3 – Phase Induction Motor 1.

Starting Torque (Tst): Starters: Need

Working Principle: Starting torque is the torque developed by the motor at standstill or very low speeds Starters are essential devices used to control the starting of electric motors. They
Generation of Rotating Magnetic Field: When three-phase AC power is applied to the when it is starting from rest. At the start, the slip is at its maximum value (slip = 1), ensure a smooth and controlled start of the motor, preventing high inrush currents,
stator windings, it creates a rotating magnetic field that alternates in direction and rotates and the rotor current is high due to the large difference between the synchronous reducing mechanical stresses, and protecting the motor and connected equipment.
at the synchronous speed (Ns) determined by the frequency of the power supply and the speed and the rotor speed. The starting torque is significantly higher than the full The need for starters arises due to the following reasons:
number of poles in the motor. load torque, which is essential to accelerate the motor and overcome the inertia of Inrush Current Limitation: When a motor starts, it draws a significantly higher current
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Induction of Current in Rotor: The rotating magnetic field from the stator cuts across the the driven load. than its normal operating current. This inrush current can be several times the rated
rotor conductors. As per Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction, this changing 2. Full Load Torque (TFL): current and can cause voltage drops and disturbance in the power system.
magnetic field induces a voltage in the rotor conductors, causing current to flow through Full load torque is the torque developed by the motor when it is running at its rated Mechanical Stresses: A sudden and direct-on-line (DOL) start can lead to mechanical
them. speed and full load conditions. At full load, the slip is very low (slip ≈ 0), and the stresses and jerks in the driven machinery, potentially causing damage.
Creation of Rotor Magnetic Field: The current flowing through the rotor conductors rotor current is much lower compared to the starting condition. The motor operates Electrical Protection: Starters provide protection against overcurrent, overload, and
generates a magnetic field in the rotor. The rotor's magnetic field tries to align itself with efficiently at this point, and the torque is sufficient to maintain the motor's rated short-circuit conditions, safeguarding the motor and the electrical system.
the rotating stator magnetic field. speed under the load. Energy Efficiency: Some starters, such as soft starters, enable controlled acceleration,
Slip and Rotational Motion: In an induction motor, the rotor always lags behind the 3. Maximum Torque (Tmax): leading to energy-efficient motor operation.
rotating stator field due to a difference in speed between the rotor and the rotating Maximum torque is the peak torque the motor can produce under any operating
magnetic field. This difference is known as "slip" (s). As a result of the slip, a torque is condition. It occurs at a slip value between the starting and full load conditions, Direct-On-Line (DOL) Starter:
developed, trying to reduce the relative speed between the rotor and stator fields. often referred to as the "pull-out torque." The motor can deliver this maximum A DOL starter is a simple and commonly used method to start an induction motor. In a
Torque and Rotation: The developed torque in the motor causes the rotor to rotate in the torque for a short duration during transients or when subjected to heavy overloads. DOL starter, the motor is directly connected to the full line voltage during starting. It
direction of the rotating stator field. The motor continues to accelerate until it reaches a Beyond this point, the motor loses synchronism and stalls. consists of a contactor (electromagnetic switch) and an overload relay for motor
speed where the slip becomes very small (close to zero). At this point, the motor operates Relations among Torques: protection. The DOL starter provides a cost-effective solution for starting induction
at its full-load speed, which is slightly lower than the synchronous speed (Ns). Starting Torque (Tst) > Full Load Torque (TFL): The starting torque is higher than the motors with low to moderate starting torque requirements.
full load torque because it needs to provide the necessary force to accelerate the Operation:
Production of Rotating Magnetic Field: motor from rest. When the start button is pressed, the contactor energizes, and the motor is directly
A rotating magnetic field is generated in a three-phase induction motor by energizing the Full Load Torque (TFL) > Maximum Torque (Tmax): The full load torque is higher connected to the full line voltage.
stator windings with three-phase AC voltage. When a balanced three-phase AC voltage is than the maximum torque since the motor operates continuously at full load, while The motor starts at its full speed and torque, which may cause high inrush current
applied to the stator windings, a magnetic field is produced. The phases are displaced the maximum torque is the peak value achievable only under certain conditions. during starting.
from each other by 120 degrees (i.e., 120 electrical degrees) to create a rotating magnetic Starting Torque (Tst) ≈ Maximum Torque (Tmax): In some cases, the starting torque An overload relay is used to protect the motor from excessive current by tripping the
field. and the maximum torque may be close to each other, especially for high- contactor if the current exceeds the preset limit.
The rotating magnetic field is achieved because the amplitude and phase of the current in performance motors with optimized designs. However, starting torque is usually
each stator winding vary with time due to the sinusoidal nature of the AC voltage. The higher than maximum torque.
combination of the three-phase currents creates a rotating magnetic field that rotates at a
constant speed in the stator. This rotating magnetic field induces voltage in the rotor
windings, leading to rotor rotation.

Synchronous Speed:
The synchronous speed (Ns) of a three-phase induction motor is the theoretical speed of
the rotating magnetic field. It is calculated using the formula:
Ns = (120 * f) / P
where:
Ns = Synchronous speed in revolutions per minute (RPM)
f = Frequency of the AC supply in hertz (Hz)
P = Number of poles in the motor
For a given frequency and number of poles, the synchronous speed is constant. It
represents the speed at which the rotating magnetic field would travel if there were no
slip (i.e., if the rotor were rotating at the same speed as the magnetic field). Stator Resistance Starter:
A stator resistance starter is a method used to reduce the starting current and torque
Rotor Speed and Slip: of an induction motor. It involves inserting external resistors in series with the stator
The actual speed at which the rotor of the induction motor rotates is called the rotor windings during starting, which limits the current flow and, consequently, the starting
speed (N). The rotor speed is always less than the synchronous speed due to a torque. Stator resistance starters are commonly used for high-inertia loads or when
phenomenon known as "slip." there are limitations on the starting current.
Slip (S) is defined as the difference between the synchronous speed and the rotor speed, Operation:
expressed as a percentage: At the start, external resistors are connected in series with the stator windings,
S = ((Ns - N) / Ns) * 100% increasing the total resistance in the motor circuit.
The slip is necessary for the motor to develop torque. As the rotor speed decreases (i.e., The increased resistance reduces the starting current, which in turn reduces the
the slip increases), the relative speed between the rotating magnetic field and the rotor starting torque and the inrush current.
increases, inducing higher currents in the rotor windings, which, in turn, produce more As the motor gains speed, the resistors are gradually bypassed to minimize power
torque. The motor operates at its maximum torque when slip is at an optimum value. losses and improve motor efficiency during normal operation.

Auto Transformer Starter:

