UNIT-I

1.1 Introduction to Building Materials

Building material is any material which is used for construction purposes. Many naturally
occurring substances, such as clay/soil/earth, rock/stone/coarse aggregate, sand/fine
aggregate, wood/timber etc. have been used to construct buildings. Apart from naturally
occurring materials, many man-made products, such as cement, bricks, steel, ceramic, paints
and varnishes, glass etc. have been used as building materials.

Building materials have an important role to play in this modern age of technology. Although
their most important use is in construction activities, no field of engineering is conceivable
without their use. Also, the building materials industry is an important contributor in our
national economy as its output governs both the rate and the quality of construction work.

There are certain general factors which affect the choice of materials for a particular scheme.
Perhaps the most important of these is the climatic background. Obviously, different
materials and forms of construction have developed in different parts of the world as a result
of climatic differences. Another factor is the economic aspect of the choice of materials. The
rapid advance of constructional methods, the increasing introduction of mechanical tools and
plants, and changes in the organisation of the building industry may appreciably influence the
choice of materials.

1.2 Properties of Material

Due to the great diversity in the usage of buildings and installations and the various processes
of production, a great variety of requirements are placed upon building materials calling for a
very wide range of their properties: strength at low and high temperatures, resistance to
ordinary water and sea water, acids and alkalis etc. Also, materials for interior decoration of
residential and public buildings, gardens and parks, etc. should be, by their very purpose,
pleasant to the eye, durable and strong. Specific properties of building materials serve as a
basis for subdividing them into separate groups. For example, mineral binding materials are
subdivided into air and hydraulic-setting varieties. The principal properties of building
materials predetermine their applications. Only a comprehensive knowledge of the properties
of materials allows a rational choice of materials for specific service conditions.

1.2.1 Physical Properties

Density (ρ) is the mass of a unit volume of homogeneous material denoted by:
𝐌
ρ = 𝐕 g/cm3
Where, M = mass (g) and V = volume (cm3)
Density of some building materials is as follows:

Material Density(g/cm3)
Brick 2.5–2.8
Granite 2.6–2.9
Portland cement 2.9–3.1
Wood 1.5–1.6
Steel 7.8–7.9

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Specific Weight (γ) or unit weight is the weight per unit volume of material

γ = ρ. g

Where, γ = specific weight (kN/m3), ρ = density of the material (kg/m), g = Acceleration due
to gravity (m/s2)

Specific weight can be used in civil engineering to determine the weight of a structure
designed to carry certain loads while remaining intact and remaining within limits regarding
deformation. It is also used in fluid dynamics as a property of the fluid (e.g., the specific
weight of water on Earth is 9.80 kN/m3 at 4°C).

Porosity (n) is the degree to which volume of the material of the material is interspersed with
pores. It is expressed as a ratio of the volume of pores to that of the specimen.

n = Vv / V

Porosity is indicative of other major properties of material, such as bulk density, heat
conductivity, durability, etc. Dense materials, which have low porosity, are used for
constructions requiring high mechanical strength on other hand, walls of buildings are
commonly built of materials, featuring considerable porosity.

Void Ratio (e) is defined as the ratio of volume of voids (Vv) to the volume of solids (Vs).

e = VV / Vs

If an aggregate is poured into a container of any sort it will be observed that not all of the
space within the container is filled. To the vacant spaces between the particles of aggregate
the name voids is applied. Necessarily, the percentage of voids like the specific weight is
affected by the compactness of the aggregate and the amount of moisture which it contains.
Generally void determinations are made on material measured loose.

Hygroscopicity is the property of a material to absorb water vapour from air. It is influenced
by air-temperature and relative humidity; pores—their types, number and size, and by the
nature of substance involved.

Water Absorption denotes the ability of the material to absorb and retain water. It is
expressed as percentage in weight or of the volume of dry material:

𝑴𝟏 − 𝑴
𝑾𝒘 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑴
𝑴𝟏 − 𝑴
𝑾𝒗 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑽
Where, M1 = mass of saturated material (g), M = mass of dry material (g), V = volume of
material including the pores (mm3)

Water absorption by volume is always less than 100 per cent, whereas that by weight of
porous material may exceed 100 per cent.

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The properties of building materials are greatly influenced when saturated. The ratio of
compressive strength of material saturated with water to that in dry state is known as
coefficient of softening and describes the water resistance of materials. For materials like clay
which soak readily it is zero, whereas for materials like glass and metals it is one. Materials
with coefficient of softening less than 0.8 should not be recommended in the situations
permanently exposed to the action of moisture.

Weathering Resistance is the ability of a material to endure alternate wet and dry conditions
for a long period without considerable deformation and loss of mechanical strength.

Water Permeability is the capacity of a material to allow water to penetrate under pressure.
Materials like glass, steel and bitumen are impervious.

Frost Resistance denotes the ability of a water-saturated material to endure repeated freezing
and thawing with considerable decrease of mechanical strength. Under such conditions the
water contained by the pores increases in volume even up to 9 per cent on freezing. Thus the
walls of the pores experience considerable stresses and may even fail.

Heat Conductivity is the ability of a material to conduct heat. It is influenced by nature of

material, its structure, porosity, character of pores and mean temperature at which heat
exchange takes place. Materials with large size pores have high heat conductivity because the
air inside the pores enhances heat transfer. Moist materials have a higher heat conductivity
than drier ones. This property is of major concern for materials used in the walls of heated
buildings since it will affect dwelling houses.

Thermal Capacity is the property of a material to absorb heat described by its specific heat.
Thermal capacity is of concern in the calculation of thermal stability of walls of heated
buildings and heating of a material, e.g. for concrete laying in winter.

Fire Resistance is the ability of a material to resist the action of high temperature without any
appreciable deformation and substantial loss of strength. Fire resistive materials are those
which char, smoulder, and ignite with difficulty when subjected to fire or high temperatures
for long period but continue to burn or smoulder only in the presence of flame, e.g. wood
impregnated with fire proofing chemicals. Non-combustible materials neither smoulder nor
char under the action of temperature. Some of the materials neither crack nor lose shape such
as clay bricks, whereas some others like steel suffer considerable deformation under the
action of high temperature.

Chemical Resistance is the ability of a material to withstand the action of acids, alkalis, sea
water and gases. Natural stone materials, e.g. limestone, marble and dolomite are eroded even
by weak acids, wood has low resistance to acids and alkalis, bitumen disintegrates under the
action of alkali liquors.

Durability is the ability of a material to resist the combined effects of atmospheric and other
factors.

1.2.2 Mechanical Properties

The important mechanical properties considered for building materials are: strength,
compressive, tensile, bending, impact, hardness, plasticity, elasticity and abrasion resistance.
Strength is the ability of the material to resist failure under the action of stresses caused by
loads, the most common being compression, tension, bending and impact. The importance of
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studying the various strengths will be highlighted from the fact that materials such as stones
and concrete have high compressive strength but a low (1/5 to 1/50) tensile, bending and
impact strengths.

Compressive Strength is found from tests on standard cylinders, prisms and cubes—smaller
for homogeneous materials and larger for less homogeneous ones. Prisms and cylinders have
lower resistance than cubes of the same cross-sectional area, on the other hand prisms with
heights smaller than their sides have greater strength than cubes. This is due to the fact that
when a specimen is compressed the plattens of the compression testing machine within which
the specimen is placed, press tight the bases of the specimen and the resultant friction forces
prevent the expansion of the adjoining faces, while the central lateral parts of the specimen
undergoes transversal expansion. The only force to counteract this expansion is the adhesive
force between the particles of the material. That is why a section away from the press plates
fails early.

The test specimens of metals for tensile strength are round bars or strips and that of binding
materials are of the shape of figure eight.

Bending Strength tests are performed on small bars (beams) supported at their ends and
subjected to one or two concentrated loads which are gradually increased until failure takes
place.

Hardness is the ability of a material to resist penetration by a harder body. Mohs scale is used
to find the hardness of materials. Hardness of metals and plastics is found by indentation of a
steel ball.

Elasticity is the ability of a material to restore its initial form and dimensions after the load is
removed. Within the limits of elasticity of solid bodies, the deformation is proportional to the
stress. Ratio of unit stress to unit deformation is termed as modulus of elasticity. A large
value of it represents a material with very small deformation.

Plasticity is the ability of a material to change its shape under load without cracking and to
retain this shape after the load is removed. Some of the examples of plastic materials are
steel, copper and hot bitumen.

1.3 Stones
Stone has been defined as the natural, hard substance formed from minerals and earth
material which are present in rocks. Rock may be defined as the portion of the earth’s crust
having no definite shape and structure. Almost all rocks have a definite chemical composition
and are made up of minerals and organic matter. Some of the rock-forming minerals are
quartz, felspar, mica, dolomite, etc. The various types of rocks from which building stones
are usually derived are granite, basalt, trap, marble, slate, sandstone and limestone.

Use of stone in building construction is traditional in the places where it is produced,

although even there its high cost imposes limitations on its use. The conditions which govern
the selection of stone for structural purposes are cost, fashion, ornamental value and
durability.
Stone has been used in the construction of most of the important structures since prehistoric
age. Most of the forts world over, the Taj Mahal of India, the famous pyramids of Egypt and
the great wall of China are but a few examples. Stone has also been extensively used in

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almost all the elements of building structures, as load carrying units as well as for enhancing
the beauty and elegance of the structure. As building material stone has gradually lost
importance with the advent of cement and steel. Secondly, the strength of the structural
elements built with stones cannot be rationally analysed. Other major factors in
overshadowing its use are the difficulties in its transportation and dressing which consume a
lot of time resulting in slow pace of construction.

1.3.1 Common Building Stones

A list of the building stones commonly used along with the classification and characteristics
is given in Table 1.1.

Table 1.1- Classification and characteristics of the building stones

1.3.2 Requirement of a Good building Stones

A good building stone should have the following qualities.

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Appearance: For face work it should have fine, compact texture; light-coloured stone is
preferred as dark colours are likely to fade out in due course of time.

Structure: A broken stone should not be dull in appearance and should have uniform texture
free from cavities, cracks, and patches of loose or soft material. Stratifications should not be
visible to naked eye.

Strength: A stone should be strong and durable to withstand the disintegrating action of
weather. Compressive strength of building stones in practice range between 60 to 200
N/mm2.

Weight: It is an indication of the porosity and density. For stability of structures such as
dams, retaining walls, etc. heavier stones are required, whereas for arches, vaults, domes, etc.
light stones may be the choice.

Hardness: This property is important for floors, pavements, aprons of bridges, etc.

Toughness: The measure of impact that a stone can withstand is defined as toughness. The
stone used should be tough when vibratory or moving loads are anticipated.

Porosity and Absorption: Porosity depends on the mineral constituents, cooling time and
structural formation. A porous stone disintegrates as the absorbed rain water freezes,
expands, and causes cracking.

Seasoning: The stone should be well seasoned.

Weathering: The resistance of stone against the wear and tear due to natural agencies should
be high.

Workability: Stone should be workable so that cutting, dressing and bringing it out in the
required shape and size may not be uneconomical.

Fire Resistance: Stones should be free from calcium carbonate, oxides of iron, and minerals
having different coefficients of thermal expansion. Igneous rock show marked disintegration
principally because of quartz which disintegrates into small particles at a temperature of
about 575°C. Limestone, however, can withstand a little higher temperature; i.e. up to 800°C
after which they disintegrate.

1.3.3 Dressing of Stones

A quarried stone has rough surfaces, which are dressed to obtain a definite and regular shape.
Dressing of stones is done immediately after quarrying and before seasoning to achieve less
weight for transportation. Dressing of stone provides pleasing appearance, proper bedding
with good mortar joints, special shapes for arches, copings, pillars, etc. The various types of
dressed stones are shown in Fig. 1.1.

1.3.4 Preservation of Stones

Preservation of stone is essential to prevent its decay. Different types of stones require
different treatments. But in general stones should be made dry with the help of blow lamp
and then a coating of paraffin, linseed oil, light paint, etc. is applied over the surface. This
makes a protective coating over the stone. However, this treatment is periodic and not

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permanent. When treatment is done with the linseed oil, it is boiled and applied in three coats
over the stone. Thereafter, a coat of dilute ammonia in warm water is applied.

Fig.1.1- Dressed stone surfaces

The structure to be preserved should be maintained by washing stones frequently with

water and steam so that dirt and salts deposited are removed from time to time. However, the
best way is to apply preservatives. Stones are washed with thin solution of silicate of soda or
potash. Then, on drying a solution of CaCl2 is applied over it. These two solutions called
Szerelmy’s liquid, combine to form silicate of lime which fills the pores in stones. The
common salt formed in this process is washed afterwards. The silicate of lime forms an
insoluble film which helps to protect the stones.

Sometimes lead paint is also used to preserve the stones, but the natural colour of the stone
is spoilt. Painting stone with coal tar also helps in the preservation but it spoils the beauty of
the stone. Use of chemicals should be avoided as far as possible, especially the caustic
alkalis. Although cleaning is easy with chemicals, there is the risk of introducing salts which
may subsequently cause damage to the stone.

In industrial towns, stones are preserved by application of solution of baryta, Ba(OH)2 —

Barium hydrate. The sulphur dioxide present in acid reacts on the calcium contents of stones
to form calcium sulphate. Soot and dust present in the atmosphere adhere to the calcium
sulphate and form a hard skin. In due course of time, the calcium sulphate so formed flakes
off and exposes fresh stone surface for further attack. This is known as sulphate attack.
Baryta reacts with calcium sulphate deposited on the stones and forms insoluble barium
sulphate and calcium hydroxide. The calcium hydroxide absorbs carbon dioxide from the air
to form calcium carbonate.

Ba (OH)2 + CaSO4 BaSO4 + Ca(OH)2

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 Ca(OH)2 + CO2 CaCO3 + H2O

The question whether or not stone preservatives should be used on old and decayed stone is a
difficult one. Real evidence of the value of various treatments is most difficult to assess. The
treatments, if carefully applied under favourable circumstances, may result in an apparent
slowing down of the rate of decay. However, the rate of decay of stone is so slow that a short
period experience is of very little value in establishing the effectiveness of the treatment.
Also, there is some evidence that treatments which appear to be successful for few years, fail
to maintain the improvement. In fact, the value of preservatives is not yet proved, and they
may actually be detrimental if judged over a long period.

1.4 Bricks
One of the oldest building material brick continues to be a most popular and leading
construction material because of being cheap, durable and easy to handle and work with. Clay
bricks are used for building-up exterior and interior walls, partitions, piers, footings and other
load bearing structures.

A brick is rectangular in shape and of size that can be conveniently handled with one hand.
Brick may be made of burnt clay or mixture of sand and lime or of Portland cement concrete.
Clay bricks are commonly used since these are economical and easily available. The length,
width and height of a brick are interrelated as below:

Length of brick = 2 × width of brick + thickness of mortar

Height of brick = width of brick

Size of a standard brick (also known as modular brick) should be 19 × 9 × 9 cm and 19 × 9 ×

4 cm.

When placed in masonry the 19 × 9 × 9 cm brick with mortar becomes 20 × 10 × 10 cm.

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However, the bricks available in most part of the country still are 9" × 4 2" × 3" and are
known as field bricks. Weight of such a brick is 3.0 kg. An indent called frog, 1–2 cm deep,
as shown in Fig. 2.1, is provided for 9 cm high bricks. The size of frog should be 10 × 4 × 1
cm. The purpose of providing frog is to form a key for holding the mortar and therefore, the
bricks are laid with frogs on top. Frog is not provided in 4 cm high bricks and extruded
bricks.

Fig. 1.2- Bricks with frog

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1.4.1 Manufacture of clay bricks
For the preparation of bricks, clay or other suitable earth is moulded to the desired shape after
subjecting it to several processes. After drying, it should not shrink and no crack should
develop.

1.4.2 Brick earth in the manufacturing of bricks

The clay used for brick making consists mainly of silica and alumina mixed in such a
proportion that the clay becomes plastic when water is added to it. It also consists of small
proportions of lime, iron, manganese, sulphur, etc. The good brick earth consists the
following proportions of various ingredients:

1.4.2.1 Functions of Various Ingredients

Silica: It enables the brick to retain its shape and imparts durability, prevents shrinkage and
warping. Excess of silica makes the brick brittle and weak on burning. A large percentage of
sand or uncombined silica in clay is undesirable. However, it is added to decrease shrinkage
in burning and to increase the refractoriness of low alumina clays.

Alumina: It absorbs water and renders the clay plastic. If alumina is present in excess of the
specified quantity, it produces cracks in brick on drying. Clays having exceedingly high
alumina content are likely to be very refractory.

Lime: It normally constitutes less than 10 per cent of clay. Lime in brick clay has the
following effects:
1. Reduces the shrinkage on drying.
2. Causes silica in clay to melt on burning and thus helps to bind it.
3. In carbonated form, lime lowers the fusion point.
4. Excess of lime causes the brick to melt and the brick looses its shape.
5. Red bricks are obtained on burning at considerably high temperature (more than 800°C)
and buff-burning bricks are made by increasing the lime content.

Magnesia: It rarely exceeding 1 per cent, affects the colour and makes the brick yellow, in
burning; it causes the clay to soften at slower rate than in most case is lime and reduces
warping.

Iron: Iron oxide constituting less than 7 per cent of clay, imparts the following properties:
1. Gives red colour on burning when excess of oxygen is available and dark brown or even
black colour when oxygen available is insufficient, however, excess of ferric oxide makes
the brick dark blue.
2. Improves impermeability and durability.
3. Tends to lower the fusion point of the clay, especially if present as ferrous oxide.
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4. Gives strength and hardness.

1.4.2.2 Harmful Substances in Brick Earth

Lime: When a desirable amount of lime is present in the clay, it results in good bricks, but if
in excess, it changes the colour of the brick from red to yellow. When lime is present in
lumps, it absorbs moisture, swells and causes disintegration of the bricks. Therefore, lime
should be present in finely divided state and lumps, if any, should be removed in the
beginning itself. Experience has shown, however, that when line particles smaller than 3 mm
diameter hydrate they produce only small pock mark which, provided that there are not many
of them, can usually be ignored. Particles larger than this might, if present in any quantity,
cause unsightly blemishes or even severe cracking.

Pebbles, Gravels and Grit: They do not allow the clay to be mixed thoroughly and spoil the
appearance of the brick. Bricks with pebbles and gravels may crack while working.

Iron Pyrites: It tend to oxidise and decompose the brick during burning. The brick may split
into pieces. Pyrites discolours the bricks.

Alkalis (Alkaline Salts) forming less than 10 per cent of the raw clay, are of great value as
fluxes, especially when combined with silicates of alumina. These are mainly in the form of
soda or potash. However, when present in excess, alkali makes the clay unsuitable for bricks.
They melt the clay on burning and make the bricks unsymmetrical. When bricks come in
contact with moisture, water is absorbed and the alkalis crystallise. On drying, the moisture
evaporates, leaving behind grey or white powder deposits on the brick which spoil the
appearance. This phenomenon is called efflorescence. Efflorescence should always be dry
brushed away before rendering or plastering a wall; wetting it will carry the salts back into
the wall to reappear later.
If bricks become saturated before the work is completed, the probability of subsequent
efflorescence is increased, brick stacks should, therefore be protected from rain at all times.
During laying, the bricks should be moistened only to the extent that is found absolutely
essential to obtain adequate bond between bricks and mortar; newly built brickwork should
be protected from rain.

Organic Matter: On burning green bricks, the organic matter gets charred and leave pores
making the bricks porous; the water absorption is increased and the strength is reduced.

Carbonaceous Materials in the form of bituminous matter or carbon greatly affects the
colour of raw clay. Unless proper precaution is taken to effect complete removal of such
matter by oxidation, the brick is likely to have a black core.

Sulphur: It is usually found in clay as the sulphate of calcium, magnesium, sodium,

potassium or iron, or as iron sulphide. Generally, the proportion is small. If, however, there is
carbon in the clay and insufficient time is given during burning for proper oxidation of
carbon and sulphur, the latter will cause the formation of a spongy, swollen structure in the
brick and the brick will be decoloured by white blotches.

Water: A large proportion of free water generally causes clay to shrink considerably during
drying, whereas combined water causes shrinkage during burning. The use of water
containing small quantities of magnesium or calcium carbonates, together with a sulphurous
fuel often causes similar effects as those by sulphur.
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1.4.2.3 Additives in the Manufacture of Bricks

Certain additives such as fly ash, sandy loam, rice husk ash, basalt stone dust, etc. are often
required not only to modify the shaping, drying and firing behaviour of clay mass, but also to
help conserve agricultural land and utilise waste materials available in large quantities. These
additives should, however, have a desirable level of physical and chemical characteristics so
as to modify the behaviour of clay mass within the optimum range without any adverse effect
on the performance and durability. Some of the basic physio-chemical requirements of
conventional additives are as under:

Fly Ash: A waste material available in large quantities from thermal power plants can be
added to alluvial, red, black, marine clays, etc. The fly ash contains amorphous glassy
material, mullite, haematite, magnetite, etc. and shows a chemical composition similar to
brick earths. These silicates also help towards strength development in clay bodies on firing,
when mixed in optimum proportion depending on the physio-chemical and plastic properties
of soils to be used for brick making. The proportion of fly ash mixed as an additive to the
brick earth should be optimum to reduce drying shrinkage, check drying losses and to
develop strength on firing without bloating or black coring in fired product.

Sandy Loam: Addition of sandy loam is often found effective in controlling the drying
behaviour of highly plastic soil mass containing expanding group of clay minerals.

Rice Husk Ash: The ash should preferably have unburnt carbon content in the range of 3–5%
and should be free from extraneous material. It can be used with plastic black red soils
showing excessive shrinkage.

Basalt Stone Dust: Basalt stone occurs underneath the black cotton soil and its dust is a
waste product available in large quantity from basalt stone crushing units. The finer fraction
from basalt stone units is mixed with soil mass to modify the shaping, drying and firing
behaviour of bricks. The dust recommended for use as an additive with brick earth should be
fine (passing 1 mm sieve), free from coarse materials or mica flakes and should be of non-
calcitic or dolomitic origin.

1.4.2.4 Operations Involved in the Manufacturing of Bricks

The operations involved in the manufacture of clay bricks are represented diagrammatically
in Fig. 1.3.

Fig. 1.3- Operations involved in the manufacture of clay bricks

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1. Preparation of brick earth
It consists of the following operations.

Unsoiling: The soil used for making building bricks should be processed so as to be free of
gravel, coarse sand (practical size more than 2 mm), lime and kankar particles, organic
matter, etc. About 20 cm of the top layer of the earth, normally containing stones, pebbles,
gravel, roots, etc., is removed after clearing the trees and vegetation.

Digging: After removing the top layer of the earth, proportions of additives such as fly ash,
sandy loam, rice husk ash, stone dust, etc. should be spread over the plane ground surface on
volume basis. The soil mass is then manually excavated, puddled, watered and left over for
weathering and subsequent processing. The digging operation should be done before rains.

Weathering: Stones, gravels, pebbles, roots, etc. are removed from the dug earth and the soil
is heaped on level ground in layers of 60–120 cm. The soil is left in heaps and exposed to
weather for at least one month in cases where such weathering is considered necessary for the
soil. This is done to develop homogeneity in the mass of soil, particularly if they are from
different sources, and also to eliminate the impurities which get oxidized. Soluble salts in the
clay would also be eroded by rain to some extent, which otherwise could have caused
scumming at the time of burning of the bricks in the kiln. The soil should be turned over at
least twice and it should be ensured that the entire soil is wet throughout the period of
weathering. In order to keep it wet, water may be sprayed as often as necessary. The
plasticity and strength of the clay are improved by exposing the clay to weather.

Blending: The earth is then mixed with sandy-earth and calcareous-earth in suitable
proportions to modify the composition of soil. Moderate amount of water is mixed so as to
obtain the right consistency for moulding. The mass is then mixed uniformly with spades.
Addition of water to the soil at the dumps is necessary for the easy mixing and workability,
but the addition of water should be controlled in such a way that it may not create a problem
in moulding and drying. Excessive moisture content may affect the size and shape of the
finished brick.

Tempering: It consists of kneading the earth with feet so as to make the mass stiff and
plastics (by plasticity, we mean the property which wet clay has of being permanently
deformed without cracking). It should preferably be carried out by storing the soil in a cool
place in layers of about 30 cm thickness for not less than 36 hours. This will ensure
homogeneity in the mass of clay for subsequent processing. For manufacturing good brick,
tempering is done in pug mills and the operation is called pugging.

Pug mill consists of a conical iron tube as shown in Fig. 1.4. The mill is sunk 60 cm into the
earth. A vertical shaft, with a number of horizontal arms fitted with knives, is provided at the
centre of the tube. This central shaft is rotated with the help of bullocks yoked at the end of
long arms. However, steam, diesel or electric power may be used for this purpose. Blended
earth along with required water, is fed into the pug mill from the top. The knives cut through
the clay and break all the clods or lump-clays when the shaft rotates. The thoroughly pugged
clay is then taken out from opening provided in the side near the bottom. The yield from a
pug mill is about 1500 bricks.

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 Fig. 1.4- Pug mill

2. Moulding

It is a process of giving a required shape to the brick from the prepared brick earth. Moulding
may be carried out by hand or by machines. The process of moulding of bricks may be the
soft-mud (hand moulding), the stiff-mud (machine moulding) or the dry press process
(moulding using maximum 10 per cent water and forming bricks at higher pressures). Fire-
brick is made by the soft mud process. Roofing, floor and wall tiles are made by dry-press
method. However, the stiff-mud process is used for making all the structural clay products.

Hand Moulding: A typical mould is shown in Fig. 1.5. Hand moulding is further classified as
ground moulding and table moulding.

Fig. 1.5- Details of mould

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Ground Moulding: In this process, the ground is levelled and sand is sprinkled on it. The
moulded bricks are left on the ground for drying. Such bricks do not have frog and the lower
brick surface becomes too rough. To overcome these defects, moulding blocks or boards are
used at the base of the mould. The process consists of shaping in hands a lump of well
pugged earth, slightly more than that of the brick volume. It is then rolled into the sand and
with a jerk it is dashed into the mould. The moulder then gives blows with his fists and
presses the earth properly in the corners of the mould with his thumb. The surplus clay on the
top surface is removed with a sharp edge metal plate called strike (Fig. 1.6) or with a thin
wire stretched over the mould. After this the mould is given a gentle slope and is lifted
leaving the brick on the ground to dry.

Fig. 1.6- Strikes

Table Moulding: The bricks are moulded on stock boards nailed on the moulding table (Fig.
1.7). Stock boards have the projection for forming the frog. The process of filling clay in the
mould is the same as explained above. After this, a thin board called pallet is placed over the
mould. The mould containing the brick is then smartly lifted off the stock board and inverted
so that the moulded clay along with the mould rests on the pallet. The mould is then removed
as explained before and the brick is carried to the drying site.

Fig. 1.7- Brick moulding table and Stock board

Machine moulding can be done by either of the following processes:

Plastic method: The pugged, stiffer clay is forced through a rectangular opening of brick size
by means of an auger. Clay comes out of the opening in the form of a bar. The bricks are cut
from the bar by a frame consisting of several wires at a distance of brick size as shown in Fig.
1.8. This is a quick and economical process.

Dry-press method: The moist, powdered clay is fed into the mould on a mechanically
operated press, where it is subjected to high pressure and the clay in the mould takes the
14
shape of bricks. Such pressed bricks are more dense, smooth and uniform than ordinary
bricks. These are burnt carefully as they are likely to crack.

Fig. 1.8- Plastic moulding

3. Drying

Green bricks contain about 7–30% moisture

depending upon the method of manufacture. The
object of drying is to remove the moisture to
control the shrinkage and save fuel and time
during burning. The drying shrinkage is
dependent upon pore spaces within the clay and
the mixing water. The addition of sand or ground
burnt clay reduces shrinkage, increases porosity
and facilities drying. The moisture content is
brought down to about 3 per cent under exposed
conditions within three to four days. Thus, the
strength of the green bricks is increased and the
bricks can be handled safely. Clay products can
be dried in open air driers or in artificial driers.
The artificial driers are of two types, the hot
floor drier and the tunnel drier. In the former,
heat is applied by a furnace placed at one end of
the drier or by exhaust steam from the engine
used to furnish power and is used for fire bricks,
clay pipes and terracotta. Tunnel driers are
heated by fuels underneath, by steam pipes, or by
hot air from cooling kilns. They are more
economical than floor driers. In artificial driers,
temperature rarely exceeds 120°C. The time
varies from one to three days. In developing
countries, bricks are normally dried in natural
open air driers (Fig. 1.9). They are stacked on Fig. 1.9- Method of drying bricks
raised ground and are protected from bad
weather and direct sunlight. A gap of about 1.0
m is left in the adjacent layers of the stacks so as
to allow free movement for the workers.

