D.

Pharm First Year Health Education And Community Pharmacy

CONCEPT OF HEALTH

Q. Define health and explain various Dimension of health.

Ans.
 Definition of health:
Health is a state of complete physical, mental, social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or
infirmity. –WHO
 Dimension of health
 Health is multi-dimensional.
 World health organization explained health in three dimensional perspectives. I.e. Physical, Mental,
Social and Spiritual...
 Besides, three many more may be cited.
E.g. Emotional, Vocational, Political, Philosophical, Cultural, Socioeconomic,
environmental, Educational, Nutritional, Curative and Preventive.

1. Physical dimension:
- Physical dimension view health from normal functioning and growth of body.
- It conceptualizes health that as biologically a state in which each and every organ even a cell
is functions normal and in perfect adjustment with the rest of the body.
2. Mental dimension:
- Mental health is not merely an absence of mental illness and self-satisfaction and self-control.
- It deals with ability of person to adjust with surrounding world.
3. Social dimension:
- It refers the ability to make and maintain relationship with other people or communities.
- It states that adjustment within and between each person and other members of the society.
4. Spiritual dimension:
- Spiritual health is connected with religious beliefs and practices.
- Meaningful and purposeful life.

Q. Write brief about various determinants of health.

Ans.
 Determinants of health
 Health is determined by multiple factor.
 The individual factors include by his own genetic factor and the external factors include
environmental factors.
1. Biological or Heredity determinants:
- The health of an individual partly depends on the genetic constitutions.
- A number of disease e.g. mental retardation and some types of diabetes are some extent due
to genetic origin.
2. Environmental determinants factors:
- Biological: - Disease producing agent (e.g. bacteria, virus, fungi),
- Physical: - Air, water, light, noise, soil, climate, altitude, radiation etc.
- Psychosocial: - Psychological makeup of individual. e.g. habit, beliefs, culture, custom,
religion etc.
3. Life style determinants:
- Behavioural pattern and lifelong habit e.g. smoking and alcohol consumption, food habit,
personal hygiene, rest and physical exercise.
4. Health services:
- Health and family welfare services helps to treat diseases and prevent diseases.
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5. Socio-economic condition:
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- It consists of education, occupation and income.

- The world map of illiteracy closely coincides with the maps of poverty, malnutrition, ill
health, high infant and child mortality rates.

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Q. Write the various indicators of health.
Ans.
 Indicators of health:
 A variable which helps to measure changes directly or indirectly. (WHO 1981)
 The health indicators are defined as those variables which measures the health status of an
individual and community.
 Indicators of health:
1. Mortality indicators: - Death rate is important indicator of health.
𝑛𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟
Death rate= (𝑋1000)
𝑚𝑖𝑑 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
2. Morbidity indicators: - It includes disease notification rate, hospital attendance rate, admission
and readmission and discharge rate.
3. Disability indicators: - It includes days of restricted activity, bed disability days, duration of stay
in hospital and spells of sickness or absence from work or school.
4. Nutritional status indicators: - It is the measurement of height and weight of pre-school
children, prevalence of low birth weight etc.
5. Health care delivery indicators: - It includes doctor’s population ratio, bed-nurse ratio,
population bed ratio, population per health facility etc.
6. Indicators of social and mental health: - Rates of suicides, homicides, violence, crimes, RTAS,
drug abuse, smoking and alcohol consumption etc.
7. Environmental indicators: - Proportion of population is having access to safe drinking water
and improved sanitation facility, level of air pollution, water pollution, noise pollution etc.
8. Socio economic indicators: - Rate of population increase per capita GNP, dependency ratio,
level of unemployment, literacy rate, family size etc.
9. Other indicators: - Health policy indicators and Indicators of quality life.

Q. Explain Natural history of disease.

Ans.
 Natural history of disease
1. Disease occurs due to the complex interaction between the host, agent and environment.
2. Natural history of disease is the study of evaluation of disease to its termination means recovery or
death.
 Natural history of disease have 2 phases: -
i. Pre-pathogenism:
This is the phase before onset of disease. The disease agent has not yet entered in the factors
needed for its interaction with human host is already present in the environment.
ii. Pathogenesis:
This phase starts with the entry of disease agent. There is certain interval of time before the
onset of clinical sign and symptoms of disease. This period is called the incubation period.
During this period, the disease agent multiplies and shows physiological changes. This period
is followed by late pathogenesis, when there are clean-cut signs and symptoms and finally the
come out of disease may be recovery, disability or death.

Q. Describe the different stages (levels) of prevention of diseases. (Mode of Intervention of disease).
Ans.
 Stages of prevention of diseases:
1. Primordial prevention: -
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- Prevention from risk factors.

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- Prevention of emergence or development of risk factor.

2. Primary prevention: -
- Pre-pathogenesis phase of disease.
- It is action taken before onset of disease
3. Health promotion: -
- It involves the improvement in general health and quality of life.
- Improving food distribution and nutrition.

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- Improving environmental sanitation.
- Improving level of education.
4. Secondary prevention: -
- Halt the progress of a disease at its incipient phase.
- Early diagnosis & adequate medical treatment.
5. Tertiary prevention: -
- It is action taken after disease has advanced.
- Reduce impairments, minimize disability and suffering.
- Provide medical, vocational, social and psychological rehabilitation with assurance and self-
confidence.

NUTRITION AND HEALTH

Q. Define Nutrition and classify foods in detailed.

Ans.
 Definition of Nutrition: nutrition is defined as the science of food and its relationship to health.
 Classification of foods:
1. According to sources:
i. Vegetable foods. E.g. rice and wheat.
ii. Animal foods. E.g. meat, egg, fish.
2. According to function:
i. Body builders (which helps in body building). E.g. fish and milk.
ii. Energy builders: E.g. sugar.
iii. Protective: E.g. vegetables and fruits.
3. According to composition:
i. Protein.
ii. Carbohydrates.
iii. Fats.
iv. Vitamins.
v. Minerals.
4. On the basis of nutritive value:
i. Cereals and millets: rich in carbohydrates and proteins.
ii. Pluses: rich in proteins and minerals.
iii. Vegetables: rich in minerals and vitamins.
iv. Fruits: rich in vitamins and minerals.
v. Nuts & oil seeds: rich in fats and proteins.
vi. Animal foods: rich in proteins, amino acid, vitamins and fats.
vii. Fats and oils: rich in vit-A and vit-d.
viii. Sugar: rich in carbohydrates.
ix. Condiments and species: carminative and digestant.

Q. Define Proteins give functions, source, metabolism and requirement of protein.

Ans.
 Proteins
Definition: proteins are the complex nitrogenous compounds and they are essential constituents in
all nutrients.
- Functions of proteins:
1. Body building and repair.
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2. Maintenance of tissue and osmotic pressure..

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3. Synthesis of antibodies, plasma protein and haemoglobin.

- Source of proteins:
1. Animal proteins: milk, meat, egg, fish.
2. Vegetable proteins: pluses, cereals, peas and nuts.
- Metabolism of proteins:
1. Proteins are not stored in the body they are replaced every day.

