
advantages:
• Needs small size filters that facilitate fulfilment of voltage change on switching in a weak a.c.
network.
• Avoids the use of shunt reactors at minimum load, particularly in a weak AC network.
• Gives high performance and low losses.
• Avoids frequent switching of filters thus reducing wear and maintenance requirement on the
switchgear.

2.12.3 Solution with active filters

2.12.3.1 Solution for conventional HVDC substations

The filter solution for conventional HVDC converter substations may comprise an active filter for the
23th to the 49th harmonics forming a hybrid series scheme with, for instance, a double tuned DT12/24,
which will be switched at the converter starting and remains connected regardless the converter load,
conventional passive filters for the 11th and 13th harmonics and capacitor banks. Such a solution has the
following main advantages:
• De-couples filtering and reactive power requirement, as the filters are assigned just to a portion of
the total reactive power requirement.
• Presents high performance and low losses (see item 2.4).
• Avoids frequent switching of filters.
• Coverage of non-characteristic harmonics without additional filter hardware.

2.12.3.2 Solution for series compensated HVDC substations

For series compensated HVDC Stations, a small portion of the total reactive power compensation can be

Page 47
assigned to the filters that consist of active (hybrid) filters. The balance reactive power compensation is
provided by the series capacitors. This solution has the following main advantages:
• Needs small size filters that facilitate fulfilment of voltage change on switching in a weak a.c.
network.
• Avoids the use of shunt reactors or Static Var Compensators (SVC) at minimum load, particularly in
a weak a.c. network.
• Gives high performance (see item 2.4) and low losses.
• Avoids frequent switching of filters thus reducing wear and maintenance requirement on the
switchgear.

2.12.4 Solution with continuously tuned passive filters and active filters
This solution may comprise active ac filters with moderate amplifier rating and continuously tuned
passive filters, providing high efficiency with both series compensated and conventional HVDC
converter stations. In this solution continuously tuned 11th and 13th filters can be combined with an active
filter for higher harmonics (for example, 23rd to 49th).

2.12.5 Study cases with the Cigré HVDC model

This section presents results obtained using three AC filter solutions for the Cigré HVDC model. The
model is a 1000 MW, 500 kV monopolar HVDC transmission system with a DC cable.
A system frequency range of 50 ± 0.5 Hz was considered.

The three filter configurations that satisfy the specified performance are
1- Conventional 11/13th, 24/36th and high pass third harmonic tuned filters (HP3 filters)
2- Continuously tuned 11th and 13th filters, with conventional HP24, HP36 and HP3 passive filters
3- Continuously tuned 11th and 13th filters, a conventional HP3 passive filter for the 3rd harmonic and
an active (hybrid) filter for higher order harmonics supplying 75 MVAR reactive power.
The used filter and system impedance data are presented in Figure 2.12.1 .
The performance requirements are defined in terms of the following parameters:

Parameter Limit
Dn, (Individual Harmonic Distortion) 1.0 % for all odd harmonics
0.5 % for all even harmonics
THD 1.5 %
THFF 1.0 %

Table 2.12.1 Performance requirements

Page 48
 HP24, HP36 HP3 11/13th 24/36th

C1 C1 C1 C1

L1 L1 R1
C2

L1 R1 L1 R1 C2 L2 R2 C2 L2 R2

ConTune Active (hybrid) AC system

11th, 13th HP filter harmonic impedance
jX

C1 C1

L1

o
+ 80
Rad=2000 Ohm
C2 L2
L1 o R
- 80

ACTIVE
FILTER

-jX
Rmin = 4 Ohms

AC Filter data at station A (375 kV):

Filter Type → 11th 13th HP3 HP24 HP36 11/13th 24/36th
3-phase Mvar at nominal ac voltage 43.8 31.2 60 37.5 37.5 90 60
C1, µF 1.16 0.84 1.61 1.00 1.00 2.39 1.60
L1, mH 72.17 72.17 789.31 17.57 7.80 29.65 7.32
C2, µF - - 12.84 - - 85.44 9.62
L2, mH - - - - - 0.83 1.22
R1, Ω - - 1800 1050 350 - 175
R2, Ω - - - - - 65 350