15
4. Burning

The burning of clay may be divided into three main stages.

Dehydration (400-650°C): This is also known as water smoking stage. During dehydration,
(1) the water which has been retained in the pores of the clay after drying is driven off and
the clay loses its plasticity, (2) some of the carbonaceous matter is burnt, (3) a portion of
sulphur is distilled from pyrites. (4) the hydrous minerals like ferric hydroxide are
dehydrated, and (5) the carbonate minerals are more or less decarbonated. Too rapid heating
causes cracking or bursting of the bricks. On the other hand, if alkali is contained in the clay
or sulphur is present in large amount in the coal, too slow heating of clay produces a scum on
the surface of the bricks.

Oxidation Period (650-900°C): During the oxidation period, (1) remainder of carbon is
eliminated and, (2) the ferrous iron is oxidized to the ferric form. The removal of sulphur is
completed only after the carbon has been eliminated. Sulphur on account of its affinity for
oxygen, also holds back the oxidation of iron. Consequently, in order to avoid black or
spongy cores, oxidation must proceed at such a rate which will allow these changes to occur
before the heat becomes sufficient to soften the clay and close its pore. Sand is often added to
the raw clay to produce a more open structure and thus provide escape of gases generated in
burning.

Vitrification: To convert the mass into glass like substance — the temperature ranges from
900–1100°C for low melting clay and 1000–1250°C for high melting clay. Great care is
required in cooling the bricks below the cherry red heat in order to avoid checking and
cracking. Vitrification period may further be divided into (a) incipient vitrification, at which
the clay has softened sufficiently to cause adherence but not enough to close the pores or
cause loss of space—on cooling the material cannot be scratched by the knife; (b) complete
vitrification, more or less well-marked by maximum shrinkage; (c) viscous vitrification,
produced by a further increase in temperature which results in a soft molten mass, a gradual
loss in shape, and a glassy structure after cooling. Generally, clay products are vitrified to the
point of viscosity. However, paving bricks are burnt to the stage of complete vitrification to
achieve maximum hardness as well as toughness.

Burning of bricks is done in a clamp or kiln. A clamp is a temporary structure whereas kiln is
a permanent one.

Burning in Clamp or Pazawah: A typical clamp is shown in Fig. 1.10. The bricks and fuel
are placed in alternate layers. The amount of fuel is reduced successively in the top layers.
Each brick tier consists of 4–5 layers of bricks. Some space is left between bricks for free
circulation of hot gasses. After 30 per cent loading of the clamp, the fuel in the lowest layer is
fired and the remaining loading of bricks and fuel is carried out hurriedly. The top and sides
of the clamp are plastered with mud. Then a coat of cow dung is given, which prevents the
escape of heat. The production of bricks is 2–3 lacs and the process is completed in six
months. This process yields about 60 per cent first class bricks.

Kiln Burning: The kiln used for burning bricks may be underground, e.g. Bull’s trench kiln
or over ground, e.g. Hoffman’s kiln. These may be rectangular, circular or oval in shape.
When the process of burning bricks is continuous, the kiln is known as continuous kiln, e.g.
Bull’s trench and Hoffman’s kilns. On the other hand if the process of burning bricks is
discontinuous, the kiln is known as intermittent kiln.
16
 Fig. 1.10- Clamp or Pazawah Fig. 1.11- Intermittent kiln

Intermittent Kiln: The example of this type of an over ground, rectangular kiln is shown in
Fig. 1.11. After loading the kiln, it is fired, cooled and unloaded and then the next loading is
done. Since the walls and sides get cooled during reloading and are to be heated again during
next firing, there is wastage of fuel.

Continuous Kiln: The examples of continuous kiln are Hoffman’s kiln (Fig. 1.12) and Bull’s
trench kiln (Fig. 1.13). In a continuous kiln, bricks are stacked in various chambers wherein
the bricks undergo different treatments at the same time. When the bricks in one of the
chambers is fired, the bricks in the next set of chambers are dried and preheated while bricks
in the other set of chambers are loaded and in the last are cooled.

Fig. 1.12- Hoffman’s kiln Fig. 1.13- Bull’s trench kiln

17
1.4.3 Classification of Bricks
1.4.3.1 Based on Field Practice

Clay bricks are classified as first class, second class, third class and fourth class based on
their physical and mechanical properties.

First Class
1. These are thoroughly burnt and are of deep red, cherry or copper colour.
2. The surface should be smooth and rectangular, with parallel, sharp and straight edges and
square corners.
3. These should be free from flaws, cracks and stones.
4. These should have uniform texture.
5. No impression should be left on the brick when a scratch is made by a finger nail.
6. The fractured surface of the brick should not show lumps of lime.
7. A metallic or ringing sound should come when two bricks are struck against each other.
8. Water absorption should be 12–15% of its dry weight when immersed in cold water for 24
hours.
9. The crushing strength of the brick should not be less than 10 N/mm2. This limit varies with
different Government organizations around the country.
Uses: First class bricks are recommended for pointing, exposed face work in masonry
structures, flooring and reinforced brick work.

Second Class
These bricks are supposed to have the same requirements as the first class ones except that
1. Small cracks and distortions are permitted.
2. A little higher water absorption of about 16–20% of its dry weight is allowed.
3. The crushing strength should not be less than 7.0 N/mm2.
Uses: Second class bricks are recommended for all important or unimportant hidden masonry
works and centering of reinforced brick and reinforced cement concrete (RCC)
structures.

Third Class
These bricks are under burnt. They are soft and light-coloured producing a dull sound when
struck against each other. Water absorption is about 25 per cent of dry weight.
Uses: It is used for building temporary structures.

Fourth Class
These bricks are over burnt and badly distorted in shape and size and are brittle in nature.
Uses: The ballast of such bricks is used for foundation and floors in lime concrete and road
metal.

1.4.3.2 Based on Use

Common Bricks-These are general multi-purpose unit manufactured economically without

special reference to appearance. These may vary greatly in strength and durability and are
used for filling, backing and in walls where appearance is of no consequence.

Facing Bricks-These are made primarily with a view to have good appearance, either of
colour or texture or both. These are durable under severe exposure and are used in fronts of
building walls for which a pleasing appearance is desired.

18
Engineering Bricks- These are strong, impermeable, smooth, table moulded, hard and
conform to defined limits of absorption and strength. These are used for all load bearing
structures.

1.4.3.3 Based on strength

The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) has classified the bricks on the basis of compressive
strength and is as given in Table 1.2.

Table 1.2- Classification of bricks based on compressive strength (IS-1077)

Each class of bricks as specified above is further divided into subclasses A and B based on
tolerance and shape. Subclass A should have smooth rectangular faces with sharp corner and
uniform colour. Subclass B may have slightly distorted and round edges. The specifications is
given in Table 1.3.
Table 1.3- Specifications of subclasses A and B bricks

1.4.3.4 Based on Burning

Pale Bricks are under burnt bricks obtained from outer portion of the kiln.

Body Bricks are well burnt bricks occupying central portion of the kiln.

Arch Bricks are over burnt also known as clinker bricks obtained from inner portion of the
kiln

1.4.3.5 Based on Types

Solid: Small holes (less than 20 mm) not exceeding 25 per cent of the volume of the brick are
permitted; alternatively, frogs not exceeding 20 per cent of the total volume are permitted.

Perforated: Small holes may exceed 25 per cent of the total volume of the brick.

Hollow: The total of holes, which need not be small, may exceed 25 per cent of the volume
of the brick.
19
Cellular: Holes closed at one end exceed 20 per cent of the volume.

1.4.4 Characteristics of Good Brick

The essential requirements for building bricks are sufficient strength in crushing, regularity in
size, a proper suction rate, and a pleasing appearance when exposed to view.

Size and Shape: The bricks should have uniform size and plane, rectangular surfaces with
parallel sides and sharp straight edges.

Colour: The brick should have a uniform deep red or cherry colour as indicative of
uniformity in chemical composition and thoroughness in the burning of the brick.

Texture and Compactness: The surfaces should not be too smooth to cause slipping of
mortar. The brick should have pre-compact and uniform texture. A fractured surface should
not show fissures, holes grits or lumps of lime.

Hardness and Soundness: The brick should be so hard that when scratched by a finger nail
no impression is made. When two bricks are struck together, a metallic sound should be
produced.

Water Absorption: It should not exceed 20 per cent of its dry weight when kept immersed in
water for 24 hours.

Crushing Strength: It should not be less than 10 N/mm2.

Brick Earth: should be free from stones, kankars, organic matter, saltpetre, etc.

1.4.5 Testing of Bricks

About fifty pieces of bricks are taken at random from different parts of the stack to perform
various tests. For the purpose of sampling, a lot should contain maximum of 50,000 bricks.
The number of bricks selected for forming a sample are as per Table 1.4 (IS: 5454). The scale
of sampling for physical characteristics is given in Table 1.5.

Table 1.4- Scale of sampling and permissible number of defectives for visual and
dimensional characteristics

Table 1.5- Scale of sampling for physical characteristics

20
Dimension Test (IS-1077): 20 pieces out of
selected pieces (Table 1.4) are taken and are
laid flat as shown in Fig. 1.14. The cumulative
dimensions of the bricks should be as given in
Table 1.3.
The tolerances (Table 1.3) on the sizes of
bricks are fixed by giving maximum and
minimum dimensions, not on individual
bricks but on batches of 20 bricks chosen at
random.
It follows from this method of measurement
that batches are likely to contain, bricks
outside the prescribed limit of tolerance. Such
lots should be rejected to avoid complaints Fig. 1.14- Measurement of tolerances of
about the variation of perpends. bricks

Water Absorption Test (IS-3495-Part-II): The existence of minute pores confers marked
capillary properties on brick ceramics. In particular all bricks absorb water by capillary
action. The percentage of water absorption is a very valuable indication of the degree of
burning. Vitrification, in the true sense, corresponds to such a degree of compactness that the
absorption of the brick is not over 3 per cent after 48 hours of immersion. It has been reported
that for absorption less than 5 per cent danger from frost is negligible.
Water absorption does not necessarily indicate the behaviour of a brick in weathering. Low
absorption (< 7 %) usually indicates a high resistance to damage by freezing, although some
type of bricks of much higher absorption may also be frost resistance. Since expansive force
of water freezing in the pores of a clay product depends upon the proportion of pore space
occupied, the ratio of the absorption after 24 hours submersion to the absorption after boiling
for 5 hours (C24/B5) appears to be a better criterion of resistance to freezing than the
percentage of absorption.

The durability of a brick may be tested by frost action, i.e., by alternate wetting and drying.
The absorption test has long been considered a measure of durability, although the basis for
this assumption is questionable. The suction rate of the brick at the time it is laid exercises a
mark influence on the mortar bond. Too rapid withdrawal of water from the mortar by the
brick produces a weak bond. The rate at which a brick absorbs water, frequently called its
suction rate, maybe measured by immersing one face of the brick in water. The one minute
water uptake (initial rate of absorption) is taken as the suction rate. For long periods of
immersion in this test, the total weight of water absorbed per unit area,

w = A√t
Where, A is the water absorption coefficient and t is the time elapsed in the test.

The standard methods of finding the absorption value of the bricks are discussed below. If
absorption by volume is desired it can be obtained by multiplying the weight percentage by
the apparent specific gravity.

24 hours immersion cold water test: Dry bricks are put in an oven at a temperature of 105° to
115°C till these attain constant mass. The weight (W1) of the bricks is recorded after cooling
them to room temperature. The bricks are then immersed in water at a temperature of 27° ±

21
2°C for 24 hours. The specimens are then taken out of water and wiped with a damp cloth.
Three minutes, thereafter it is weighed again and recorded as W2.
𝐖𝟐−𝐖𝟏
The water absorption in % = ( 𝐖𝟏 ) × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
The average water absorption shall not be more than 20 per cent by weight up to class 12.5
and 15 per cent by weight for higher classes.

5 hours boiling test: The weight of the oven dried bricks (W1) is recorded as above. Then the
specimen is immersed in the water and boiled for five hours, followed by cooling down to
27° ± 2°C by natural loss of heat within 16–19 hours. The specimen is taken out of water and
wiped with a damp cloth and the weight is recorded as W3.
𝐖𝟑−𝐖𝟏
The water absorption in % = ( ) × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝐖𝟏

Compressive Strength Test (IS 3495-Part-I): The crushing affords a basis for comparing the
quality of bricks but is of little value in determining the strength of a masonry wall, since the
latter depends primarily on the strength of mortar. Six bricks are taken for the compressive
strength test although it may be found that an individual brick varies by 20% or more from
the average, the permissible stresses allowed for load bearing walls take account of this,
being based on an average strength of six bricks. It is, therefore, both unnecessary and
uneconomical to insist that every bricks is above a certain strength. As a criterion of
structural strength for brick, the transverse failure in a wall or pavement is likely to occur on
account of improper bedment. For testing bricks for compressive strength from a sample the
two bed faces of bricks are ground to provide smooth, even and parallel faces. The bricks are
then immersed in water at room temperature for 24 hours. These are then taken out of water
and surplus water on the surfaces is wiped off with cotton or a moist cloth. The frog of the
brick is flushed level with cement mortar and the brick is stored under damp jute bags for 24
hours followed by its immersion in water at room temperature for three days. The specimen is
placed in the compression testing machine with flat faces horizontal and mortar filled face
being upwards. Load is applied at a uniform rate of 14 N/m2 per minute till failure. The
maximum load at failure divided by the average area of bed face gives the compressive
strength.
𝐌𝐚𝐱𝐢𝐦𝐮𝐦 𝐥𝐨𝐚𝐝 𝐚𝐭 𝐟𝐚𝐢𝐥𝐮𝐫𝐞 (𝐍)
Compressive strength (N/mm2) = 𝐀𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐚𝐫𝐞𝐚 𝐨𝐟 𝐛𝐞𝐝 𝐟𝐚𝐜𝐞𝐬 (𝐦𝐦𝟐)
The average of results shall be reported. The compressive strength of any individual brick
tested in the sample should not fall below the minimum average compressive strength
specified for the corresponding class of brick by more than 20 percent.

Efflorescence Test (IS 3495-Part-III: The ends of the brick are kept in a 150 mm diameter
porcelain or glass dish containing 25 mm depth of water at room temperature (20°–30°C) till
the entire water is absorbed or evaporated. The water is again filled to 25 mm depth in the
dish and allowed to be absorbed by the brick or evaporated. Presence of efflorescence is
classified as below.

1. Nil — When the deposit of efflorescence is imperceptible.

2. Slight — When the deposit of efflorescence does not cover more than 10 per cent of the
exposed area of the brick.
3. Moderate — When the deposit of efflorescence is more than 10 per cent but less than 50%
of the exposed area of the brick.

22
4. Heavy — When the deposit of efflorescence is more than 50 per cent but the deposits do
not powder or flake away the brick surface.
5. Serious — When the deposits are heavy and powder or flake away the brick surface.
The specifications limit the efflorescence to be not more than moderate (10–50%) up to class
12.5 and not more than slight (< 10 percent) for higher classes.

1.4.6 Defects of Bricks

Over-burning of Bricks: Bricks should be burned at temperatures at which incipient,
complete and viscous vitrification occur. However, if the bricks are over burnt, a soft molten
mass is produced and the bricks loose their shape. Such bricks are not used for construction
works.

Under-burning of Bricks: When bricks are not burnt to cause complete vitrification, the clay
is not softened because of insufficient heat and the pores are not closed. This results in higher
degree of water absorption and less compressive strength. Such bricks are not recommended
for construction works.

Bloating: This defect observed as spongy swollen mass over the surface of burned bricks is
due to the presence of excess carbonaceous matter and sulphur in brick-clay.

Black Core: When brick-clay contains bituminous matter or carbon and they are not
completely removed by oxidation, the brick results in black core mainly because of improper
burning.

Efflorescence: This defect is caused because of alkalies present in bricks. When bricks come
in contact with moisture, water is absorbed and the alkalis crystallised. On drying grey or
white powder patches appear on the brick surface. This can be minimised by selecting proper
clay materials for brick manufacturing, preventing moisture to come in contact with the
masonry, by providing waterproof coping and by using water repellent materials in mortar
and by providing damp proof course.

Chuffs: The deformation of the shape of bricks caused by the rain water falling on hot bricks
is known as chuffs.

Checks or Cracks: This defect may be because of lumps of lime or excess of water. In case
of the former, when bricks come in contact with water, the absorbed water reacts with lime
nodules causing expansion and a consequent disintegration of bricks, whereas shrinkage and
burning cracks result when excess of water is added during brick manufacturing.

Spots: Iron sulphide, if present in the brick clay, results in dark surface spots on the brick
surfaces. Such bricks though not harmful are unsuitable for exposed masonry work.

Blisters: Broken blisters are generally caused on the surface of sewer pipes and drain tiles
due to air imprisoned during their moulding.

Laminations: These are caused by the entrapped air in the voids of clay. Laminations
produce thin lamina on the brick faces which weather out on exposure. Such bricks are weak
in structure.

23
 Exercise

Q1 Why is it important to study the properties of building materials?

Q2 List and define the physical properties of building materials.
Q3 List and define the mechanical properties of building materials.
Q4 Define (a) Density (b) Bulk density (c) Density index (d) Specific weight (e) Porosity
(f) Void ratio (g) Strength (h) Elasticity (i) Plasticity (j) Hardness (k) Toughness
Q5 Name the various types of stones which are used for building works and give in brief
the specifications for a good building stone.
Q6 What are the qualities you would look for in good building stone for masonry work?
Q7 What are the different methods used in dressing building stones?
Q8 Briefly describe the ‘preservation of stone’.
Q9 What are the requirements of soil suitable for burning bricks?
Q10 What are the substances which harm the qualities of good bricks?
Q11 Enumerate the chief characteristics of clay as material used for manufacture of bricks.
Q12 Describe the qualities of first class building bricks.
Q13 Describe how bricks are classified?
Q14 What are the constituents of good brick-earth?
Q15 Describe the common defects in bricks.
Q16 Describe the tests performed to check the quality of bricks.
Q17 What is a frog? State its importance in clay bricks.
Q18 What are the characteristics of good bricks?
Q19 What is efflorescence in bricks? What are its causes and remedies?

24
 UNIT-II

2.1 Lime
Until the invention of Portland cement, lime was used as the chief cementing material in the
building construction both for mortar and plasters. Most of the ancient palaces, forts, temples,
monuments, etc., have been built with lime. Though Portland cement has almost replaced
lime, but still at places, where lime is available locally and during the period of shortage of
ordinary Portland cement lime provides a cheap and alternative to cement. Usually, lime in
free state is not found in nature.
The raw material for the manufacture of lime (CaO) is calcium carbonate which is obtained
by the calcination of lime stone. The varieties of limestone commonly used in the
construction industry are tufa, limestone boulders and kankars. Lime can also be obtained by
the calcination of shell, coral, chalk and other calcareous substances. Coral and shells are sea
animals. White chalk is a pure limestone whereas kankar is an impure limestone. Coral lime
is claimed to be the purest source of lime.
Lime is obtained by burning limestone at a temperature of about 800°C.

The characteristics of lime include:

1. Lime possesses good plasticity and is easy to work with.
2. It stiffens easily and is resistant to moisture.
3. The excellent cementitious properties make it most suitable for masonry work.
4. The shrinkage on drying is small because of its high water retentivity.

2.1.1 Classification of Lime

According to the percentage of calcium oxide and clayey impurities in it, lime can be
classified as lean, hydraulic and pure lime. Since magnesium oxide slakes slowly, an increase
in its percentage decreases rate of hydration and so is with clayey impurities as well.

2.1.1.1 Lean or Poor Lime

It consists of CaO + MgO 80 to 85% with MgO less than 5% and clayey impurities of about
more than 7 per cent in the form of silica, alumina and iron oxide. It sets on absorbing CO2
from atmosphere.

Characteristics:
1. Slaking requires more time and so it hydrates slowly. Its expansion is less than that of fat
lime.
2. It makes thin paste with water.
3. Setting and hardening is very slow.
4. The colour varies from yellow to grey.
Uses: It gives poor and inferior mortar and is recommended for less important structure.

2.1.1.2 Hydraulic Lime:

It is a product obtained by moderate burning (900°-1100°C) of raw limestone which contains
small proportions of clay (silica and alumina) 5-30 per cent and iron oxide in chemical
combination with the calcium oxide content (CaO + MgO 70-80% with MgO less than 5%).
In slaking considerable care is required to provide just sufficient water and no excess, since

25
an excess would cause the lime to harden. Depending on the percentage of clay present these
are classified further as, feebly, moderately and eminently hydraulic lime. It sets under water.

Characteristics and Uses:

Feebly Hydraulic Lime has less than 5-10 per cent of silica and alumina and slakes slowly,
after few minutes (5 to 15). The setting time is twenty one days. It is used in damp places and
for less important structures.

Moderately Hydraulic Lime has 10-20 per cent of impurities, slakes sluggishly after 1-2
hours. The setting time is seven days. It is used in damp places.

2.1.1.3 Pure, Rich or Fat Lime

It has clayey impurities 20-30 per cent and slakes with difficulty. Its initial setting time is 2
hours and final setting time is 48 hours. It is used in damp places and for all structural
purposes. It is soft lime (CaO + MgO more than 85% with MgO less than 4%) obtained by
the calcination of nearly pure limestone, marble, white chalk, oolitic limestone and
calcareous tufa. Also known as white washing lime should not have impurities of clay and
stones, more than 5 per cent. Fat lime is nearly pure calcium oxide and when it is hydrated
with the required amount of water the solid lumps fall to a soft fine powder of Ca(OH)2 and
the high heat of hydration produces a cloud of steam. It sets on absorbing CO2, from
atmosphere.

Characteristics:
1. Slaking is vigorous and the volume becomes 2-3 times.
2. It sets slowly in contact with air, and hence is not suitable for thick walls or in wet climate.
3. If kept under water a fat lime paste does not lose its high plasticity and consequently does
not set and hard.
4. sp. gr. of pure lime is about 3.4.
Uses: Fat lime finds extensive use in making mortar, matrix for concrete, base for distemper
and in white wash, manufacturing of cement, and metallurgical industry.

2.1.1.4 BIS Classification (IS 712)

Bureau of Indian standards has classified lime into class A, B, C, D, E and F based on the
purpose of its use in construction.

Class A-Eminently hydraulic lime is used for making mortar and concrete for construction
and foundation works, i.e. for structural purposes.

Characteristics:
(i) The colour is grey.
(ii) Calcium oxide and clay are 60-70 and 25 per cent respectively.
(iii) Slakes with difficulty.
(iv) Sets and hardens readily under water with initial setting time 2 hours and final setting
time 48 hours.

Class B- Semi hydraulic lime is used for masonry mortars, flooring and for concrete in
ordinary constructions and plaster undercoat.

Characteristics:
(i) The colour is grey.
(ii) Contains 70 per cent calcium oxide and 15 per cent clay.
26
(iii) Slakes and sets at slow rate taking about a week to set under water.

Class C- Fat lime is used for finishing coat in plastering, white washing and with puzzolana
in mortars.

Characteristics:
(i) The colour is white.
(ii) Slakes vigorously and increases to three times its original volume.
(iii) Contains about 93 per cent calcium oxide and about 5-7 per cent clay.

Class D- Magnesium/Dolomitic lime is used for finishing coat in plastering and white
washing.

Characteristics:
(i) The colour is white.
(ii) Contains about 85 per cent calcium and magnesium oxides.
(iii) Slakes promptly.
(iv) Sets slowly

Class E- Kankar lime is used for making masonry mortars, plastering and white washing.

Characteristics:
(i)The colour is grey.
(ii) Contains 20 per cent calcium oxide, 5 per cent magnesium oxide and remaining
impurities.
(iii) Slakes and sets slowly.

Class F-Siliceous/Dolomitic lime used for undercoat and finishing coat of plaster.

2.1.2 Manufacturing of Lime

Fat lime is obtained by burning limestone and hydraulic lime is obtained by burning kankar.
Limestone is usually burned in some form of vertical kiln which may be a tunnel or flare
shaped working on continuous (Fig. 2.1) or intermittent (Fig. 2.2) systems. The kilns may
also be classified as mixed-feed and separate-feed on the basis of the arrangement of fuel and
limestone. In the mixed-feed type, bituminous coal and limestone are fed into top of the kiln
and in alternate layers. In the separate-feed type, the limestone is not brought into contact
with the fuel during the burning process: the fuel is burned in a grate which is attached to the
sides of the kiln and is so arranged that the heat produced will ascend into the stack. The
mixed-feed kiln uses less fuel, but does not produce as high grade product as the separate-
feed kiln. Modern furnace fired lime kilns yield about 25-35 cu m of good hydraulic lime per
day.
Essentially, the process of making lime consists in heating calcite (CaCO3) or magnesia
limestone (xCaCO3 + yMgCO3), containing 6 to 20 per cent of argillaceous impurities, to a
temperature sufficiently high to drive off the carbon dioxide. As burning, seriously injures the
setting properties, high-magnesia limes should not be subjected to temperatures above
1000°C and high-calcium limes should be burned at temperatures lower than 1300°C. A part
of CaO resulting from the decomposition of calcium carbonate combines in solid state with
oxides SiO2, Al2O3 and Fe2O3 contained in the clay minerals, to form silicates (nCaO SiO2),
aluminates (nCaO Al2O3) and calcium ferrites (nCaO Fe2O3) that are capable of hardening
27
not only in the air, but in water as well. High calcium lime expand more in setting and shrink
more in drying than magnesium limes. They are also more liable to injury through burning in
slaking.

Fig. 2.1- Continuous kiln Fig. 2.1-Intermittent kiln

Lump lime has porous structure on burning. Limestone releases carbon dioxide which
constitutes up to 49 per cent of its weight, but the volume of the product decreases only by 10
per cent which means that lump lime has a porous structure. A flow diagram for the
manufacture of lime is shown in (Fig. 2.3).

Fig. 2.3- Flow diagram for the manufacture of lime

Slaking: Quick lime, obtained by burning limestone, when sprinkled with water slakes within
10 minutes and becomes powder. It is then used for various engineering purposes such as
white washing, plastering, making mortars and lime putty. The process is also known as
hydration of lime.

In the above reaction high heat of hydration is generated at a temperature of about 350°C.
The energy liberated during this reaction causes the lumps of quick lime to split and fall to
powder. In hydration of lime the heat of hydration generated is not sufficient to break the
28
lime to powder and therefore, the lime is broken mechanically to a suitable size and
sometimes pulverised before hydration. Limes from coarse-grained stone, lump limes, and
pulverized usually slake rapidly; limes from fine-grained stones, and dense lumpy limes
usually slake slowly. Over burning or under burning of the limestone causes the lime to slake
more slowly and injures the mortar strength.
Theoretically, the requirement of water for slaking of lime is 32 per cent of the weight of
CaO. The amount of water used is 2 or even 3 times greater, depending upon composition,
degree of burning and slaking methods, because a part of the water used is vapourised by the
released heat. However, to avoid burning and to promote workable pastes, masons usually
slake limes with 1.5 to 2 times as much water as lime.