An auto transformer starter is another method to reduce the starting current and
torque of an induction motor. It uses an auto transformer with multiple tapping points
to vary the voltage applied to the motor during starting. Auto transformer starters are
suitable for applications with higher starting torque requirements, as they provide a
wider range of voltage reduction compared to stator resistance starters.
Induction Motor as a Generalized Transformer: Operation:
An induction motor can be viewed as a generalized transformer with a rotating The motor is initially connected to the auto transformer with the tap set to the highest
1. Squirrel Cage Induction Motor: secondary. In a transformer, a primary winding is magnetically coupled to a voltage value.
A squirrel cage induction motor is the most commonly used type of induction motor. It is secondary winding, and power is transferred through electromagnetic induction. When the motor starts, the auto transformer reduces the voltage step by step, starting
known for its simple and rugged construction, making it reliable and cost-effective for Similarly, in an induction motor, the stator winding (primary winding) creates a with the highest tap and gradually moving to the lower taps.
various industrial applications. rotating magnetic field, which induces voltage in the rotor windings (secondary As the voltage is reduced, the motor current and starting torque decrease, providing a
Stator: winding) through electromagnetic induction. This induced voltage causes current to smoother and controlled start.
The stator is the stationary part of the motor and consists of a laminated core made of flow in the rotor, resulting in the generation of mechanical torque and rotation. Once the motor reaches its full speed, the auto transformer is bypassed, and the
steel sheets. The stator core is constructed to minimize eddy current losses. motor runs at the rated voltage and full speed.
Three-phase winding is placed in the stator slots, which is evenly distributed and displaced
by 120 electrical degrees to produce a rotating magnetic field when connected to a three-
phase AC power supply.
Rotor:
The rotor is the rotating part of the motor and is constructed with a cylindrical laminated
core, also made of steel sheets.
In a squirrel cage motor, the rotor bars are typically made of aluminum or copper and are
permanently short-circuited at both ends by conductive end rings. This arrangement
forms a "squirrel cage" structure, giving the motor its name.
The squirrel cage rotor design eliminates the need for external rotor windings, brushes, or
slip rings, making the motor robust, maintenance-free, and suitable for high starting Star-Delta Starter:
torque applications. A star-delta starter, also known as a wye-delta starter, is a type of motor starting
Slip Rings Induction Motor: method used for three-phase induction motors. It is designed to reduce the starting
The slip ring induction motor, also known as a wound rotor induction motor, is a less current and torque during motor startup, thus avoiding excessive mechanical stress
common type compared to the squirrel cage motor. It is used in applications where and minimizing voltage dips in the power supply.
variable speed and better control over the motor's performance are required. Principle of Operation:
Stator: During motor starting, the motor windings are initially connected in a star (Y)
The stator of a slip ring motor is similar to that of a squirrel cage motor and consists of a configuration. In the star connection, each motor phase is connected to a common
laminated core with three-phase windings placed in the stator slots. point called the neutral point.
Rotor: In the star connection, the line voltage across each motor winding is reduced by a
The rotor of a slip ring motor is constructed differently from a squirrel cage rotor. factor of √3 compared to the full line voltage.
It consists of a laminated core similar to the squirrel cage motor but has a set of three- This results in a reduced starting current and torque, making it ideal for soft starting of
phase windings on its rotor instead of conductive bars. Four Quadrant Operation: the motor.
Each end of the rotor winding is connected to slip rings mounted on the shaft. An induction motor can operate in all four quadrants of the torque-speed plane, After a certain time delay (usually a few seconds), the motor windings are switched to
Carbon brushes are in contact with the slip rings, allowing external resistors or other allowing it to work in both motoring and generating modes: a delta (Δ) configuration. In the delta connection, the motor operates at its rated line
control devices to be connected to the rotor windings. Quadrant 1 (Motoring): Positive torque and positive speed. The motor operates in voltage and full torque.
the forward direction, converting electrical energy to mechanical energy.
Quadrant 2 (Generating): Negative torque and positive speed. The motor operates
as a generator, converting mechanical energy back into electrical energy and feeding
it back to the power system.
Quadrant 3 (Generating): Negative torque and negative speed. The motor operates
as a generator, but in the reverse direction.
Quadrant 4 (Motoring): Positive torque and negative speed. The motor operates in
the reverse direction, converting electrical energy to mechanical energy.
Rotor Resistance Starter: Remedial Measures for Cogging and Crawling: Principle of Making Single-Phase Induction Motors Self-Starting:
A rotor resistance starter is a method of starting a wound-rotor induction motor (also Skewing the Stator Slots: One effective method to reduce cogging is to skew the stator A single-phase induction motor requires an initial rotation to generate a rotating
known as a slip ring motor). It is used when the motor requires high starting torque and slots. By slightly tilting the stator slots, the magnetic locking effect is minimized, and the magnetic field for continuous operation. The principle of making single-phase
smooth acceleration. cogging torque is reduced. induction motors self-starting involves introducing asymmetry in the motor's winding
Principle of Operation: Use of Notched Rotor: In some cases, using a rotor with notches or skewed bars can also configuration, which creates a starting torque without external assistance.
The rotor windings of the motor are initially connected to external resistors during help reduce cogging. The notched rotor disrupts the regularity of the rotor magnetic Use of Auxiliary Winding: The introduction of an auxiliary winding spatially displaced
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startup. These resistors reduce the rotor current and, consequently, the starting torque. field, reducing the cogging effect. from the main winding creates the required asymmetry in the motor. This auxiliary
As the motor accelerates, the external resistors are gradually removed from the rotor Changing the Number of Stator Slots or Rotor Poles: Altering the number of stator slots winding provides the starting torque by interacting with the main winding's pulsating
circuit using mechanical or electronic means. or rotor poles can help shift the cogging frequency away from critical speeds, minimizing magnetic field.
By reducing the rotor resistance gradually, the motor accelerates smoothly and reaches the cogging effect Capacitor Start or Split-Phase Start: In many single-phase induction motors, a capacitor
its full speed without abrupt changes in current or torque. Increasing the Air Gap: A larger air gap between the stator and rotor can reduce the is connected in series with the auxiliary winding. This creates a phase difference
magnetic attraction and help mitigate cogging and crawling issues. between the currents in the main and auxiliary windings, which results in the required
Use of Damper Windings: In wound-rotor induction motors, adding damper windings can asymmetry.
help to reduce crawling by improving the starting torque and ensuring smooth motor Capacitor Run: Some single-phase induction motors use a capacitor in parallel with the
operation at low speeds. auxiliary winding to improve running efficiency and power factor.
Using Variable Frequency Drives (VFDs): VFDs can control the speed of the motor Centrifugal Switch: In some motors, a centrifugal switch is used to disconnect the
smoothly and precisely, preventing crawling and providing stable operation even at low auxiliary winding and capacitor once the motor reaches a certain speed. This prevents
speeds. excessive heating and improves the motor's overall efficiency.
Motor Design Optimization: Proper motor design with attention to core materials,
windings, and magnetic flux distribution can minimize the cogging and crawling effects.
Soft Starters: Resistance Start Induction Run (RSIR):
A soft starter is an electronic device used to control the acceleration of three-phase Double Cage Rotor: Resistance Start Induction Run is a method used to start single-phase induction
induction motors. It provides a controlled and gradual increase in voltage during motor A double cage rotor is a type of rotor used in squirrel cage induction motors. It is motors. In this configuration, an external starting resistor is connected in series with
startup, reducing the inrush current and mechanical stress on the motor and connected designed to provide improved starting torque and reduced starting current compared to the motor's start winding during startup. The purpose of the starting resistor is to
equipment. a conventional single cage rotor. introduce a high resistance in the start winding, which reduces the current and starting
Principle of Operation: The double cage rotor consists of two sets of rotor bars - an outer cage and an inner torque. As the motor accelerates, the starting resistor is gradually bypassed using a
Soft starters use semiconductor devices, such as thyristors or silicon-controlled rectifiers cage. The outer cage has higher resistance and lower reactance, while the inner cage has centrifugal switch or other control mechanism. Once the motor reaches a certain
(SCRs), to control the motor voltage and current during startup. lower resistance and higher reactance. speed, the starting resistor is completely removed from the circuit, and the motor
During motor starting, the soft starter gradually increases the motor voltage, ensuring a During motor starting, the high-resistance outer cage carries most of the starting continues to run using its main and run windings. RSIR motors are suitable for
smooth and controlled acceleration. current, providing higher starting torque. As the motor accelerates, the outer cage has applications with low starting torque requirements.
Soft starters can also provide other protection features, such as overload protection, limited contribution due to its higher resistance, and the inner cage, with lower
underload protection, and phase loss protection. resistance, takes over and sustains the motor's operation at rated speed.

Deep-Bar Rotor:
A deep-bar rotor is another variation of the squirrel cage rotor used in induction motors.
In a deep-bar rotor, the rotor bars are wider and have a greater depth compared to a
standard rotor, giving them a rectangular cross-section.
The deep-bar rotor design increases the rotor's reactance, making it suitable for
applications requiring high starting torque and reduced starting current.
Deep-bar rotors are commonly used in applications with high starting loads, such as
centrifugal pumps and compressors.

Motor Selection for Different Applications as per Load Torque-Speed Requirements:

High Starting Torque Applications:
For applications that require high starting torque, such as conveyor systems, cranes, and
compressors, motors with high starting torque capabilities are preferred. Wound rotor
induction motors with rotor resistance control or soft starters are often used in such Capacitor Start Induction Run (CSIR):
applications. Capacitor Start Induction Run is another method used to start single-phase induction
Constant Speed Applications: motors. In CSIR motors, a start capacitor is connected in series with the motor's start
In applications where a constant speed is required, such as fans, blowers, and pumps, winding during startup. The start capacitor creates a phase shift between the start and
standard squirrel cage induction motors are commonly used. They provide reliable main windings, generating a rotating magnetic field and providing higher starting
operation and constant speed under stable load conditions. torque. Once the motor reaches a certain speed, a centrifugal switch disconnects the
start capacitor from the circuit, and the motor continues running with only the main
Variable Speed Applications:
and run windings. CSIR motors offer better starting torque compared to RSIR motors
For applications that demand variable speeds, such as machine tools, mixers, and rolling but are still limited in torque capability.
Speed Control Methods for Induction Motors:
Stator Voltage Control: mills, motors with speed control capabilities are essential. Variable Frequency Drives (VFDs)
In stator voltage control, the motor's speed is controlled by varying the magnitude of are widely used with induction motors to achieve smooth and precise speed control.
the stator voltage applied to the motor. High Starting Torque with Variable Speed Applications:
Reducing the stator voltage below the rated voltage decreases the magnetic flux and, Some applications, like crushers and mills, require both high starting torque and variable
consequently, the speed of the motor. speed control. For such cases, double cage induction motors with VFDs offer an effective
Stator voltage control is a simple and cost-effective method, but it has limitations in
solution, providing high starting torque and variable speed control.
terms of efficiency and torque capability at low speeds.
Pole Changing: High Inertia Loads:
Pole changing, also known as pole amplitude modulation, is a method used in induction High inertia loads, like centrifugal fans and flywheels, require motors with high torque
motors with multiple stator windings, each having a different number of poles. capabilities to overcome the initial inertia. Synchronous motors or induction motors with
By switching between different stator windings with varying pole configurations, the high starting torque are suitable for such applications.
motor's speed can be adjusted. Regenerative Braking Applications:
This method allows for discrete speed steps and is commonly used in applications In applications that require regenerative braking, where energy needs to be fed back to the Capacitor Start Capacitor Run (CSCR):
requiring a limited number of speed options. Capacitor Start Capacitor Run is an improved version of the CSIR method. In CSCR
power supply during deceleration, wound rotor induction motors with external resistors or
Rotor Resistance Control: motors, both a start capacitor and a run capacitor are connected in parallel with the
Rotor resistance control is primarily applied to wound-rotor (slip ring) induction motors. DC injection braking can be used.
start and run windings, respectively. The start capacitor provides the high starting
By inserting external resistors into the rotor circuit during motor starting and gradually torque as in CSIR motors. Once the motor reaches its operating speed, a centrifugal
reducing the resistance as the motor accelerates, the rotor current and, consequently, Maintenance of Three-Phase Induction Motor: switch disconnects the start capacitor, but the run capacitor remains connected to the
the motor torque and speed can be controlled. Regular Inspection: run winding. The run capacitor improves the motor's efficiency and power factor
This method is used when high starting torque and smooth acceleration are required. Periodically inspect the motor for any signs of wear, overheating, or abnormal vibrations. during normal operation. CSCR motors offer higher starting torque and better
Variable Voltage Variable Frequency (VVVF) Speed Control: Check for loose connections, damaged insulation, and signs of corrosion. efficiency compared to both RSIR and CSIR motors, making them suitable for a wide
VVVF speed control, also known as VFD (Variable Frequency Drive) control, is one of the range of applications.
most advanced and widely used methods for controlling the speed of induction motors. Lubrication:
VVVF control involves varying both the voltage and frequency of the motor's supply to Lubricate the motor bearings as per the manufacturer's recommendations.
control its speed. Ensure the proper type and quantity of lubricant are used.
By reducing the frequency while maintaining the voltage (V/f control), the motor's Cleaning:
speed can be reduced while maintaining a constant torque up to a certain speed. Keep the motor and its surroundings clean to prevent the accumulation of dust and debris,
Beyond the rated frequency, the voltage is reduced proportionally to the frequency which can affect cooling and efficiency.
(V/Hz control), allowing the motor to maintain constant flux and provide constant
Belt Tension and Alignment:
torque up to its maximum speed.
If the motor is coupled with belts, ensure proper tension and alignment to minimize belt
1. Plugging: wear and energy losses.
Plugging, also known as reverse voltage braking or dynamic braking, is a method of Temperature Monitoring:
quickly stopping an induction motor by reversing the phase sequence of the stator Use temperature sensors to monitor the motor's temperature during operation. High
Shaded Pole Motor:
supply voltage. In this method, the motor terminals are connected to a supply with temperatures can indicate potential issues. The shaded pole motor is a type of single-phase induction motor used for small power
reversed phases, causing the motor to decelerate rapidly. Plugging creates a braking Vibration Analysis: applications, such as fans, blowers, and small pumps. It is characterized by its simplicity,
torque in the opposite direction of rotation, forcing the motor to stop. However,
Conduct vibration analysis to identify any mechanical issues or misalignment. low cost, and self-starting capability without the need for external starting aids. The
plugging results in high current transients and mechanical stress, and it is considered an
Protection Devices: motor's name comes from the presence of shading coils or copper rings (shading poles)
abrupt and harsh method of braking. It is typically used in emergency situations where
Regularly check the operation of motor protection devices, such as overload relays and installed on a portion of the stator laminations. These shading poles create a rotating
rapid stopping is required.
magnetic field that induces a starting torque in the motor, enabling it to start without
2. Rheostatic Braking: thermal protectors.
additional windings or capacitors. Shaded pole motors are simple in construction and
Rheostatic braking, also known as dynamic braking or electric braking, involves the use Cleaning the Air Gap: widely used for low-power applications where precise speed control is not critical.
of external resistors connected across the stator terminals of the motor during In case of accumulated debris in the air gap between the stator and rotor, clean it carefully
deceleration. When the motor is running at a speed higher than synchronous speed
to prevent any damage to the motor windings.
(negative slip), it acts as a generator and produces regenerative braking energy. The
external resistors absorb this energy, dissipating it as heat. Rheostatic braking provides
controlled deceleration and can be used to stop the motor smoothly. However, it is not UNIT – 2
energy-efficient, as it wastes energy as heat in the external resistors. Double-Field Revolving Theory:
3. Regenerative Braking: The double-field revolving theory is a theoretical explanation for the operation of a single-
Regenerative braking is a more energy-efficient method of braking used in variable phase induction motor. It was first proposed by Walter Baily in 1895. The theory is based
frequency drives (VFDs) or motor drives with regenerative capabilities. When the motor on the idea that two revolving magnetic fields are produced in the motor, one by the main
is decelerating, the VFD changes its operating mode, converting the kinetic energy of winding and the other by the auxiliary winding.
the motor and connected load back into electrical energy. This regenerated energy is Principle of Double-Field Revolving Theory:
Repulsion Type Motor:
fed back to the power supply or used elsewhere in the system, reducing energy Main Winding: The main winding of a single-phase induction motor is energized with a
The repulsion type motor is a specialized type of single-phase induction motor that
consumption and enhancing system efficiency. Regenerative braking is commonly used single-phase AC supply. When the AC voltage is applied, it creates a pulsating magnetic
operates on the principle of repulsion and attraction of magnetic poles. It consists of a
in applications with frequent starting and stopping cycles, such as elevators, cranes, and field that alternates direction at the supply frequency.
stator with a wound rotor having a commutator and brushes. The brushes and
electric vehicles. Auxiliary Winding: An auxiliary or starting winding is also provided in the motor, spatially
commutator provide an electrical connection to the rotor windings, allowing the motor
Cogging: displaced by 90 degrees from the main winding. This winding is also energized with the
to operate as a repulsion motor. During startup, the rotor windings are connected in
Cogging is a phenomenon observed in induction motors, particularly in squirrel cage same single-phase AC supply.
series with the stator windings, creating a magnetic field that helps in self-starting. As
induction motors. It refers to a condition where the motor experiences a magnetic Double-Field Revolving Theory: The interaction of the main and auxiliary windings results
the motor accelerates, the brushes lift off from the commutator, and the rotor windings
locking effect, causing it to exhibit irregular or jerky motion during startup or low-speed in the generation of two magnetic fields that revolve in opposite directions around the
short-circuit, converting the motor into an induction motor. Repulsion type motors are
operation. Cogging is mainly caused by the interaction between the stator and rotor stator of the motor.
used in applications requiring high starting torque and relatively constant speed, such
magnetic fields, resulting in a reluctance variation and magnetic attraction at specific Starting Torque: As the two magnetic fields revolve, they induce an alternating current in
as elevators and cranes.
points on the motor's periphery. the rotor. Due to the spatial displacement of the windings, the rotor experiences a
starting torque, which causes it to rotate.
Crawling: Asymmetrical Inductance: The auxiliary winding is designed with higher inductance than
Crawling is another operational issue in induction motors, characterized by the motor the main winding. As the motor starts to rotate, the auxiliary winding's inductance
running at a very low speed even when the rated voltage and frequency are applied. decreases, reducing its effect on the magnetic fields and allowing the motor to continue
The motor tends to run at speeds significantly below its synchronous speed, making it running.
inefficient and causing mechanical vibrations.
Series Motor: Moving and Stationary Armatures: 2. Double Layer Windings:
The series motor is a type of DC motor where the field windings are connected in series In a conventional three-phase alternator, the armature windings are stationary and In double layer windings, each coil of a phase winding is distributed over two slots on
with the armature windings. This configuration results in the armature current flowing mounted on the stator. The rotor, containing the magnetic field, rotates around the the stator or rotor.
through both the field and armature windings. The series motor exhibits high starting stationary armature. The turns of the coil are divided into two layers, one on top of the other, occupying
torque, making it suitable for applications with high starting loads. However, the speed of This arrangement is known as the "stationary armature and rotating field" system. two adjacent slots in the winding arrangement.
the series motor is not constant and varies significantly with the load. As the load Double layer windings are commonly used in high-power electrical machines with a
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increases, the speed decreases, and vice versa. Series motors are used in applications Advantages of Stationary Armature and Rotating Field System: larger number of slots.
where variable speed control and high starting torque are required, such as electric trains, Mechanical Simplicity: The stationary armature design simplifies the construction of the They result in a more sinusoidal output voltage waveform, reduced harmonic content,
electric vehicles, and certain industrial drives. alternator, making it mechanically robust and reliable. and improved voltage waveform quality.
Lower Wear and Tear: Since the armature is stationary, there is less mechanical wear and
tear compared to a rotating armature design, resulting in longer lifespan and reduced 3. Concentrated Windings:
maintenance requirements. In concentrated windings, all the turns of a phase winding are placed in a single slot.
Better Cooling: The stationary armature has better access to cooling methods, such as fans The coils are concentrated in specific slots on the stator or rotor.
or cooling ducts, which helps in efficient heat dissipation, ensuring higher power ratings Concentrated windings are typically used in low- and medium-power electrical
and continuous operation. machines where the number of poles is relatively small.
Ease of Maintenance: Maintenance and repairs on the armature windings are more They simplify the winding layout, reduce copper losses, and are easier to manufacture.
accessible due to their stationary position, making it easier for technicians to inspect and
service the machine. 4. Distributed Windings:
Reduced Commutation Issues: In rotating armature systems, commutation problems may In distributed windings, each coil of a phase winding is divided into multiple parts and
Universal Motor: arise due to brush wear and sparking. In stationary armature alternators, this issue is distributed over several slots on the stator or rotor.
The universal motor is a type of series-wound motor designed to operate on both AC and eliminated as there are no brushes involved in the armature winding connections. This arrangement spreads the winding more evenly along the axial length of the
DC power sources. It is a versatile motor used in various applications, including power machine, creating a more sinusoidal output voltage waveform and reducing the
tools, vacuum cleaners, mixers, and small appliances. The universal motor operates on the Excitation Systems of 3-Phase Alternator: harmonic content.
principle of the series motor, where the field and armature windings are connected in 1. Static Excitation: Distributed windings are commonly used in high-power electrical machines with a
series. The universal motor provides high starting torque and speed control over a wide Static excitation systems use solid-state devices, such as rectifiers and voltage regulators, larger number of poles.
range. It is well-suited for applications that require portability and flexibility in power to provide the DC excitation current to the alternator's field winding. The main They provide better voltage waveform quality, improve machine performance, and are
sources, making it a popular choice for many household and handheld devices. components of a static excitation system include a rectifier bridge and an automatic essential for applications that require smooth and stable operation.
voltage regulator (AVR).
Rectifier Bridge: The AC output of the alternator is converted to DC using a rectifier EMF Equation of Alternator
bridge. The rectifier bridge consists of diodes or thyristors that rectify the AC voltage into Let,
pulsating DC. P= No. of poles
Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR): The AVR controls the DC excitation current supplied Z= No. of Conductors or Coil sides in series/phase i.e. Z= 2T…Where T is the number of
to the field winding. It senses the alternator's output voltage and adjusts the excitation coils or turns per phase (Note that one turn or coil has two ends or sides)
current to maintain a constant voltage at the generator terminals, ensuring stable and f = frequency of induced e.m.f in Hz
reliable power output. ф = Flux per pole (Weber)
2. Brushless Excitation: N = rotor speed (RPM)
Hysteresis Motor: Kd= Distribution factor =
In brushless excitation systems, the alternator's rotor field winding is excited using a
The hysteresis motor is a synchronous motor that operates based on the hysteresis loss of Kc or KP = Cos α/2
separate small AC generator called a pilot exciter. The main exciter's rotating field induces
magnetic materials. It is used in applications where precise constant speed, smooth If induced e.m.f is assumed sinusoidal then,
voltage in the stator windings of the pilot exciter, generating the necessary DC excitation
operation, and low noise are required, such as clocks and record players. Kf= Form factor = 1.11
current.
The hysteresis motor has a rotor made of a magnetic material with high hysteresis loss, In one revolution of the rotor i.e. in 60/N seconds, each conductor is cut by a flux of Pф
The main components of a brushless excitation system include a main exciter, pilot
such as hard steel. Webers.
exciter, rotating diodes, and AVR.
When supplied with single-phase AC voltage, the magnetic material's hysteresis loss dф= фP and also dt= secionds60/N
The pilot exciter provides AC voltage to the rotating diodes, which convert it into DC to
causes a time lag in the alignment of the rotor with the rotating magnetic field produced then induced e.m.f per conductor ( average) = dф/ dt= Pф/(60/N) =P N ф/60…..(a)
excite the main exciter's field winding.
by the stator. But We know that f = PN/120 or N= 120f/P
The AVR regulates the excitation current and adjusts the rotor field strength to maintain a
This time lag creates a small torque that pulls the rotor into synchronism with the stator's Putting the value of N in Equation (a)… We get the average value of e.m.f per
constant voltage output.
rotating field, resulting in smooth, noiseless, and constant speed operation. conductor is = Pф/60 x 120 f/P = 2f ф Volts. —à{N= 120f/P}
3. DC Generator:
In older systems, a separate DC generator driven by the main alternator's shaft was used If there are Z conductors in series per phase,
to provide excitation to the alternator's field winding. The DC generator output was then then average e.m.f per phase = 2fфZ Volts= 4fфT Volts ….{Z=2T}
rectified to produce the required DC excitation current. Also we know that Form factor= RMS Value/Average Value…
This method has become less common in modern alternators, as it involves additional = RMS value= Form factor x Average Value,
mechanical components and may be less efficient than static or brushless excitation = 1.11 x 4fфT = 4.44fфT Volts. ( Note that is exactly the same equation as the e.m.f
systems. equation of the transformer)
However, some older generators or small-scale applications still use this method. And the actually available voltage per phase = 4 Kc KdfфT =4 KfKc Kd fфT Volts.
Note: If alternator or AC Generator is Star Connected as usually the case, then the
Line Voltage is √3 times the Phase Voltage