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2. Body proteins are consistently broken down into individual amino acids. These amino acids
again reused for protein synthesis.
3. The amount and pattern of protein in the body is maintained constantly.
4. For the effective utilization dietary supplements of protein should be adequate
- Protein requirement:
1Gm\kg body weight.

Q. Define Malnutrition and write a note on Protein energy malnutrition.

Ans.
 Malnutrition:
Definition: lack of proper nutrition caused by not having enough to eat, not eating of the right things or
being unable to use the food that one does eat.
Nearly 67% of the country’s population suffers from malnutrition.
 Protein energy and malnutrition
- This condition occurs in children are:
1. Kwashiorkor:
This occurs in second year of life it due to low protein mother milk and diet.
- Features :
i. Child should not be very thin
ii. Generalised oedema
iii. Mewing cry
iv. Skin pigmentation, thickening and crack may be ulceration
v. Thin hair, colour is reddish to grey
vi. Stomatitis and diarrhea
- Management:
i. Resuscitation: correct dehydration and hypoglycemia.
ii. Treatment: treatment by food and vitamin.
iii. Rehabilitation: in nutrient centre.
- Prevention:
i. Educate the mother ii. Supplementation of diet
2. Marasmus (protein deficiency):
It is a common disease; it occurs in the first year of life this occurs when child is not feeding
mother’s milk.
- Features:
i. Child is very thin
ii. No oedema and hair changes
iii. Head is large
iv. Ribs and abdominal structure is distended
v. Weight id reduced about 60%
vi. Diarrhoea, dehydration and vitamin deficiency
- Management:
i. Resuscitation: correct dehydration and hypoglycemia.
ii. Treatment: treatment by food and vitamins.
iii. Rehabilitation: in nutrition centre
- Prevention:
Immunization of children encouraging feeding of mother’s milk

Q. Describe Balanced diet and give functions of foods.

4

Ans.
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 Balance diet
- A balance diet is defined as foods which contain adequate amount of vitamins, carbohydrates,
proteins, fats and minerals which provide enough energy and maintain good health.
- Balance diet prevents disease which occurs due to malnutrition (disease in nutrition).
- Composition of balance diet:
1. Cereals -400gm daily
2. Pulses – 55-70gm daily
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3. Leafy vegetables- 100gm daily
4. Other vegetables- 75gm daily
5. Roots and tubers- 75gm daily
6. Milk – 200gm daily
7. Fats and oils- 35gm daily
8. Meat and fish- 30gm daily
9. Sugar – 30gm daily
10. Fruits -30gm daily
 Function of foods:
- It provides energy for mechanical work.
- It maintains growth, repair and production.
- It maintains the function of body tissue and body temperature.
- It produces resistance against disease.
- It satisfies appetites.

Q. Define Vitamins and add a note on Vitamin A.

Ans.
 Vitamins
- Vitamins are the essential nutrients required by the body in a very small amount.
- Vitamins do not supply energy.
- They cannot be synthesized by the body, so they are supplied by food.
 Classification of vitamins:
1. Fats soluble vitamins: vitamin A, D, E& K.
2. Water soluble vitamins: vitamins B and C.
 Vitamin A
Sources: carrot, green vegetables, papaya, mango, milk, butter and cheese.
 Functions of vitamin A :
1. It is necessary for the production of retinal pigments.
2. Retinal pigments are required for vision in dim light.
3. Maintenance of epithelial cells.
4. For skeletal growth.
5. It is anti-infective.
6. It gives protection against lung cancer.
 Deficiency of vitamin A:
1. Night blindness
2. Conjunctivitis
3. Thick skin
4. Retarded growth
5. Sensitive to infection
 Requirement:
5000 IU/day

Q. Add a note on Vitamin D, Vitamin E and Vitamin K.

Ans.
 Vitamin D
- Sources: animal fats, fish, liver, oils.
- Functions of vitamin D:
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1. Promotes absorption of Ca and phosphorus.

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2. Bone and teeth formation.

3. Increases reabsorption of phosphates.
4. For normal growth.
- Deficiency of vitamin D:
1. Rickets in children: rickets is defective mineralization or calcification of bones due to deficiency or
impaired metabolism of vitamin D.
2. Osteomalacia in adults: it is softening of bones cause due to deficiency of vitamin lles

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3. Osteoporosis: a disease in which bone weakness increases the risk of a broken bone, due to deficiency
of vitamin D.
4. Deformity of teeth.
5. Demineralization of bones.
- Requirement:
1000 IU/day
 Vitamin E
- Sources: soybean oil, wheat and rice.
- Functions of vitamin E:
1. It is necessary for reproduction.
2. It is necessary for muscles metabolism and storage of create in muscle.
3. It protects vitamin A (oxidation).
4. It prevents haemolysis.
- Deficiency of vitamin E:
1. Abortion
2. Infertility
- Requirement:
15-30 mg/day
 Vitamin K
- Sources: liver, green leafy vegetables, cow’s milk.
- Function of vitamin K:
1. Synthesis of clotting factor.
2. Prothrombin
- Deficiency of vitamin K:
1. Bleeding
- Requirement:
4000mg/day

Q. Add a note on Vitamin B1, Vitamin B2 and Vitamin B3.

Ans.
1. Vitamin B1 thiamine
- Sources: peanuts, vegetables and fruits.
- Functions of vitamin B1:
i. Thiamine in form of thiamine pyrophosphate acts as co-enzyme which activates protein in the
reaction of decarboxylation of pyruvic acid and alpha ketoglutaric acid in citric acid cycle (CAC).
ii. It is also used in biosynthesis of fatty acids and glucose.
iii. Transketolase reaction in HMP shunts of glucose metabolism.
- Deficiency of vitamin B1:
i. Beri-beri
ii. Wernicke’s of encephalopathy
- Requirement:
1.2mg daily
2. Vitamin B2 (riboflavin)
- Sources: milk, egg, liver, kidney, meat, fish and green leafy vegetables.
- Functions of B2:
Chemical constituent of flavor protein and acts as co-enzyme in tissue oxidation and respiration.
- Deficiency of B2:
i. It produces angular stomatitis.
ii. Delayed on healing.
6

- Requirement:
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4-5mg daily
3. Vitamin B3 (niacin)
- Sources: liver, kidney, meat, fish and ground nuts.
- Functions of B3:
i. It is component of co-enzyme which is essential for metabolism of carbohydrates, fats and proteins.
ii. It is essential for normal functioning of skin, intestinal tract and nervous system.
- Deficiency of B3:
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Pellagra
- Requirement :
15mg daily