2.2 Timber
Wood is a hard and fibrous substance which forms a major part of the trunk and branches of a
tree. It can also be defined as a natural polymeric material which practically does not age.
Wood as a building material falls in two major classes—natural and man-made. With the
advances in science and technology, wood in its natural form as timber, lumber, etc. is being
rapidly replaced by composite wood materials in which natural wood is just a basic ingredient
of a matrix or a laminate. The latter are found to be more useful and adaptable as they may be
treated chemically, thermally or otherwise as per requirements. Some examples are plywood,
fibreboards, chipboards, compressed wood, impregnated wood, etc.
Wood has many advantages due to which it is preferred over many other building materials.
It is easily available (this won’t be true after some years) and easy to transport and handle,
has more thermal insulation, sound absorption and electrical resistance as compared to steel
and concrete. It is the ideal material to be used in sea water. Wood is a good absorber of
shocks and so is suitable for construction work in hilly areas which are more prone to
earthquakes. Finally, since wood can be easily worked, repairs and alterations to wood work
can also be done easily.
Owing to the above mentioned advantages, wood is very widely used in buildings as doors,
windows, frames, temporary partition walls, etc. and in roof trusses and ceilings apart from
formwork.

2.2.1 Classification of Timber (IS-399)

The terms timber and wood are often used synonymously, but they have distinct meanings in
the building industry. Wood is the hard, fibrous material that makes up the tree under the
bark, whereas timber may be defined as a wood which retains its natural physical structure
and chemical composition and is suitable for various engineering works. Following is the
classification of timber as per IS: 399, except the classification of timber based on grading
which is given in IS: 6534.

2.2.1.1 On the basis of its position

1. Standing Timber implies a living tree.
2. Rough Timber forms a part of the felled tree.
3. Converted Timber or Lumber are logs of timber sawn into planks, posts, etc.

2.2.1.2 On the basis of grading (IS 6534)

All grading specifications are clearly distinguished between structural or stress grading, and
commercial or utility grading based on Indian Standard classification.
1. Structural Grading is also known as stress grading. However, there is a small distinction
between the two. Structural grading refers to the principle by which the material is graded on
the basis of visible defects which have known effects on the strength properties of the
29
material. Stress grading refers to the principle by which the material is graded by
consideration of maximum principle stresses to which it can be subjected.
Structural grading is further divided as:
a. Grading based on known effects of defects and estimating accumulative value.
b. Machine grading.

2. Commercial grading also known as yard grading or utility grading refers to the principle
by which the material is graded by consideration of usefulness of the material and price
factors.
Commercial grading is further divided in the following classes:
Grade A: This classification is based on dimensions and general appearance. The dimensions
of lengths, widths and thicknesses of converted materials are measured. This system is
prevalent is Kerala and Mysore.

Grade B: This classification is based on the best ultimate use of the material. Such a system is
mostly in Andhra Pradesh and some parts of Tamil Nadu. Here, each grade is further divided
into A, B and C classes to indicate occurrence of defects. Only two lengths are recognized,
long (L) which is 5m and above, and short(S) that is under 5m. Each log is stamped such as
BAL (Beam, A-class, long), PBS (Plank, B-class, short), etc. Sometimes another letter is also
added indicating the species, e.g. T for teak.

Grade C: This classification is based on qualitative evaluation of defects and rough estimate
of out-turn of utilizable material. It is prevalent in Madhya Pradesh.

Grade D: This classification is based on evaluation of units of defects and fixing the
permissible number of standard volume of area or the material in each grade. This system is
prevalent in Bombay region and is increasingly adopted in Indian Standards and is
recognized internationally.

2.2.1.3 On the basis of Modulus of Elasticity

The species of timber recommended for constructional purpose are classified as
Group A: Modulus of elasticity in bending above 12.5 kN/mm2
Group B: Modulus of elasticity in bending above 9.8 kN/mm2 and below 12.5 kN/mm2
Group C: Modulus of elasticity in bending above 5.6 kN/mm2 and below 9.8 kN/mm2

2.2.1.4 On the basis of durability

Test specimens of size 600 × 50 × 50 mm are buried in the ground to half their lengths. The
condition of the specimen at various intervals of time are noted and from these observations
their average life is calculated. Timbers are classified based upon such observations as of:
High durability average life of 120 months and over.
Moderate durability average life of less than 120 months but of 60 months or more.
Low durability average life of less than 60 months.

2.2.2 Structure of Timber

A tree can be divided into three portions, crown-composed of branches and leaves, trunk, and
roots. The trunk accounts for about 80 per cent of the total bulk of wood.
Figure 2.4 shows the structure of well grown timber from trunk of the exogenous tree. The
structure of timber visible to naked eye or at a small magnification is called macro structure,
and that apparent only at great magnifications, the micro structure. Macro structure of the
timber can be studied by cutting the trunk in three directions (Fig. 2.4 (a)). In the cross-
30
sectional and radial ducts, the following main parts of a tree, e.g. bark, cambium, sap wood,
heart wood and pith, become readily apparent (Fig. 2.4(b)). Each of the components has a
specific function. The bark protects the wood against mechanical damage. Its inner layer,
called bast conveys the nutrients from the crown downwards and stores them. The function of
cambium is to grow wood cells on the inside and smaller bast cells on the outside. The
sapwood assists in the life process of tree by storing up starch and conducting sap. The cells
in the sap wood are active. The heart wood gives a strong and firm support to the tree. With
the growth of tree, the cells in the inner older portion of trunk gradually become inactive and
lifeless, but do not decay. This portion of the trunk is called heart wood. At the centre of the
cross-section is the pith, a small area occupied by friable tissues consisting of thin walled,
loosely connected cells called pith. In a felled tree, it easily crumbles and rots. In the cross-
sectional direction, nutrients pass from bast to the heart through groups of cells running at
right angles to the cambium layers and are referred to as medullary rays.

Fig. 2.4- Cross-section of a tree

2.2.3 Seasoning of Timber

Timber cut from freshly felled trees is too wet for normal use and is dimensionally
unsuitable. Seasoning is the process of reducing the moisture content (drying) of timber in
order to prevent the timber from possible fermentation and making it suitable for use. It can
also be defined as the process of drying the wood to a moisture content approximately equal
to the average humidity of the surroundings, where it is to be permanently fixed. Very rapid
seasoning after removal of bark should be avoided since it causes case hardening and thus
increases resistance to penetration of preservatives. Some of the objects of seasoning wood
are as follows:
1. Reduce the shrinkage and warping after placement in structure.
2. Increase strength, durability and workability.
3. Reduce its tendency to split and decay.
4. Make it suitable for painting.
5. Reduce its weight.

2.2.3.1 Methods of Seasoning

Natural or Air seasoning: The log of wood is sawn into planks of convenient sizes and
stacked under a covered shed in cross-wise direction in alternate layers so as to permit free
circulation of air. The duration for drying depends upon the type of wood and the size of
planks. The rate of drying is however very slow. Air seasoning reduces the moisture content
of the wood to 12–15 per cent. It is used very extensively in drying ties and the large size
structural timbers.

Artificial Seasoning: The prevalent methods of artificial seasoning are as follows:

31
Water Seasoning: The logs of wood are kept completely immersed in running stream of
water, with their larger ends pointing upstream. Consequently the sap, sugar, and gum are
leached out and are replaced by water. The logs are then kept out in air to dry. It is a quick
process but the elastic properties and strength of the wood are reduced.

Boiling in water or exposing the wood to the action of steam spray is a very quick but
expensive process of seasoning.

Kiln Seasoning is adopted for rapid seasoning of timber on large scale to any moisture
content. The scantlings are arranged for free circulation of heated air with some moisture or
superheated steam. The circulating air takes up moisture required from wood and seasons it.
Two types of kilns, the progressive (Fig. 2.5 (a)) and the compartment (Fig. 2.5 (b)) are in
use. For most successful kiln-seasoning the timber should be brought to as high a temperature
as it will stand without injury before drying is begun; otherwise the moisture in the hot outer
fibers of the wood will tend to flow towards the cooler interior. With kiln drying there is a
little loss in strength of timber, usually less than 10 per cent. Also, the wood is more
thoroughly and evenly dried, thus reducing the hygroscopicity of the wood.

Fig. 2.5(a) Progressive kiln Fig. 2.5(b)- Compartment kiln

Chemical or Salt Seasoning: An aqueous solution of certain chemicals have lower vapour
pressures than that of pure water. If the outer layers of timber are treated with such chemicals
the vapour pressure will reduce and a vapour pressure gradient is setup. The interior of
timber, containing no salts, retains its original vapour pressure and, therefore, tends to dry as
rapidly as if there had been no treatment. The result is to flatten the moisture gradient curves,
to reduce the slope of the curves, and consequently to reduce the internal stresses induced
during drying. Since it is these stresses which are responsible for defects such as checks, etc.
a chemically treated timber will exhibit fewer defects. Common salt or urea are generally
used; the latter is preferred as the corrosive action of common salt is a drawback.

Electric seasoning: The logs are placed in such a way that their two ends touch the
electrodes. Current is passed through the setup, being a bad conductor, wood resists the flow
of current, generating heat in the process, which results in its drying. The drawback is that the
wood may split.

2.2.4 Defects in Timber

Defects can occur in timber at various stages, principally during the growing period and
during the conversion and seasoning process. The defects in the wood as shown in Fig. 2.6

32
are due to irregularities in the character of grains. Defects affect the quality, reduce the
quantity of useful wood, reduce the strength, spoil the appearance and favour its decay.

Fig. 2.6- Defects in Timber

2.2.4.1 Defects due to abnormal growth

Following are some of the important defects commonly found in wood due to abnormal
growth or rupture of tissues due to natural forces.

Checks are longitudinal cracks which are usually normal to the annual rings. These adversely
affect the durability of timber because they readily admit moisture and air.

Shakes are longitudinal separations in the wood between the annual rings. These lengthwise
separations reduce the allowable shear strength without much effect on compressive and
tensile values. The separations make the wood undesirable when appearance is important.
Both the shakes and checks if present near the neutral plane of a beam they may materially
weaken its resistance to horizontal shear.
Heart shake occurs due to shrinkage of heart wood, when tree is over matured. Cracks start
from pith and run towards sap wood. These are wider at centre and diminish outwards.
Cup shake appears as curved split which partly or wholly separates annual rings from one
another. It is caused due to excessive frost action on the sap present in the tree, especially
when the tree is young.
33
Star shakes are radial splits or cracks wide at circumference and diminishing towards the
centre of the tree. This defect may arise from severe frost and fierce heat of sun. Star shakes
appear as the wood dries below the fibre saturation point. It is a senous fault leading to
separated log when sawn.

Rindgall is characterised by swelling caused by the growth of layers of sapwood over

wounds after the branch has been cut off in an irregular manner. The newly developed layers
do not unite properly with the old rot, thereby leaving cavities, from where decay starts.

Knots are bases of twigs or branches buried by cambial activity of the mother branch. The
root of the branch is embedded in the stem, with the formation of annual rings at right angles
to those of the stem. The knots interrupt the basic grain direction of the wood, resulting in a
reduction of its strength. In addition these affect the appearance of the wood. A dead knot can
be separated from the body of the wood, whereas live knot cannot be. Knots reduce the
strength of the timber and affect workability and cleavability as fibres get curved. Knots are
classified on the basis of size, form, quality and occurrence.

End Splits are caused by greater evaporation of sap at the end grains of log and can be
reduced by painting the exposed end grains with a water proof paint or capping the exposed
end with hoop iron bandage.

Twisted fibres are caused by wind constantly turning the trunk of young tree in one direction.

Upsets are caused by the crushing of fibres running transversely during the growth of the tree
due to strong winds and unskilled felling consequently resulting in discontinuity of fibres.

Foxiness is a sign of decay appearing in the form of yellow or red tinge or discolouration of
overmatured trees.

Rupture is caused due to injury or impact.

2.2.4.2 Defects due to conversion

Conversion is the term used to describe the process whereby the felled tree is converted into
marketable sizes of timber. Conversion defects are basically due to unsound practice in
milling or attempts to economise during conversion of timber. A wane occurs in timber
which contains, on one or more faces, part of the bark or the rounded periphery of the trunk.
This reduces the cross sectional area, with consequent reduction in strength in the parts
affected. Excessive slope of grains may also be classed as a conversion defect when
conversion has not been done parallel to the axis of the trunk.

2.2.4.3 Defects due to seasoning

These defects are directly caused by the movement which occurs in timber due to changes in
moisture content. Excessive or uneven drying, exposure to wind and rain, and poor stacking
during seasoning can all produce distortions in timber. These defects result in loosening of
fixings or disruption of decoration, or both. The common types of seasoning defects are:
checks—longitudinal separation of fibres not extending throughout the cross-section of
wood; splitting—separation of fibres extending through a piece of timber from one face to
another; warpage—consists of cupping, twisting and bowing.

34
2.2.5 Preservation of Timber
The durability of wood is decidedly variable property. If well-seasoned and kept in a dry
place, if immersed in water, or if buried in ground, wood often lasts for centuries. When,
however, unprotected wood can easily decay by swelling (when it gets wet), fungi, insects,
fire, etc. The rapidly with which it decays depends on external conditions, the species of the
wood, its preliminary conditioning, and its structure. One of the basic approaches to protect it
is to create conditions unfavourable to fungi. Low humidity, heat and water insulation, etc.
help to maintain the timber dry and thus make it insusceptible to damage by fungi. Water
absorption, decay and other undesirable effects can be minimized by coating the surface of
wood with polymer films or drying oils, oil base paints, varnishes and synthetic enamels.
Preservative treatment of timber is not supposed to improve its basic properties like
mechanical, electrical, or chemical properties. Some of the methods used to poison the food
supply to fungus are as below.

2.2.5.1 Oil type preservatives

This type of preservatives are applied over outside of exposed timber, give unpleasant smell
and are not suitable when timber is to be painted. The types in use are creosote, carbolinium,
solignum etc. with or without admixture with petroleum or suitable oils having a high boiling
range.

2.2.5.2 Organic solvent preservatives

This type of preservatives consist of toxic chemical compounds, e.g. pentachlorophenol,
benzene-hexa-chloride, dichlorodiphenyl trichloro-ethane (D.D.T) and copper naphthenate.
These are dissolved in suitable organic solvents like naphtha, or in petroleum products such
as kerosene, spirit, etc. The treated timber can be painted, waxed or polished.

2.2.5.3 Water soluble preservatives

These are odourless organic or inorganic salts and are adopted for inside locations only. If
applied over outside surfaces, the salts can be leached by rainwater. Examples of leachable
(3A-water soluble) type of preservatives are zinc chloride, boric acid (borax), etc. Zinc
chloride, sodium fluoride and sodium-penta-chloro-phenate are toxic to fungi. These are
expensive and odourless (except for sodium-penta-chloro-phenate). Benzenehexa-chloride is
used as spray against borers. Boric acid is used against Lyctus borers and to protect plywood
in tea chests.

2.2.6 Characteristics of Good Timber

The principal characteristics of timber of concern are strength, durability and finished
appearance.
1. Narrow annual rings, closer the rings greater is the strength.
2. Compact medullary rays.
3. Dark colour.
4. Uniform texture.
5. Sweet smell and a shining fresh cut surface.
6. When struck sonorous sound is produced.
7. Free from the defects in timber.
8. Heavy weight.
9. No woolliness at fresh cut surface.

35
2.3 Bituminous Materials
Bitumen and bituminous materials have been known and used in construction works since
ancient times, approximately 6000 B.C. Asphalts were used as cements to hold stonework
together in boat building and as waterproofing in pools and baths. Some asphalt was mixed
with stand and used to pave streets and palace floors. The Egyptians made use of asphalt in
the mummification process and as a building material. The Greeks and Romans not only used
asphalt as a building material but also used burning asphalt as a military weapon. The asphalt
used by these ancient civilizations was natural asphalt formed when crude petroleum oils rose
to the earth’s surface and formed pools. The action of the sun and wind drove off the lighter
oils and gases, leaving a heavy residue. The residue was asphalt with impurities such as water
and soil present. Using crude distillation process, cementing and waterproofing materials
were obtained.
The word bitumen comes from the original sanskrit word Gwitumen applied to native
asphalts as fuel. Bitumens are mainly composed of a mixture of high-molecular
hydrocarbons, methane, napthane and other aromatic series and their oxygen or sulphur
derivatives. Tar and asphalt are the two varieties of bituminous materials. Tars are
bituminous condensates obtained in the process of destructive distillation of coal, petroleum,
wood and other organic materials at high temperature without access of air. They are
composed of hydrocarbons and their sulphurous, nitrous and oxygen derivatives. Asphalt on
the other hand is a naturally occurring bitumen which is a combination of an inorganic
mineral matter either calcareous or siliceous and an organic matter—a chemical compound of
carbon and hydrogen.
Bitumens and bituminous materials are being extensively used in damp proofing the
basements, floors, roofs, damp proof courses; painting timber and steel structural elements; as
adhesives and caulking compounds, and tars are used as binders in road works. When
combined with aggregate these are also used to provide floor surfaces. Bitumens are now
more commonly used for building purposes than is tar.

2.3.1 Bitumen
Bitumen is a non-crystalline solid or viscous material derived from petroleum, by natural or
refinery process and substantially soluble in carbon disulphide. It is asphalt in solid state and
mineral tar in semi fluid state. Bitumen is brown or black in colour.
The main constituent is petrolene—a yellowish oily substance, an excess of which makes
bitumen to melt at low temperature and, asphaltene—hard black substance, an excess of
which makes bitumen brittle and non-plastic. Its compositions is carbon 87 per cent,
hydrogen 11 per cent and oxygen 2 per cent.
Bitumen is not affected by light, air or water individually, but in combination they can make
it brittle, porous and susceptible to oxidation forming blisters and cracks. It becomes soft at
temperatures between 30°–100° C (no sharp melting point), and therefore must be protected
from exposure to heat. It is insoluble in water and fairly resistant to most acids. Although
bitumen is combustible, composite products, such as mastic asphalt, are not readily ignited.

Natural bitumen occurs rarely. Limestones, sandstones and soils impregnated with bitumen
are frequently found. It originates from the accumulation of petroleum in the top layers of
earth crust through migration, filling pores and cavities of rocks, under the action of high
temperature and pressure.
The natural bitumen is dark-brown in colour which on heating gradually softens and passes to
liquid state and on cooling solidifies. It is insoluble in water but dissolves in carbon
disulphide, chloroform, benzene and very little in gasoline. Natural bitumen may be extracted
from bituminous rocks by blowing in kettles or dissolving in organic solvents (extraction).
36
Petroleum Bitumens are product of processing crude petroleum and its resinous residues.
These are classified as residual asphaltums, oxidized, cracked and extracted bitumens.

The properties of bitumen are as follows:

Viscosity depends greatly on temperature. At lower temperature, bitumen has great viscosity
and acquires the properties of a solid body, while with increase in temperature the viscosity
of bitumen decreases and it passes into liquid state.

Ductility depends upon temperature, group composition and nature of structure. Viscous
bitumens, containing solid paraffins at low temperatures are very ductile.

Softening point is related to viscosity. Bitumen needs sufficient fluidity before specific
application.

Resilience: Bitumen is resilient, non-rigid and as such it is capable of absorbing shocks and
accommodate itself to the movement in structure due to temperature, settlement or shrinkage.

Uses: Bitumen is used for manufacture of roofing and damp proofing felts, plastic bitumen
for leak stops, waterproof packing paper, pipe asphalt, joint filler, bituminous filling
compounds for cable boxes, for sealing accumulators and batteries. It is also used for fixing
of roofing felts, dam proofing felts and for heat insulation materials for buildings,
refrigeration and cold storage equipments.

2.3.2 Tar
It is a dark (deep black) viscous liquid produced by destructive distillation of organic material
such as coal, oil, lignite and wool. Depending upon the source of origin it is classified as coal
tar, wood tar and mineral tar. Tar is restraint to petroleum-based solvents. It has very low
bitumen content.

Coal Tar is obtained, as a byproduct in the destructive distillation of coal, or in the

manufacture of coal gas. It is heavy, strong smelling and black. These generally have high
specific gravities and viscosities, and good adhesive properties. On the further distillation of
coal tar (from coal gas) coal naphtha, creosote oil, dyes, etc. are obtained, coal tars for road
works are obtained by coking coal or melting together coal pitch with oils or dehydrated raw
tar. It is used for coating of wooden poles, sleepers, iron-poles, latrine walls, etc.

Wood Tar is obtained by the destructive distillation of resinous wood (pine, etc.). It contains
creosote and as such is a very strong preservative. On further distillation wood tar produces
wood creosote. Compared to coal tar creosote, it is an inferior preservative for wood. The
residue left after the distillation is known as pitch.

Mineral Tar is obtained by the distillation of bituminous shales. Some examples are tarmac,
tar paving and tar macadam. It is impervious to water and used in road pavement.

2.3.3 Asphalt
Asphalt is a natural or artificial mixture in which bitumen is associated with inert mineral
matter. It is black or brownish black in colour. At temperature between 50–100°C it is in
liquid state whereas at temperature less than this it remains in solid state. Because it is a
thermoplastic material it softens as it is heated and hardens as it is cooled. It is the basic
paving material in use today.
37
Natural Asphalt is also known as native asphalt. When obtained from lakes it is termed as
lake asphalt. It is used for making pavements, for water proofing of structure, stopping
vibration in machine foundations, tunnels and subways, in manufacture of marine glue, and in
lining trenches.

Rock Asphalt is a naturally occurring rock formation, usually limestone or sandstone

intimately impregnated throughout its mass with 6–14% bitumen.

Mastic Asphalt is manufactured by adding pulverized natural rock gradually to molten

refined bitumen, agitating the mixture for about 5 hours (200–250°) and placing it into
moulds for cooling. The mass consolidates into hard elastic blocks which can be remelted
when used for pavements. It is tough, durable, nonabsorbent, damp proof, noninflammable,
and noiseless. When non-bituminous limestone is mixed with bitumen of residual type it is
brown as synthetic mastic asphalt.

Artificial Asphalt is the pitch residue obtained by evaporation of the volatile constituent of
coal tar. It is formed of an admixture of coaltar, pitch, ground iron slag, sawdust, chalk, etc.

Asphaltic Cement is prepared by oxidizing asphalt at a high temperature the lighter oils
vapourize and are drawn off at their condensation temperature, leaving a residual material–
aspaltic cement. It is used for flooring and water proofing and in expansion joints in concrete.

2.4 Cement
Cements in a general sense are adhesive and cohesive materials which are capable of bonding
together particles of solid matter into a compact durable mass. For civil engineeringworks,
they are restricted to calcareous cements containing compounds of lime as their chief
constituent, its primary function being to bind the fine (sand) and coarse (grits) aggregate
particles together.

Cements used in construction industry may be classified as hydraulic and non-hydraulic. The
latter does not set and harden in water such as non-hydraulic lime or which are unstable in
water, e g. Plaster of Paris. The hydraulic cement set and harden in water and give a product
which is stable. Portland cement is one such.

Cement can be manufactured either from natural cement stones or artificially by using
calcareous and argillaceous materials. The examples of natural cements are Roman cement,
Puzzolana cement and Medina cement and those of artificial cement are Portland cement and
special cements.

Today cement finds extensive use in all types of construction works; in structures where high
strength is required e.g. bridge piers, light houses, lofty towers, and large structures such as
bridges, silos, chimneys. And also in structures exposed to the action of water, e.g. reservoirs,
dams, dock yards etc. Cement mortar, concrete, reinforced brick work, artificial stones,
plastering, pointing and partition walls are routinely used in buildings.

2.4.1 Types of Cements

Many types of cements are available in markets with different compositions and for use in
different environmental conditions and specialized applications. A list of some commonly
used cement is described in this section:

38
2.4.1.1 Ordinary Portland cement
Ordinary Portland cement is the most common type of cement in general use around the
world. This cement is made by heating limestone (calcium carbonate) with small quantities of
other materials (such as clay) to 1450°C in a kiln, in a process known as calcination, whereby
a molecule of carbon dioxide is liberated from the calcium carbonate to form calcium oxide,
or quicklime, which is then blended with the other materials that have been included in the
mix. The resulting hard substance, called 'clinker', is then ground with a small amount of
gypsum into a powder to make 'Ordinary Portland Cement'(often referred to as OPC).
Portland cement is a basic ingredient of concrete, mortar and most non-specialty grout. The
most common use for Portland cement is in the production of concrete. Concrete is a
composite material consisting of aggregate (gravel and sand), cement, and water. As a
construction material, concrete can be cast in almost any shape desired, and once hardened,
can become a structural (load bearing) element. Portland cement may be grey or white.
• This type of cement use in construction when there is no exposure to sulphates in the soil or
ground water.
• Lime saturation Factor is limited between i.e. 0.66 to 1.02.
• Free lime-cause the Cement to be unsound.
• Percentage of (AL2O3/Fe2O3) is not less than 0.66.
• Insoluble residue not more than 1.5%.
• Percentage of SO3 limited by 2.5% when C3A < 7% and not more than 3% when C3A >7%.
• Loss of ignition -4%(max)
• Percentage of Mg0-5% (max.)
• Fineness -not less than 2250 cm2/g.

2.4.1.2 Rapid hardening Portland cement

• It is firmer than Ordinary Portland Cement
• It contains more C3S are less C2S than the ordinary Portland cement.
• Its 3 days strength is same as 7 days strength of ordinary Portland cement.

2.4.1.3 Low heat Portland cement

• Heat generated in ordinary Portland cement at the end of 3days 80 cal/gm. While in low
heat cement it is about 50cal/gm of cement.
• It has low percentage of C3A and relatively more C2S and less C3S than O.P.
Cement.
• Reduce and delay the heat of hydration. British standard (B S. 1370 : 1974 ) limit the heat
of hydration of this cement.

2.4.1.4 Sulphate resisting Portland cement

• Maximum C3A content by 3.5% and minimum fineness by 2500 cm2/g.
• Firmer than ordinary pot land cement.
• Sulphate forms the sulpha-aluminates which have expensive properties and so causes
disintegration of concrete.

2.4.1.5 Sulphate resisting Portland cement

• For this cement, the silage as obtained from blast furnace is used
• The clinkers of cement are ground with about 60 to 65 percent of slag.
• Its strength in early days is less and hence it required longer curing period. It proves to be
economical as slag, which is a Waste product, is used in its manufactures.

39
2.4.1.6 Pozzolanic cement
• As per Indian standard, the proportions of Pozzolana may be 10 to 25 % by weight. e.g.
Burnt clay, shale, Fly ash.
• This Cement has higher resistance to chemical agencies and to sea water because of absence
of lime.
• It evolves less heat and initial strength is less but final strength is 28 days onward equal to
ordinary Portland cement.
• It possesses less resistance to the erosion and weathering action.
• It imparts higher degree of water tightness and it is cheap.

2.4.1.7 White Portland cement

• Grey colour of O.P. cement is due to presence of Iron Oxide. Hence in White Cement FeO
is limited to 1 %. Sodium Alumina Ferrite (Crinoline) is added to act as flux in the absence
of Iron-Oxide. •:
• It is quick drying, possesses high strength and has superior aesthetic values and it also cost
lee than ordinary cement because of specific requirements imposed upon the raw materials
and the manufacturing process.
• White Cement are used in Swimming pools, for painting garden furniture, moulding
sculptures and statues etc.

2.4.1.8 Coloured Portland

• The Cement of desired colour may be obtained by mixing mineral pigments with ordinary
Cement.
• The amount of colouring material may vary from 5 to 10 percent. If this percentage exceeds
10 percent, the strength of cements is affected.
• The iron Oxide in different proportions gives brown, red or yellow colour. The coloured
Cement are widely used for finishing of floors, window sill slabs, and stair treads etc.

2.4.1.9 Expansive cement

• This type of cement is produced by adding an expanding medium like sulphoaluminate and
a stabilising agent to the ordinary cement.
• The expanding cement is used for the construction of water retaining structures and for
repairing the damaged concrete surfaces.

2.4.1.10 High alumina cement

• This cement is produced by grilling clinkers formed by calcining bauxite and lime. It can
stand high temper lures.
• If evolves great heat during setting. It is therefore not affected by frost.

2.4.2 Composition of Cement clinker

The various constituents combine in burning and form cement clinker. The compounds
formedin the burning process have the properties of setting and hardening in the presence of
water. They are known as Bogue compounds after the name of Bogue who identified them.
These compounds are as follows: Alite (Tricalcium silicate or C3S), Belite (Dicalcium
silicate or C2S), Celite (Tricalciumalluminate or C3A) and Felite (Tetracalciumalumino
ferrite or C4AF).