Torque-speed characteristics

Alternator Loading and Factors Affecting Terminal Voltage:

Constructional Details of a 3-Phase Alternator: An alternator's terminal voltage is a critical parameter that needs to be controlled and
A 3-phase alternator, also known as a synchronous generator, is a machine that converts maintained within certain limits to ensure stable and reliable operation. When an
mechanical energy into electrical energy. It consists of several key parts that work alternator is loaded, various factors come into play that can affect the terminal
together to generate a 3-phase alternating current (AC). Here are the main constructional voltage. Two significant factors are the armature resistance drop and the leakage
details and their functions: reactance drop:
1. Stator: 1. Armature Resistance Drop:
The stator is the stationary part of the alternator and houses the armature windings. The armature resistance drop refers to the voltage drop across the armature windings
It consists of a laminated core made of high-grade steel to reduce eddy current losses. due to the flow of load current through the resistance of the windings.
The armature windings are placed in slots on the stator, and these windings are connected As the alternator is loaded, the load current increases, causing a voltage drop across
in a 3-phase star or delta configuration. the armature resistance according to Ohm's law (V = I * R).
2. Rotor: This voltage drop reduces the terminal voltage and is proportional to the load current.
The rotor is the rotating part of the alternator and is responsible for generating the Therefore, the higher the load current, the larger the armature resistance drop.
magnetic field. 2. Leakage Reactance Drop:
It can have either a salient (projecting outward) or non-salient (cylindrical) pole The leakage reactance drop refers to the voltage drop across the leakage reactance of
Maintenance of single phase induction motor. the armature windings when the load current passes through the magnetic leakage
construction.
Visual Inspection: paths of the stator.
3. Field Windings:
Regularly inspect the motor for any signs of wear, overheating, or abnormal vibrations. The leakage reactance is a result of magnetic flux lines that do not link with the rotor's
The field windings are located on the rotor and produce the magnetic field.
Check for loose connections, damaged insulation, and signs of corrosion. field poles directly but instead leak into the surrounding air or other magnetic
In salient pole rotors, the field windings are wound on pole shoes, which are then
Cleaning: paths.
attached to the rotor.
Keep the motor and its surroundings clean to prevent the accumulation of dust and As the load current increases, it creates more magnetic flux, resulting in an increased
In non-salient pole rotors, the field windings are embedded within slots in the rotor
debris, which can affect cooling and efficiency. leakage reactance drop.
surface.
Use compressed air or a soft brush to clean the motor's air vents and cooling fins. Similar to the armature resistance drop, the leakage reactance drop reduces the
4. Slip Rings and Brushes:
Lubrication: terminal voltage and is also proportional to the load current.
In alternators with a rotating field (rotating armature), slip rings and brushes are used to
If the motor has lubrication points (e.g., bearings), follow the manufacturer's Other Factors Affecting Terminal Voltage:
supply DC excitation current to the rotor's field windings.
recommendations for lubrication intervals and use the correct type and quantity of Field Excitation: The level of field excitation (excitation current supplied to the rotor)
The brushes remain in contact with the slip rings, allowing current to flow into the field
lubricant. directly influences the strength of the magnetic field and, therefore, the terminal
windings.
Belt Tension and Alignment: voltage. Proper control of field excitation is essential to maintain a steady terminal
5. Bearings:
If the motor is coupled with belts, ensure proper tension and alignment to minimize belt voltage.
Bearings support the rotating shaft of the alternator, enabling smooth rotation with
wear and energy losses. Power Factor of the Load: The power factor of the connected load affects the
minimum friction losses.
Temperature Monitoring: alternator's terminal voltage. Low power factor loads increase the reactive power
6. Cooling System:
Use temperature sensors to monitor the motor's temperature during operation. High requirement and might cause a drop in the terminal voltage.
Large alternators typically have a cooling system, such as fans or cooling ducts, to
temperatures can indicate potential issues. Voltage Regulator: The voltage regulator in the excitation system senses the terminal
dissipate heat generated during operation.
Vibration Analysis: voltage and adjusts the field excitation to maintain a constant voltage output.
Conduct vibration analysis to identify any mechanical issues or misalignment. Rotor Speed: Alternator terminal voltage is proportional to the rotor speed. As the
Functions of Different Parts:
Excessive vibrations can lead to premature bearing failure and other problems. rotor speed varies (due to changes in prime mover speed), the terminal voltage
The stator windings produce the 3-phase alternating voltage that is supplied to the
Protection Devices: may fluctuate.
external load.
Check the operation of motor protection devices, such as overload relays and thermal
The rotor's magnetic field interacts with the stator windings, inducing a voltage in them,
protectors. Armature Reaction at Various Power Factors:
leading to the generation of electrical power.
Ensure they are set correctly to provide adequate protection to the motor. Armature reaction in a synchronous machine (alternator or synchronous motor) is the
The slip rings and brushes supply DC excitation current to the rotor's field windings,
creating the rotating magnetic field necessary for power generation. effect of the armature current on the magnetic field produced by the rotor. It leads
UNIT – 3 to a distortion of the field and affects the overall performance of the machine. The
The bearings support the rotor, allowing it to rotate smoothly and efficiently.
Three-Phase Alternators: extent and nature of armature reaction depend on the power factor of the load
The cooling system ensures that the alternator operates within safe temperature limits,
Three-phase alternators are electrical machines that generate three-phase alternating connected to the machine:
preventing overheating and potential damage.
current (AC) electricity. They are commonly used as generators in power generation plants
and in various industrial applications. The alternator's principle of working involves the Lagging Power Factor (Inductive Load):
Salient and Non-Salient Pole Rotors:
interaction between a rotating magnetic field and stationary armature windings, resulting In an inductive load, the current lags behind the voltage, resulting in a lagging power
In salient pole rotors, the field poles are projected outward from the rotor surface and are
in the generation of electrical power. factor.
usually bolted or attached to the rotor hub. These rotors are commonly used in low-speed
and high-power applications. Under lagging power factor conditions, the armature reaction causes the rotor
Principle of Working: magnetic field to shift in the direction of rotation.
In non-salient pole rotors, the field windings are embedded within slots on the rotor
Rotating Magnetic Field: The alternator's rotor, also known as the field, is supplied with This shift weakens the effective field strength, reducing the terminal voltage of the
surface, making the rotor cylindrical. These rotors are often used in high-speed and
direct current (DC) to create a magnetic field. The rotor can have either salient poles alternator or causing the motor to draw more excitation current to maintain
medium-to-low-power applications.
(projecting outward) or cylindrical poles (embedded within the rotor surface). synchronization.
Stationary Armature Windings: The stator, or stationary part of the alternator, contains Unity Power Factor (Resistive Load):
1. Single Layer Windings:
three sets of armature windings spatially displaced by 120 degrees from each other. These At unity power factor (resistive load), the current is in phase with the voltage.
In single layer windings, each coil of a phase winding is placed in a single slot on the stator
windings are connected to form a balanced three-phase system. In this case, armature reaction still occurs, but it doesn't cause any significant
or rotor.
Induced Voltage: As the rotor rotates, the magnetic field cuts across the stationary distortion in the magnetic field.
The turns of the coil are wound one on top of the other in a single layer within the slot.
armature windings. This movement induces an electromotive force (EMF) in the windings, The effect of armature reaction is minimal, and the alternator's terminal voltage is
Single layer windings are commonly used in low and medium power machines where the
resulting in three-phase AC voltage output. relatively stable.
number of slots is relatively small.
Phases: The three phases generated in the alternator are typically labeled as A, B, and C,
They are simpler to manufacture and require less winding material, but they may result in
and they have a phase difference of 120 degrees.
a less sinusoidal output voltage waveform and higher harmonic content.