Q. Add a note on Vitamin B6, Vitamin B12, Vitamin C and Folic acid.
Ans.
1. Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine)
- Sources: milk, liver, meat, egg, fish and vegetables.
- Functions of B6:
i. It is co-enzyme transminase which take part in metabolism of amino acid that is in the biosynthesis
of gamma-amino-butaric acid in the brain.
ii. It is also involved in metabolism of fats and carbohydrates.
- Deficiency of B6 :
i. Abdominal distention
ii. Loss of body weight
iii. Anaemia
iv. Lesions on skin and mouth
- Requirement:
2mg daily
2. Vitamin B12 (cyanocobalamine)
- Sources: milk, liver, kidney, egg, meat
- Functions of B12:
Co- enzyme for essential stage in folic acid metabolism.
- Deficiency of B12:
Megaloblastic anemia (large and abnormal RBC).
- Requirement:
1.5-2.5mcg/day
3. Vitamin C (ascorbic acid ):
- Sources: citrus fruits, tomatoes, green vegetables and amla.
- Function of vitamin C:
i. Important role in tissue oxidation.
ii. It prevents oxidation of tetra hydro folic acid.
iii. Synthesis of collagen
- Deficiency of vitamin C:
i. Scurvy
ii. Weak and pain in joints
iii. Bleedining in gums
iv. Lossesing of teethes
- Requirement:
60-80mg daily
4. Folic acid
- Source: cabbage, all green leafy vegetables.
- Functions of folic acid:
Folic acid itself is inactive but it is converted into tetra hydro folic acid which acts as co-enzyme in
the production of purines and Pyrimidine. And these are essential precursor of DNA and RBC.
- Deficiency of folic acid:
i. Megaloblastic anaemia
ii. G.I.T disturbance
iii. Severe deficiency of folic acid many cause infertility
- Requirement:
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100-300 mcg daily

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Q. Give note on Minerals. Write a function and classification of minerals.

Ans.
 Minerals
- Human body consist more than 50 mineral elements.
- These minerals are obtained mainly through foods.
- Minerals make up 120th of body weight.
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 Functions of minerals:
1. Constituents of bone, teeth and required for their growth.
2. Consist of various body tissues.
3. Maintenance of electrolyte balance.
4. Maintenance of body tone and function of muscles.
5. Stimulates digestive secretions
 Classification of minerals:
1. Major minerals: e.g. calcium, phosphorous, sodium, potassium and magnesium.
2. Trace elements with known function: e.g. iodine, fluorine, chlorine, zinc, iron and copper.
3. Trace elements with unknown function: e.g. lead, mercury, barium and aluminium

Q. Add a note on Calcium and Iodine.

Ans.
1. Calcium:
It forms 1.5-2% of body weight and average adult body contains 1200gm of calcium that is 98% present
in bones.
- Function of calcium:
i. Growth of bones and teeth
ii. For clotting of blood
iii. Regulate the contraction of muscles
iv. It is required for the cardiac action
v. It is require for milk production in lactating woman
vi. It transform light into electrical impulse in retina
vii. It forms component of several enzyme
- Source of calcium:
Milk, green leafy vegetables
- Deficiency of calcium:
i. Rickets in children
ii. Osteomalacia in adults
iii. Delayed clotting time
- Requirement:
400-500mg daily
2. Iodine:
It is essential micro nutrients which contains 50mg.
- Function of iodine:
Synthesis of thyroid hormone
- Sources: Fish, salt, cod liver oil (sea foods).
- Deficiency of iodine:
i. Goitre (tumour in neck)
ii. Hypothyroidism
iii. Retard mental development
iv. Spontaneous abortion
- Requirement:
150 mcg daily

Q. Add a note on Iron and Zinc.

Ans.
1. Iron:
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Adult human body contains 3-4 grams of iron of which 50-70% is present in blood.
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- Sources: Liver, meat, kidney, fish, green leafy vegetables and fruits.
- Function of iron:
i. Synthesis of haemoglobin
ii. Brain development
iii. Muscle activity
iv. Regulate body temperature
v. Oxygen transport and respiration
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- Deficiency of iron: Anaemia
- Requirement:
15-30 mg daily
2. Zinc
- Source: meat, fish, milk
- Function of zinc:
i. Metabolism of protein
ii. Synthesis of insulin
iii. Function of immune system
- Deficiency of zinc:
i. Growth retardation
ii. Skin disease
iii. Sexual problem
iv. Delayed on healing function
- Requirement:
5-10mg daily

ENVIRONMENT AND HEALTH

Q. Add a note on sources of water supply.

Ans.
 Sources of Water Supply:
 Above the surface:
 Rain: tree from pathogenic micro-organism, clear and soft in nature
 Surface water: canals, rivers, tanks, ponds, lakes, and streams
 Ground water: well, spring
 Sea water

Q. Add a note on sanitary well.

Ans.
 Sanitary Well:
It is an improved and ideal dug well it is having following features:
1. It is located at elevated site. At least 50 feet away from contamination. Like latrines, waste disposal of
human being and animals.
2. It should have a lining built by bricks and stones. Foe such that a water should not enter from the sides.
3. It should have a parfait platform drained and covering.
4. It should have a hand pump to withdraw water in a sanitary manner.
5. The quality of water must confirm from the standards of safe water.
6. For use, water should be collected from wells but no bathing and washing allowed near the well.

Q. Add a note on water pollution and give sources of water pollution.

Ans.
 Water pollution:
- Water is unsafe to be polluted when it is contamination with dissolve gas like hydrogen sulphide,
CO2, ammonia and nitrogen minerals like sodium, magnesium and calcium. Also suspended
impurities like clay, sand and mud. Also micro-organism and organic matter.
9

- Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies. This form of environmental degradation occurs
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when pollutants are directly or indirectly adequate treatment to remove harmful compounds.
- Water pollution is any chemical, physical or biological change in the quality of water that has a
harmful effect on any living thing that drinks or uses it.
- Drinking of polluted water often has serious effect on human health.
 Sources of water pollution:
- Sewage containing organic matters, pathogenic agents and waste of it.
- Industrial and trade waste containing chemicals.
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- Agricultural pollutants: fertilizers and pesticides.
- Physical pollutants like heat and radioactive material.
- Oil pollution-oil can make drinking water UN save and also destroy wild life.
- River dumping- it harms wild life and also increase risk of flooding.
- Marine dumping- it includes waste at seas like plastics and other material from land which pollute
water.

Q. Describe in detail purification of water.

Ans.
 Purification of water:
 Large scale purification:
1. Protected: water source must be protected from human faces and also from human and animal
contacts
2. Storage: it is done in a natural and artificial way, various artificial reservoir are used to store water for
10-14 days. Considerable amount of up to 90% occurs due to physical, chemical or biological
changes. Storage beyond 2 weeks is not recommended because of it leads growth of algae.
3. Coagulation and sedimentation: it remove98-99% of bacteria and other impurities. This step is
followed by filtration.
There are 2 types of filters used:
1) slow sand filter:

i. supernated water head:

- It is above the sand bed. Its depth bears [Link] provides a water head and also provide
wetting period during which water is purified by sedimentation and oxidation.
ii. Sand bed:
- It has thickness of meters and it is supported by a layer of gravels.
- In a sand bed water is purified by mechanical straining, sedimentation, absorption,
oxidation, bacteria action.
iii. Under drained:
- It consist perforated porous pipes at bottom of the filter drained.
- It provides an outlet for the filtrate water and support the filter drained system.
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- Filter control: it consist valves of outlet pipes. It maintains and controls the steady rate of
filtration.
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iv. Disinfection: It involves chlorination in which addition of chlorine to the filter water for
further purification.
- Advantages of chlorination:
i. It kills pathogenic bacteria.
ii. It destroys bad taste and odour producing constituents.
- Method of chlorination:

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- Usually chlorination is done with chlorine gas, for this equipment called as Peterson’s
chloronome is used.
- Chlorine gas is the best choice because it is cheap, quick in action and easy to handle and
use.
 Small scale purification:
1. Boling:
- Boling of water kill the bacteria, spores and other pathogenic agents.
- It also removes hardness but slight taste will change.
- It is satisfactory method of water purification of domestic purpose.
2. Chemical disinfection:
- It is done by bleaching powder, chloramin chlorine tablets, iodine or KMnO 4 but chemical
disinfectants are not suitable for domestic use.
3. Filtration:
- Water can be filtered in small scale by using various filtration techniques
i. Pasteure chamber filter
ii. Berke feild filter
iii. Ketadine filter

Q. Define Air. Give the functions of air.

Ans.
 Air:
- Air is mechanical mixture of gases.
- Air contains nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide and trace amount of other gases.
 Functions of air:
1. It serves to maintain life by supplying of oxygen.
2. It cools the body temperature and helps to maintain as possible as normal.
3. Special senses like hearing and smelling are done by air.

Q. Add a detail note on air pollution.

Ans.
 Sources of air pollution:
1. Industries: chemical industry, oil industry, metal industry and fuel purification industry, etc.
2. Combustion: combustion of coal oil and other fuels used in home and industry.
3. Vehicles: bus, train, aero plane and other vehicle are speed up by fuels.
4. Agriculture: spraying of fertilizer and pesticides.
 Effect of air pollution:
1. Health: Produce respiratory disease like bronchitis and lung cancer.
2. Plants: spotting and burning of leaves and retardation of growth of plants.
3. Animals: they suffer in various toxicities due to the polluted air.
4. Social economy: conversion of metal, imperfection in building materials may cause problem to human
health.
 Prevention and control:
1. Containment: it is the prevention of release of toxic substances into air by using device called arrestor.
2. Displacement: using energy source like electricity instead of fuels or coals.
3. Dilution: by establishing green belt around the industries.
4. Legislation: make some rules and regulation to control air pollution like smoke and noise act.
11

5. International relationship: by establishing international network of laboratories for monitoring air

pollution.
6. Disinfection of air: It is done by various method:
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i. Mechanical ventilation
ii. UV radiation
iii. Spraying of chemical mists
iv. By controlling dust

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Q. Give detail note on ventilation.
Ans.
 Ventilation
- It is an exchange if air of a room and supply fresh air at a proper temperature and humidity.

 Uses of ventilation:
1. It maintains constant physical condition like temperature, humidity and the movement of air.
2. It removes bad odour and smells.
3. It reduces bacterial contamination.
4. It maintains constant chemical position inside the room.
 Types of ventilation:
1. Natural ventilation: it depends on different factors:
i. Wind: cross ventilation product by doors and windows.
ii. Diffusion: passage of air through small openings.
iii. Temperature: hot air always is on the top when it is entered.
2. Exhaust ventilation: in this type, it is provide by exhausted fans. They drive out the top layer of hot
air.
3. Planum ventilation: in this type, fresh air is blown inside by centrifugal fans.
4. Balanced ventilation: it is a combination of exhaust and plenum ventilation in this, one type of fan
balances the other.
5. Air condition: air is filtered and saturated with water vapour and decrease the temperature.
 Ill-effects off over crowded purely ventilation rooms:
o Oxygen in the air will be reducing and carbon dioxide will increase which effects on breathing
(breathlessness).
o Body-heat is generated with resist in the temperature.
o Moisture from breath and evaporation from skin causes rise in humidity.
o Organism which is pathogenic may be suspended in the air.
o Bad smell and odour is produced in air.
o Chemical composition of the air will not be maintained.

Q. Define Noise give source, ill effects and control prevention of Noise pollution.
Ans.
 Noise:
Noise is defined as wrong sound in the wrong place at a wrong time.
 Sources of noise:
1. Automobiles
2. Factories
3. Air crafts
4. Radio, TV, mobile, DJ, etc.
 Ill-effects of noise pollution:
1. Auditory fatigue, it is buzzing in the air.
2. Deafness, which may be temporary or permanent.
3. Speech interference.
4. Annoyance, which is psychological response.
5. Decrease in mental concentration.
6. Physiological changes- rise in blood pressure, increase heart rate, fatigue insomnia, up and downs in
respiratory rate.
 Control and prevention of noise pollution:
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1. Control at source: it can be done by segregating noise producing machine.

2. Control of transmission: by enclosing and covering walls and roofs.
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3. Protection of exposures: using ear plug and ear buffs.

4. Legislation: make some rules and regulation for controlling noise pollution.
5. Education: educate people regarding noise pollution and there ill effects on health.

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Q. Describe in detail solid waste disposal or refused disposal.
Ans.
 Solid waste disposal/refused disposal
- Solid waste are unwanted or discarded materials.
- They may contain dust, ash, paper, pickings, fruits and vegetable products from houses and industries.
- Commercial and agricultural operations also have solid waste.
- They are called as litters in villages and refused in cities.
1. Dumping:
- It is dumped in low laying areas due to bacterial actions.
- It is reduced in volume and converted into humus.
 Disadvantage of dumping:
i. It is exposed to flies and rodents.
ii. It emits smell.
iii. It causes water pollution.
iv. It is dispersed by wind.
2. Burning of incineration:
- It is not a useful method except for the3 disposal of hospitals.
 Disadvantages:
i. Dust and ash must be separated before incineration.
ii. It is expensive.
iii. Manure is not acquired.
3. Compositing:
- In this method, alternate layer of refuse and night soil is hiding.
- The heap is then covered with earth kills pathogenic organism.
- Organic matter broken down by bacterial action and various chemical actions.
- The end product is called as COMPOST which can be used as manure.
4. Burring:
- It is useful for small quantities. Each day refuse is dumped and covered with 20-30cm of earth. The
content may be taken out after 4-6 months.
- They can be used as manure.

Q. Describe in detail Septic tank.

Ans.
 Excreta disposal
 Septic tank:
Septic tank is a water tight tank into which household sewage is admitted for treatment.

13
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- It may contain 1 to 2 chambers depending upon requirement.
- The minimum capacity is 2500 liters and the length is twice of its width and depth is 5-7 feet and the
liquid depth is 4 feet.
- Air space between cover and level of liquid must be 1 feet.
- Bottom should be slopped towards inlets.
- Inlets and outlet pipes must be submerged in deep.
- Cover must be made up of concrete and it must have main hole.
 Chemical treatment of sewage:
1. Mechanism of septic tank:
There are 2 stages involved in purification of sewage:
A. Anaerobic oxidation:
- It takes place in septic tank.
- Solid settle down and form sludge.
- Lighter solid and fat rise at the top and forms scum (foam).
B. Aerobic oxidation:
- It occurs outside the tank in which matter comes out through outlets pipes and percolates in the
subsoil.
- Aerobic bacteria in the soil attract on organic matter which is converted into nitrates, co 2 and water.
2. Maintenance:
- Do not use soap water and disinfectants because they kill and injure the bacteria.
- Contents of septic tanks should be thrown out every year.