40
2.4.2.1 Tricalcium silicate
It is supposed to be the best cementing material and is well burnt cement. It is about 25-50%
(normally about 40 per cent) of cement. It renders the clinker easier to grind increases
resistance to freezing and thawing, hydrates rapidly generating high heat and develops an
early hardness and strength. However, raising of C3S content beyond the specified limits
increases the heat of hydration and solubility of cement in water. The hydrolysis of C3S is
mainly responsible for 7 day strength and hardness. The rate of hydrolysis of C3S and the
character of gel developed are the main causes of the hardness and early strength of cement
paste. The heat of hydration is 500 J/g.

2.4.2.2 Dicalcium silicate

It constitutes about 25-40% (normally about 32 per cent) of cement. It hydrates and hardens
slowly and takes long time to add to the strength (after a year or more). It imparts resistance
to chemical attack. Rising of C2S content renders clinker harder to grind, reduces early
strength, decreases resistance to freezing and thawing at early ages and decreases heat of
hydration. The hydrolysis of C2S proceeds slowly. At early ages, less than a month, C2S has
little influence on strength and hardness. While after one year, its contribution to the strength
and hardness is proportionately almost equal to C3S. The heat of hydration is 260 J/g.

2.4.2.3 Tricalciumalluminate
It is about 5-11% (normally about 10.5 per cent) of cement. It rapidly reacts with water and is
responsible for flash set of finely grounded clinker. The rapidity of action is regulated by the
addition of 2-3% of gypsum at the time of grinding cement. Tricalciumaluminate is
responsible for the initial set, high heat of hydration and has greater tendency to volume
changes causing cracking. Raising the C3A content reduces the setting time, weakens
resistance to sulphate attack and lowers the ultimate strength, heat of hydration and
contraction during air hardening. The heat of hydration of 865 J/g.

2.4.2.4 Tetracalciumalumino ferrite

It constitutes about 8–14% (normally about 9 per cent) of cement. It is responsible for flash
set but generates less heat. It has poorest cementing value. Raising the C4AF content reduces
the strength slightly. The heat of hydration is 420 J/g.

2.4.3 Hydration of Cement

In the anhydrous state, four main types of minerals are normally present: alite, belite, celite
and felite. Also present are small amounts of clinker sulfate (sulfates of sodium, potassium
and calcium) and gypsum, which was added when the clinker was ground up to produce the
familiar grey powder.

When water is added, the reactions which occur are mostly exothermic, that is, the reactions
generate heat. We can get an indication of the rate at which the minerals are reacting by
monitoring the rate at which heat is evolved using a technique called conduction calorimetry.
Almost immediately on adding water some of the clinker sulphates and gypsum dissolve
producing an alkaline, sulfate-rich, solution. Soon after mixing, the (C3A) phase (the most
reactive of the four main clinker minerals) reacts with the water to form an aluminate rich gel
(Stage I on the heat evolution curve above). The gel reacts with sulfate in solution to form
small rod-like crystals of ettringite. (C3A) reaction is with water is strongly exothermic but
does not last long, typically only a few minutes, and is followed by a period of a few hours of
relatively low heat evolution. This is called the dormant, or induction period (Stage II).The
41
first part of the dormant period, up to perhaps half-way through, corresponds to when
concrete can be placed. As the dormant period progresses, the paste becomes too stiff to be
workable. At the end of the dormant period, the alite and belite in the cement start to react,
with the formation of calcium silicate hydrate and calcium hydroxide. This corresponds to the
main period of hydration (Stage III), during which time concrete strengths increase. The
individual grains react from the surface inwards, and the anhydrous particles become smaller.
(C3A) hydration also continues, as fresh crystals become accessible to water. The period of
maximum heat evolution occurs typically between about 10 and 20 hours after mixing and
then gradually tails off. In a mix containing OPC only, most of the strength gain has occurred
within about a month. Where OPC has been partly-replaced by other materials, such as fly
ash, strength growth may occur more slowly and continue for several months or even a year.
Ferrite reaction also starts quickly as water is added, but then slows down, probably because
a layer of iron hydroxide gel forms, coating the ferrite and acting as a barrier, preventing
further reaction.
During Hydration process several hydrated compounds are formed most important of which
are, Calcium silicate hydrate, calcium hydroxide and calcium aluminium hydrates which is
important for strength gain.

2.4.3.1 Calcium silicate hydrate

This is not only the most abundant reaction product, occupying about 50% of the paste
volume, but it is also responsible for most of the engineering properties of cement paste. It is
often abbreviated, using cement chemists' notation, to "C-S-H," the dashes indicating that no
strict ratio of SiO2 to CaO is inferred. C-S-H forms a continuous layer that binds together the
original cement particles into a cohesive whole which results in its strong bonding capacity.
The Si/Ca ratio is somewhat variable but typically approximately 0.45-0.50 in hydrated
Portland cement but up to perhaps about 0.6 if slag or fly ash or microsilica is present,
depending on the proportions.

2.4.3.2 Calcium hydroxide

The other products of hydration of C3S and C2S are calcium hydroxide. In contrast to the CS
H, the calcium hydroxide is a compound with distinctive hexagonal prism morphology. It
constitutes 20 to 25 per cent of the volume of solids in the hydrated paste. The lack of
durability of concrete is on account of the presence of calcium hydroxide. The calcium
hydroxide also reacts with sulphates present in soils or water to form calcium sulphate which
further reacts with C3A and cause deterioration of concrete. This is known as sulphate attack.
To reduce the quantity of Ca (OH)2 in concrete and to overcome its bad effects by converting
it into cementitious product is an advancement in concrete technology. The use of blending
materials such as fly ash, silica fume and such other pozzolanic materials are the steps to
overcome bad effect of Ca(OH)2 in concrete. However, Ca(OH)2 is alkaline in nature due to
which it resists corrosion in steel.

2.4.3.3 Calcium aluminium hydrates

These are formed due to hydration of C3A compounds. The hydrated aluminates do not
contribute anything to the strength of concrete. On the other hand, their presence is harmful
to the durability of concrete particularly where the concrete is likely to be attacked by
sulphates. As it hydrates very fast it may contribute a little to the early strength.

2.4.4 Cement Plastering

Plastering is a process of applying one or more coats of mortar to a concrete surface,
brickwork, stone masonry or lathing. It must be durable such that it resists the penetration of
42
moisture and should be able to weather uniformly. It should also be pleasing in appearance.
These properties depend upon materials used, composition of mix, and degree of mechanical
bond between the plaster and the backing surface and workmanship.

Surface preparation: The joint shall be raked to a depth of 15 mm for brickwork and 20 mm
for stonework. For new work, where subsequent plastering is to be done, the raking of joints
shall be done during the progress of the work, when the mortar is still green. Dust or mortar
powder (loose mortar) shall be washed out. The whole surface shall be thoroughly cleaned
and brushing and scrapping shall remove efflorescence, if any. The surface thoroughly
washed with water, cleaned and kept vet for the day previous and up to the time start the
work is started, and shall be kept very damp during the progress of the plastering.

Bonding: Cement mortar has two types of bonds with its backing one being mechanical in
which the mortar squeezes into the irregularities and gets interlocked when hardened and
other due to the adhesive property of Portland cement on hardening. The degree of bond will
therefore depend on the roughness of surface to be treated and the quality of cement and sand
used in preparation of mortar.

Concrete surface: All monolithic concrete walls should be roughened by hacking at close
intervals with bush hammers or with a chisel and hammer and then washed thoroughly with
water to remove all dirt and loose particles. Monolithic concrete can be roughened with a
heavy wire brush or a special scouring tool if forms are removed early.
Forms for concrete that is to receive plaster, should not be given excessive mould oil coating,
as it is likely to remain on the concrete, interfering with the bond. Special care must be taken
to remove the mould oil coating before plaster is applied. Curing compound if used should
also be removed completely before commencing the plasterwork.

Brick and stone masonry: There are excellent bases for direct application of cement plaster.
The surface should be hard, rough and clean. The joints should be racked. It may be desirable
to roughen with a pick or a similar sharp tool if the surface of stone is too smooth.

Tools for plastering: Following tools are used for plastering, Gauging trowel, floats, floating
rule, plumb bob, straight edge, bushes, set square, sprit level, scratcher, plumb rules etc.

Material: Sand cement mortar of specified mix shall be used.

Mortar: Cement mixed with fine aggregate should produce smooth, plastic, cohesive, strong
and workable mortar. Cement plaster shall unless otherwise specified, to be the following
proportion and thicknesses. The mortar of specified mix shall be used.

Cement: At present 33 grade and high grade cement such as 43 grade and 53 grade are being
used. These are essentially recommended for use in concrete. It is also used in masonry and
plastering work.

43
Fine aggregate: Sand must be clean, sharp, suitably graded, and free from all deleterious and
impure matter. Deleterious materials beyond a certain limit adversely affect the hardening,
strength, durability or the appearance of the plaster or causes corrosion of metal lathing or
other metal in contact with plaster.

Grading of Sand: Most suitable particle size grading of sand plasterwork for internal and
external walls and ceiling is given below:

2.5 Formwork
Formwork (shuttering) in concrete construction is used as a mould for a structure in which
fresh concrete is poured only to harden subsequently. Types of concrete formwork
construction depends on formwork material and type of structural element.
Formworks can also be named based on the type of structural member construction such as
slab formwork for use in slab, beam formwork, column formwork for use in beams and
columns respectively etc.
The construction of formwork takes time and involves expenditure upto 20 to 25% of the cost
of the structure or even more. Design of these temporary structures are made to economic
expenditure. The operation of removing the formwork is known as stripping. Stripped
formwork can be reused. Reusable forms are known as panel forms and non-usable are called
stationary forms.
Timber is the most common material used for formwork. The disadvantage with timber
formwork is that it will warp, swell and shrink. Application of water impermeable cost to the
surface of wood mitigates these defects.

2.5.1 Requirements of a good formwork

A good formwork should satisfy the following requirements:
1 It should be strong enough to withstand all types of dead and live loads.
2 It should be rigidly constructed and efficiently propped and braced both horizontally
and vertically, so as to retain its shape.
3 The joints in the formwork should be tight against leakage of cement grout.
4 Construction of formwork should permit removal of various parts in desired
sequences without damage to the concrete.
5 The material of the formwork should be cheap, easily available and should be suitable
for reuse.
6 The formwork should be set accurately to the desired line and levels should have
plane surface.
7 It should be as light as possible.
8 The material of the formwork should not warp or get distorted when exposed to the
elements.
9 It should rest on firm base.
44
2.5.2 Types of Formwork (Shuttering) for Concrete Construction
Timber Formwork:
Timber for formwork should satisfy the following requirement:
It should be
-well seasoned
-light in weight
-easily workable with nails without splitting
-free from loose knots
Timber used for shuttering for exposed concrete work should have smooth and even surface
on all faces which come in contact with concrete.

Plywood Formwork
Resin bonded plywood sheets are attached to timber frames to make up panels of required
sizes. The cost of plywood formwork compares favourably with that of timber shuttering and
it may even prove cheaper in certain cases in view of the following considerations:
1 It is possible to have smooth finish in which case on cost in surface finishing is there.
2 By use of large size panels it is possible to effect saving in the labour cost of fixing
and dismantling.
3 Number of reuses are more as compared with timber shuttering. For estimation
purpose, number of reuses can be taken as 20 to 25.

Steel Formwork
This consist of panels fabricated out of thin steel plates stiffened along the edges by small
steel angles. The panel units can be held together through the use of suitable clamps or bolts
and nuts. The panels can be fabricated in large number in any desired modular shape or size.
Steel forms are largely used in large projects or in situation where large number reuses of the
shuttering is possible. This type of shuttering is considered most suitable for circular or
curved structures.

Steel forms compared with timber formwork:

1 Steel forms are stronger, durable and have longer life than timber formwork and their
reuses are more in number.
2 Steel forms can be installed and dismantled with greater ease and speed.
3 The quality of exposed concrete surface by using steel forms is good and such
surfaces need no further treatment.
4 Steel formwork does not absorb moisture from concrete.
5 Steel formwork does not shrink or warp.

Exercise

Q1 Explain the terms: (a) Poor lime (b) Fat lime (c) Hydraulic lime (d) Quick lime (e)
Slaked lime
Q2 Why is it necessary to slake quick lime immediately after burning?
Q3 Why is hydraulic lime unsuitable for plastering?
Q4 Describe briefly how lime is manufactured. Distinguish between quick, fat and
hydraulic lime.
Q5 How is hydraulic lime classified?
Q6 How is the lime slaked? What is the significance of slaking lime?
Q7 Draw the cross-section of a matured tree. What is the best season for felling a tree?

45
Q8 What is seasoning of timbers and why is it done?
Q9 How is seasoning done on a large scale?
Q10 Discuss the methods of preserving timbers.
Q11 State the qualities you will consider in selecting timber for construction purposes?
Q12 Describe various defects in timber?
Q13 Explain the following defects of timber. (a) Shakes (b) Rindgall (c) Upsets (d) Knots
Q14 What is the difference between soft wood and hard wood?
Q15 State the characteristics of good timber.
Q16 Describe briefly the methods of timber preservation.
Q17 Define bitumen, asphalt and tar and how do they differ?
Q18 What are the various types of bitumen and what are their uses?
Q19 What are the ingredients of Portland cement? State the function and limits of each of
them.
Q20 Describe the setting and hardening of cement.
Q21 Describe how the compounds of clinker affect the properties of cement.
Q22 What are the initial and final setting times of cement? What is their importance?
Q23 State the conditions under which you will recommend the following cements. Give also
the reasons. (a) Puzzolana cement (b) Low heat Portland cement (c) High alumina
cement (d) Rapid hardening cement (e) Quick setting cement
Q24 Explain ‘cement plastering’.
Q25 Write the specifications of mortar used for plastering.
Q26 What are the requirements of a good formwork?
Q27 Explain the different types of formwork.

46
 UNIT-III

3.1 General Introduction about Building

3.1.1 Building Construction Steps

a. Specify the project target:
Each project has a specific target and use such as schools, offices, commercial buildings,
residential buildings, roads, bridges, dams etc.
At the beginning of any project must locate the building site and utilities such as water
supply, electrical power and sewage drain lines…etc.
Any project must have a budget, which play an important role in design and construction.

b. Project requirements:
After specify the idea, target and uses of any project, project documents must be prepared
which include different activities such as necessary information about costs, construction
time, construction materials to prepare the preliminary design and specifications.

c. Engineering design:
It means all architectural, civil, electrical, mechanical…etc. drawings which include: site
plan, buildings plans and details. The drawings must be satisfy the specifications and codes
and depend upon soil investigation report to (Limit type of soil and soil bearing capacity to
choose the appropriate foundation type), forms of contract, the bill of quantities for each item
and schedule which include all the work categories and the execution time.

d. Execution of project:
The construction and execution of any building demand a contract form such as direct
execution…etc. and many steps must be achieved after the construction documents were
complete. The first step in the construction process is the application for the a building
permit, then is all plans and details are submitted to the building department where they are
reviewed for compliance with local zoning ordinances and building codes, when the review is
complete, a permit for construction is issued.

3.1.2 Types of Buildings

Buildings may be classified according to:

a. Execution method

I. Site execution:
Most of the construction items executed in site location. These types of execution needs more
workers and prepare all construction materials in site location.
The designer especially the architectural engineer has a wide range in selecting the building
style and finishing materials. Disadvantage of this type are lost of raw materials and more
execution time. Site execution used in residential buildings and houses.

II. Precast or prefabricated buildings:

Precast panels are fabricated in special factories outside the site location, then transferred to
the site and composed or installed together according to specified engineering details. Precast
panels include slabs, beams, columns, walls…etc. These panels may be concrete, steel or
composite. This type of execution characterized by high or good quality control, less number
47
of workers and minimize the project execution period. The precast buildings are lighter than
the traditional buildings.

b. Construction design
Buildings are designed according to the types below:

I. Frame building:
It is consist of bearing frame which include beams, columns that transfer the loads of slabs,
floors, walls to the foundations.
The frames are reinforced concrete, steel and composite frames (Concrete & steel).
Steel frame characterized by:
o High compressive & tensile strength, that means the required cross sectional area of steel
sections is smaller than the required cross sectional area of other materials, so reduce
applied loads on the foundation and offered more areas and spaces.
o Steel frames need fire protection & continuous maintenance against weathering
conditions.
o All steel section used in building construction are imported and increase the construction
costs.
o Local manufacturing materials may be used instead of imported materials to gain an
economic construction.
o Steel frames installed in a short time compared with other materials.
 Reinforced concrete frame characterized by:
o All raw materials excepting reinforcing steel bars are locally manufacturing.
o These frames may be cost in site or precast in special factories.
o Concrete frames give the construction designer more ideas about the style of construction.
o These frames characterized by high durability and fire strength.
o Disadvantages of these frames are heavy weight; need long time to construct it and
quality control to the manufacturing and execution process.
o These frames are permanent construction.
o Frame building walls executed after complete the frame construction and can remove it
without affect upon building.

II. Bearing wall buildings:

o Applied loads are transferred to foundation by bearing walls which can’t remove after
construction.
o This type of execution used in houses with low height.
o The bearing walls are constructed before casting the slabs.

III. Frame & bearing walls buildings:

o Steel & reinforced concrete columns & beams in one part of the building and the other
part consist of bearing walls.
o This type of construction used for economical, architectural and construction
requirements.

c. Use

I. Assembly Buildings
In this type of buildings people gather for some reason. These reasons can be any types. Such
as social purpose, religious purpose, patriotic purpose or simply recreation purpose. This

48
types of buildings are –Restaurant, Cinema hall, Theatre, Gymnasium, Swimming pool,
Prayer hall, etc.

II. Business Building

This type of buildings are used for providing various types of services. Below are this type of
buildings –Bank, Dispensaries and clinic, Libraries, Insurance agencies, Fire station, Police
station, etc.

III. Educational Buildings

This type of buildings constructed for various activities in primary, secondary or college level
educational system. Example of this type of buildings are –School, College, Training
institute, Day care centre, etc.

IV. Factory Buildings

In this type of buildings, products are assembled or processed or fabricated or repaired. For
example –Gas plant, Power plant, Refineries, Dairies, and Laundries etc.

V. Hazardous Buildings
This type of buildings are used to produce or storage high flammable or toxic materials
(Don’t be confused with factory building). Such as fireworks, hydrogen peroxide, cyanide,
etc.

VI. Institutional Buildings

Although this type of buildings provide facility of sleeping accommodation these are not
included in residential buildings. Institutional buildings are those where people are physically
unable to leave without assistance. Followings are the institutional buildings –Hospitals,
Infants care homes, Old homes, Nursing homes, Prisons, etc.

VII. Mercantile Buildings

In this type of buildings goods or materials are displayed or sold. Following are this type of
buildings – Shopping mall, Grocery Store, Departmental store

VIII. Residential buildings

All those buildings with sleeping accommodation facility are called residential buildings.
Following are example of residential buildings –Apartments, Flats, Hotels, Hostels, Private
Houses, Cottage, Bungalows, and Duplex

IX. Storage Buildings

This type of buildings are used for storing goods, animals or vehicles. The storage materials
should not be hazardous. Such types of buildings are –Garage, Warehouse, Cold storage,
Transit sheds, Parking, etc.

3.1.3 Building Construction Development

It needs the following requirements:
a. Good design
b. Suitable construction materials
c. Good execution
d. Materials quality control and used modern methods of execution

49
3.1.4 Components of Buildings
The basic components of a building structure are the foundation, floors, walls, beams,
columns, roof, stair, etc. These elements serve the purpose of supporting, enclosing and
protecting the building structure. The basic components of a building of the structure are
shown in Fig.3.1 below.

Fig.3.1-Basic Components of a Building; Image Courtesy: Decole

1. Roof
The roof forms the topmost component of a building structure. It covers the top face of the
building. Roofs can be either flat or sloped based on the location and weather conditions of
the area.
2. Parapet
Parapets are short walls extended above the roof slab. Parapets are installed for flat roofs. It
acts as a safety wall for people using the roof.
3. Lintels
Lintels are constructed above the wall openings like doors, windows, etc. These structures
support the weight of the wall coming over the opening. Normally, lintels are constructed by
reinforced cement concrete. In residential buildings, lintels can be either constructed from
concrete or from bricks.
4. Beams and slabs
Beams and slabs form the horizontal members in a building. For a single storey building, the
top slab forms the roof. In case of a multi-storey building, the beam transfers the load coming
from the floor above the slab which is in turn transferred to the columns. Beams and slabs are
constructed by reinforced cement concrete (R.C.C).
5. Columns
Columns are vertical members constructed above the ground level. Columns can be of two
types: Architectural columns and structural columns. Architectural columns are constructed
to improve the building’s aesthetics while a structural column takes the load coming from the
slab above and transfers safely to the foundation.
6. Damp Proof Course (DPC)
DPC is a layer of waterproofing material applied on the basement level to prevent the rise of
surface water into the walls. The walls are constructed over the DPC.

7. Walls
50
Walls are vertical elements which support the roof. It can be made from stones, bricks,
concrete blocks, etc. Walls provide an enclosure and protect against wind, sunshine, rain etc.
Openings are provided in the walls for ventilation and access to the building.
8. Floors
The floor is the surface laid on the plinth level. Flooring can be done by a variety of materials
like tiles, granites, marbles, concrete, etc. Before flooring, the ground has to be properly
compacted and leveled.
9. Stairs
A stair is a sequence of steps that connects different floors in a building structure. The space
occupied by a stair is called as the stairway. There are different types of stairs like a wooden
stair, R.C.C stair etc.
10. Plinth Beam
Plinth beam is a beam structure constructed either at or above the ground level to take up the
load of the wall coming over it.
11. Plinth
The plinth is constructed above the ground level. It is a cement-mortar layer lying between
the substructure and the superstructure.
12. Foundation
The Foundation is a structural unit that uniformly distributes the load from the superstructure
to the underlying soil. This is the first structural unit to be constructed for any building
construction. A good foundation prevents settlement of the building.

3.1.5 Loads on Structures

The types of loads acting on structures for buildings and other structures can be broadly
classified as vertical loads, horizontal loads and longitudinal loads. The vertical loads consist
of dead load, live load and impact load. The horizontal loads comprises of wind load and
earthquake load. The longitudinal loads i.e. tractive and braking forces are considered in
special case of design of bridges, gantry girders etc.

Fig. 3.2- Different types of load acting on the structure

3.1.5.1 Types of loads acting on a structure
In a construction of building two major factors considered are safety and economy. If the
loads are adjudged and taken higher then economy is affected. If economy is considered and
loads are taken lesser then the safety is compromised.

51
So the estimation of various loads acting is to be calculated precisely. Indian standard code
IS: 875–1987 and American Standard Code ASCE 7: Minimum Design Loads for Buildings
and Other Structures specifies various design loads for buildings and structures.

1. Dead Loads (DL)

The first vertical load that is considered is dead load. Dead loads are permanent or stationary
loads which are transferred to structure throughout the life span. Dead load is primarily due to
self-weight of structural members, permanent partition walls, fixed permanent equipment and
weight of different materials. It majorly consists of the weight of roofs, beams, walls and
column etc. which are otherwise the permanent parts of the building.
The calculation of dead loads of each structure are calculated by the volume of each section
and multiplied with the unit weight. Unit weights of some of the common materials are
presented in Table-1 below.

Table 1-Unit Weight / Density of Different Construction Materials

Sl. No Material Weight
1 Brick Masonry 18.8 kN/m3
2 Stone Masonry 20.4-26.5 kN/m3
3 Plain Cement Concrete 24 kN/m3
4 Reinforced Cement Concrete 24 kN/m3
5 Timber 5-8 kN/m3

2. Imposed Loads or Live Loads (IL or LL)

The second vertical load that is considered in design of a structure is imposed loads or live
loads. Live loads are either movable or moving loads without any acceleration or impact.
These loads are assumed to be produced by the intended use or occupancy of the building
including weights of movable partitions or furniture etc.
Live loads keeps on changing from time to time. These loads are to be suitably assumed by
the designer. It is one of the major load in the design. The minimum values of live loads to be
assumed are given in IS 875 (part 2)–1987. It depends upon the intended use of the building.

3. Wind loads
Wind load is primarily horizontal load caused by the movement of air relative to earth. Wind
load is required to be considered in structural design especially when the heath of the
building exceeds two times the dimensions transverse to the exposed wind surface.
For low rise building say up to four to five stories, the wind load is not critical because the
moment of resistance provided by the continuity of floor system to column connection and
walls provided between columns are sufficient to accommodate the effect of these forces.
Further in limit state method the factor for design load is reduced to 1.2 (DL+LL+WL) when
wind is considered as against the factor of 1.5(DL+LL) when wind is not considered.
The horizontal forces exerted by the components of winds is to be kept in mind while
designing is the building. The calculation of wind loads depends on the two factors, namely
velocity of wind and size of the building. Complete details of calculating wind load on
structures are given below (by the IS-875 (Part 3) -1987).

4. Snow Loads (SL)

Snow loads constitute to the vertical loads in the building. But these types of loads are
considered only in the snow fall places. The IS 875 (part 4) – 1987 deals with snow loads on
roofs of the building.

52
5. Earthquake Loads (EL)
Earthquake forces constitute to both vertical and horizontal forces on the building. The total
vibration caused by earthquake may be resolved into three mutually perpendicular directions,
usually taken as vertical and two horizontal directions.
The movement in vertical direction do not cause forces in superstructure to any significant
extent. But the horizontal movement of the building at the time of earthquake is to be
considered while designing.
The response of the structure to the ground vibration is a function of the nature of foundation
soil, size and mode of construction and the duration and intensity of ground motion. IS 1893–
2014 gives the details of such calculations for structures standing on soils which will not
considerably settle or slide appreciably due to earthquake.

6. Other Loads and Effects acting on Structures

As per the clause 19.6 of IS 456 – 2000, in addition to above load discussed, account shall be
taken of the following forces and effects if they are liable to affect materially the safety and
serviceability of the structure:
(a) Foundation movement (See IS 1904)
(b) Elastic axial shortening
(c) Soil and fluid pressure (See IS 875, Part 5)
(d) Vibration
(e) Fatigue
(f) Impact (See IS 875, Part 5)
(g) Erection loads (See IS 875, Part 2) and
(h) Stress concentration effect due to point load.

3.2 Foundation
Foundation is one of the most important parts of the structure. Foundation is defined as that
part of the structure that transfers the load from the structure as well as its own weight over a
large area of soil in such a way that the load does not exceed the ultimate bearing capacity of
the soil and the settlement of the total structure remains within a tolerable limit. Foundation is
the part of a structure on which the building stands. The solid ground on which the
foundation rests is called the foundation bed.

3.2.1 Function of Foundation

Foundation should fulfill the following objectives:
Distribute the weight of the structure over a large area of soil.
Avoid unequal settlement.
Prevent the lateral movement of the structure.
Increase structural stability.

3.2.2 Types of Foundation

As we know that there are different types of soil and bearing capacity of the soil is different
for each individual type of soil. So depending on the soil profile, size and load of the
structure, engineers chose different types of foundation.
In general, all foundations are divided into two categories, such as Shallow Foundations and
Deep Foundations. The terms Shallow Foundation and Deep Foundation refer to the depth of
the soil at which the foundation is placed. Generally, if the width of the foundation is greater
than the depth of the foundation it is labeled as “Shallow Foundation” and if the width of the
foundation is smaller than the depth of the foundation it is called as “Deep Foundation.”
53
However, shallow and deep foundations can be further classified as shown in the following
chart.

Fig. 3.3- Types of foundations

3.2.2.1 Individual Footing or Isolated Footing

Individual footing or an isolated footing is the most common type of foundation used for
building construction. This foundation is constructed for single column and also called as pad
foundation.
The shape of individual footing is square or rectangle and is used when loads from structure
is carried by the columns (Fig. 3.4). The size of the footing can be roughly calculated by
dividing the total load at the column base by the allowable bearing capacity of the soil.
Isolated Spread Footing is economical when:
 The load of the structure is relatively low.
 Columns are not closely placed.
 Bearing capacity of the soil is high at a shallow depth.