In double layer windings, each coil of a phase winding is distributed over two slots on the
In a conventional three-phase alternator, the armature windings are stationary and
stator or rotor.
mounted on the stator. The rotor, containing the magnetic field, rotates around the
The turns of the coil are divided into two layers, one on top of the other, occupying two
stationary armature.
Leading Power Factor (Capacitive Load): Active Power vs. Load Angle:
In a capacitive load, the current leads the voltage, resulting in a leading power factor. The active power output (P) of the alternator increases as the power angle (δ) increases Synchronization of Alternators:
Under leading power factor conditions, the armature reaction causes the rotor magnetic from 0 (synchronous operation). Synchronization of alternators refers to the process of connecting a new alternator
field to shift in the opposite direction of rotation. At a certain point, the active power reaches its maximum value, which corresponds to (incoming generator) to an existing electrical power system (bus) in parallel operation.
This shift strengthens the effective field strength, increasing the terminal voltage of the the rated power output of the alternator. It ensures that the voltage, frequency, and phase of the incoming alternator match
alternator or reducing the amount of excitation current required for synchronization. Beyond the maximum power angle, the active power output starts to decrease, those of the system to avoid any disturbances or damages during the connection.
Mouse indicating an unstable operating condition.
Synchronous Impedance: Methods of Synchronization:
The synchronous impedance (Z_s) of a synchronous machine is an important parameter Reactive Power vs. Load Angle: There are various methods to synchronize alternators before connecting them in
that characterizes the impedance seen by the machine from the stator side when it The reactive power output (Q) of the alternator also changes with the power angle (δ). parallel. Two commonly used methods are:
operates in synchronous mode. It includes both the armature resistance (R_a) and the At a power angle of 0 (synchronous operation), the alternator supplies or absorbs the
synchronous reactance (X_s) of the machine. maximum reactive power (VAR) as needed by the load. a) Three Lamp Method:
Synchronous Impedance (Z_s) = R_a + jX_s As the power angle increases from 0, the reactive power output starts to decrease until The three lamp method is a visual method that uses three lamps (one each for voltage,
The synchronous impedance represents the internal impedance of the machine and is it reaches zero at the maximum power angle. frequency, and phase comparison) to indicate when the incoming alternator is in sync
used to calculate various operating parameters, including the voltage regulation and the with the system.
synchronous reactance. Voltage Synchronization: Initially, the voltage of the incoming alternator is adjusted to
The synchronous reactance (X_s) represents the magnetic reactance of the machine due match the bus voltage using a voltage regulator.
to the armature reaction. It affects the synchronous reactance voltage drop in the Frequency Synchronization: The speed of the incoming alternator is adjusted (using the
armature and contributes to the overall voltage regulation of the machine. prime mover) until the frequency of the alternator matches the system frequency. This
is done by observing the lamps connected to the frequency comparison circuit.
Phase Synchronization: The phase angle of the incoming alternator is adjusted using a
synchroscope. The synchroscope indicates the phase difference between the incoming
alternator and the bus. When the synchroscope pointer is steady at the top position
(in-phase), the incoming alternator is in sync.
Closing the Circuit Breaker: Once the three lamps indicate that the voltage, frequency,
and phase are in sync, the circuit breaker connecting the incoming alternator to the
bus is closed. The alternator is now in parallel with the system.

Losses and Efficiency in an Alternator:

An alternator experiences various losses during its operation, which affect its
efficiency. The total losses in an alternator can be categorized as follows:

Copper Losses (I²R Losses): These losses occur in the armature windings due to the
resistance of the conductors. They are directly proportional to the square of the
Voltage Regulation:
armature current (I) flowing through the windings.
Iron Losses (Core Losses): These losses occur in the stator and rotor cores due to the
Voltage regulation in an alternator refers to the ability of the machine to maintain a
alternating magnetic flux. Iron losses consist of hysteresis losses and eddy current
relatively constant terminal voltage under different load conditions. It is an essential
losses.
parameter to ensure stable and reliable operation of electrical systems. Two common b) Using Synchroscope:
Stray Load Losses: These losses result from the leakage flux and magnetic stray fields,
methods to determine voltage regulation are the direct loading method and the A synchroscope is a device that visually displays the phase difference (phase angle)
leading to additional losses in the machine.
synchronous impedance method. between the incoming alternator and the system bus. It consists of a rotating pointer
Mechanical Losses: These losses arise from friction and windage, as well as losses in the
that indicates the phase difference.
bearings and cooling systems.
1. Direct Loading Method: Voltage Synchronization: The voltage of the incoming alternator is adjusted to match
Total Losses (P_loss) = Copper Losses + Iron Losses + Stray Load Losses + Mechanical
In the direct loading method, the alternator is loaded with different loads, and the the bus voltage using a voltage regulator.
Losses
terminal voltage is measured at each load condition. Frequency Synchronization: The speed of the incoming alternator is adjusted (using the
The alternator is loaded step by step with resistive loads, and the field excitation is prime mover) until the frequency of the alternator matches the system frequency. The
Efficiency (η):
adjusted to maintain a constant speed. synchroscope pointer starts rotating when there is a frequency difference between the
The efficiency of an alternator is the ratio of the electrical power output to the input
The terminal voltage and load current are measured, and the regulation is calculated as alternator and the bus.
power, including the losses.
the percentage change in terminal voltage from no-load to full-load conditions. Phase Synchronization: The operator adjusts the phase angle of the incoming
2. Synchronous Impedance Method: alternator using the synchroscope. When the pointer rotates at a steady speed, it
The synchronous impedance method is a theoretical approach to determine the voltage indicates that the incoming alternator is in phase with the bus.
regulation. Closing the Circuit Breaker: Once the synchroscope indicates that the incoming
It is based on the assumption that the alternator behaves like an equivalent synchronous where: alternator is in phase with the bus, the circuit breaker connecting the alternator to the
reactance (X_s) connected in series with the armature resistance (R_a). P output is the electrical power output of the alternator. bus is closed.
The synchronous reactance accounts for the magnetic reactance due to armature P loss is the total losses in the alternator.
reaction.
The voltage regulation is calculated using the formula: Voltage Regulation (%) = (V_noload Condition for Maximum Efficiency:
- V_fullload) / V_fullload * 100 The alternator operates at its maximum efficiency when the losses are minimized. To
where V_noload is the terminal voltage at no-load and V_fullload is the terminal voltage achieve maximum efficiency, the following conditions should be met:
at full-load conditions. Operate Close to Rated Load: Alternators typically achieve their maximum efficiency at
or near their rated load conditions. Operating the alternator at around 80-100% of its
Open Circuit Characteristics (OCC): rated load ensures better efficiency.
The open circuit characteristic curve of an alternator shows the relationship between the Optimal Power Factor: Alternators usually exhibit better efficiency at a specific power
field excitation (voltage applied to the field windings) and the open circuit terminal factor. Operating the alternator at this power factor helps in maximizing efficiency.
voltage when the alternator is not connected to any load (no-load condition). Optimal Field Excitation: Controlling the field excitation of the alternator is critical.
As the field excitation is increased, the terminal voltage also increases, but there is a Proper excitation ensures a balanced magnetic field, minimizing copper losses and
saturation point beyond which the terminal voltage remains nearly constant regardless of maximizing efficiency.
further increases in field excitation. Low Mechanical Losses: Reducing mechanical losses, such as friction and windage, can
The OCC is essential to determine the no-load voltage of the alternator and to set the enhance the alternator's overall efficiency.
initial field excitation during synchronization. Low Iron Losses: Choosing high-quality materials and laminations with low hysteresis
Short Circuit Characteristics (SCC): and eddy current losses can minimize iron losses.
The short circuit characteristic curve of an alternator shows the relationship between the Efficient Cooling: Adequate cooling of the alternator ensures that the winding and core
field excitation and the armature current when the alternator is short-circuited at the temperatures are within limits, reducing losses and enhancing efficiency.
Active Power Control of Alternator:
terminals (i.e., no voltage is applied to the load, but the terminals are short-circuited).
Parallel Operation of Alternators: Active power, also known as real power, is the power that is actually consumed by
As the field excitation is increased, the armature current also increases due to the
Parallel operation of alternators refers to the connection of multiple alternators electrical devices to perform useful work. The active power of an alternator can be
magnetic saturation effect.
controlled by adjusting the mechanical power input to the prime mover (e.g., engine,
The SCC is used to calculate the synchronous impedance of the alternator, which is a vital (generators) to a common electrical bus to supply power to a load. It is a common
practice in power systems and industrial applications to increase power capacity, turbine) that drives the alternator. The prime mover controls the rotational speed of
parameter for voltage regulation and power system stability analysis.
improve reliability, and share the load among multiple generators. Parallel operation is the alternator, which, in turn, determines the frequency of the generated voltage.
facilitated by synchronizing the alternators, ensuring that they operate at the same Increase in Active Power Output: To increase the active power output of the
voltage, frequency, and phase. alternator, the prime mover's input power must be increased. This can be achieved by
increasing the fuel supply to the engine or adjusting the steam flow to the turbine.
Reasons for Parallel Operation: Decrease in Active Power Output: To decrease the active power output of the
alternator, the prime mover's input power must be reduced. This can be achieved by
Increased Power Capacity: Parallel operation allows the combination of multiple
alternators, enabling a higher total power output. This is especially useful in situations reducing the fuel supply to the engine or adjusting the steam flow to the turbine.
where a single alternator's capacity is insufficient to meet the load demand.
Redundancy and Reliability: Having multiple alternators operating in parallel provides Reactive Power Control of Alternator:
redundancy. If one alternator fails, the remaining alternators can continue to supply Reactive power is the power associated with the magnetic fields in inductive and
power, ensuring a more reliable power supply. capacitive elements of the electrical system. Reactive power is not consumed by
Load Sharing: Parallel operation allows the load to be distributed among multiple electrical devices but is necessary for creating magnetic fields that enable the
Active & Reactive power equations in terms of power angle at steady state for non- transmission and distribution of active power.
alternators, preventing overloading of any single unit. Load sharing ensures a more
salient pole alternator balanced utilization of generators, optimizing their performance. Increase in Reactive Power Output (Leading Power Factor): To increase the reactive
In a non-salient pole alternator (also known as a round rotor alternator), the power Efficiency Improvement: Running alternators closer to their rated capacity typically power output (leading power factor) of the alternator, the excitation current of the
output is affected by the power angle, which represents the phase angle difference results in better efficiency. Parallel operation helps utilize the generators more alternator must be increased. This causes the alternator to supply more reactive
between the terminal voltage and the internal generated voltage in the machine. At effectively, reducing wastage of excess capacity. power, which leads the voltage waveform concerning the current waveform.
steady-state, the active and reactive power equations in terms of the power angle (δ) Decrease in Reactive Power Output (Lagging Power Factor): To decrease the reactive
are as follows: Advantages of Parallel Operation: power output (lagging power factor) of the alternator, the excitation current of the
alternator must be reduced. This reduces the amount of reactive power supplied,
Flexibility and Scalability: Parallel operation allows for easy expansion of the power
generation capacity by adding more alternators as the load demand increases. causing the voltage waveform to lag behind the current waveform.
Unity Power Factor: When the alternator operates at unity power factor, it supplies
Improved System Stability: Parallel operation enhances the overall stability of the
power system, as the collective inertia of multiple alternators provides better system only active power to the load, and the reactive power output is zero. This occurs when
stability during sudden load changes or disturbances. the alternator's excitation is precisely adjusted to balance the reactive power in the
Where:
Load Growth Management: Parallel operation allows for better management of load system.
P is the active power output in watts (W).
V_t is the terminal voltage in volts (V). growth. As the load demand increases, additional alternators can be brought online to
Maintenance of alternators.
V_r is the internal generated voltage in volts (V). maintain stable operation.
Reduced Downtime: In case of maintenance or repair requirements for any single Visual Inspection:
δ is the power angle in radians (rad).
Regular visual inspection of the alternator for signs of wear, damage, or abnormal
X_s is the synchronous reactance of the alternator in ohms (Ω). alternator, the others can continue to supply power, reducing downtime and
maintaining continuous power supply. conditions.
Checking for loose connections, signs of overheating, and any physical damage.
Conditions for Parallel Operation: Cleaning:
Synchronization: All alternators must be synchronized before being connected in Regular cleaning of the alternator to remove dust, dirt, and debris that may
parallel. They should have the same voltage, frequency, and phase relationship. accumulate on its surface and cooling systems.
Voltage Matching: The voltage settings of all alternators should be carefully matched to Keeping air vents, cooling fins, and filters clean to maintain proper airflow and cooling.
Lubrication:
avoid voltage differences, which could lead to circulating currents and instability.
Where: Frequency Matching: The frequency of all alternators should be the same. Minor Ensuring that bearings and other moving parts are adequately lubricated to minimize
Q is the reactive power output in volt-amperes reactive (VAR). frequency differences can cause unstable operation and can damage the alternators. friction and wear.
V_t is the terminal voltage in volts (V). Phase Sequence Matching: The phase sequence (rotation direction) of all alternators Regularly checking and replenishing lubricant levels as required.
V_r is the internal generated voltage in volts (V). should be the same. Incorrect phase sequence can lead to severe electrical Bearing Inspection and Replacement:
δ is the power angle in radians (rad). disturbances. Inspecting bearings for wear and proper functioning.
X_s is the synchronous reactance of the alternator in ohms (Ω). Equal Sharing of Load: The load must be shared equally among the alternators based Replacing worn-out or damaged bearings to prevent further damage to the alternator.
Power vs. Load Angle Characteristics: Cooling System Maintenance:
on their capacity to prevent overloading and underloading.
The power vs. load angle characteristics of a non-salient pole alternator describe how Steady State Conditions: Alternators should be connected in parallel under steady-state Checking and maintaining the cooling system, which may include air-cooling or water-
the active and reactive power output varies with changes in the power angle (δ) at a cooling systems.
conditions to prevent sudden voltage and frequency fluctuations.
given load condition. The characteristics are typically represented graphically. Ensuring proper coolant levels, checking for leaks, and cleaning the cooling system
components.
Brush Inspection and Replacement:

For brush-type alternators, inspecting and replacing brushes when they are worn out.
 Factors Affecting Efficiency:
Brush Inspection and Replacement: Synchronous motor on load with constant excitation Power Factor: The power factor of the synchronous motor affects its efficiency.
For brush-type alternators, inspecting and replacing brushes when they are worn out. When a synchronous motor is operating on load with constant excitation, it operates at Operating the motor at a leading power factor (over-excited) increases the reactive
Ensuring proper brush contact with the slip rings for efficient electrical transfer. synchronous speed and maintains a constant power factor. The synchronous motor is power consumption and lowers the power factor, resulting in reduced efficiency.
Excitation System Maintenance: connected to the power supply and the mechanical load it is driving. Here's what Load Level: The efficiency of the motor varies with the load level. Synchronous motors
Regularly checking and calibrating the excitation system, which may include AVR happens during such an operation: generally have higher efficiency at near-full load conditions.
(Automatic Voltage Regulator) maintenance.
Ensuring the proper functioning of the excitation control system.
Mouse Synchronization with Power Supply: Core Design and Materials: The quality of the core materials and the design of the
Initially, the synchronous motor is brought up to synchronous speed using one of the magnetic circuit can impact the core losses and, consequently, the motor's efficiency.
Vibration Analysis: starting methods (damper windings, pony motor, static converter, etc.). Mechanical Losses: Minimizing mechanical losses, such as friction and windage,
Periodically performing vibration analysis to detect any abnormal mechanical conditions Once the motor reaches synchronous speed, it locks into synchronization with the improves the motor's overall efficiency.
that may lead to failures. frequency of the power supply. The rotor rotates at the same speed as the rotating
Correcting issues related to unbalanced rotors or misalignments. magnetic field produced by the stator. Application of synchronous motors
Load Application: Power Generation: Synchronous generators, which are essentially synchronous motors
UNIT – 4 As the load is applied to the motor shaft, it starts to experience mechanical torque. The driven by a prime mover (such as a steam turbine or a diesel engine), are used for
Principle of Working / Operation of Synchronous Motors: synchronous motor is capable of delivering a constant torque output at synchronous electricity generation in power plants. They provide a stable and synchronized output
A synchronous motor is an AC motor that operates at a constant speed, synchronized with speed. at the grid frequency.
the frequency of the power supply. It has a rotor (field winding) that rotates at the same Power Factor Control: Power Factor Correction: Synchronous motors are used as synchronous condensers
speed as the rotating magnetic field produced by the stator winding. The principle of The excitation of the synchronous motor's field winding is kept constant during this for power factor correction in electrical systems. By over-exciting the motor, it acts as
operation can be summarized as follows: operation. a capacitive load and helps improve the power factor of the system.
Creation of Rotating Magnetic Field: When a three-phase AC supply is connected to the With constant excitation, the synchronous motor maintains a constant power factor Industrial Drives: In industrial applications where constant speed is required,
stator winding, a rotating magnetic field is produced. The rotating magnetic field rotates throughout its operation. synchronous motors are used for driving machinery, such as pumps, compressors,
at the synchronous speed (Ns) given by Ns = 120f / P, where f is the frequency of the Constant Speed Operation: conveyors, and high-speed machine tools.
supply and P is the number of pole pairs. The synchronous motor operates at synchronous speed, which is determined by the Large Fans and Blowers: Synchronous motors are employed in applications where
Synchronization of Rotor: The rotor of the synchronous motor is designed to have field number of poles and the frequency of the power supply. precise speed control and high efficiency are necessary, such as large fans, blowers,
windings. When DC excitation is applied to these field windings, they create a magnetic The motor's speed remains constant irrespective of the load variations, ensuring that it and air-handling units.
field. The rotor field aligns itself with the rotating magnetic field produced by the stator. delivers a constant synchronous speed. Synchronous Clocks: Synchronous motors are used in mechanical clocks to maintain
Steady-State Operation: In steady-state, the rotor of the synchronous motor rotates at Active Power and Reactive Power Output: accurate timekeeping by keeping the gears in sync with the mains frequency.
the same speed as the rotating magnetic field of the stator, i.e., synchronous speed. This The synchronous motor delivers active power (mechanical power) to the load, which Mining and Cement Industries: In applications like ball mills and crushers, where
synchronization ensures that the rotor follows the rotating magnetic field at all times. performs the useful work. constant speed and smooth operation are crucial, synchronous motors are utilized.
Torque Production: Once the rotor is synchronized, there is no relative motion between It also supplies reactive power to the system, which helps maintain the power factor of Hydro Power Plants: Synchronous motors are employed as synchronous generators in
the rotor and the rotating magnetic field. The interaction of the stator field and the rotor the overall electrical network. hydroelectric power plants to convert mechanical energy from flowing water into
field produces a constant torque on the rotor. No Slip: electrical energy.
Synchronous Speed: The synchronous speed of the motor depends on the number of Unlike induction motors, synchronous motors have no slip because they run at Winding Machines: Synchronous motors are used in winding machines for precise
poles and the frequency of the power supply. It remains constant regardless of the load on synchronous speed, not at a speed lower than the synchronous speed (as in the case of control of the winding process in industries like textile, wire, and cable manufacturing.
the motor. induction motors). Paper Mills: Synchronous motors are used in paper mills for applications like roll
drives, calender drives, and pulp refiners.
Significance of Load Angle:
The load angle (δ) is the phase angle between the stator magnetic field and the rotor Synchronous Reluctance Motor (SynRM):
magnetic field. It plays a crucial role in determining the behavior of the synchronous Construction:
motor under different load conditions. The significance of the load angle is as follows: The synchronous reluctance motor (SynRM) is a type of synchronous motor with a
Operation at Synchronous Speed: At no-load or light load conditions, the load angle is unique rotor design. The rotor consists of a laminated core made of magnetic material
small. The rotor rotates at synchronous speed, and the motor operates at unity power with salient poles. However, unlike traditional synchronous motors, the rotor does not
factor. have any windings. Instead, it relies on the principle of reluctance to produce torque.
Change in Load Angle with Load Variation: As the load on the motor increases, the load Working:
angle also increases. The rotor lags behind the stator field slightly. This lagging angle When an AC supply is connected to the stator winding, it produces a rotating magnetic
creates a torque that pulls the rotor back into synchronization. field. The rotor, being of a salient pole design, tends to align itself with the stator
Maximum Torque Angle: The load angle corresponding to the maximum developed magnetic field due to the principle of reluctance. As the rotor tries to minimize the
torque is known as the maximum torque angle (δ_max). At δ_max, the motor produces its reluctance between itself and the stator magnetic field, torque is generated, causing
highest torque output. the rotor to follow the rotating magnetic field. The absence of rotor windings reduces
Operation Beyond Maximum Torque Angle: If the load angle is further increased beyond losses and simplifies the motor's construction.
δ_max, the rotor cannot maintain synchronization with the stator field, and the motor Hunting:
falls out of step (called hunting). This condition can lead to instability and motor stalling. Hunting, also known as hunting oscillations or hunting oscillation phenomena, refers to
Power Factor Control: By adjusting the excitation (field current), the load angle can be the phenomenon where a synchronous motor temporarily loses synchronization with
controlled to control the motor's power factor. The motor can be operated at leading the rotating magnetic field of the stator and experiences oscillations in speed and load
power factor (overexcited) or lagging power factor (underexcited) as required. angle. Hunting typically occurs in synchronous motors operating under certain load
conditions and can lead to instability in the motor's operation.
Methods of Starting of Synchronous Motor.
Damper Winding Starting: Causes of Hunting:
Synchronous motors are often equipped with damper windings on their rotor. These Sudden Changes in Load: Rapid changes in the mechanical load on the motor can cause
windings consist of copper or aluminum bars embedded in the rotor surface. hunting. Synchronous motors are sensitive to load variations, and abrupt changes in
During starting, the synchronous motor is connected to the supply, and the field winding is load can disturb the balance between the mechanical torque and the electromagnetic
excited. However, the rotor is not initially synchronized with the rotating magnetic field of torque.
the stator. Under-Excitation: Operating a synchronous motor in an under-excited condition
The damper windings induce currents due to the relative motion between the rotating (leading power factor) reduces the motor's ability to handle sudden load changes. This
magnetic field of the stator and the stationary rotor. can lead to hunting when subjected to large load variations.
These induced currents create a torque on the rotor, causing it to accelerate and approach Unbalanced Loads: Uneven distribution of load across multiple synchronous motors
synchronous speed. Once the rotor approaches synchronous speed, the damper winding operating in parallel can cause hunting as they try to maintain synchronous speed.
losses diminish, and the motor locks into synchronous operation.
Consequences of Hunting:
Pony Motor or Induction Motor Starting: Speed Fluctuations: Hunting leads to oscillations in the motor's speed. The speed
In this method, a small induction motor (also called a "pony motor") is mechanically oscillations can cause mechanical stress on the motor and the connected equipment.
coupled to the synchronous motor shaft. Phase Swinging: Hunting often leads to a phenomenon known as "phase swinging."
The induction motor is started first using the regular induction motor starting methods,
such as direct-on-line (DOL) or star-delta starting. Phase Swinging:
Switched Reluctance Motor (SRM):
As the induction motor accelerates, it drives the synchronous motor's rotor through the Phase swinging occurs when the synchronous motor temporarily loses synchronization
Construction:
mechanical coupling, bringing it to synchronous speed. and the load angle (angle between the rotor magnetic field and the stator magnetic
The switched reluctance motor (SRM) is a unique type of motor that uses the principle
Once the synchronous motor reaches synchronous speed, the field winding is excited, and field) starts oscillating. The load angle swings back and forth around its normal value,
of reluctance to produce torque. It has a stator with windings and a rotor with salient
the pony motor can be disconnected. causing fluctuations in the motor's power factor.
poles made of ferromagnetic material.
Consequences of Phase Swinging:
Working:
Small DC Exciter Motor Starting: Fluctuations in Power Factor: Phase swinging results in variations in the motor's power
The operation of the SRM is based on the reluctance torque produced when the stator
In some applications, a small DC exciter motor is used to bring the synchronous motor to factor. These fluctuations can affect the stability and efficiency of the overall power
and rotor poles align. When the stator windings are energized in a particular sequence,
synchronous speed. system.
the stator poles create a magnetic field. The rotor poles tend to align themselves with
The exciter motor is a DC motor directly coupled to the synchronous motor's shaft. Voltage and Current Fluctuations: Phase swinging can also lead to fluctuations in
the stator poles to minimize the reluctance between them. However, the control
The exciter motor is connected to a DC power supply, and its field winding is excited. voltage and current in the power system.
strategy in SRMs involves switching the stator windings on and off at specific times
As the exciter motor accelerates, it drives the synchronous motor's rotor to synchronous during each revolution to maintain the desired torque-speed characteristics. The
speed. Preventing Hunting and Phase Swinging:
switching is usually achieved using power electronics switches.
Once the synchronous motor reaches synchronous speed, the exciter motor can be Proper Excitation Control: Proper excitation control of synchronous motors is crucial to
disconnected. avoid hunting. Over-exciting or under-exciting the motor should be avoided, and the
excitation should be adjusted based on the load conditions.
Static Starting Converter: Load Balancing: In systems with multiple synchronous motors operating in parallel, load
In this method, a static converter, such as a solid-state converter or a rotary converter, is balancing is important to avoid hunting and phase swinging. Equal distribution of load
used to bring the synchronous motor to synchronous speed. among the synchronous motors ensures more stable operation.
The converter is connected between the power supply and the synchronous motor's Governor Control: In synchronous motors driving rotating equipment like turbines,
stator winding. appropriate governor control can help manage sudden load changes and prevent
The converter initially provides a variable frequency supply to the synchronous motor, hunting.
gradually increasing the frequency to bring it to synchronous speed. Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR): In large synchronous motors, an AVR can be used
Once the synchronous motor reaches synchronous speed, the converter is disconnected, to regulate the field excitation and stabilize the motor's operation. Brushless DC Motor (BLDC):
and the synchronous motor operates at the supply frequency. Construction:
Losses in Synchronous Motors: The brushless DC motor (BLDC) is a type of synchronous motor with permanent
Torques of Synchronous Motors: Synchronous motors experience various types of losses during their operation, which magnets on the rotor and a wound stator. The rotor may have a surface-mounted
Starting Torque: can affect their overall efficiency. The losses in synchronous motors can be categorized magnet or an interior-mounted magnet, based on the motor's design.
Starting torque is the torque produced by the synchronous motor when it is started from a as follows: Working:
standstill or at rest. Stator Copper Loss: This loss occurs due to the resistance of the stator winding. It is BLDC motors operate using electronic commutation rather than mechanical brushes.
Synchronous motors do not have a starting torque when connected directly to an AC proportional to the square of the stator current and represents the power dissipated as Hall effect sensors or encoder feedback is used to determine the rotor position, and
power supply. They require external means, such as damper windings or other starting heat in the stator winding. based on this information, the electronic controller energizes the stator windings in a
methods, to bring them up to synchronous speed. Rotor Copper Loss: In synchronous motors with a wound rotor, there are copper losses sequence to create a rotating magnetic field. As the rotor magnets align with the
The starting torque is relatively low for synchronous motors and is not sufficient to start in the rotor winding due to its resistance. This loss is proportional to the square of the rotating magnetic field, torque is generated, causing the rotor to rotate. BLDC motors
heavy loads directly. rotor current. offer high efficiency, smooth operation, and better control over speed and torque
Running Torque: Core Loss (Iron Loss): Core losses, also known as iron losses, result from the hysteresis compared to brushed DC motors.
Running torque is the torque produced by the synchronous motor when it is operating at and eddy current losses in the magnetic core of the stator and rotor. These losses occur
synchronous speed under steady-state conditions. due to the alternating magnetic flux in the iron core and are constant at all loads.
Once the synchronous motor reaches synchronous speed and locks into synchronization Friction and Windage Loss: These losses occur due to mechanical friction and windage
with the rotating magnetic field of the stator, it operates at a constant speed equal to the (aerodynamic drag) on the rotating parts of the motor.
synchronous speed. Stray Load Loss: Stray load loss includes losses in bearings and other mechanical
The running torque of a synchronous motor is constant at all loads and is proportional to components, as well as losses in fans or auxiliary devices.
the excitation current.
Pull-In Torque: Efficiency in Synchronous Motors:
Pull-in torque is the minimum torque required to bring the synchronous motor's rotor up The efficiency of a synchronous motor is the ratio of its useful output power to the total
to synchronous speed from rest when external means, such as damper windings or input power. It indicates how effectively the motor converts electrical input power into
starting methods, are used. useful mechanical output power. The efficiency (η) of a synchronous motor can be
It is the torque necessary to overcome the initial inertia and friction of the rotor to expressed as:
accelerate it to synchronous speed.
Once the pull-in torque is provided, the rotor starts accelerating, and the motor locks into
synchronization.
Pull-Out Torque: Where:
Pull-out torque, also known as the maximum torque or breakdown torque, is the Output Power: The mechanical power delivered to the load, which is the useful power
maximum torque that the synchronous motor can deliver without losing synchronization. output.
When the motor is loaded beyond its pull-out torque, it loses synchronization with the Input Power: The total electrical power supplied to the motor, which is the sum of the
rotating magnetic field of the stator, and it falls out of step (desynchronization). This stator copper loss, rotor copper loss, core loss, friction, windage loss, and stray load
condition is known as hunting, and it can lead to instability and motor stalling. loss.
The pull-out torque is dependent on the motor's excitation and the power supply's voltage
and frequency.
Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motors (PMSM):
Construction: Applications of Different Types of Motors:
A Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor (PMSM) consists of a stator with windings and Synchronous Reluctance Motor (SynRM):
a rotor with permanent [Link] stator has three-phase windings that create a Industrial Fans and Blowers: SynRM's efficiency and high torque capability make them
rotating magnetic field when supplied with a three-phase AC [Link] rotor contains suitable for fan and blower applications, improving energy efficiency in HVAC systems
permanent magnets with a fixed magnetic field orientation. These magnets can be and industrial ventilation.
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mounted on the rotor surface or embedded inside the rotor structure. Pumps and Compressors: SynRM's precise speed control and high efficiency are ideal
PMSMs can have either a surface-mounted magnet rotor or an interior permanent for pumping and compressor systems in various industries.
magnet (IPM) rotor. Electric Vehicles: SynRM's high torque density and efficiency are advantageous for
Working: electric vehicle propulsion, especially in hybrid or plug-in hybrid vehicles.
When three-phase AC voltage is applied to the stator windings, a rotating magnetic field
is [Link] permanent magnets on the rotor align themselves with the rotating Switched Reluctance Motor (SRM):
magnetic field of the stator due to the attraction and repulsion forces between the stator Washing Machines and Dryers: SRMs are used in household appliances like washing
and rotor magnetic [Link] rotor follows the rotating magnetic field of the stator and machines and dryers due to their simplicity, reliability, and low cost.
rotates at synchronous [Link] interaction between the rotating magnetic field of the Robotics: SRMs find applications in robotics and automation systems, where their
stator and the permanent magnets on the rotor produces a constant torque, providing precise control and compact size are beneficial.
smooth and efficient [Link] offer high efficiency, precise control, and high Electric Power Steering (EPS): In automotive systems, SRMs are used in EPS systems to
torque-to-inertia ratio, making them suitable for applications requiring precise speed provide accurate and responsive steering assistance.
control and high dynamic performance.
Brushless DC Motors (BLDC):
Computer Cooling Fans: BLDC motors are commonly used in computer cooling fans due
to their efficiency and low noise operation.
Home Appliances: BLDC motors are used in appliances like refrigerators, air
conditioners, and washing machines for their energy efficiency and variable speed
control.
Electric Tools: BLDC motors power cordless electric tools, such as drills and saws,
providing high torque and long battery life.

Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motors (PMSM):

Electric Vehicles (EVs): PMSMs are extensively used in electric and hybrid vehicles for
their high efficiency, power density, and speed control capabilities.
Industrial Machinery: PMSMs are employed in various industrial machines and
equipment, where precise control and constant speed are required.
Wind Turbines: PMSMs are used in wind turbines to convert wind energy into electrical
energy efficiently.
AC Servomotors:
Construction: Stepper Motors
AC servomotors are typically induction motors modified for servo control applications. 3D Printers: Stepper motors are commonly used in 3D printers for precise positioning
They consist of a stator with windings and a squirrel-cage rotor. and control of the print head and build plate.
Some AC servomotors also have an encoder or resolver for feedback control. CNC Machines: Stepper motors drive the movement of CNC machines, ensuring
Working: accurate and repeatable machining operations.
AC servomotors are controlled by adjusting the frequency and voltage of the AC supply to Camera Autofocus: Stepper motors are used in camera lenses for autofocus control and
achieve the desired speed and torque. precise positioning.
The control system monitors the motor speed using the encoder or resolver feedback and
adjusts the frequency and voltage accordingly. AC and DC Servomotors:
AC servomotors offer good dynamic response and are suitable for high-speed and high- Robotics: AC and DC servomotors are widely used in robotics for their excellent speed
acceleration applications. and position control.
CNC Machining: Servomotors are used in CNC machines for precise and fast motion
control during machining operations.
Textile Industry: Servomotors are employed in weaving machines and looms, providing
precise control of the fabric's movement.

DC Servomotors:
Construction:
DC servomotors are typically permanent magnet DC motors modified for servo control
applications.
They consist of a stator with windings and a permanent magnet rotor.
Some DC servomotors also have an encoder for feedback control.
Working:
DC servomotors are controlled by varying the armature voltage and current.
The control system monitors the motor speed using the encoder feedback and adjusts the
armature voltage and current to achieve the desired speed and torque.
DC servomotors offer high dynamic response, precise control, and are commonly used in
applications requiring rapid changes in speed and position control.

Stepper Motors:
Construction: Stepper motors are special types of synchronous motors designed to move
in discrete steps rather than continuously rotating like conventional motors. They consist
of a rotor with teeth and a stator with coils. The rotor can have different designs, such as a
permanent magnet rotor or a variable reluctance rotor. The stator contains multiple poles,
and the number of poles determines the step resolution of the motor.
Working: Stepper motors operate by energizing the stator coils in a sequence, which
generates a magnetic field that pulls the rotor teeth into alignment. This creates a step
movement. The motor controller sends pulses to the coils, controlling the motor's
movement and position. Stepper motors can move in full-step mode, half-step mode, or
microstep mode, depending on the number of pulses sent to the coils.