Q. Describe in detail Medical entomology/ Arthropod borne diseases.

Ans.
 Medical entomology
1. Arthropod borne disease:
- It is important branch of preventive medicine. It deals with arthropods of medical importance.
- It deals with arthropods of medical importance.
- Arthropod transmits variety of disease.
i. Arthropods mosquitoes: malaria, filaria.
 Control:
- They are controlled by maintaining clean environment, drainage system and also by using various
chemicals.
- They can be controlled by various chemical spraying agents.
- Controlled by mosquito nets and also by using mosquito repellent cream.
ii. House fly: cholera, typhoid, diarrhoea, dysentery and polio.
 Control:
- They can be controlled by maintaining clean environment and controlled drainage system and by
using various chemical.
- They can be controlled by various chemical spraying agents.
- They can be controlled by using fly papers coated with mixture of resin and castor oil
iii. Sand fly: sand fly fever.
 Control: same as arthropod mosquito.
iv. Rat fly: plague.
 Control:
- They are controlled by maintaining clean environment, drainage system and by using various
chemicals.
14

- They can be controlled by various chemical spraying agents.

- By using insect repellents.
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- Use of rodenticides.
v. Itchmite: scabies.
 Control:
- It is controlled by physical method like staining of water and boiling of water.
- Chemical method by using chlorine and lime

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Q. Describe in detail diseases transmitted through rodents.
Ans.
 Disease transmitted through rodents:
E.g. Rat, mice.
i. Bacterial disease: plague, salamohellosis.
ii. Viral disease: incephalitis, Lassa fever.
iii. Paracitic disease: amoebiasis.
iv. Rickettsial disease: rickettsial cocks.
v. Miscellaneous disease: ring worm, rat bite fever.
 Control:
- Prevent the growth and multiplication of rats by maintains cleanliness in the house.
- Proper storage of foods, closing the holes where rat lives.
- By trapping rats and killing them.
- By using fumigation method of various chemicals like rodenticides, zinc phosphide and barium
carbonate etc.

FIRST AID

Q. Define first aid and explain types of first aid.

Ans.
 First aid
- First aid is a kind of treatment given to accidental victim and correctly / quickly while waiting for proper
medical attention/ treatment.
 Types of fist aid:
1. Self help: this is what the patient can do for himself before arrival of any other help.
2. First help: this is what other people can do for accidental victim quickly.

Q. Describe first aid of shock in detail.

Ans.
 Shock:
1. Reassurance of patient.
2. Patient is laid down with raised legs.
3. If there is vomiting or interference in breathing the patient is placed in recovery position (three
quaternary prone positions).
4. Clothes around the neck, chest and waist are loose.
5. The patient is covered with blanket. He/she should not be warm too much. Also friction or heat should
not be applied.
6. Nothing is given by mouth.
7. Smoking should not be allowed.
8. Patient must be taken to hospital immediately.

Q. Describe first aid of snake bite in detail.

Ans.
 Snake bite:
1. Tourniquet is applied to the site of bite; it should not be too tight so as to abstract lymphatic flow.
15

2. Cleansing the sight of bite must be with clean cloth or sterilize cotton as possible.
3. Local incision: super facial incision is made at the site of bite and it is sucked by sucking pump or by
mouth and the incision not more than 5mm.
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4. It is necessary to assured patient and giving him confidence also he must be immobilized.
5. Patient is not allowed to sleep; he must be given coffee and tea.
6. He should not be given alcohol because alcohol stimulates the metabolism and increase the
circulation.
7. Medical treatment- it consist of giving special anti-dote/ anti-poison/ anti-venoms.

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Q. Describe first aid of poisoning in detail.
Ans.
 Poisoning:
- The intermediate requirement is to ensure that circulation and respiration are maintained.
- The next course depends on the type of poison.
- Vomiting is avoided in some cases but in most of case it necessary.
1. Corrosion: When the poison is corrosive acid or alkali it causes burning of lips, tongue and mouth. And in
those cases vomiting is avoided. Chances of aspiration of vomits and thus damage the lungs.
2. Unconscious patient: If the patient is unconscious he/she should not be allowed to vomit. Here some
problems arise with the unconscious patients, so place the patient in recovery position.
3. Conscious patient: In that vomiting induced. This is done by passing a finger in the throat of patient. If
this is failed then he/ she may be given Emetics (which induces vomiting) such as common salt with warm
water is given.
4. Corrosive acid: Plenty of water, alkali like limes water, milk of magnesia and milk of albumin.
5. Corrosive alkali: Plenty of water, vinegar solution or lime juice.
6. Insecticide: Like Organo phosphorus poison. Artificial respiration is provided by intravenous injection of
atropine sulphate.
7. Narcotics: Intravenous injection of melaxone.
8. Sleeping tablets: By using atropine sulphate as an artificial respiration.
9. Food poison: Rehydration.
10. Carbon monoxide: Generally source is fuel combustion and gas.
 Symptoms of carbon monoxide poisoning:
1. Headache, tightness of chest followed by vomiting, collapse and at last unconscious stage.
2. The patient must be taken out in fresh air and he should be given artificial respiration.

Q. Describe first aid of Burns in detail.

Ans.
 Burns:
- Burn is an injury caused by dry heat, moist heat, and piece of fire, hot metal, corrosive chemicals,
excessive sunlight and radiation.
 Effects of burns:
1. Redness of skin
2. Blister formation
3. Destruction of skin, tissues
4. Chance of septic infections and undefined pain
 first aid:
- Put out the fire in which first step is remove the burning clothes. Victim should be laid down. Avoid
running or walking. Wrap in blanket. Water can be provided ice water should not be used.
- Artificial respiration is provided if necessary.
- Avoid touching the burned area.
- Dressing the burns: lotions, ointments or antibiotic cream should not be applied on burn clothing and
avoid removing burn clothes in severe cases.
- Burn area must be covered with dry sterile dressing.
- Chemical burns: irrigate with running water.
- Acid burns: irrigate with bicarbonate water.
- Alkali burns: irrigate with vinegar solution.
- Electrical burn: patient must be approached only after switching.
16

- Sun burn: apply calamine lotion.

Page

Q. Describe first aid of Wounds in detail.

Ans.
 Wounds
- A wound is anything breaks in skin and the mucous membrane, which arise from injury.
 Types of wounds:
1. Incised wounds: these are sharp cuts caused by sharp weapons.
2. Lacerinated wounds: these wounds are caused by blunt objects.
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3. Punctured wounds: these wounds are caused by penetration of pointed and sharp weapons.
 First aid for wound:
1. Exposure of wound: the patient is in comfortable position as allotted with the seat. The wound is exposed
by cutting away the clothes. If there is bleeding, control and stop it first and before handling it wash hands
to avoid infection.
2. Preparation of apparatus: various apparatus are required like scissors, forceps, bowels and antiseptic
dressings and they all must be sterilized.
3. Removal of foreign body from wounds.
4. Cleaning the wound by using suitable antiseptic solutions suitable dressing is applied with the sterilized
piece of gauze care is taken not to touch the site which is to be applied on wounds at last; cotton dressing
is applied and tied firmly by a narrow bandage.