Fig. 3.4- Isolated footing

3.2.2.2 Combined Footing

The combined footing is very similar to the isolated footing. When the columns of the
structure are closely placed, or the bearing capacity of the soil is low and their footing
overlap each other, combined footing is provided.
54
The foundations which are made common to more than one column are called combined
footings. They may be rectangular, tee-shaped or trapezoidal in shape (Fig. 3.5). The main
objective is the uniform distribution of loads under the entire area of footing. For this, it is
necessary to coincide the center of gravity of the footing area with the center of gravity of the
total loads.
Combined foundations are economic when:
 The columns are placed close to each other.
 When the column is close to the property line and the isolated footing would cross the
property line or become eccentric.
 Dimensions of one side of the footing are restricted to some lower value.

Fig. 3.5- Combined footing

3.2.2.3 Spread footings or Strip footings and Wall footings

This type of footing is used to distribute loads of structural load-bearing walls to the ground.
Wall foundation runs along the direction of the wall. The width of the wall foundation is
generally 2-3 times of the width of the wall (Fig. 3.6).
The wall footing is a continuous slab strip along the length of the wall. Stone, brick,
reinforced concrete etc. is used for the construction of wall foundations.
Soil bearing capacity must be sufficient to support the weight of the structure over the base
area of the structure. These should not be used on soils where there is any possibility of
ground flow of water above bearing layer of soil which may result in scour or liquefaction.
Wall footing is economical when:
 Loads to be transmitted are of small magnitude.
 The footing is placed on dense sand and gravels.

55
 Fig. 3.6- Wall footing

3.2.2.4 Cantilever or Strap Footing

Strap footings are similar to combined footings and reasons for considering or choosing strap
footing is similar to the combined footing.
In strap footing, the footings under the columns are built individually and connected by strap
beam (Fig. 3.7). Generally, when the edge of the footing cannot be extended beyond the
property line the exterior footing is connected by strap beam with interior footing.

Fig. 3.7- Strap footing

3.2.2.5 Raft or Mat foundation

Raft or Mat foundations are used where other shallow foundation or pile foundation is not
suitable. It is also recommended in situations where the bearing capacity of the soil is poor,
the load of the structure is to be distributed over a large area or structure is constantly
subjected to shocks or jerks.
Raft foundation consists of a reinforced concrete slab or T-beam slab placed over the entire
area of the structure (Fig. 3.8). In this type of foundation, the entire basement floor slab acts
56
as the foundation. The total load of the structure is spread evenly over the entire area of the
structure. This is called Raft because in this case, the building seems like a vessel which
floats on a sea of soil.
Raft foundations are economical when:
 The soil is weak and the load has to be spread over a large area.
 The structure includes a basement.
 Columns are closely placed.
 Other kinds of foundations are not feasible.
 Differential settlement is to be prevented.

Fig. 3.8- Raft foundation

3.2.2.6 Pile Foundation
Pile foundation is a common type of deep foundation. They are used to reduce cost and when
as per soil condition considerations, it is desirable to transmit loads to soil strata which are
beyond the reach of shallow foundations.
Pile is a slender member with a small cross-sectional area compared to its length (Fig. 3.9). It
is used to transmit foundation loads to a deeper soil or rock strata when the bearing capacity
of soil near the surface is relatively low. Pile transmits load either by skin friction or bearing.
Piles are also used for resist structures against uplift and provide structures stability against
lateral and overturning forces.
End Bearing Piles
In end bearing piles, the bottom end of the pile rests on a layer of especially strong soil or
rock. The load of the building is transferred through the pile onto the strong layer. In a sense,
this pile acts like a column. The key principle is that the bottom end rests on the surface
which is the intersection of a weak and strong layer. The load therefore bypasses the weak
layer and is safely transferred to the strong layer.
Friction Piles
Friction piles work on a different principle. The pile transfers the load of the building to the
soil across the full height of the pile, by friction. In other words, the entire surface of the pile,
which is cylindrical in shape, works to transfer the forces to the soil.
Pile foundations are economic using pile foundation when
 Soil with great bearing capacity is at a greater depth.
 When there are chances of construction of irrigation canals in the nearby area.
 When it is very expensive to provide raft or grillage foundations.
 When the foundation is subjected to a heavy concentrated load.
 In marshy places.
 When the topsoil layer is compressible in nature. • In case of bridges when the
scouring is more in the river bed.
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 Fig. 3.9- Pile foundation

3.2.2.7 Pier Foundation

Pier is an underground structure
that transmits heavier load which
cannot be transmitted by shallow
foundations. It is usually
shallower than pile foundations.
Pier foundation is a cylindrical
structural member which transfer
heavy load from superstructure
to the soil by end bearing (Fig.
3.10). Unlike pile, it can only
transfer load by bearing and by
not skin friction.

Pier Foundation is economical

when:
 Sound rock strata lie
under a decomposed rock
layer at the top.
 The topsoil is stiff clay
which resists driving the
bearing pile.
 When a heavy load is to
be transferred to the soil.
Fig. Fig. 3.10- Pier foundation

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3.2.2.8 Caisson Foundation
Caisson foundation is a watertight retaining structure used as a bridge pier, construction of
dam etc. (Fig. 3.11). It is generally used in structures which requires foundation beneath a
river or similar water bodies. Reason for choosing caisson foundation is that it can be floated
to the desired location and then sunk into place.
Caisson foundation is a ready-made hollow cylinder depressed into the soil up to the desired
level and then filled with concrete which ultimately converts to a foundation. It is mostly
used as bridge piers. Caissons are sensitive to construction procedures and lack construction
expertise.
There are several types of caisson foundation such as Box Caissons, Floating Caissons,
Pneumatic Caissons, Open Caissons, Sheeted Caissons, Excavated Caissons,
Caisson foundations are economical when:
 Pile cap requirement is to be minimized
 Noise and vibration needed to be reduced
 Foundation has to be placed beneath water bodies.
 Highly lateral and axial loading capacity is required.

Fig. 3.10- Caisson/ Well foundation

3.2.3 Essential Requirements of a Good Foundation

Foundations should be constructed to satisfy the following requirements
The foundations shall be constructed to sustain the dead and imposed loads and to
transmit these to the sub-soil in such a way that pressure on it will not cause
settlement which would impair the stability of the building or adjoining structures.
Foundation base should be rigid so that differential settlements are minimized,
Specially for the case when super-imposed loads are not evenly distributed.
Foundations should be taken sufficiently deep to guard the building against damage or
distress caused by swelling or shrinkage of the sub-soil.
Foundations should be so located that its performed may not be affected due to any
unexpected future influence.
Foundations should be such that it can easily carry dead load and imposed load of the
structure and transfer the loads to the soil.
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 Foundation base should be strong enough to reduce the unequal settlement of soil if
imposed load is not distributed equally to the soil.
It should have a definite depth so that structure may not be damaged due to expansion
or compression of soil volume beneath the foundation.
Foundation should be strong and designed with safety factor so that structure may not
be damaged due to unexpected effects.

3.2.4 Site Investigation and Sub-Soil Exploration

Site investigation or Sub-Soil explorations are done for obtaining the information about
subsurface conditions at the site proposed for construction. Soil exploration consists of
determining the profile of the natural soil deposits at the site, taking the soil samples and
determining the engineering properties of soils using laboratory tests as well as in-situ testing
methods.

Objectives of Site Investigation

Following are the objectives of site investigation or subsurface exploration.
 To know about the order of occurrence of soil and rock strata.
 To know about the location of the groundwater table level and its variations.
 To determine engineering properties of soil.
 To select a suitable type of foundation.
 To estimate the probable and maximum differential settlements.
 To find the bearing capacity of the soil.
 To predict the lateral earth pressure against retaining walls and abutments.
 To select suitable soil improvement techniques.
 To select suitable construction equipment.
 To forecast problems occurring in foundations and their solutions.

Stages in Site Investigation

Site investigation or sub-soil exploration is carried out stage-wise as given below.
1 Site Reconnaissance
2 Preliminary site exploration
3 Detailed exploration
4 Preparation of soil investigation report
1. Site Reconnaissance
Site reconnaissance is the first stage of site investigation. In this stage, visual inspection of
the site is done and information about topographical and geological features of the site are
collected. The general observations made in site reconnaissance are as follows:
 Presence of drainage ditches and dumping yards etc.
 Location of groundwater table by observing well in that site.
 Presence of springs, swamps, etc.
 High flood level marks on the bridges, high rise buildings, etc. are observed.
 Presence of vegetation and nature of the soil.
 Past records of landslides, floods, shrinkage cracks, etc. of that region.
 Study of aerial photographs of the site, blueprints of present buildings, geological
maps, etc.
 Observation of deep cuts to know about the stratification of soils.
 Observation of Settlement cracks of existing structures.

2. Preliminary Site Exploration

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Preliminary site exploration is carried out for small projects, light structures, highways,
airfields, etc. The main objective of preliminary exploration is to obtain an approximate
picture of sub-soil conditions at low cost. It is also called general site exploration.
The soil sample is collected from experimental borings and shallow test pits and simple
laboratory tests such as moisture content test, density, unconfined compressive strength test,
etc. are conducted. Simple field tests such as penetration methods, sounding methods,
geophysical methods are performed to get the relative density of soils, strength properties,
etc.
The data collected about subsoil should be sufficient enough to design and build light
structures. Following are some of the general information obtained through primary site
exploration.
 Approximates values of soil’s compressive strength.
 Position of the groundwater table.
 Depth and extent of soil strata.
 Soil composition.
 Depth of hard stratum from ground level.
 Engineering properties of soil (disturbed sample)

3. Detailed Site Exploration

Detailed exploration is preferred for complex projects, major engineering works, heavy
structures like dams, bridges, high rise buildings, etc. A huge amount of capital is required
for a detailed site exploration hence, it is not recommended for minor engineering works
where the budget is limited. For such type of works, data collected through preliminary site
exploration is enough.
In this stage, numerous field tests such as in-situ vane shear test, plate load test, etc. and
laboratory tests such as permeability tests, compressive strength test on undistracted soil
samples are conducted to get exact values of soil properties.

4. Preparation of Report of Sub-Soil Exploration

After performing preliminary or detailed site exploration methods a report should be
prepared. A sub-soil investigation or exploration report generally has the following sections :
 Introduction
 Scope of site investigation
 Description of the proposed structure, purpose of site investigation
 Site reconnaissance details
 Site exploration details such as number, location and depth of boreholes, sampling
details etc.
 Methods performed in site exploration and their results.
 Laboratory tests performed and their results.
 Details of Groundwater table level and position.
 Recommended improvement methods if needed.
 Recommended types of foundations, structural details, etc.
 Conclusion.

3.2.4.1 Methods of Soil Exploration

1. Open Excavation
A pit, eventually, can be excavated for exploring shallower depths, say of the order of 2 to 5
m, or so. Such a pit can be easily excavated at the proposed construction site, if the soil has a
bit of cohesion, and the soil samples can be lifted from such different depths, besides making

61
the easy visualization and examination of the different strata. Even undisturbed soil samples
can be lifted from such a pit by a process called chunk sampling.

2. Boring Method
Soil samples can be lifted from deeper depths by drilling bore holes by using mechanical
devices called samplers.

The process consists of

 Drilling a hole and visually examining the cuttings coming out from different depths
 Lifting the soil samples from different depths by using mechanical devices called
samplers.
Methods of boring

a. Auger boring
This is simplest method of boring a hole by hand drilling. These can be used for shallower
depths generally confined to depths of about 5 m or so. In cohesive and other soft soils above
water table, augers may be used.

b. Auger and Shell boring

Augers are suitable for soft or stiff clays and very stiff and hard clays and sand pumps for
sandy soils. Cylindrical augers and shells are used for making deep boring. Hand operated,
mechanized ring are used for depths 25m, 50m respectively.

c. Wash boring
This is a simple and fastest method, used for making holes in all types of soils except
boulders and rocks.

d. Percussion boring
This method is used to make hole in all types of soils including boulders and rocks.

e. Rotary boring (Mud rotary drilling)

This method is used to advance hole in rocks and soils. Rotating core barrels which are
provided with commercial diamond bits or a steel bit with slots are used for rotary drilling.
This method is used to obtain the rock cores, so this method is called as core boring or core
drilling.

3. Subsurface Sounding Tests

These tests are carried out to measure the resistance to penetration of a sampling spoon, a
cone or other shaped tools under dynamic or static loading. These tests are used for
exploration of erratic solid profiles for finding depth to bedrock or stratum and to get
approximate indication of the strength and other properties of soil.
Methods of Subsurface Sounding Tests are:

a. Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

This test is carried out in a clean hole of diameter about 55 to 150mm. the sides of the holes
are supported by casing or drilling mud. A split tube sampler with 50.8mm outer diameter,
38mm inner diameter is driven into the undisturbed soil, placed at the bottom of the hole
under the blows of 65kg drive weight with 75cm free fall.

62
The minimum open length of the sampler is 60cm, the samplers is first driven through 15cm
as a seating drive and then through 30 cm or until 100 blows have been applied. Number of
blows required to drive sampler 30cm beyond the seating drive is known as penetration
resistance and it is denoted by N.

When N is greater than 15, Terzaghi and Peck have recommended the use of an equivalent
penetration resistance, Ne in place of the actually observed value of N.

Standard Penetration Test Calculation

Gibbs and Holtz have studied experimentally the effect of overburden pressure on the value
of N and their modification for air dry or moist sand can be represented by the relation,

Where Ne= Corrected value of overburden effect

N= actual values of blows effective overburden pressure
σ’= effective overburden pressure (kN/sq.m)
Note: The overburden correction is applied first and then dilatancy correction is applied.

b. Cone penetration test or Dutch cone test

This type of test is carried out to get a continuous record of the resistance of the soil by
penetrating steadily under static pressure, a cone with base of 10 sq.cm (3.6 cm in dia.) and
an angle of 60 degree at the vortex.
To find out the cone resistance, the cone alone is first forced down for a distance of 8cm and
the maximum value of resistance is recorded. This test is very useful in finding bearing
capacity of pits in cohesionless soil. Cone resistance (kg/sq.cm) is approximately equal to 10
times the penetration resistance N (Fig. 11).

Fig. 3.11- Electrical Resistivity Method

Mean resistivity (ohm-cm)

Where D= distance between the electrodes (cm), E= potential drop between outer electrodes
(volts), I= current flowing between outer electrodes (amperes), R= resistance (ohms)

63
3.2.5 Settlement of Foundation
Inevitably, soils deform under the load of foundation structures. The total vertical
displacement that occur at foundation level is termed as settlement. The cause of foundation
settlement is the reduction of volume air void ratio in the soil.
Moreover, the magnitude of foundation settlement is controlled by many factors type
of soil and foundation structure. Foundations on bedrock settle a negligible amount. In
contrary, Foundations in other types of soil such as clay may settle much more.
An example of this is Mexico City palace of fine arts has settled more than 15 feet
(4.5m) into the clay soil on which it is founded since it was constructed in the early
1930s.
However, building foundation settlement is normally limited to amounts measured in
millimetre or fractions of an inch.
Structures will suffer damages due to settlement of its foundation specifically when
the settlement occur in quick manner.

3.2.5.1 Types of foundation settlement

1. Differential foundation settlement

Settlement that occurs at differing rates between different portions of a building is
termed differential settlement.
Differential settlement occurs if there is difference in soils, loads, or structural
systems between parts of a building. In this case, different parts of the building
structure could settle by substantially different amounts.
Consequently, the frame of the building may become distorted, floors may slope,
walls and glass may crack, and doors and windows may not work properly.
Uneven foundation settlement may force buildings to shift out of plumb which lead to
crack initiation in foundation, structure, or finish.
Majority of foundation failures are attributable to severe differential settlement.
Lastly, for conventional buildings with isolated foundations, 20mm differential
settlement is acceptable and 50mm total settlement is tolerable for the same
structures.

2. Uniform foundation settlement

When foundation settlement occurs at nearly the same rate throughout all portions of
a building, it is called uniform settlement.
If all parts of a building rest on the same kind of soil, then uniform settlement the
most probable type to take place.
Similarly, when loads on the building and the design of its structural system are
uniform throughout, the anticipated settlement would be uniform type.
Commonly, uniform settlement has small detrimental influence on the building safety.
However, it influences utility of the building for example damaging sewer; water
supply; and mains and jamming doors and windows.
Difference between uniform and differential settlement is shown in Fig. 3.12.

3.2.5.2 Foundation settlement causes

1. Direct causes
The direct cause of foundation settlement is the weight of building including dead
load and live load.

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2. Indirect causes
Failure of collapsible soil underground infiltration
Yielding of excavation done adjacent to foundation
Failure of underground tunnels and mines
Collapse of cavities of limestone
Undermining of foundation while flood
Earthquake induced settlement
Finally, due to extraction of ground water and oil.

Fig. 3.12- Difference between uniform and differential settlement

3.2.5.3 Components of Total Settlement of Foundations

1. Immediate settlement
It is also called short term settlement.
Immediate settlement take place mostly in coarse grained soils of high permeability
and in unsaturated fine-grained soils of low permeability.
Lastly, it occurs over short period of time which about 7 days. So, it ends during
construction time.

2. Primary settlement
It also termed as primary consolidation
Take place over long period of time that ranges from 1 to 5 years or more
Primary settlement frequently occurs in saturated inorganic fine grain soil.
Expulsion of water from pores of saturated fine grain soil is the cause of primary
settlement.

3. Secondary settlement
Secondary settlement is the consolidation of soil under constant effective stress.
Frequently, it occurs in organic fine grain soil.
It continues over the life span of foundation structure similar to creep in concrete.

3.2.5.4 Remedies for Foundation Failure due to Settlement

Use of pile foundations where the soil is shrinkable, so that forces are transferred to
the hard strata or rock.
Taking the foundation levels down to avoid foundation on shrinkable soils.
The vegetation is removed from the construction site and its roots are removed. Any
cavity due to roots of vegetation shall be compacted and filled with concrete.
65
 Presence of any mining areas needs to be inspected and professional help shall be
taken while construction new buildings in such areas.
It shall be ensured that such soils are adequately compacted before construction
begins on them. The foundation depth shall be increased to the hard strata or rock
below the filled soil or pile foundations shall be used to prevent subsidence of
foundation.

Exercise
Q1 Describe the construction steps of building.
Q2 Explain the types of building according to (a) execution method (b) construction design
(c) use
Q3 Describe the various components of a building.
Q4 Explain the different types of load acting on the structure.
Q5 What are the functions of foundation?
Q6 Explain the different types of foundation with neat sketches.
Q7 What are the requirements of a good foundation?
Q8 What are the objectives of site investigation?
Q9 Describe the various steps in site investigation.
Q10 Explain the various methods of soil exploration.
Q11 Explain the standard penetration test.
Q12 Describe the cone penetration test.
Q13 Explain the various types of foundation settlement.
Q14 Describe the causes of foundation settlement.
Q15 What are the components of total settlement of foundations?
Q16 What remedies should be taken to avoid foundation failure due to settlement?

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 UNIT-IV

4.1 Introduction of Brick Masonry

The art of laying bricks in mortar in a proper systematic manner gives homogeneous mass
which can withstand forces without disintegration, called brick masonry. This bond is weak
in strength but it is economical.

Materials and equipment used in brick masonry construction include Bricks, Mortar
Mix, Tape measure, Hammer, Hose (level or theodolite), Trowel Level, Wheel
barrow, Goggles, Jointer and other equipment according to project and personal
preferences.
Different types of mortar can be used in the brick masonry works that include Cement
mortar, Lime mortar, Cement-lime mortar, Lime surkhi mortar and Mud mortar.

4.2 Types of bricks

There are different types of brick (Fig. 4.1) used in the construction of brick masonry which
include, Common Burnt Clay Bricks, Concrete Bricks, Sand Lime Bricks (Calcium Silicate
Bricks), Fly ash Clay Bricks, Engineering Bricks and Other Brick Types include bullnose,
channel, coping, cow nose and hollow bricks.

Fig. 4.1-Types of masonry bricks

4.2.1 Burnt Clay Bricks

Burnt bricks are good quality bricks but however they also consist some defected bricks. So,
burnt bricks are classified into four types and they are
First class bricks
These bricks are good quality bricks compared to other classes. They are molded by table-
molding and burnt in large kilns. So, these bricks contain standard shape, sharp edges and
smooth surfaces. They are more durable and having more strength. They can be used for
permanent structures. However, because of their good properties they are costly than other.

Second Class Bricks

67
Second class bricks are moderate quality bricks and they are molded by ground-molding
process. These bricks are also burnt in kilns. But because of ground molding, they do not
have smooth surfaces as well as sharp edges. The shape of bricks also irregular due to
unevenness in ground. These also will give best results in strength and durability. Smooth
plastering is required on the brick structure.

Third Class Bricks

Third class bricks are poor quality bricks which are generally used for temporary structures
like unburnt bricks. These are not suitable for rainy areas. They are ground-molded type
bricks and burnt in clamps. The surface of this type of bricks are rough and they have unfair
edges.

Fourth Class Bricks

Fourth class bricks are very poor quality bricks and these are not used as bricks in the
structure. They are crushed and used as aggregates in the manufacturing of concrete. They are
obtained by over burning, because of this they gets overheated and obtains brittle nature. So,
they can break easily and not suitable for construction purpose.

4.2.2 Fly Ash Bricks

Fly ash bricks are manufactured using fly ash and water. These bricks have better properties
than clay bricks and great resistant to freeze thaw cycles. These bricks contains high
concentration of calcium oxide which is used in cement production, thus it is also called as
self-cementing brick. Fly ash bricks are lightweight and thus it reduces self-weight of
structures.
 The advantages of fly ash bricks over clay bricks are that they have high fire
insulation, high strength, uniform sizes for better joints and plaster, lower water
penetration, does not require soaking before use in masonry construction.

4.2.3 Concrete Bricks

Concrete bricks are manufacturing using concrete with ingredients as cement, sand, coarse
aggregates and water. These bricks can be manufactured in sizes as required.
 The advantages of using concrete bricks over clay bricks are that they can be
manufactured at construction site, reduces quantity of mortar required, can be
manufactured to provide different colors as pigmented during its production.
 Concrete bricks are used for construction of masonry and framed buildings, facades,
fences, and provide an excellent aesthetic presence.

4.2.4 Engineering Bricks

Engineering bricks have high compressive strength and are used special applications where
strength, frost resistance, acid resistance, low porosity is required. These bricks are
commonly used for basements where chemical or water attacks are prevalent and for damp
proof courses.

4.2.5 Sand Lime or Calcium Silicate Bricks

Calcium silicate bricks are made of sand and lime and popularly known as sand lime bricks.
These bricks are used for several purposes in construction industries such as ornamental
works in buildings, masonry works etc.

68
4.3 Identification of Bricks Quality at Construction Site
To build a good quality structure, observing quality of materials is important. Here we
discuss about how good bricks are identified at construction site.
1 The color of bricks should be bright and uniform.
2 They should be well burned and having smooth surfaces and sharp edges.
3 Thermal conductivity of bricks should be less and they should be sound proof.
4 They shouldn’t absorb more than 20% by weight when we placed it in water.
5 When we struck two bricks together, ringing sound should be delivered.
6 Structure of bricks should be homogeneous and uniform.
7 The bricks should not break when we dropped it form 1m height.
8 There should not be any scratch left on the brick when we scratched with finger nail.
9 There should not be any white deposits on brick, when we soaked it in water for 24
hrs.

4.4 Properties of Bricks

Following are the properties of bricks which represents the importance of bricks in
construction. i. Hardness ii. Compressive strength iii. Absorption

4.4.1 Hardness of Bricks

A good quality brick will have resistance against abrasion. This property is called hardness of
brick which helps to give permanent nature of brick structure. Because of this property bricks
do not damaged by scraping.

4.4.2 Compressive strength of Bricks

Compressive strength or crushing strength is the property of brick which represent the
amount of load carried by brick per unit area. According to BIS the minimum compressive
strength of brick should be 3.5N/mm2. Crushing strength of bricks reduced when they are
soaked in water.
Crushing strength of Bricks Grades
7 – 14 N/mm2 Class A
2
>14N/mm Class AA

4.4.3 Absorption of Bricks

Bricks are generally absorbs water but having limits. Absorption limit percentage by weight
for different classes of bricks is tabulated below.
Class of Bricks Water Absorption % by weight
Heavy duty bricks (special made) Only 5%
First class 20%
Second class 22%
Third class 25%

4.5 Brick Masonry Construction Procedure

 Initially, mix the mortar with water and blend it until a smooth and plastic mortar is
produced.
 After that, place the mortar on foundation line evenly using trowel (25mm thickness
and one brick wide is recommended for laid mortar).

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  Then, lay the first course of stretcher bricks in the mortar. Start with second brick,
apply mortar to the head joint end of each brick, after that shove the bricks into place
firmly so that the mortar is squeezed out of all side of the joints.
 Utilize a level to examine the course for correct height. Ensure that bricks are plumb
and level.
 Place another mortar line alongside the first course, then begin laying the second
course.
 Use the two half bricks to begin the second to ensure that the first two courses are
staggered for structural purposes.
 To finish the second course of the lead, lay three header bricks and make sure that
they are plumb and level.
 The third and fifth courses consists of stretchers similar to the first course. The fourth
course begins with single header, followed by stretchers. Use the level to make sure
that the lead is true on each course. Lastly, this pattern of brick laying is used till the
target height is reached.

4.6 Bonds in Brick Work

Types of bonds in brick masonry wall construction are classified based on laying and bonding
style of bricks in walls. The bonds in brick masonry is developed by the mortar filling
between layers of bricks and in grooves when bricks are laid adjacent to each other and in
layers in walls. The most commonly used types of bonds in brick masonry are as follows.

4.6.1 Stretcher bond

Longer narrow face of the brick is called as stretcher as shown in the elevation of Fig.
4.12 below. Stretcher bond, also called as running bond, is created when bricks are
laid with only their stretchers showing, overlapping midway with the courses of
bricks below and above.
Stretcher bond in the brick is the simplest repeating pattern. But the limitation of
stretcher bond is that it cannot make effective bonding with adjacent bricks in full
width thick brick walls. They are suitably used only for one-half brick thick walls
such as for the construction half brick thick partition wall.
Walls constructed with stretcher bonds are not stable enough to stand alone in case of
longer span and height. Thus they Then need supporting structure such as brick
masonry columns at regular intervals.
Stretcher bonds are commonly used in the steel or reinforced concrete framed
structures as the outer facing. These are also used as the outer facing of cavity walls.
Other common applications of such walls are the boundary walls, gardens etc.

Fig. 4.2- Stretcher Bond

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4.6.2 Header bond
Header is the shorter square face of the brick which measures 9cm x 9cm. Header bond is
also known as heading bond. In header bonds, all bricks in each course are placed as headers
on the faces of the walls. While Stretcher bond is used for the construction of walls of half
brick thickness whereas header bond is used for the construction of walls with full brick
thickness which measures 18cm. In header bonds, the overlap is kept equal to half width of
the brick. To achieve this, three quarter brick bats are used in alternate courses as quoins as
shown in Fig. 4.3.

Fig. 4.3- Header bond

4.6.3 English Bond

English bond in brick masonry has one course of stretcher only and a course of header above
it, i.e. it has two alternating courses of stretchers and headers. Headers are laid centered on
the stretchers in course below and each alternate row is vertically aligned.
To break the continuity of vertical joints, quoin closer is used in the beginning and end of a
wall after first header. A quoin close is a brick cut lengthwise into two halves and used at
corners in brick walls as shown in Fig. 4.4.