AC Filter data at station B (230 kV)

Filter Type → 11th 13th HP3 HP24 HP36 11/13th 24/36th
3-phase Mvar at nominal ac voltage 43.8 31.2 60 37.5 37.5 90 60
C1, µF 2.61 1.87 3.61 2.25 2.26 5.378 3.61
L1, mH 32.07 32.07 350.8 7.81 3.47 13.18 3.25
C2, µF - - 28.88 - - 192.25 21.64
L2, mH - - - - - 0.37 0.54
R1, Ω - - 850 500 170 - 75
R2, Ω - - - - - 30 150

Figure 2.12.1 Filter and system data

Page 49
The highest values of each of the performance parameters at rated (1000 MW) power are:

Filter Performance parameter value

configuration Dn/n (%) THD (%) THFF (%)
1 0.90/5 1.41 0.97
2 0.91/5 1.34 0.83
3 0.91/5 1.28 0.64

Table 2.12.2 Filter performance results

The configurations with the continuously tuned filter and active filters (configuration 3) give better
performance as compared to that with the conventional passive filters.
These results cannot be generalised. For drawing conclusions for specific projects, the calculations need
to consider realistic input data regarding AC system, e.g. harmonic impedance and reactive compensation
requirements. Also filter detuning (important for passive filters) has to be considered.

2.13 FUTURE TECHNOLOGIES

Voltage source converters (VSC) are expected for DC interconnections in the future. By this reason less
requirements for external reactive power demand and low frequency harmonic distortion compensation
would be required in the future. In such a case at large power ratings, passive or small active filters may
be included to compensate non-characteristics harmonics at higher frequencies than the PWM switching
frequency of the main VSC. By this method of operation, the VSC can compensate lower order
harmonics internally. At this moment voltage source DC-link converters are available at the 100 – 350
MVA power range at DC-links of 100 – 150 kV DC.
The application on the LV and MV range in Custom power, active power and power quality mitigating
devices are expected to accelerate in the future, increasing both in power rating and performance.

2.14 CONCLUSIONS ON ACTIVE AC FILTERS

• For HVDC solutions a hybrid active power filter would be required in order to minimise the power
rating of the active power filter and maximise the performance of the full filter.
• For retrofitting existing HVDC links with increased power quality problems in networks, it is
expected that active filter configurations will be added to existing passive filter solutions.
• For series compensated HVDC systems, hybrid active power filters and/or tuneable passive solutions
may be more cost effective than a pure passive solution.
• Active filters using multi-level topologies may be connected directly to the MV and LV networks
without the use of transformers.
• It may be advantageous to connect active filters for HV networks via an existing or special coupling
transformer. In such a case the current regulating reactor may be included into the design of the
series impedance of the transformer. For protection purposes it is unlikely to connect the active filter
on HV networks directly onto the supply voltage.

Page 50
• In the future voltage source converter DC links may combine the harmonic filter and reactive power
demand into a single power solution for HV networks.

3 LIST OF MEMBERS
The WG 14.28 members are: Prof. GC Damstra (Convenor, The Netherlands), M Pereira (Secretary,
Germany), N Andersen (Denmark), T Aritsuka (Japan), R Dass (India), Prof. JHR Enslin (South Africa),
PJ Fitz (England), S Gunnarsson (Sweden), NH Jendal (Norway), J Schonek (France), PL Sørensen
(Denmark).

Former members and corresponding members:

J.S Bekink (The Netherlands), B Bergdal (Sweden), C Jensen (Denmark), DO Lunelli (Germany),
G Gerin (France), HN Holthausen (South Africa), P Michalak (France), P. Muttik (Australia).

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