Q. Describe the detail account of fracture.

Ans.
 Fracture:
Fracture is break in continuity of bones.
 causes of fracture:
Fracture occurs due to the application of force to the skeleton force may be direct or indirect.
1. Direct force: the bone break at spot where force is applied.
2. Indirect force: The bone breaks at some distance from the spot where force is applied.
 Types of fractures:
1. Closed fracture: In which bone is break but overlying skin is impart.
2. Open feature: In which bone and skin both arc broken down.
3. Complicated fracture: There is associated injury to some internal structure.
4. Communicated fracture: Bone is broken into several fragments.
5. Impacted fractures: The broken end is driven into other.
6. Depressed fracture: This occurs in skull bone where broken part of the bone is driven inward.
7. Green stick: This occurs in children in which bone may break and bent without completely breaking.
 Symptoms of fracture:
1. Deformation
2. Irregular shape
3. Shortening of bones
4. Swelling
5. Tenderness
6. Un-natural movements
7. Crepitus
8. Sever pain
 First aid:
1. Patient should not move until the injured part is immobilized.
2. If heeling occurs, control and treat it first before treating fracture.
3. Injured must be support and prevent movement to avoid bleeding and damage to blood vessels and
muscles.

Q. Add a short note in first aid of heart disease.

Ans.
 Heart disease
- If there is no pulse, cardiopulmonary resuscitation must be common and immediately nothing should be
17

given by mouth.
- Patient should be placed in recovery position.
- Air way must be maintained. Conscious patient must be placed sitting at and should be laid at 45 o and
Page

should be laid down.

- Clothes must be loose and patient must be re-assured.
- Movement must be limited as much as possible.
- Immediately medical attention is given.

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COMMUNICABLE DISEASES

Q. Write a short note on communicable disease.

Ans.
 Communicable diseases:
o Communicable diseases is defined as an illness due to the specific infector present or its toxic
products capable of being directly or indirectly transmitted from man to man, animal to animal or
from environment through air, dust, soil, water to man or environment.
o Specific medications used to treat infection include antibiotics, antiviral, antifungal,
antiprotozoans & anthelminthic.
o Infectious diseases resulted in 9.2 million deaths in 2013 (about 17% of all deaths).

Q. Classify types of communicable disease.

Ans.
 Types of Communicable Diseases:
1. Respiratory infection:
E.g. Chicken pox, Measles, Influenza, Diphtheria, Whooping cough, Tuberculosis etc.
2. Intestinal infections:
E.g. Poliomyelitis, Hepatitis, Cholera, Typhoid fever, Food poisoning, Hookworm infection etc.
3. Arthropod borne diseases:
E.g. Plague, Malaria, Filariasis etc.
4. Surface infections:
E.g. Rabies, Trachoma, Tetanus, Leprosy etc.
5. Sexually transmitted diseases:
E.g. Syphilis, Gonorrhoea, AIDS etc.

Q. Explain any three respiratory infections. , Diphtheria, Whooping cough, Tuberculosis

Ans.
 Respiratory infection:
E.g. Chicken pox, Measles, Influenza etc.
i. Chicken pox:
 Causative organism: varicella, zoster virus.
 Transmission: It is transmitted by droplets of mouth or nose.
 Prevention & control:
a. Notification by physician
b. Isolation infected individual
c. Using disinfectant for contaminated articles used by infected individual
d. Vaccination by varicella zoster immunoglobin vaccine.
ii. Measles:
 Causative agents: RNA paroxysmal virus, measles virus.
 Transmission: By droplets infection, i.e. sneezing, coughing, spitting, and speaking of
infected individual.
 Prevention & control:
a. Notification by physician
b. Isolation of infected individual
c. Immunization at the beginning stage of infection
18

d. Vaccination is given at the nine month age.

iii. Influenza:
 Causative agents: influenza virus (types A, type B & type C).
Page

 Transmission: droplet infection.

 Prevention & control:
a. Frequent hand washing
b. Wearing surgical mask
c. Yearly vaccination
d. Use of antiviral drug

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Q. Explain any three respiratory infections.
Ans.
 Respiratory infection:
E.g. Diphtheria, Whooping cough, Tuberculosis etc.
i. Diphtheria:
 Causative agents: Corynebacterium diptheriae.
 Transmission: by droplets infection.
 Prevention & control:
a. Notification by physician
b. isolation of infected individual
c. Immunization with DPT in six, ninth, 14th month of age
d. Booster dose is given in 18th month of age.
ii. Whooping cough:
 Causative agent: Bordetella pertussis.
 Transmission: by droplets of infection.
 Prevention & control:
a. Notification by physician
b. Isolation of infected individual
c. Immunization with vaccines
d. Treatment with antibiotics
iii. Tuberculosis:
 Causative agent: Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
 Transmission: by droplets of infection.
 Prevention & control:
a. Early detection by microscopic examination of sputum
b. Chest X-ray
c. Vaccination with BCG (Bacilli Chalmette Guerin)
d. Treatment by using ant tuberculosis drugs

Q. Explain any three intestinal infections. Typhoid fever, Food poisoning, Hookworm infection
Ans.
 Intestinal infections:
E.g. Poliomyelitis, Hepatitis, Cholera etc.
i. Poliomyelitis:
 Causative agents: polio virus
 Transmission:
a. By faecal and oral route
b. Contaminated fingers
c. Contamination by food or flies
 Prevention & control:
a. Notification and isolation
b. Proper disposal of urine and faces
c. Protection of water source
d. Avoid over crowding
e. Flies control
f. Immunization with Salk vaccination
ii. Hepatitis:
19

 Causative agents: hepatitis A, B & D

 Transmission:
Page

a. Hepatitis A: contaminated water, food and milk.

b. Hepatitis B: contaminated syringes, injections and cathartic also placental contacts and sexual
contact.
c. Hepatitis D: transmitted same as hepatitis A.
 Prevention & control:
a. Hepatitis A: proper disposal o excreta, prevention of contaminated water, food and milk.
Passive immunization with normal immune globin of human.

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b. Hepatitis B: screening of blood donors, proper sterilization of needle & syringes,
immunization with hepatitis B.
iii. Cholera:
 Causative agents: Vibrio cholera
 Transmission:
a. Faecal contamination of food.
b. Direct contact with contaminated fingers.
 Prevention & control:
a. Early detection.
b. Rehydration of patient and administration of antibiotics like tetracycline, detection of stool,
cloth, wools.
c. Sanitary measure and prevention, use of cholera vacins.
d. Use of ORS
 ORS:
ORS is very essential for the treatment of cholera and other disease. It prevents
rehydration. It is the best in an observation. The glucose given by orally increases the
absorption of salt and water.
There are 2 types of ORS.
a. ORS BICARBONATE – sodium chloride (Nacl) 3.5 gram, sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3)
2.5 grams, potassium chloride (KCl) 1.5 grams, glucose 20 grams.
b. ORS CITRATE – NaCl 3.5 grams, trisodium citrate dehydrate 2.9 grams, KCl 1.5 grams,
glucose 20 grams water 1 L.
The solution should be prepared whenever required. It should not be boil or sterilised.