Fig. 4.4- English Bond – Isometric View

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4.6.4 Flemish Bond
For the breaking of vertical joints in the successive courses, closers are inserted in
alternate courses next to the quoin header. In walls having their thickness equal to odd
number of half bricks, bats are essentially used to achieve the bond (Fig. 4.5).
Flemish bond, also known as Dutch bond, is created by laying alternate headers and
stretchers in a single course. The next course of brick is laid such that header lies in the
middle of the stretcher in the course below, i.e. the alternate headers of each course are
centered on the stretcher of course below. Every alternate course of Flemish bond starts
with header at the corner.
The thickness of Flemish bond is minimum one full brick. The disadvantage of using
Flemish bond is that construction of Flemish bond is difficult and requires greater skill to
lay it properly as all vertical mortar joints need to be aligned vertically for best effects.
For the breaking of vertical joints in the successive courses, closers are inserted in
alternate courses next to the quoin header. In walls having their thickness equal to odd
number of half bricks, bats are used to achieve the bond.
Flemish bonds have better appearance but are weaker than English bonds for load bearing
wall construction. Thus, if the pointing has to be done for brick masonry walls, then
Flemish bond may be used for better aesthetic view. If the walls have to be plastered, then
it is better to use English bond.
Flemish bonds are classified as:
 Single Flemish bond is a combination of English bond and Flemish bond. In this type of
construction, the front exposed surface of wall consists of Flemish bond and the back
surface of the wall consists of English bond in each course. Minimum thickness required
for single Flemish bond is one and a half brick thickness. The main purpose of using
single Flemish bond is to provide greater aesthetic appearance on the front surface with
required strength in the brickwork with English bond.
 Double Flemish Bond has the same appearance both in the front and back elevations, i.e.
each course consists of alternate header and stretcher. This type of bonding is
comparatively weaker than English bond.

Fig. 4.5- Flemish Bond

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4.7 Supervision of Brick Work
The points to be observed in supervising brick masonry construction are as following:
 The bricks to be used should fulfil all the requirements of the specification of the
work. The bricks should be sound, hard, burnt well with uniform colour, shape, and
size.

 The bricks should be immersed in fresh water at least for 2 hours before using in
masonry.

 Do not use broken bricks unless they are essential for making good bonds.

 The bricks should be laid on their proper bond. The frog of the bricks should be kept
upward.
 Brick bats should be avoided.

 The thickness of the joints should not exceed 13 mm.

 The masonry walls should be always truly vertical and verticality should be checked
continuously using a plumb bob.

 Brickwork should be raised uniformly. Any part of the masonry should not be raised
more than 90 cm to the rest of the masonry work.

 The work should be raked back in successive courses if it is to be constructed later.

 In masonry work, large voids should not be filled with mortar only. It is
uneconomical.

 Cement mortar should be used to enclose all the iron fixtures of doors and windows.

 To achieve easy and adequate bond for plastering and pointing, the facing mortar
joints should be raked for a depth of 13-19 mm when the mortar in the joint is green.

 The finished brick masonry should be cured at least for 7 days.

 Any brick masonry wall should not be constructed more than 1.5 meters in a day.

 In brick masonry piers, buttresses, counterforts etc. should be constructed along with
the main walls, maintaining a proper bond between them.

 Suitable scaffolding should be used to carry out masonry work at higher levels.

4.8 Defects in Brick Masonry

The most common causes of defects in brick masonry are described below:

4.8.1 Sulphate Attack

Sulphate salts present in brickwork react with alumina content of cement and with hydraulic
lime in the lime mortar causing considerable increase in the volume of mortar. This, in turn
results in chipping and spalling of bricks and formation of cracks in joints and rendering.
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This defect occurs in situations where the brickwork is exposed like boundary walls, parapets
etc. or where it is likely to be in contact with moisture like manholes, retaining walls etc.

This defect can be remedied by adopting suitable construction details and choosing materials
in such a way that entry of moisture into the body of brickwork can be checked.

4.8.2 Crystallization of Salts from Bricks

This defect commonly occurs in masonry made out of bricks which contain excessive soluble
salts. When such bricks come in contact with water, the soluble salts get dissolved and appear
in the form of fine whitish crystals on the surface of brickwork. The phenomenon is also
known as efflorescence.

In this defect, the surface of brickwork gets disfigured and presents an ugly look.
Efflorescence can be remedied by brushing and washing the affected surface repeatedly.

4.8.3 Corrosion of Embedded Iron or Steel

Iron or steel embedded in brickwork gets corroded in the presence of dampness. On
corrosion, the metal expands in volume and tends to crack the brickwork.

This effect can be prevented by encasing the reinforcement or iron member in dense cement
mortar and providing a cover of 15 to 25 mm around the embedded member.

4.8.4 Shrinkage on Drying

Brickwork normally swells with the absorption of water and subsequently shrinks when the
water evaporates. In the process of shrinkage, it develops cracks in the masonry joints. If the
mortar used in the masonry is lean, the cracks are distributed over a large number of joints
and in case of rich mortar, the cracks are few but wider. Such cracks do not affect the
structural strength of the brickwork and can be easily rectified.

This defect can be prevented by using good quality bricks and by protecting masonry from
moisture penetration.

4.9 Strengths of Brick Masonry

A wall or column carrying a compressive load behaves like any other strut, and its load
bearing capacity depends on the compressive strength of the materials, the cross-sectional
area and the geometrical properties as expressed by the slenderness ratio.

The compressive strength of a wall depends on the strength of the units used, the bricks or
blocks, and the mortar. The assessment of the combined strength of the elements will also be
affected by the degree of quality control exercised in manufacture and construction. The
slenderness ratio, in turn, depends upon the effective height (or length) and the effective
thickness of the wall or column.

The strength of brick masonry mainly depends on the strength of bricks that are used in the
construction. The strength of bricks depends on the soil used to make the bricks, method and
making process, burning of bricks. Since the nature of the soil varies from region to region,
the average strength of bricks also varies from region to region.

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 Fig. 4.6- Factors affecting the compressive strength of masonry

The permissible compressive stress of brick masonry depend upon several factors such as,

 Type of bricks (1st class, 2nd class, 3rd class)

 Strength of bricks
 Size and shape of the masonry construction.
 Mix of mortar.
 Uniformity of bricks
 Workmanship.
 The method adopted for laying bricks.

There are some useful checklists which can be applied to increase the strength of brick
masonry.

 Visual check – The bricks to be used should be good quality, burnt well with uniform
shape, size, and colour.
 A metallic ringing sound should be produced when striking two bricks with each
other.
 A good quality brick will not break if dropped from one meter height.
 A good brick should not absorb water more than 20% (By its weight) while
submerged in water for 24 hours.

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4.10 Introduction of Composite Masonry
Composite masonry is defined as the walls constructed from two or more building materials
are termed as composite walls. The combination may be stone slab in the face work and brick
masonry at the backing, or superior stones in the facing with rubble stone masonry at the
backing so on. Composite masonry is adopted to improve the appearance of a structure by
concealing the inferior work by use of superior quality of material in the desired positions.
This results in great saving in cost and, if properly constructed, the structure remains equally
strong and durable. Stones, bricks, concrete and tiles and the materials commonly used in
such constructions.

4.10.1 Reinforced Brick Masonry

Brick work strengthened by introduction of mild steel flats, hoop iron, expanded mesh or bars
is termed as reinforced brick masonry. This reinforced brick masonry is capable of resisting
both compressive as well as tensile and shear stress. On account of its ability to resist lateral
forces, reinforced brick masonry is extensively used in seismic areas. It is essential to use
first class bricks (having crushing strength of 140 kg/sq. cm or more) and rich and dense
cement mortar in the reinforced brick work. The reinforcement should be effectively bedded
and surrounded with mortar cover of 15 to 25 cm. This is necessary to protect the
reinforcement against corrosion.

Fig. 4.7- Sketch showing arrangement of reinforcement in half brick wall

As a matter of practice half brick walls are invariably reinforced by providing 6 to 8 mm dia
bars or hoop iron (less than 8 mm in thickness) at every third or fourth course. Construction
of reinforced brick lintels and roof/floor slabs is also quite common.

Reinforced brick masonry is frequently adopted for the construct ion of retaining walls
especially in places where exposed brick work is necessary from architectural considerations.
It is seen (hat reinforced brick retaining wall upto 4m height works out to be cheaper as
compared with R.C.C. retaining walls. Such a wall is made by using special bricks (having

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grooves for accommodating reinforcing bars) in cement mortar 1:3 and reinforced with
vertical MS rounds placed near each face. Horizontal reinforcement in the form of steel
meshed strips are also provided at every third or fourth course.

Fig. 4.8- Reinforced brick lintel

Fig. 4.9- Reinforced brick column

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4.10.2 Stone composite masonry
Stone masonry has been in use in many places from ancient times. Where stones are easily
available, random rubble work will be cheaper than plastered brickwork. Where the
groundwater level is high, and bricks are liable to deteriorate, random rubber work is
preferred even today for foundation work. The sizes of stones used in stone masonry work
depend on the type of masonry. The stones should not be larger than what can be handled and
placed by one person. Stone masonry can be classified broadly into two main groups:

4.10.2.1 Rubble masonry

Rubble masonry is made of stone as obtained from the quarry with very little or no dressing.
There are many types of rubble masonry, but the more commonly known ones are the
following three according to the CPWD Specification 77:

(i) Random rubble masonry

Random rubble masonry is the first variety of stone masonry. Stones are arranged at random
in Random Rubble Masonry. The minimum thickness of random rubble work that can be
constructed with great care is 225 mm (9″) and with ease 300 mm (1 ft). The offsets to be
provided in rubble masonry construction have to be 75 mm (3 inches) on either side. Work
for footings has to be adjusted to these sites. Random rubble masonry is the roughest type of
stone masonry. The stones used are quarried in such a manner and of such sizes so that they
can be lifted and placed by hand. It is only hammer-dressed on the face, the side, and the
beds. The bushing in the face should not project more than 40 mm on an exposed face and 10
mm on a face to be plastered. Its appearance will be as shown in Fig. 4.10.
The mortar for this masonry is 1:5 up to 1:8. The mortar for plaster should be 1:3 or 1:4. The
stones are laid on their natural bed on a full even bed of mortar. Every stone is carefully fitted
to the adjacent stone so as to form neat and close joints. Stones should be wetted before being
placed. Stonework should be brought to a level at window sills and roof level
with concrete made of one part of mortar not leaner than that used in the masonry and two
parts of graded stone of 20 mm nominal size.
They should not be less than 125 mm in height and should be hammer-dressed. These should
break joints as much as possible. The hearting or interior tilling of the wall should consist of
rubble stones which may be of any shape but not less than 125 mm in size.
These are laid carefully and hammered down with a wooden mallet into the position and
solidly bedded in mortar. Chips and spalls of stones are used, if needed, to avoid thick mortar
beds.
The hearting should be nearly level with the facing. Where the masonry of one part has to be
delayed, the work is sloped at an angle, not more than 45 degrees. Toothing of stonework for
joins is not recommended. A sufficient number of bond stones which are long enough to
extend the full thickness of the wall as specified in Fig. 4.10 should be used in random rubble
work.
Joints should be fully packed with mortar and chips. Face joints should not be more than 20
mm thick. The face can be left as built, pointed or plastered. If pointing or plastering is to be
done, the joints should be raked to a minimum depth of 20 mm by a raking tool (as in
brickwork), when the mortar is still green.
Single scaffolding with one set of vertical legs is allowed for the construction of these walls
of adequate thickness. Such holes are later filled with a properly sized stone or with cement
concrete 1:3:6 with 20 mm aggregates.

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The walls are to be cured for a minimum period of seven days, the fresh work being protected
from rain and sun. Their appearance (plain and pointed masonry) will be as shown in Fig.
4.10.

Fig. 4.10- Random rubble masonry

(ii) Coursed rubble masonry of the first sort

This is the second type of rubble masonry and is built in courses (not random). In this type of
work, the stones on both faces are hammer-dressed on all the beds and joints so as to give
them approximately rectangular block shape. This type of rubble masonry should be squared
on all joints and beds, and the bed joints shall be rough chisel dressed for at least 80 mm back
from the face. Stones are set in regular courses. The height of the course should not be less
than 150 mm. Work on the interior face is to be the same as on the exterior face. Similarly,
the side joints are dressed for at least 40 mm so that no portion of the dressed surface is more
than 6 mm from a straight edge placed on it.
The hammer-dressed stones should have rough tooling for a minimum width of 25 mm along
the four exposed edges of the face of the stone. The bushing on the face should not project
more than 40 mm on an exposed face and 10 mm on a face to be plastered.
The percentage of stone chips used should not exceed 10% of the total stones used for the
masonry. In general, the work is carried out using the same mortar as in random rubble work.
Its appearance when finished will be as shown in Fig. 4.11(a).

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(iii) Coursed rubble masonry of the second sort
This is the third type of rubble masonry and is also built in courses. It is inferior to the
coursed rubble masonry of the first sort but will look similar. No portion of the dressed
surface should be more than 10 mm from a straight edge placed on it.
In this type of work, the face joints should not exceed 20 mm in thickness (10 mm in the first
sort). Thus, the joints are allowed to be thicker than those in the first sort. Its appearance is
shown in Fig. 4.11(b).
This type of work is more expensive than random rubble work but cheaper than course rubble
of the first sort. The percentage of chips used is not to exceed 15% of the quantity of stones in
the masonry.

Fig. 4.11- Coursed rubble masonry

4.10.2.2 Ashlar Masonry

Ashlar masonry is also known as cut stone masonry. Ashlar masonry is laid with carefully-
dressed stones and will look like brickwork in stone. Though ashlar work, if properly
constructed, is very strong and beautiful, however, it is very expensive.
Ashlar masonry is divided into the following types:

(i) Plain ashlar masonry (rough-tooled and fine-tooled)

(ii) Chamfered (also called punched) ashlar masonry (rough-tooled and fine-tooled).

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Both are similar in all respects except that the chamfered ashlar masonry will have joints
beveled at a 45° angle to a depth of 25 mm. Rough tooled ashlar masonry will have a chisel
dressing 2.5 mm wide all around the edges and shall be roughly tooled between the drafts so
that the dressed surface will not be more than 3 mm from a straight edge placed over it. Its
appearance will be as shown in Fig. 4.12. In the fine tooled work the face will be fine tooled.
In constructing ashlar work, the stones should be covered with gunny bags before ropes are
passed over it for lifting so that the stone edges are not damaged. It should be noted that in
the most dressed stonework, the stones in each course are laid as alternate headers and
stretchers as shown in Fig. 4.12. The headers on alternate courses should be approximately in
the middle of the stretchers above and below.

Fig. 4.12- Ashlar stone masonry (All dimensions in mm)

We have seen that the difference between rubble and ashlar masonry is that;
In ashlar masonry, every stone must be cut to the required size and shape to give truly vertical
and horizontal joints. No point on the faces should vary more than about 1 mm when tested
with a 60 cm straight edge. Horizontal lines should not vary more than 3 mm and vertical
lines more than 6 mm. This dressing makes ashlar masonry costlier than rubble masonry. In
short, the completed work will look like”brickwork” in stone. The two types of ashlar
masonry are: plain and chamfered. They can be either rough tooled or fine tooled.

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4.10.2.3 Brick-stone composite masonry

This type of work is executed in many places for its beauty. In these works, the face stone of
ashlar in each course is laid as alternate courses of headers and stretchers unless stated
otherwise.
Face stones and bond stones must break joints in the face for at least half the height of the
standard course, and bond stones should be carefully maintained throughout.
Work on all the connected walls should be carried out at one level throughout, but where
breaks are unavoidable, the joint must be made in good long steps so as to prevent the
development of cracks.

Fig. 4.13- Brick-stone composite masonry

4.10.2.4 Concrete block masonry

Concrete block masonry which is also known as concrete masonry unit (CMU) have
advantages over brick and stone masonry. Concrete blocks are manufactured in required
shape and sizes and these may be solid or hollow blocks. The common size of concrete
blocks is 39cm x 19cm x (30cm or 20 cm or 10cm) or 2 inch, 4 inch, 6 inch, 8 inch, 10 inch
and 12-inch unit configurations.

Cement, aggregate, water is used to prepare concrete blocks. The cement-aggregate ratio in
concrete blocks is 1:6. Aggregate used is of 60% fine aggregate and 40% coarse aggregate.
Their Minimum strength is about 3N/mm2. ASTM C-90-91 specifies the compressive
strength requirements of concrete masonry units.

Depending upon the structure, shape, size and manufacturing processes concrete blocks are
mainly classified into two types and they are Solid concrete blocks and Hollow concrete
blocks.

Solid Concrete Blocks

Solid concrete blocks are commonly used, which are heavy in weight and manufactured from
dense aggregate. They are very strong and provides good stability to the structures. So for
large work of masonry like for load bearing walls these solid blocks are preferable. They are
available in large sizes compared to bricks. So, it takes less time to construct concrete
masonry than brick masonry.

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 Fig. 4.14- Solid Concrete Blocks

Hollow Concrete Blocks

Hollow concrete blocks contains void area greater than 25% of gross area. Solid area of
hollow bricks should be more than 50%. The hollow part may be divided into several
components based on our requirement. They are manufactured from lightweight aggregates.
They are light weight blocks and easy to install. Types of Hollow Concrete Blocks include
Stretcher block, Corner block, Pillar block, Jamb block, Partition block, Lintel block,
Frogged brick block, Bull nose block.

Concrete Stretcher Blocks

Concrete stretcher blocks are used to join the corner in the masonry. Stretcher blocks are
widely used concrete hollow blocks in construction. They are laid with their length parallel to
the face of the wall.

Fig. 4.15- Concrete Stretcher Blocks

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Concrete Corner Blocks
Corner blocks are used at the ends or corners of masonry. The ends may be window or door
openings etc. they are arranged in a manner that their plane end visible to the outside and
other end is locked with the stretcher block.

Fig. 4.16- Concrete Corner Blocks

Concrete Pillar Blocks

Pillar block is also called as double corner block. Generally these are used when two ends of
the corner are visible. In case of piers or pillars these blocks are widely used.

Fig. 4.17- Concrete Pillar Blocks

Jamb Concrete Blocks

Jamb blocks are used when there is an elaborated window opening in the wall. They are
connected to stretcher and corner blocks. For the provision of double hung windows, jamb
blocks are very useful to provide space for the casing members of window.

Fig.4.18-Jamb Concrete Blocks

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Partition Concrete Block
Partition concrete blocks are generally used to build partition walls. Partition blocks have
larger height than its breadth. Hollow part is divided into two to three components in case of
partition blocks.

Fig.4.19-Partition Concrete Block

Lintel Blocks
Lintel block or beam block is used for the purpose of provision of beam or lintel beam. Lintel
beam is generally provided on the top portion of doors and windows, which bears the load
coming from top. Concrete lintel blocks have deep groove along the length of block as shown
in figure. After placing the blocks, this groove is filled with concrete along with
reinforcement.

Fig.4.20-Lintel Blocks
Frogged Brick Blocks
Frogged brick block contains a frog on its top along with header and stretcher like frogged
brick. This frog will helps the block to hold mortar and to develop the strong bond with top
laying block.

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 Fig.4.21-Frogged Brick Blocks
Bullnose Concrete Block
Bullnose blocks are similar to corner blocks. Their duties also same but when we want
rounded edges at corner bullnose bricks are preferred.

Fig.4.22-Bullnose Concrete Block

4.10.2.5 Hollow clay block masonry

This clay hollow blocks are an innovation in the construction industry. The weight of this
particular hollow blocks is 60% lesser than the cement block of the same size. By using this
hollow blocks you can save Rs 5 / Sq. ft in your construction in the structural cost.

Fig. 4.22- Hollow clay blocks

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Weight of hollow bricks:
 16 x 4 x 8 (Inches) ~ 06.4 Kg
 16 x 6 x 8 (Inches) ~ 08.9 Kg
 16 x 8 x 8 (Inches) ~ 11.2 Kg
The Main Attractions of this brick is
 60% less weight than a solid concrete block ,
 Compressive strength >35 kg/cm2 ,
 Density of approx. 694 - 783 kg/m3 ,
 Large size & low weight, Excellent thermal insulation
 Water absorption <20%
Due to the above reasons you can have the following advantages
 Reduction of dead loads
 Saving on structural costs
 Faster construction

4.11 Damp Proofing of Buildings

Damp proofing or a Damp-Proof in construction is a type of moisture control applied to
building walls and floors to prevent moisture from passing into the interior spaces. Dampness
problems are among the most frequent problems encountered in residences.

Damp proofing is defined by the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) as a
material that resists the passage of water with no hydrostatic pressure and waterproof as a
treatment that resists the passage of water under pressure. Generally, damp proofing keeps
moisture out of a building where vapor barriers keep interior moisture from getting into
walls. Moisture resistance is not necessarily absolute; it is usually defined by a specific test
method, limits, and engineering tolerances.

Damp proofing is accomplished several ways including damp-proof course (DPC), damp-
proof membrane (DPM), integral damp proofing, surface suppressant coating, cavity wall
construction etc.

4.11.1 Damp-Proof Course

Damp proof course (DPC) is generally applied at basement levels which restricts the
movement of moisture through walls and floors. An effective damp proofing material should
have the following properties;
 It should be impervious.
 It should be strong and durable, and should be capable of withstanding both dead as
well as live loads without damage.
 It should be dimensionally stable.
 It should be free from deliquescent salts like sulphates, chlorides and nitrates.

The materials commonly used to check dampness can be divided into the following three
categories:
(1) Flexible Materials: Materials like bitumen felts (which may be hessian based or
fiber/glass fiber based), plastic sheeting (polythene sheets) etc.
(2) Semi-rigid Materials: Materials like mastic, asphalt, or combination of materials or
layers.
(3) Rigid Materials: Materials like first class bricks, stones, slate, cement concrete etc.

87
The choice of material to function as an effective damp proof course requires a judicious
selection. It depends upon the climate and atmospheric conditions, nature of structure and the
situation where DPC is to be provided.

4.11.2 Damp-Proof Membrane

A damp-proof membrane (DPM) is a membrane material applied to prevent moisture
transmission. A common example is polyethylene sheeting laid under a concrete slab to
prevent the concrete from gaining moisture through capillary action. A DPM may be used for
the DPC.

4.11.3 Integral Damp Proofing

Integral damp proofing in concrete involves adding materials to the concrete mix to make the
concrete itself impermeable.

4.11.4 Surface Suppressant Coating

Surface suppressant coating with thin water proof materials such as epoxy resin for resistance
to non-pressurized moisture such as rain water or a coating of cement sprayed on such as
shotcrete which can resist water under pressure.

4.11.5 Cavity Wall Construction

Cavity wall construction, such as rain screen construction, is where the interior walls are
separated from the exterior walls by a cavity.

4.12 Termite Proofing of Buildings

Termites are also known as white ants. Termite proofing is the treatment given to a building,
to control or prevent the termite growth in the building. The termites enter into buildings
through cracks, walls, pipes and floor joints etc. Once termites developed in the building area,
it is very difficult and costly to finish.

Termite control in buildings is very important as the damage likely to be caused by the
termites is huge. Wood is one of the cellulosic materials which termites damage, cellulose
forming their basic nutrient. They also damage materials of organic origin with a cellulosic
base, household articles like furniture, furnishings, clothings, stationery, etc. Termites are
also known to darnage non-cellulosic substances in their search for food. Rubber, leather,
plastics, neoprene as well as lead coating used for covering of underground cables are
damaged by termites. The widespread damage by termites, high constructional cost of
buildings have necessitated evolving suitable measures for preventing access of termites to
buildings.

On the basis of their habitat, termites are divided into two types, namely (a) Subterranean or
ground nesting termites, and (b) Non-subterranean or wood nesting termites having no
contact with soil. The subterranean termites are most destructive and are mainly responsible
for the damage caused in buildings. Typically, they form nests or colonies underground in the
soil, near ground level in a stump or in other suitable piece of timber, and some species may
construct a conical or dome shaped mound. These colonies may persist for many years and,
as they mature, contain a population running into millions.

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Preventions:
a. To prevent the growth of termites, it is essential to use superior quality of
material and good workmanship.

b. The building site should be cleared off all old tree stumps and dead wood etc.

c. The wooden material like door frames etc. should properly be treated.

Methods of Termite Treatments:

(1) Pre-construction treatment:

Site preparation: All the waste wood, grass, strumps, roots etc. lying buried or on the surface
are to be removed.

Treatment of excavated foundation trenches:

The bottom and sides of trenches up to a height of about 300 mm should be treated by
applying insecticide solution (i.e. 4 litres of water with .25% to .5% of aldrin by weight or
0.25% to .5% of Heptachlor by weight) at the rate 5 litres/m2 of the surface area.

Treatment of back-fill soil:

The back-fill used to fill the trenches after the masonry walls are constructed, should be
treated with .5% of aldrin or .5% of Heptachlor by might. Solution should be applied on the
vertical surface of the foundation masonry at the rate of 7.5% lit/m2. If the foundation is
made of R.C.C., the treatment should be started at a depth about 0.5 m below ground level
and the solution in the back fill at the rate of 7.5% lit/m2 of vertical surface to be given.

Treatment of filling at plinth level:

Prior to laying of sub-grade for ground floor, the top surface often consolidated earth filling
should be sprinkled with .5% of Aldrin/ Heptachlor at the rate of 5 lit/m2.

Treatment of soil along the external periphery:

The solution of .5% Aldring/Heptachlor can be injected @ 2.25 lit per metre by 12 mm
diameter of 300 mm deep holes at 150 mm c/c distances.
If there is apron all along the external wall, then the chemical solution laid on consolidated
earth under the apron @ 5 lit/m2.

(2) Post construction Treatment:

Soil treatment of foundation: – For this dig a trench about .5 m deep all along the wall drives
15 mm diameter holes in the trench at 150 mm c/c. The holes are to be filled with chemical
solution. (.5% of aldrin/.5% of Heptachlor) at the rate 7.5 lit/m2 of vertical surface of the
wall.

Soil treatment under floor:

All the joints/cracks of floor with walls, can be treated by drilling 12 mm dia. Holes @ 300
mm c/c all along joints and filled with the chemical solution and then the face of the holes to
be sealed.

Treatment of voids in masonry:

Drill 12 mm holes at 300 mm c/c and fill with the solution.

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4.13 Fire Protection of Buildings
Fire safety and property protection systems for buildings requires knowledge and
understanding of hazards to decrease the potential fire occurrence and its risk to life and
property during fire.

Importance of Fire Safety and Property Protection Systems for Buildings

 When fire is occurred, injury and death might be due to asphyxiation from poisons
fume and smoke, burns from direction exposure to the fire, heart attacks because of
stress and exertion, impact resulted from structural collapse, explosions, and falls.
 Not only does the life safety and property protection influenced by the design of the
structure and its fire protection measure but also, they affected by construction
material quality, maintenance and building content.
 Balanced design depends on three complementary systems to decrease the danger of
death and risk to property as a consequent of fire.
 The three systems are a detection system to warn occupants of fire, a contaminant
system to limit or restrict the extent of fire, and an automatic suppression system to
control the fire until it can be extinguished.
 These systems of balanced design complement each other by adding fire resistance
feature which is not offered by other components. Moreover, some balanced design
component features are redundant which mean if a certain part is failed the other part
will offer fire safety.
 In addition to apply an excellent physical balanced design for fire safety, a perfect
education and training program need to be integrated with fire safety plan.

Fire Safety and Property Protection Systems for Buildings

4.13.1 Automatic Detection of Fire

 The first and most important measure against fire, which is slow with smoke but
without fire and low heat that does not activate sprinkler head, is an exact early
warning.
 From life safety point of view, detectors are substantially significant because they
warn occupants close to the source of the fire to run away.
 To alert fire department, alarm systems could be installed to decline reaction time of
firefighters, increase the speed of rescue operation, and restricting the spread of fire
and structural damages.
 If detectors are fixed at corridors and connected to central alarm, the evacuation of the
whole occupant will be easy and potential injury and death will be reduced. Smoke
sensing fire detector is the most usual detector that employed for early warning.
 Generally, detectors need to be connected to continuous power supply and should
have a battery as a backup for the case where power is failed.
 Automatic detector location is specified based on general building code requirements.
In residential building, detectors should be provided in all sleeping rooms, areas
adjacent to sleeping rooms, and on all level of the building including the basement.

 The selection of suitable detectors is based on number of storeys, obstruction rooms,
amount of air movement, and other factors.


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 The installed detectors are vulnerable to various unanticipated malfunctions for
example lack of maintenance because of human neglect, faulty of power supply, and
act of sabotage.