Q. Explain any three intestinal infections.

Ans.
 Intestinal infections:
E.g. Typhoid fever, Food poisoning, Hookworm infection etc.
i. Typhoid fever :
 Causative agents: Salmonella typhi
 Transmission: faeces, urine, contaminated water food fingers and flies.
 Prevention and control:
a. Early diagnosis by culture of blood and stool
b. Notification and isolation
c. Sanitary measures
d. Treatment with drug like chloramphenicol
ii. Food poisoning: it is also called as acute gastro enterotitis caused by ingestion of food and drinks
contaminated with bacteria toxins, plant and animal poisons and chemicals.
 Protection and covering of food during storage and processing:
a. Refrigeration is for overnight storage.
b. Food must be discarded if there is fermentation.
c. Antitoxins are given in case of food poisoning.
iii. Hook worm infection:
 Causative agents: ancycostoma doudenalis and necator americanus.
 Transmission:
- Through the polluted soil and faecal matter.
- Larving of worms enters through the skin of bare feet’s.
20

- Then it enters into lymphatic and through the blood.

- It enters into lungs and from lungs it enters into elementary canal.
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- Infection may also occur through the oral route by foods and vegetables.
- Avoid bare foot walking. Don’t defecate in open areas but rather in toilets.
- Don’t use untreated humans excreta as a fertilizer in agriculture. Safe disposal of excreta.
- Use of anthelmintic drugs. Albendazole and mebendazole.

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Q. Explain three arthropod borne infections.
Ans.
 Arthropod borne diseases:
E.g. Plague, Malaria, Filariasis etc.
i. Plague:
 Causing agents: yersinia pestis
 Transmission: the fly fit on the rats and the infected dies and the flies leave the rats and these
flies bites the humans beings and the plague is transmitted.
 Prevention & control:
a. By easily diagnosis, notification & isolation
b. Disinfection of sputum and dischages.
c. Control of flies with the use of insectisides like DDT
d. Control of rodents with rodenticides
e. Vaccination with hoffkin’s vaccine
f. Treatment with tetracycline and sulphonamide.
ii. Malaria:
 Causing agents: plasmodium vivax, plasmodium faciparum, plasmodium malariae,
plasmodium ovale.
 Transmission: by biting of female anopheles mosquito which acts as a carrier of causative
agents.
 Prevention & control: Early diagnosis by blood testing stationary measures like good
drainage system. Killing of mosquito by using soraying of DDT or kerosene. Using mosquito
repellants and mosquito nets. Treatment with ant malarial drugs
iii. Filariasis:
 Causitative organism: Wychereria bancrofit and Bruigia malayi.
 Transmission: bite of anopheles mosquito.
 Prevention & control:
a. Early diagnosis through examination of blood smear immediate.
b. Notification, sanitary measures like good drainage, use of mosquito repellents or
mosquito nets, treatment with diethyl carbamazine can be given to everyone in epidemic
area.

Q. Explain surface infections in detail.

Ans.
 Surface infections:
E.g. Rabies, Trachoma, Tetanus, Leprosy etc.
i. Rabies /Hydrophobia:
 Causative organism: Rhabidovirus (RNA virus).
 Transmission: Transmitted by bite of rhabid (mad) animals commonly dogs.
 Prevention & control:
a. Bites, wounds, scratchews must be clean with soap and water. Carbonylic acid or tincture
of iodine to be used.
b. Antirabies serum must be applied on the wounds; bitten person must be treated with
antirabies vaccines and human antirabies globulin, immunization destruction rabit dogs,
immunication of pet dogs and domestic animal.
ii. Trachoma (eye’s disease):
 Causing agents: Chlamydia trachomatis.
21

 Transmission: Direct contact from person to person, indirect contact through formities
(personal hygiene like towels, soaps, cloating), transmission by flies.
Page

 Prevention & control: Treatment of all people with drugs like sulphonamides and tetracycline,
environmental sanitization, health education.
iii. Tetanus (muscle disease):
 Causative organism: Clostridium tetani.
 Transmission: Through contaminated wound, injury or unsterilized surgery, dental extraction,
infections, fractures.

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 Prevention & control: Improvement of general hygiene, active immunization with tetanus
toxoid for children DPT vaccine at 6th , 10th and 14th week and boosted dose at the 18th month,
passive immunization with penicillin on tetracyeline.
iv. Leprosy:
 Causative organism: Mycobacterium leprae.
 Transmission: Direct or indirect contact with infected contact with fomites such as
contaminated cloths.
 Prevention & control: Notification, detection& isolation. Chemoprophylaxis with dapsone,
health education.

Q. Explain sexually transmitted diseases in detail.

Ans.
 Sexually transmitted diseases:
E.g. Syphilis, Gonorrhoea, AIDS etc.
i. Syphilis:
 Transmission: Through sexual contact with infected person
 Prevention & control:
a. Notification and detection, isolation
b. Treatment with benzathine penicillin
c. By avoiding promiscus sexual contact
d. Use of contraceptives device
e. Health education
ii. Gonorrhea:
 causative organism: gonococci
 Transmission: by direct sexual contact.
 Prevention & control: detection, notification, screening of special groups, treatment with
porcine penicillin, preventing prostitution, health education.
iii. AIDS :
 Causative organism: HIV (human immune deficiency virus).
 Transmission: Sexual contact, blood contact, through placenta (mother to foetus),
contaminated needles, syringes.
 Prevention & control:
a. Screening of blood donor of AIDS, screening of high risk groups like prostitute like drug
addiction.
b. Avoid second use of disposal syringes and needles, avoiding promiscus sexual contact,
use of contraceptive devices, and treatment with antiviral drugs, improve health
education.

NON-COMMUNICABLE DISEASES

Q. Define non-communicable disease and give examples

Ans.
 Non-communicable diseases:
It is a disease which is caused due to multiple causes and cannot be transmitted directly or indirectly
from one person to other by any agencies.
E.g. Cancer, Diabetes, Blindness, Rheumatic heart disease.
22
Page

Q. Explain Cancer in detail.

Ans.
 Cancer: cancer is an abnormal growth of cell and tissues.
 Causative agent:
Causative agents of cancer varying in different types of cancer.
i. Chemical agent: aniline dyes, benzidine, asbestos, nickel.
ii. Physical agents: gamma rays, X-rays, UV- rays.
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iii. Nutritional agents: low protein diet, deficiency of vitamin B.
iv. Mechanical agents: chronic irritation and friction.
v. Biological agents: viruses like hepatitis B.
vi. Contributory agent: factors of the host.
 1st stage: possibility of cancer is more in old age
 Sex: breast cancer in woman & oesophageal cancer occur in man.
 Occupation: occupational exposure several substances produces lung cancer and skin cancer.
 Marital status: cancer of cervix is less in unmarried woman.
 Socio-economic status: incidence of skin stomach and cervix is high in poor people.
 Custom and habits: chewing of tobacco, smoking, and alcoholism, hot and spicy food.
 Control:
i. Environmental measures like exposure to carcinogens should be restricted.
ii. Way of life should be changed eg. Smoking, alcoholism, chewing of tobacco should be
controlled.
iii. Earlier diagnosis and surgical remover is useful in Brest cancer.
iv. Mass surgery and screening useful especially in old people.
v. Endoscopy may be done in periodic health examination.
vi. For treatment of cancer surgery is radiotherapy or chemotherapy are suggested.
vii. Rehabilitation measures are also needed