Fig.4.23: Automatic Fire Detection System in Buildings

Fig.2.24: Installed Automatic Fire Detection System

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4.13.2 Automatic suppression of Fire in Buildings
 The purpose of automatic sprinkler system is to control fire at its origin. Despite that
fact that residential sprinkler is not produced to extinguish fire, but it is dependable
and influential in limiting the fire source in the room until it can be stopped
completely.
 Automatic sprinkler can reduce the possibility of flashover that can be dangerous
event. Not only does the fire suppression permits access to building to help occupants
out of dangerous area but also allows the continuation of fire suppression.
 The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) recommends minimum standard for
sprinkler system design and installation. Standard for the installation of sprinkler
systems (NFPA-13) involves sprinkler system for general utilization while standard
for the installation of sprinkler systems in residential occupancies up to and including
four stories in height (NFPA 13R) covers residential applications.
 If large amount of combustible content is present in building, then the NFPA 13
should be followed without storey height consideration so as to guarantee the
protection of storage rooms, closets, and other concealed closed areas constructed
with combustible materials.
 The design, installation, testing, and maintenance of sprinkler systems are dealt with
by NFPA standards. Clearly, effective and influential sprinkler head needs sufficient
water supply and piping system to supply adequate water to the sprinkler head.
 The standard determines areas or rooms which are not needed to be sprinkled. After
the completion of sprinkler installation, based on standards, inspection and acceptance
of piping valves, pumps, and tanks of the system.
 Insufficient maintenance and improper water supply lead to poor performance of the
sprinkler.

Fig.4.25: Automatic Fire Suppression System in Kitchen

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 Fig.4.26: Installed Fire Suppression System in Residential Building

4.13.3 Compartmentation of Buildings

 Compartmentation restricts the spread of fire by dividing the building into
compartment areas surrounded by fire walls and by fire rating floors and ceilings.
Added to that, the spread of smokes and poisons fumes to adjacent areas of the
building is limited by compartments.
 Large and destructive fire beyond compartments is avoided by restricting total
fuel load increasing the fire.
 Not only do compartments provide a safe place for occupants for whom unable to
escape such as elderly and handicapped but also safe refuge areas for long time
when the fire are blocked or filled with smokes.
 Until the fire is controlled, compartments work to contain the fire. Each concrete
or masonry walls that construct compartments walls need to have adequate fire
resistant rating and need to have the capability of protecting structural integrity of
the building during fire. In multifamily housing, it is recommended that each room
constructed in such a way that works as a separate compartment.
 Added to that, storage rooms, electrical rooms, mechanical rooms, and interior
exist ways must work as separate compartments. It is required to fire rat exterior
walls because not only does it prevent the exterior fire penetration but also control
interior fire.
 If joints between floors and walls, exterior curtain wall, or between ceilings and
walls are not adequately fire protected, the Compartmentation effect is decreased.
 These weakness points in the compartment boundary need to be dealt with
properly to avoid fire movement. It is substantially significant to seal and repair
damages occurred because of equipments, abuse, or utility installation to eliminate
smoke and gas passage.
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 Fig.4.27: Compartmentation of Building to Prevent the Spread of Fire

4.13.4 Property Protection Systems for Buildings

 The initial cost of installing fire safety can be quite large but it can be offset by
advantage which obtained by applying balanced design. The possible loss thus fire
can be decreased by providing high protection level for structures and its contents.
Fire and smoke damages to the contents of the building is restricted by balanced
design.
 The compartment boundary which is not combustible limit structural damages and
substantially decrease the repair time after the fire. Generally, the repair is
nonstructural and possibly it involves the replacement of doors, windows, switches,
electrical outlet, wiring, heating ducts, and covers of floors, walls, and ceilings.

Exercise

Q1 Explain brick masonry.

Q2 Explain the different types of bricks.
Q3 Explain the different types of bonds in brick work.
Q4 How would you carry out the supervision of brick work? Explain in detail.
Q5 Explain various defects in brick masonry.
Q6 Describe the strengths of brick masonry.
Q7 Define the composite masonry.
Q8 Explain the reinforced brick masonry.
Q9 Describe the stone composite masonry.
Q10 Explain the brick-stone composite masonry.
Q11 Describe the concrete block masonry.
Q12 Explain the hollow clay block masonry.
Q13 Explain damp proofing of buildings.
Q14 Explain the various methods of damp proofing of buildings.
Q15 Explain the various methods of termite proofing of buildings.
Q16 How would you carry out the fire protection of buildings? Explain in detail.

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 UNIT-V

5.1 Types of walls

Wall is a structure defining an exact area and providing safety & shelter. There are various
types of walls used in the construction of buildings given below.

5.1.1 Load Bearing Wall

It carries loads imposed on it from beams and slabs above including its own weight and
transfer it to the foundation. These walls supports structural members such as beams, slabs
and walls on above floors above. It can be exterior wall or interior wall. It braces from the
roof to the floor. Different types of load bearing walls have been described in the subsequent
sections.

5.1.1.1 Precast Concrete Wall

 Aesthetics, cost and speed of

installation – pick any two. That’s
the usual choice owners and
architects face when considering
building materials for their
construction projects.
 Precast concrete wall panels,
however, make all of these
available by offering design
flexibility, time savings and
improved profitability.
 Nearly everywhere you look, new
office buildings, hospitals,
schools, parking garages,
shopping centres and apartments
are taking shape as cities continue
to expand.
 These and other structures look
fantastic clad in precast concrete
wall panels, which offer a
limitless variety of shapes, styles
and colours.

Fig. 5.1- Precast concrete walls

Benefits of Precast

 Precast panels can be produced in virtually any colour and a wide variety of finishes
to achieve the desired appearance.
 Strength gradually increases over time.
 Exterior cladding panels can easily be designed to handle structural building loads,
thereby reducing the need for other structural components.

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  Does not deteriorate, experience creep and stress relaxation, lose strength and/or
deflect over time.
 Precast concrete provides excellent protection against impacts from explosions,
vehicles and projectiles.
 Precast concrete wall panels have passed tornado/hurricane impact testing, giving
owners an added level of safety assurance in areas prone to severe weather.
 Because precast panels are manufactured well in advance of installation, they are
ready for transportation to the job site at a moment’s notice.
 Most panels include embedded connections hardware so they can be erected onto a
steel frame quickly with a limited installation crew.
 Projects utilizing precast can save weeks or months over other materials.
 Because precast concrete products are typically produced in a controlled plant
environment, they exhibit high quality and uniformity.
 Problems affecting quality typically found on a job site – temperature, curing
conditions, craftsmanship and material quality – are nearly eliminated in a plant
environment.
 Precast concrete requires little or no maintenance, which makes it the ideal choice for
nearly any design solution.
 Precast concrete wall panels offer lower long-term costs when compared with other
materials.
 Ease of installation, reduction in overall project timeline and total flexibility in design
make precast the economical solution.

5.1.1.2 Retaining Wall

Retaining wall is a structure that are designed and constructed to withstand lateral pressure of
soil or hold back soil materials. The lateral pressure could be also due to earth filling, liquid
pressure, sand, and other granular materials behind the retaining wall structure. There are
various types of retaining wall structures which are used for numerous goals as described
below.

(1) Gravity Retaining Wall

 Gravity retaining wall depends on its self-
weight only to resist lateral earth pressure.
 Commonly, gravity retaining wall is
massive because it requires significant
gravity load to counter act soil pressure.
 Sliding, overturning, and bearing forces
shall be taken into consideration while
this type of retaining wall structure is
designed.
 It can be constructed from different
materials such as concrete, stone, and
masonry units.
 It is economical for a height up to 3m.
 Crib retaining wall, gabions, and bin Fig. 5.2- Gravity retaining wall
retaining wall are also type of gravity
retaining walls

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(2) Crib Retaining Wall
 Crib retaining walls are a form of
gravity wall.
 They are constructed of
interlocking individual boxes
made from timber or pre-cast
concrete.
 Then, the boxes are filled with
crushed stone or other coarse
granular materials to create a free
draining structure.
 Basic types of crib retaining walls
include reinforced precast, and
timber retaining walls.
 It is suited to support planter Fig. 5.3- Crib retaining wall
areas, but it is not recommended
for support of slopes or structures.

(3) Gabion Retaining Walls

 Gabion retaining wall
walls are multi-celled,
rectangular wire mesh
boxes, which are filled
with rocks or other
suitable materials.
 It is employed for
construction of erosion
control structures.
 It is also used to
stabilize steep slopes.

Fig. 5.4- Gabion retaining wall

(4) Cantilever Retaining Wall

 Cantilever retaining wall composed of stem and base slab

 It is constructed from reinforced concrete, precast concrete, or prestress concrete.
 Cantilever retaining wall is the most common type used as retaining walls.
 Cantilever retaining wall is either constructed on site or prefabricated offsite i.e.
precast.
 The portion of the base slab beneath backfill material is termed as heel, and the other
part is called toe.
 Cantilever retaining wall is economical up to height of 10m.
 It requires smaller quantity of concrete compare with gravity wall but its design and
construction shall be executed carefully.
 Similar to gravity wall, sliding, overturning, and bearing pressure shall be taken into
consideration during its design.

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 Fig.5.5- Cantilever retaining wall

Fig.5.6- Buttressed Retaining Wall

(5) Counter-fort / Buttressed Retaining Wall

 It is a cantilever retaining wall but strengthened with counter forts monolithic with the
back of the wall slab and base slab.
 Counter fort spacing is equal or slightly larger than half of the counter-fort height.
 Counter-fort wall height ranges from 8-12m.

(6) Anchored Retaining Wall

 This type of retaining wall is employed when the space is limited or thin retaining
wall is required.
 Anchored retaining wall is suitable for loose soil over rocks.
 Considerably high retaining wall can be constructed using this type of retaining wall
structure system.
 Deep cable rods or wires are driven deep sideways into the earth, then the ends are
filled with concrete to provide anchor.
 Anchors (tiebacks) acts against overturning and sliding pressure.

Fig.5.7- Anchored Retaining Wall

(7) Piled Retaining Wall

 Pile retaining wall are constructed by driving reinforced concrete piles adjacent to
each other as shown in the Fig.
 Piles are forced into a depth that is sufficient to counter the force which tries to push
over the wall.
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  It is employed in both temporary and permanent works.
 Piled walls offer high stiffness retaining elements which are able to hold lateral
pressure in large excavation depths with almost no disturbance to surrounding
structures or properties.
 Sheet pile walls are built using steel sheets into a slope or excavations up to a required
depth, but it cannot withstand very high pressure
 Sheet pile retaining wall economical till height of 6m

Fig.5.8- Piled Retaining Wall

5.1.1.3 Masonry Wall

 Masonry walls are the most durable part of any building or structure. Masonry is the
word utilized for development with mortar as a coupling material with singular units
of blocks, stones, marbles, rocks, solid squares, tiles, and so forth. Mortar is a blend of
restricting material with sand. Restricting materials can be concrete, lime, soil or any
other constructing materials.
 Professionals do the Masonry projects and the unit works for various purposes. Some
works for building constructions, some makes barriers for boundaries to separate
property line and some make house wall for structural used.
 Masonry walls render strengths, lastingness to the structure and help to maintain
indoor and outdoor temperature as well as it keeps protect the buildings from the
outside world.

5.1.1.4 Pre Panelized Load Bearing Metal Stud Walls

 It is used for building exterior wall cladding. The metal can be stainless steel, copper,
aluminum. It supports gravity, seismic and wind loading.

5.1.1.5 Stone Walls

Stone walls are a kind of masonry construction that has been used for thousands of years. The
first stone walls were constructed by farmers and primitive people by piling loose field stones
into a dry stone wall. Later, mortar and plaster were used, especially in the construction of
city walls, castles, and other fortifications before and during the middle ages. These stone
walls are spread throughout the world in different forms. One of the best example is the
Cyclopean Wall in Rajgir, India.
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Stone walls are usually made of local materials varying from limestone and flint to granite
and sandstone. However, the quality of building stone varies greatly, both in its endurance to
weathering, resistance to water penetration and in its ability to be worked into regular shapes
before construction. Worked stone is usually known as ashlar, and is often used for corners in
stone buildings. Granite is very resistant to weathering, while some limestone are very weak.
Other limestone, such as Portland stone, are more weather-resistant.

Fig.5.7-Pre Panelized Load Bearing Metal Stud

Fig.5.8-Stone Wall

5.1.2 Non Load Bearing Wall

Non-load bearing walls only carry their own weight and does not support any structural
members such as beams and slabs. These walls are just used as partition walls or to separate
rooms from outside. It is known as interior wall (doesn’t carry other load than its own load.
Types of non-load bearing wall include Hollow Concrete Block, Façade Bricks, Hollow
Bricks and Brick Wall (115mm, 225mm).

Fig.5.9- Brick Wall Semi Hollow Brick

Facade Brick Wall

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5.1.3 Cavity Wall
Cavity wall is constructed with two separate walls for single wall purpose with some space or
cavity between them. These two separate walls are called as leaves of cavity wall. The inner
wall is called as internal leaf and outer wall is called as external leaf. Cavity wall is also
called as Hollow wall.

For non-load bearing cavity wall, two leaves are of equal thickness or sometimes internal leaf
with more thickness is provided. The cavity size should be in between 4 to 10cm. The
internal and external leaves should have at least 10 mm thickness. The two leaves are
interconnected by metal ties or links as shown in below figure.

Fig.5.9- Cavity wall

5.1.3.1 Construction of Cavity Wall

 In general, cavity wall doesn’t require any footings under it, just a strong concrete
base is provided on which cavity wall is constructed centrally. Two leaves are
constructed like normal masonry, but minimum cavity must be provided in between
them. The cavity may be filled with lean concrete with some slope at top up to few
centimeters above ground level as shown in Fig.5.10 below.
 Weep holes are provided for outer leaf at bottom with an interval of 1 m. Normal
bricks are used for inner leaf and facing bricks are used for outer leaf. Different
masonry is also used for cavity wall leaves. The leaves are connected by metal ties or
wall ties, which are generally made of steel and are rust proof.
 The maximum horizontal spacing of wall ties is 900mm and maximum vertical
spacing is 450mm. The wall ties are provided in such a way that they do not carry any
moisture from outer leaf to inner leaf.
 For half brick thickness leaves, stretcher bond is provided. And for one brick
thickness or more thickness, English bond or Flemish bonds type constructions are
provided. While laying bricks, care should be taken without filling the cavity with
cement mortar.
 To prevent mortar dropping in cavity, wooden battens are provided in the cavity with
suitable dimensions. These battens are supported on wall ties and whenever the height
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 of next wall tie location is reached, then the battens are removed using wires or ropes
and wall ties are provided.
 Two leaves should be constructed simultaneously. Spacing should be uniform and it is
attained by predetermining the location of wall ties. Damp proof course is provided
for two leaves separately. In case of doors and windows, weep holes are provided
above the damp proof course.

Fig.5.10- construction of cavity wall

5.1.3.2 Advantages of Cavity Walls

Following are the advantages of cavity wall when compared to solid walls.

 Cavity walls give better thermal insulation than solid walls. It is because of the space
provided between two leaves of cavity walls is full of air and reduces heat
transmission into the building from outside.
 Economically they are cheaper than solid walls.
 Moisture content in outer atmosphere is does not allowed to enter because of hollow
space between leaves. So, they also prevent dampness.
 They also act as good sound insulators.
 They also reduce the weights on foundation because of their lesser thickness.
 Outer Efflorescence is also prevented.

5.1.4 Partition Walls

Partition walls are vertical dividers which are used to separate building internal spaces into
rooms and circulation areas like corridors. Types of partition walls and their applications are
discussed in the following sections.

5.1.4.1 Brick Partition Wall

There are three types of brick partition walls which include plain brick partition wall,
reinforced brick partition wall, and brick nogging partition wall.

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(1) Plain brick partition wall
 It is constructed from plain bricks, and it is common and cost effective
 The bricks are laid as stretchers in cement mortar.
 Thickness of plain brick partition wall is 10cm or half a brick.
 Recommended height is maximum 2m for construction in a day
 It is plastered on both sides
 Strong and fire resistant if the brick wall is constructed properly

Fig.5.11-Plain brick partition wall

(2) Reinforced brick partition wall

 It is similar to plain brick partition but reinforced brick is much stronger due to the
placement of reinforcements.
 Reinforcements, which is in from of wire mesh strips or iron bare, are placed at every
third or fourth course.
 Reinforced wire strip width ranges from 25mm to 28mm and thickness is 1.6mm.
 Steel bar diameter is 6mm
 The thickness of the wall equal to 10cm or half a brick
 This type of partition wall used when better longitudinal bond is need and when the
partition wall has to support other super imposed loads.

Fig. 5.12- Reinforced brick partition wall

(3) Brick nogging partition wall

 Brick nogging partition wall consists of brickworkbuilt within a framework of
wooden members.
 The timber framework consists of vertical posts (studs). Horizontal members
(nogging), sill, and head as explained in
 Studs spaced at 60 cm to 150 cm and held in position by nogging pieces.
 The nogging pieces are housed into the studs at 60 cm to 90cm apart vertically.

103
  The wooden framework provide stability to the partition against lateral loads and
vibrations caused due to opening the adjoining door and windows
 The bricks are commonly laid flat, but they also may be laid on edge
 The brickwork is plastered from both sides.
 Cement mortar proportion 1:3 is used
 The size of the studs and nogging depends upon the thickness of partition wall.
 For 10cm thick partition wall, the studs and nogging should be 15 cm wide so that
after the brickwork is plastered from both the faces, the timber framework may finish
flush with the wall face.
 The surfaces of the timber frame work coming in contact with brick work are coated
with coal tar.
 This type of partition wall suffers from the drawback of the timber getting delayed.
 The mortar used may not stick well to the timber members and thus the brickwork is
likely to become loose after sometime.

Fig.5.13- Timber framework in brick nogging partition wall

5.1.4.2 Clay brick partition wall

 The blocks which are used for clay brick partition wall, is manufactured from clay or
terracotta.
 Blocks may hollow or solid
 Hollow clay bricks are commonly employed for light partition wall
 The blocks are placed in mortar
 Hollow brick partition walls are rigid, economical, strong, fire resistant, and good heat
sound insulator.
 The sizes of the hollow blocks differ with the texture of the material.
 The thickness of this type of partition wall varies between 6 cm to 15 cm.
 Hollow brick partitions walls are constructed in similar manner as structural load
bearing walls.

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  Grooves are provided on top, bottom, and sides of block to improve the bond between
the block and plaster.

Fig.5.14- Hollow clay brick units

5.1.4.3 Glass partition walls

They are cheap, light, and easy in construction and provide reasonable privacy and sound
insulation. Such walls are constructed from glass sheet or hollow glass blocks which will be
discussed below

(4) Glass sheet partition wall

 It is constructed by fixing sheet of glass in a wooden framework.
 Glass sheets are fixed in timber framework using using timber beadings or by putty.
 The wooden framework consists of a number of horizontal and vertical posts, suitably
spaced, to divide the entire area into a number of panels.
 The panels might be rectangular or square and their size varies with the choice of
individual.
 Glass sheet partition wall is light, vermin proof, damp proof, and sound proof.
 Wired glass, bullet proof glass, and three-ply glass are examples of strong glass sheets
which are suitable for glass sheet partition wall construction.

Fig.5.15- Glass sheet partition wall

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5.1.4.4 Glass block partition wall

 It is constructed from hollow glass blocks.

 Hollow glass blocks are translucent glass units which are light and manufacture with
various thicknesses, shapes, and sizes.
 The size of square hollow glass blocks, which is most widely used, is 14X14cm or
19X19cm with a thickness of 10cm.
 The hollow blocks are
 The jointing edges are painted internally and sanded externally to help the bond
between mortar and glass block.
 The front and back sides are either decorated or left plain.
 Block glass is laid in cement- lime mortar- fine sand (1:1:4)
 All joints shall be filled adequately
 Metal strip reinforcement is placed at every third or fourth course for block height up
to 15.
 Reinforcement is placed at every course if the blocks height exceeds 25cm
 There is another type of glass block with joggles and end grooves as well.

Fig.5.16- Glass block partition wall

5.1.4.5 Concrete Partition wall

It consists of concrete slab, plain or reinforced, supported laterally by vertical members.

These slabs may be either precast of cast in situ.

(1) Cast in situ concrete partition wall

 Thickness ranges from 80mm to 100mm
 It is poured monolothically with intermediate columns
 It is rigid and stable both in vertical and horizontal directions but the framework is
costly.
 The reinforcement consisting of mild steel bars or B R C fabric is placed in the center
of the wall thickness.
 Concrete mix usually adopted in the work is M15 (1:2:4).

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 Fig.5.17- Cast in situ concrete partition wall

(2) Precast concrete slab partitions wall

 The wall is built from precast concrete slab units
 Precast unit thickness ranges from 25mm to 40mm
 Precast units are secured to precast posts
 Joints shall be filled with mortar
 Concrete mix is M15 (1:2:4).

Fig.5.18- Precast concrete partition wall

Wall partitions constructed from special precast units

 The wall is constructed from precast T-shaped or L-shaped units

 Light weight, hollow partitions can be built without the need for vertical posts
 Cement mortar mix proportion of 1:3 is used for jointing

5.2 Introduction of a Floor

The purpose of floor is to provide a level surface capable of supporting the occupants of the
building, furniture, equipment and sometime interior wall. The floor must satisfy the
following requirements:
 Adequate strength and stability
 Adequate fire resistance
 Sound proof
 Damp resistance
 Thermal insulations
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5.2.1 Components of a Floor
There are mainly two types of floor components:

(1) Sub Floor or Base

The subfloor is one of the most important floor components. It is defined as a layer that
provides proper support to the flooring. It provides strength and stability to make it support
the flooring. The ground floor level is first watered and rammed well. A cement concrete bed
10 to 15 cm thick is laid and rammed. While at first, second, etc. floor level, the RCC slab or
wooden floor acts as a subfloor. Nowadays, electrical wiring, plumbing, and other services
are laid on the subfloor.

(2) Floor Covering or Flooring

The floor covering is a covering provided over the subfloor. The floor covering or flooring
provides a smooth, clean, impervious, durable, colorful, hard and attractive surface. It is the
cover which has to offer resistance to wear and tear due to human movement and movement
of furniture, etc. Flooring consists of Natural stones, Tiles, etc.

In general, floor covering is a finishing material applied over a floor or sub floor to provide a
walking surface.

Flooring is very important as the dull floor will affect your mood and hence happiness. The
slippery flooring may lead you to slip endangering your safety and a damp proof floor will be
injurious to your health.

5.2.2 Selection of Flooring Material

Flooring is the heart of your home. Furniture and fittings in your home are easier to change,
but the flooring is something that is a permanent floor component and cannot be changed at
ease. Changing the flooring is an extensive job. Also, it may turn costly in terms of expense
as well as hassle. Hence, you have to be choosy in understanding your flooring needs.

Choosing flooring for your new house is a challenging task. Every flooring option has its pros
and cons. However, there are various types of flooring materials available in the market, so
you have a wide range of options in your hand for your final selection. It is indeed a boon but
too many options at times may turn the trigger of dilemma… so stay alert!

However, it is an old saying that ‘where there is a will, there is a way’. Let’s start finding the
popular types of flooring you can happily opt for as shown in Figure below.

Choosing flooring materials usually depends on personal discretion. But more than whims
and fancy, you should select the flooring based on the following criteria:

 Personal Likes and related lifestyle

 Advantages of the flooring material you have selected with respect to its usage and
function
 Quality
 Ease or Difficulty of Installation
 Required Level of Finishing
 Maintenance i.e. Cleaning
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  Budget
 Expected Traffic on the Flooring

Fig.5.19- Flooring materials

5.2.3 Flooring Materials

Various types of flooring materials which modern homeowners have liked for their home’s
flooring are as follows:

(1) Tile Flooring

Amongst all the types of flooring used in the house, “tile flooring” is a very common and
popular option. These tiles are available in varieties of colors, textures, and patterns.
Flooring Tiles are of different types like vitrified tiles, ceramic tiles, porcelain tiles, etc.

(a). Ceramic Tile Flooring: Ceramic tiles are made of a mix of clay and water. These
tiles are used in indoor as well as in outdoor areas. Ceramic tiles are ideal for
installing in moist areas like bathrooms, kitchens, etc. as these tiles are not very
slippery as compared to vitrified tiles.

(b). Vitrified Tile Flooring: A Vitrified tile is one type of ceramic tiles with lower
porosity. Vitrified tiles are most commonly used in the heavy duty areas like living
room, kitchen, bedroom, etc. These tiles are made with a typical glossy finish as
compared to ceramic tiles. However, these tiles are also available with matt finish.

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 (c). Porcelain Tile Flooring: Porcelain tiles are a special type of vitrified tiles. Presently,
the use of these tiles has become limited. In recent past, porcelain tiles were
popularly used in the living room as well as in bedroom flooring. These tiles are stain-
proof and moderately water resistant.

(2) Stone Flooring

Stone flooring is natural, beautiful, and in terms of style statement stands against the test
of time in contrast to other synthetic or manmade stone products. Natural stone comes in
different varieties such as granite, marble, limestone, slate, travertine, sandstone, etc. All
the variants are known for their unique characteristics. But all are hardy by nature and
the natural cool, hard surface of the stone tiles are ideal for using it in warm and tropical
climates.
As per the ‘Natural Stone Council’, “Granite, Marble, and Slate can last up to 100 years
with proper maintenance.” All the natural stones need minimum maintenance support
like polishing to retain its beauty. Cutting the stones into sizes can be a difficult task
unless it is done with skilled cutters. Being natural, the shade and colour variation across
the different pieces is unavoidable. You have to chamfer the edges before fixing it on the
floor. Being heavy in weight, it markedly increases the dead load of the structure.

(a). Marble Flooring: Marble is a metamorphic rock. When properly finished, it can
transform the area like a magic. As said by ‘Donald Watson’, (Famous author of Time
Saver Standards for Building Materials & Systems), Marble is classified in four
grades: Grade A, Grade B, Grade C & Grade D. These grades define the quality of
marble.
Marble flooring is very common in residential and commercial buildings, temple,
hotels, hospitals, etc. Marble comes in different colours, like pink, white, brown,
black, green, etc.
According to the ‘CPWD Specifications’, the most popular marble categories
available in India are Makarana Marble, Ambaji Green Marble, Kesarayaji Green
Marble, Rajnagar Plain White, Udaipur Green Marble, etc.
Italian marble is a costly variety but it is now abundantly available for use. Italian and
Turkmenistan marbles are popular worldwide for their glamour and outstanding
durability.

(b). Granite Flooring: Granite is an example of igneous rock. Granite flooring is a type
of natural stone flooring and is ideal for installing in the kitchen and surrounding
areas. Granite is also used in outdoor areas like pathways like driveways, stair treads,
swimming poolside, etc. Granite flooring does not feel as cold as marble.
Jhansi Red, Sindoori Red, Baltic Brown, etc. are some of the popular granite in India.

(c). Limestone Flooring: Limestone flooring are known for their naturally beautiful
texture as these are sedimentary rocks by nature. Limestone flooring is a perfect
choice for bathrooms, dining rooms, and hallways. Kota blue, Jaisalmer yellow,
natural black, etc. are the popular limestone varieties available in India.
Kotah Stone is one of the popular limestone varieties used for flooring in India. It is
cheaper than marble flooring, and can be used in the lobby, balcony, pathways, etc. It
is not as attractive as marble and granite flooring. Cleaning of kota stone flooring is
not difficult if the stones are polished adequately. Nowadays, with mirror polishing,
they look pretty attractive. This stone flooring is known for its durability and longer
service life. Normally, polished kotah stones are slippery therefore it cannot be used
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 in public places like hospitals, corridors, schools. At such places, rough kotah stone
can be use.
Travertine is another type of limestone flooring. Nowadays, the travertine variety is
one of the softest flooring available in the market. It is characterized by pitted holes
and troughs in its surface although these anomalies are often filled before honing or
polishing, to get a smooth surface finish.
This stone flooring is most commonly used in kitchens and bathrooms in modern
flooring. Travertine flooring can be more susceptible to staining than granite or
marble varieties. Hence these tiles demand periodic cleaning and other maintenance.

(d). Sandstone Flooring: It is composed of loose grains of quartz sand that are rough in
texture. The inherent natural beauty makes a sandstone flooring great for interior
floors as well as for exterior decoration including flooring, paving, parking, etc. Some
of the popular sandstone in India are Jodhpur Pink. Agra Red, Dholpur Red, Rajula
Pink, Dhrangadhra, etc.

(e). Slate Flooring: It is made of metamorphic rock once formed in layers and now these
are easy to split into thin sheets to cut into tiles. Rough and rugged surfaces of slate
flooring are perfect for entryways, patios and kitchens. This flooring is soft and
somehow brittle and do not have a long life although they look attractive for the shine
and texture.
Kund Rustic, Himachal black, Raja Red, Shimla white, etc. are the popular slate stone
brands available in India. According to the ‘Indian Bureau of Mines’, slate is the low
cost alternative to granite and marble with considerable durability. This is the reason
slate stone flooring is quite popular.

(3) Wood Flooring

It is an age-old traditional type of flooring material; however, it has never been outdated
for its timeless appeal. It is used under special circumstances such as in hilly areas and in
damp places. Wood flooring is available in strips, thin blocks and planks from various
softwoods and hardwoods. As stated by ‘Donald Watson’ (published in Time Saver
Standards for Building Materials & Systems), with proper care and maintenance, wood
flooring may last upto 50 or more years. This flooring option is quite costly; hence cannot
be everybody’s cup of tea.

(a). Solid wood flooring: It is made from a piece of wood, and generally it is built with a
thickness of around 20 mm. Solid wood flooring is compatible to any room, except
the moisture prone areas such as kitchen, bathrooms, and basements are strict NO for
woody installation.

(b). Engineered wood flooring: It is made with the core of plywood and a layer of solid
wood attached to its top. It can be installed even in kitchen areas, apart from other
rooms of your house. Engineered wood flooring offers an attractive look, which is
somehow more appealing than common laminate wood flooring.

(c). Laminate wood flooring: It is produced by placing a layer of a photographic image

of natural wood on a fiberboard. As it is a synthetic product, it does not give the look
and feel of natural wood. Laminate wood flooring can be installed in any room such
as living room, bedroom, and dining room except wet areas like bathroom and

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 laundry rooms. Their thickness is quite low; hence laminate floor planks are light in
weight.

(4) Mosaic Flooring

It is made of small pieces of coloured stones, tiles, or glass to render an artful design.
Mosaic can be arranged in different patterns and colours by using coloured cement.

(a). Cement mosaic flooring: It is precast tiles which are made by cement concrete and
coloured stone chips embedded into it. This flooring material mostly used in
residential premises like in living room, bedroom, kitchen, etc. This flooring variety
lasts long and not very slippery. Cement mosaic flooring option was the commonest
type flooring before vitrified tiles came into the market. Besides durability, this
flooring is easy to create and quite budget friendly.

(b). China mosaic flooring: It is an old vintage type of flooring. Mosaics are made from
small round pieces of ceramic or porcelain tiles. This flooring create a nice pattern
and displays a beautiful look. China mosaic flooring is mostly used in the roof-top
terrace area and in outdoor areas like patio, etc. There is a common myth of the
waterproof layer quality of this flooring, but actually it is not waterproof.

(c). The glass mosaic flooring comprises of multi coloured glass stone, ceramic tile
called tessera, in a background material such as mortar. These tiles have a
multicolored block in them with a glass finish that makes them shine. You can use
them in the kitchen, bathroom, bedroom, swimming pool, etc. The use of mosaic will
give a decorative look to enjoy.

(5) PVC Flooring

It is also known as vinyl flooring. These types of flooring material offer ultra-smooth top
surface and an uneven lower surface. Vinyl flooring is also familiar as resilient floor
because it is capable of returning to an original shape or position after having been
compressed. Vinyl flooring is a good choice for areas that are prone to spills and moisture
such as kitchens, bathrooms, laundry rooms, also for offices, etc.
They are available in sheet or tile form. They are perhaps the most lightweight floor
material. But these are quite scratch-prone. According to ‘Donald Watson‘, (author of
Time Saver Standards for Building Materials & Systems), vinyl flooring can last upto the
10 to 15 years with periodical maintenance.

(6) Terrazzo Flooring

It is a concrete surface with at least 70 % of marble, granite, or quartz chips and 30 % of
either white, gray or pigmented Portland cement embedded in it. Terrazzo is either
poured (like concrete) in situ (i.e. in your home) or you can use readymade terrazzo tiles.
Terrazzo flooring is commonly recommended for bathrooms, dining rooms, offices,
hospitals, etc. It was the most popular material before the vitrified tiles were introduced in
the market. Being joint less, these tiles look attractive.

(7) Carpet Flooring

In carpet flooring, the carpet is made from wool or from synthetic fibers, such as
polypropylene, acrylic, nylon, wool, or polyester. It is the most versatile of all flooring
options, featuring more colours and textures than any other types of flooring materials.

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 It is a kid’s friendly flooring option widely used in the kid’s bedroom almost worldwide.
You can use it also in the living room, bedroom, etc. However, cleaning of the floor
carpet can be an issue. It is popular in cold climate areas. However, if it is not cleaned
frequently, it may turn dirty and often exerts a foul smell.
Nowadays, artificial grass carpet flooring extremely versatile option available. It is made
with thousands of thin strips of green plastic and using the rubber granules which are
made from recycled tires often used in the base of the artificial grass. Grass carpet comes
in rolls of various sizes. It is popularly used indoor as well as outdoor areas such as in
patio, balconies, rooftops, etc.

(8) Cork Flooring

It is a natural material obtained from the outer bark of cork oak tree. It is available in the
form of colored tiles or sheets. Cork flooring is mostly used in the kitchen, dining areas,
etc. This type of flooring material is absolutely environment-friendly. Cork flooring is
considered a renewable and sustainable natural resource that supports green lifestyle.

(9) Concrete Flooring

It is one of the oldest types of flooring. It is commonly used all across the world in almost
all types of buildings. Concrete flooring is extremely strong and extremely heavy-duty in
its performance. With the support of the latest polishing machines, concrete floors can be
semi-polished and can be coloured with pigments, too.
The method of laying cement concrete flooring on ground floor of a building can be
broadly divided in the following steps.
(i) Preparation of sub-base:
The earth filling in plinth is consolidated thoroughly so as to ensure that no loose pockets
are left in the whole area. A 10 to 15 cm. thick layer of clean coarse sand is then spread
over the whole area. The sand layer a consolidated and dressed to the required level and
slope.
(ii) Laying of base concrete:
The base concrete used under floors may be cement concrete or lime concrete laid to a
thickness varying from 75 to 10 cm. In case of cement concrete, the mix commonly used
is 1:5:10 (1 cement: 5 sand: 10 stone or over burnt brick aggregates 40 mm. nominal
size). Lime concrete, if used, should be made up out of 40 mm. nominal size stone/over
burnt brick aggregate and 40% mortar comprising of 1 lime : 2 sand/surkhi or 1 lime : 1
surkhi/ash : 1 sand. The base concrete layer is deposited over the whole area, thoroughly
lamped and levelled to a rough surface.
(iii) Laying the topping:
When the base concrete layer has fully set and hardened, its surface is thoroughly cleaned
and the entire area is divided into rectangular or square panels by use of 4 mm, thick glass
strips or 5 mm, thick plain asbestos strips. The size of panel is basically governed by the
location of floor (exposed or indoor), temperature and other climatic conditions, thickness
of topping and proportions of ingredients in concrete mix. etc. In general, the area of one
such panel should not preferably be more than 2 sq. m. The surface of base concrete
should be made damp and applied with a coat of neat cement slurry prior to laying the
topping. The rough finished surface of base concrete coated with cement slurry ensures
adequate bond between the base and the topping. The cement concrete topping, normally
consisting of 1:2:4 (1 cement: 2 sand: 4 stone aggregate) is then laid in required thickness
in one operation in the panels. The concrete is spread evenly by using a straight edge and
the surface is thoroughly tamped and floated with wooden floats till the cream of the
mortar comes at top. The surface is then smoothened and finally finished by means of
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 steel trowels. In case glass or plain asbestos strips are not required, the panels are formed
by use of wooden or angle iron battens. The battens should have depth equivalent to that
of concrete topping. The surface of the battens which is to come in contact with concrete,
is coated with raw linseed oil before concreting. Concrete for the topping is then laid in
alternate panels and finished as described above. The battens used for forming panels are
removed next day and the topping concrete laid in the alternate panels.

In case the cement concrete flooring is to be laid over R.C.C. slab, it is usual to allow the
slab concrete to harden and then lay the flooring. Prior to laying, the slab top is cleaned of
all dirt, dust, loose particles, mortar droppings and debris etc. and the flooring laid as
described under the sub-head ‘laying of topping’ above.

In order to prevent the tendency of separation of the. cement concrete flooring from the
R.C.C. slab, a 20 mm. thick cushioning layer of lime mortar (1 lime : 2 sand/surkhi
or/lime : 1 surkhi/sand) or 50 to 75 mm. thick lime concrete is sometimes provided
between the R.C.C. slab and the cement concrete flooring.

If the working conditions permit, the flooring can also be laid monolithically over the
R.C.C. slab while the slab concrete is still green. In this case, the slab concrete is
roughened with wire brushes so as to ensure a good bond between the base and the
flooring layer. Prior to laying of flooring, the slab surface is cleaned and a coat of cement
slurry is applied over it. In this case, any slope required for the floor is given in structural
concrete itself.

The flooring should be cured for 10 days before use.

Merits of cement concrete flooring:

 It is non-absorbent and thus it is very useful for water stores.
 It is durable and hence it is commonly used in kitchens, bathrooms, schools,
hospitals, drawing rooms etc.
 Cement concrete flooring smooth and pleasing in appearance.
 It is economical and has the advantages of costlier types of floors.
 It possesses good wearing properties and can be easily maintained clean.

Demerits of cement concrete flooring:

 Detects in carelessly made floor cannot be rectified, and as such, it requires proper
attention while laying.
 Cement concrete flooringcannot be satisfactorily repaired by patch work.

(10) Brick Flooring

Brick flooring is commonly provided in warehouses, stores and godowns or in places
where heavy goods are stored. The brick flooring may be done with brick laid flat or on
edge arranged in herring bone fashion or set at right angle to the walls. The earth filling
under floor is well compacted first and thereafter 4″ to 6″ thick layer of cement or lime
concrete is laid over the entire area of floor. This layer is known as subgrade. The floor is
laid directly over the subgrade. The slope required to be given to the floor to take care of
floor washing etc., is provided in subgrade itself. Before using, the bricks should be
properly soaked and wetted in water.

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 The bricks are laid on edge on 12 mm. thick mortar bed in such a manner that all the
joints are full of mortar. Where the floor has to be plastered or painted, all the face joints
should be raked to a depth of about 15 mm. during the progress of work (when the mortar
is green). This is necessary to ensure adequate bond between the flooring and the mortar
of pointing or plastering. In case, however, pointing or plastering is not needed, the joints
need not be raked and instead rendered flush and finished during laying of bricks.

The brick flooring should be cured for a minimum period of seven days before use.

Merits
 It is durable and sufficiently hard.
 It is cheaper than cement concrete, wooden or mosaic flooring.
 It is non-slippery.
 It is easily repairable.
Demerits
 It is absorbent.

(11) Leather Flooring

It is a softer flooring material which can be installed on the concrete and wooden
subfloor. It can be used in residential areas such as in the bedroom, living room, hallway,
kitchens, as well as for commercial facilities like theaters, libraries, etc. It is highly fire
resistant, soundproof, and quite easy to maintain, etc.

(12) Epoxy Flooring

Epoxy is a thermosetting resin agent often applied as a protective and decorative coating
on the concrete floor to create Epoxy flooring. Epoxy flooring is commonly used in
commercial and industrial plants such as food or beverage plants, in chemical test labs as
well as in R&D laboratories, warehouses, etc. Also, this type of flooring is used in
hospitals, showrooms, sports room, garages, and so on. It is available in varieties of
colours. It gives long lasting durability of flooring by adding high resistance to abrasive
chemicals. With epoxy coating, the floor becomes easy to clean.

(13) Rubber Flooring

It is the most popular in Asian Countries. This type of flooring converts the floor in a
noiseless surface, which is comfortable for silent walking, and it is highly durable in
terms of longevity. This type of flooring is also popular as resilient floor.
According to the ‘Indian Standards, IS 809: 1992‘, (Rubber Flooring Materials for
General Purposes – Specification), the thickness of rubber flooring generally ranges
between 3mm to 6mm. The initial cost of rubber flooring is a little bit high. But it gives
excellent wearing surface.

(14) Metal flooring

It is an excellent flooring to for heavy traffic areas where strength and durability is the
main aspect. This type of flooring can be used in multi-story buildings, mezzanine floor,
bridge walkways, porches, ramps, parking, garages, storage facilities, etc. It is available
in form of plate, grating, etc.
Metal plate is available in smooth or raised pattern to minimize the possibility of
slipping.

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 Metal grating is available with concrete fill and generally used over the steel framing. It
is often found in sidewalks, stair treads, fire escapes, etc.

(15) Mud Flooring

It is one of the most suitable options for Indian conditions and tropical climates. It is
commonly used in rural areas. Mud flooring is inexpensive and turns hard when done. It
is fairly waterproof, and easy to construct. However, it is difficult to maintain and have a
short span of life.

(16) Asphalt Flooring

On account of its being dustless, elastic, durable, waterproof, acid proof and attractive in
appearance, mastic asphalt flooring is becoming very popular these days. Mastic asphalt
flooring is non-slippery and noiseless too, as such it is recommended for use in factories,
loading platforms swimming pools, and terrace floors etc. The construction of floor
involves the following operations:
(i) Preparation of mastic asphalt
Asphalt which is generally sold in drums, is broken into pieces and is put into an iron pot
known as “Cauldron” and is heated with the fire lighted under it. During the process of
heating when melting of asphalts starts, the whole mass is stirred in such a manner that
the pieces at the bottom are constantly brought to the surface. When the whole quantity
has melted, clean sharp sand or grit is gently added to the molten mass in proportion of
2:1 (two parts of sand or grit: one asphalt). The mixture is constantly stirred till it emits
jets of light-brown smoke. At this stage, the mixture or compost is of such a consistency
that it drops freely from the stirrer and is considered to be fit for use. The cauldron is
then taken off the fire to prevent the compost from getting over-burnt and the mixture is
used immediately.
(ii) Laying of the prepared compost (mastic asphalt)
The compost is poured on the previously prepared concrete bed by means of iron ladle.
This is brought to a uniform thickness (which may vary from 13 mm. to 25 mm.) by
means of trowels. Before the compost becomes bard, very fine sand in small quantity is
sifted over it and the surface is well rubbed with a hand float or trowel. In case, it is
necessary to have a second layer of asphalt, it should be laid before the bottom layer
solidifies (no sand being sifted over the bottom layer in that case.). The top layer is then
finished in the same manner as described above.

5.3 Introduction of Roofs

A roof is the top covering of a building, including all materials and constructions necessary to
support it on the walls of the building or on uprights; it provides protection against rain,
snow, sunlight, extremes of temperature, and wind. A roof is part of the building envelope.

The characteristics of a roof are dependent upon the purpose of the building that it covers, the
available roofing materials and the local traditions of construction and wider concepts of
architectural design and practice and may also be governed by local or national legislation. In
most countries a roof protects primarily against rain. A verandah may be roofed with material
that protects against sunlight but admits the other elements. The roof of a garden
conservatory protects plants from cold, wind, and rain, but admits light.

5.3.1 Types of Roofs

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5.3.1.1 Gable Roofs

Also known as pitched or peaked roof, gable roofs are some of the most popular roofs in the
US. They are easily recognized by their triangular shape.

 Gable roofs will easily shed water and snow, provide more space for the attic or
vaulted ceilings and allow more ventilation. Their inherently simple design makes
it easy to build them and cheaper than more complex designs.
 Gable roofs can be problematic in high wind and hurricane areas. If the frames are
not properly constructed with adequate supports, the roof can collapse.
 High winds can also cause materials to peel away from gable roofs. If there is too
much of an overhang, winds can create an uplift underneath and cause the roof to
detach from the walls.
 If a gable roof is used in high wind areas, be sure proper braces are used and have
the roof inspected after a large storm to ensure no damage has occurred.
 Suggested materials: Gabled roofs can be covered with almost any type of
material including asphalt shingles, cedar shakes, metal, and clay or concrete tiles.
 However, if the roof also contains hips and valleys, it should either be shingled or
roofed with metal shingles or standing seam to help prevent roof leaks.
 It is recommended to use at least a 10/12 pitch or 40° angle, for snowy regions.
 A side gable is a basic pitched roof. It has two equal panels pitched at an angle,
meet at a ridge in the middle of a building. The triangle section can be left open
for an open gable roof, or it can be enclosed for a boxed gable roof.
 A crossed gable roof is two gable roof sections put together at a right angle. The
two ridges are perpendicular to each other. Lengths, pitches or heights may or
may not differ from each other.
 It’s an excellent roof design for homes with separate wings. Use a cross gable to
accent different areas of the home, such as the garage, porch or dormers.
 It’s often seen in Cape Cod and Tudor styles houses.
 A front gable roof is placed at the entrance of the house. This design is often seen
in Colonial style houses.
 A Dutch gable is a hybrid of a gable and hip roof. A gable roof is placed at the top
of a hip roof for more space and enhanced aesthetic appeal.

5.3.1.2 Hip Roof

A hip roof has slopes on all four sides. The sides are all equal length and come together at the
top to form a ridge.

 Hip roofs are more stable than gable roofs. The inward slope of all four sides is what
makes it more sturdy and durable.
 They are excellent for both high wind and snowy areas. The slant of the roof allows
snow to easily slide off with no standing water.
 Hip roofs can offer extra living space with an addition of a dormer or a crow’s nest.
 For high wind areas, or strong storms, a pitch of 4/12-6/12 (18.5°-26.5° angle) is
recommended.
 Hip roofs are more expensive to build than a gable roof. It’s a more complex design
that requires more building materials. Also, with the addition of a dormer, additional

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 seams can make it easier for the water leaks to form in the valleys, if a roofing system
is not properly installed.
 Proper construction and maintenance is a must to prevent minor issues from turning
into major problems.
 Suggested materials: Hip roofs, like gable roofs, can be with almost any type of
roofing material, such as shingles, metal, or tiles.
 Simple Hip: The most common type of a hip roof. It has a polygon on two sides and a
triangle on two sides. The sides come together at the top to form a simple ridge.
 Cross Hipped: Similar to a cross gable roof. Use separate hip roofs on homes with
different wings. The line where the two roofs meet is called a valley. Valleys can
allow water to pool. Proper waterproofing is a must.
 Half Hipped: A standard hip roof that has two sides shortened to create eaves.

Fig.5.20- Gabble roof

5.3.1.3 Mansard Roof

A mansard roof, also known as a French roof, is a four-sided roof with a double slope on each
side that meet forming a low-pitched roof.

 The lower slope is much steeper than the upper. The sides can either be flat or curved,
depending on the style.

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  Mansard roofs can help create a great deal of extra living space. Using the space as a
full attic or living quarters, called a garret, is very popular. The style lends itself to
either open or closed dormers for more aesthetic appeal.
 Mansard roofs are great for people wanting flexibility to make future home additions.
When first designing and building a home, you can actually save money by having a
simple mansard design to start off. – You can then add on a garret or dormers at a
later date. This will not only add value to the house, but it also allows homeowners to
easily make additions as their needs change.
 A low pitched portion of a mansard roof isn’t ideal for areas receiving heavy
snowfall.
 Mansard roofs cost more than typical roofs because of the embellishments and details
that go into them. But, the added space and character can more than make up for the
extra cost of initial construction.
 Suggested materials: Since a mansard roof has such a unique design, choosing a
unique material could make the roof that much more special. Using metal, such as
copper or zinc for the steep portion of the roof, can be more expensive up front, but
will require much less maintenance down the road, making it a good long-term
choice.
 Using wood or slate shingles in a diamond pattern is a way to make a mansard roof
stand out. However, overlapping composition shingles should not be used. Asphalt
shingles can still be used on a steeper portion of the roof in a regular pattern.
 Most materials can be used for a mansard roof, but be aware of the low slope part of
the roof. Ensure it is properly flashed and waterproofed to protect the roof’s integrity.
 Mansard roofs can take various silhouettes, including straight-angle, convex or
concave. Windows are very important to provide light for the extra living space
provided. Grand houses may also display wood quoins, trim or decorative cut stone.

5.3.1.4 Gambrel Roof

A Gambrel or a barn roof, is much like mansard in a sense that it has two different slopes.
The difference between the two is that the Gambrel only has two sides, while the mansard has
four.

 Similar to mansard, the lower side of the Gambrel roof has an almost vertical, steep
slope, while the upper slope is much lower.
 Gambrels are not only seen on top of barns, farm houses and log cabins. They are also
seen on Dutch Colonial and Georgian style homes, as well.
 Much like the mansard, the Gambrel provides extra living space for a garret, attic or
loft. Plus it’s simple to frame out.
 The Gambrel only uses two roof beams, along with gusset joints. Since the
construction is quite simple with fewer materials needed, this helps to keep the cost of
a roof down.
 Gambrel roofs are also a great idea for outdoor sheds and storage buildings. Their
shape can provide more storage without taking up more space.
 The Gambrel roof is not recommended for heavy wind areas or regions that receive
significant snowfall. The open design can cause the roof to collapse under extreme
pressure.

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  Gambrel roofs also need to be constructed well, waterproofed at the ridges and
maintained on a regular basis. It’s a good idea to have a Gambrel roof inspected each
year to check for damage from storms, heavy rainfall or snow.
 Windows are recommended to add light to the extra space. This is both a pro and a
con. While all details will add to the overall beauty of a home, they increase chances
for water leaks to occur.
 Suggested Materials: The material used for a Gambrel roof will depend on the style of
the house. Wooden, asphalt or slate shingles are widely used. However, using metal
will greatly cut down on the amount of maintenance required.
 If a Gambrel roof is used in extreme weather areas, insist on reinforced trusses,
especially on the upper pitch.

5.3.1.5 Flat Roofs

As the name suggests, flat roofs appear to be completely flat with no pitch. However, they do
have a slight pitch to allow for water run-off and drainage.

 These roofs are generally used on industrial or commercial buildings. However, they
can also be installed on residential houses in both high and low rainfall areas.
 Most people don’t consider the amount of available outdoor living space a flat roof
can provide. So, don’t completely dismiss them when building a new home!
 Extra living space on the roof for a patio, garden or partially enclose for a penthouse
room. Heating and cooling units can also be placed on flat roofs, keeping them out of
sight. – This is especially common practice in commercial roof designs.
 The design is also conducive for installing PV solar panels for a more energy efficient
and energy independent home.
 Flat roofs are easier to construct than pitched roofs and require fewer building
materials, keeping costs down.
 The low pitch makes flat roofs more susceptible to water leakage. They are not
advised for high rainfall or high snowfall areas.
 Although the upfront cost of building a flat roof is less expensive than a pitched roof,
they can be more expensive in the long run due to maintenance and ongoing roof
repair and replacement costs.
 Suggested Materials: Ensuring a flat roof is waterproof is imperative. Using material
that is continuous with no seams is the best. The most common materials used are tar
and gravel, roll roofing, metal sheets, PVC, TPO, and rubber membrane.

5.3.1.6 Skillion Roof

Skillion is also referred to as a shed roof or lean-to. It is a single, sloping roof, usually
attached to a taller wall. – It can be thought of as half of a pitched roof, or as a more angled
flat roof.

 Skillion roofs are mostly used for home additions, sheds and porches. However, they
are also now being used on the entire structure of more modern style homes.
 Skillions are easy to assemble and use much fewer building materials than other roof
types. Their steep pitch allow snow and water to easily run off, which makes them
excellent for high rain and snow regions. Skillions can also be used purely for design
purposes to add architectural interest and aesthetic appeal.

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  If a roof pitch is too high it can result in ceilings being too low. Also, homes using
only a skillion roof can have problems in high wind areas.
 Suggested Materials: Because of the steep incline, rubber skins and roofing
membranes can be eliminated. To give a more streamlined look, you can use standing
seam rather than tiles or shingles. For a more Eco-friendly and energy independent
home, large PV solar panels can also be installed.

5.3.1.7 Curved Roof

A curved roof is much like the Skillion, or Shed roof, but the planes are curved. It is very
modern and provides a unique, creative roof design. The amount of curve can vary from
slightly curved up to an arch shape.

 Curved roofs are aesthetically pleasing and a way to have a home unlike any other.
They also provide subtle shapes inside the home as well.
 A curved roof can be used to cover the entire home or a single section, such as an
arched entrance.
 Since curved roofs are designed by the architect or builder, it can be customized to be
advantageous to the region the home is being built.
 For example, in high wind areas, a roof with a lower slope would be more durable
than one with a higher slope. While in areas that receive more snow and rain can have
more of an arch to allow water to run-off.
 The cost of a curved roof will depend on the complexity of the design.
 Suggested Materials: The best material for curved roofs is metal. It will bend and
shape into any form, plus the maintenance will be greatly reduced.

5.3.1.8 Trussed Roofs

When the span of the roof exceed 5m and where there are no inside walls to support the
purlins then trusses are provided at suitable intervals along the length of the beam.

Spacing is limited to 3m for wooden trusses.

In this system, the roof consists of 3 elements.

 Rafters to support the roofing material.

 Purlins to provide intermediate support to rafters.
 Trusses to provide support to the ends of purlins.

Types of Trusses

(i). King Post Truss

 Principal rafters support the purlins.
 The purlins support the closely spaced common rafters which have same slope as
principal rafters.
 The common rafters support the roof covering.
 Spacing limited to 3m Centre to Centre.
 Suitable for spans varying from 5 to 8m.
 Tie beam prevents the wall from spreading out due to thrust.
 Components:
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 (1) Lower Tie Beam
(2) Two Inclined Principal Rafters
(3) Two Struts
(4) A king Post

 The king post prevents the tie beam from sagging at its centre of span.
 Ridge beam provide end support to the principal rafters.
 Cleats fixed on principal rafters, prevents the purlins from tilting.

(ii). Queen Post Truss

 A queen post differs from a king post truss in having two vertical posts rather than
one.
 The tops are connected by a horizontal piece known as straining beam.
 Two struts are provided to join the feet of each queen post to the principal rafter.
 Suitable for spans between 8 to 12m.
 A straining sill is introduced on tie beam to counteract the thrust from inclined
members which are in compression.

Combination of King-Post and Queen-Post Trusses

(iii). Steel Roof Trusses

 When span exceeds 10m, timber trusses become heavy and uneconomical.
 Steel trusses are more economical for longer spans.
 They are fabricated from rolled steel structural members such as channels, angle
sections, etc.
 Trusses are designed in such a way that members are either in compression or in
tension & bending stress is not allowed to develop them.
 Most of the roof trusses are angle sections, because they can resist both tension &
compression effectively.
 They are commonly used these days for all spans, since they are economical, easy to
fabricate, fire proof, more rigid, permanent & suitable for speedy construction.

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 Exercise

Q1 Describe the different types of walls with neat sketches.

Q2 Explain the general features of cavity walls.
Q3 Describe the construction procedure of cavity walls.
Q4 Describe the application of partition walls.
Q5 What are the different types of partition walls? Explain in detail.
Q6 Explain the advantages and disadvantages of brick partition walls.
Q7 Explain the advantages and disadvantages of clay block partition walls.
Q8 Explain the advantages and disadvantages of concrete partition wall.
Q9 Explain the advantages and disadvantages of glass partition wall.
Q10 Define Floor. What are the components of a floor?
Q11 Explain the different types of flooring?
Q12 Describe the different types of materials used for floor construction.
Q13 How would you carry out selection of flooring material?
Q14 Describe the cement concrete flooring in detail.
Q15 Explain the brick flooring in detail.
Q16 Describe the marble flooring.
Q17 Explain asphalt flooring in detail.
Q18 What are the different types of roofs, explain each in detail.
Q19 Described the various types of trussed roofs.
Q20 Explain ‘Steel Roof Trusses’ in detail.

References

1. Building Construction, B. C. Punmia

2. Construction Materials, S. C. Rangwala
3. Building Materials, S.K Duggal

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