Q. Write a note on Diabetes.

Ans.
 Diabetes: the 2 type of diabetes are:
1) IDDM (insulin dependent diabetes mellitus).
 This type is seen in youngster.
 It is lethal (harmful).
2) NIDDM (non-insulin dependent).
 It is more common than type-1.
 It occurs in middle age and old age people.
 Cause:
a. Pancreatic disease: Defect in synthesis of insulin or decreased in number of beta cell of
Langerhans of pancreas.
b. Heredity.
c. Life style and lack of exercise.
d. Diet: fats, carbohydrates, sweets.
e. Obesity.
f. Infection with virus like rubella and mumps.
g. Social factors: occupation and economic status.
 Prevention & control:
a. Maintenance of normal body weight by exercise and dietary habits.
b. Avoid of risk factor like smoking, alcohol and oral contraceptive.
c. Self-care like checking urine and blood sugar level.
d. Treatment with insulin and oral ant diabetic drugs.
e. Diabetic control programs.

Q. Write a note on Blindness.

23

Ans.
 Blindness:
Page

WHO has define blindness as visual activity of less than 3/60 snellen or it is equivalent in ability to
count fingers in day light at a distance of 3mtr.
 Causes:
i. Cataract
ii. Glaucoma
iii. Malnutrition: due to deficiency of vitamin A
iv. Injury from industries like carpentry and stone cutting
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 Prevention & control:
i. Treatment with tetracycline ointment and vitamin A capsule.
ii. Cataract and glaucoma are managed by primary health centre and district hospital.
iii. Mobile units and eye campus.
iv. Health education.
v. Rehabilitation.
vi. Special and specific programs like
- Trachoma control programme.
- School eye health services.
- National programme for the control of blindness.

Q. Write a short note on Rheumatic heart disease.

Ans.
 Rheumatic heart disease:
 Causes:
 Caused by rheumatic fever, β haemolytic streptococci.
 Initially defect throat then it affects joints, ultimately it affects heart.
 It licks the joint and bites the heart.
 Prevention & control:
i. Identification and treatment of cases with streptococcal.
ii. Sour throat disease may be treated with long acting penicillin.
iii. School health services.
iv. By improving socio-economic condition.

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF MICROBIOLOGY

Q. Define microbiology and classify microbes.

Ans.
 Microbiology:
Microbiology is the study of micro-organisms. Medical microbiology deals with the microbes which
produces infectious disease in human beings.
 Classification of microbes:
 Having cellular organization:
1. Prokaryotes: e.g. Bacteria
2. Eukaryotes: e.g. Protozoa, fungi, algae
 Having no cellular organization:
E.g. virus.

Q. Give difference between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic.

Ans.
 Differences in prokaryotic cell & eukaryotic cell
Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell
1. Small cells less than 5μm 1. Larger cells (greater than 10μm)
2. Always unicellular 2. Often multi cellular
24

3. No nucleus or any membrane bound 3. Always have nucleus and other membrane
organelles such as mitochondria bound organelle
4. DNA is circular without proteins 4. DNA is linear and associated with protein
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5. Ribosome are small (70s) 5. Ribosome are large(80s)

6. No cytoskeleton 6. Always have a cytoskeleton
7. Motality by rigid rotating flagellum 7. Motality by flexible waving cilia or flagella
( made by flagellin) (made by tubulin)
8. Cell division by binary fission 8. Cell division by mitosis or meiosis
9. Reproduction is always asexual 9. Reproduction is asexual or sexual
10. Huge variety of metabolic pathways 10. Common metabolic pathways
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Q. Give different classification system of Bacteria.
Ans.
 Classification of bacteria:
1. Cell wall classification by Gram staining:
i. Gram positive (thicker cell wall) e.g. staphylococci
ii. Gram negative (thinner cell wall) e.g. salmonella
2. Classification by shape:
i. Spherical e.g. cocci
ii. Cylindrical e.g. bacilli/ rods
iii. Vibrios e.g. comma or curved shape
iv. Spirilla e.g. rigid spiral shape
v. Spirocheats e.g. flexible spiral
vi. Actinomycetes e.g. branching form
vii. Mycoplasma e.g. different cell walls

Q. Give structural features and anatomy of Bacteria.

Ans.

Prokaryotic cell

Eukaryotic cell

1) Bacteria consists outer cell envelop which consist of outer cell wall and inner cytoplasmic membrane.
2) Cytoplasm is present inside the cell envelop.
3) In cytoplasm there are ribosome granules and DNA.
4) In bacterial cell whole enclosed in capsule.
25

5) Some bacteria are having flagella which are used for locomotion and adhesion.
Page

Q. Give isolation or separation of Bacteria in detail.

Ans.
 Isolation or separation of bacteria or method of isolating pure culture:
1. Surface plating:
It is also called as Streak culture. The specimen to be cultured is taken in a platinum loop. One loop
full is transferred on a surface of a well dried plate. Then it is spread over a small area at a periphery the

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inoculums is then distributed thinly over the plate. The loop should be flame and cool between different
sets. Plate is inoculated; well separated individual colony of bacteria can be obtained.
2. Enrichment & selective media:
Bacteria can be isolated by growing in selective media. In this media substance which inhibits the
growth of unwanted bacteria so there is growth of only those bacteria which is wanted.
3. Aerobic & anaerobic conditions:
These bacteria can be separated by cultivation under presence of oxygen and absence of oxygen.
4. Isolation by difference in temperature:
Thermophile bacteria growth at 60oC. Some bacteria like meningitis growth at 22oC, thus by
incubation at different temperatures bacteria can be selectively isolated.
5. Separation of vegetative & spore forming:
Vegetative bacteria are killed at 80oC but spore forming bacteria survive at these temperature. So
by heating at 80oC vegetative bacteria can be eliminated & spore forming bacteria can be isolated.
6. Separation of motile & non-motile bacteria:
Organisms are introduced in one part of and motile organism can be isolated at other part.
7. Animal inoculation:
Pathogenic bacteria can be isolated by inoculating into appropriate animal.
8. Filtration:
Bacteria’s of different sizes may be separated by using selective filters.

Q. Describe staining of Bacteria in detail.

Ans.
 Staining of bacteria:
Bacteria do not show much structural details under the lite microscope so bacteria must be stained to
produce color contrast. Bacteria which are stained in the living state are called as vital staining and the
bacteria which are stained in the killed state are called as super vital staining.
 Various technologies for staining:
Stain: stain is dye used to color the living or that organelles.
Method:
1. Positive staining: where the actual cells are themselves colour and appeared in a clear background.
a) Simple staining: a stain which provides colour contracts but give same colour to all bacteria’s and
cells example. Methylene blue.
b) Differential staining: a stain which impart different colour to different bacteria is called as
different staining.
i. Gram staining
- Gram positive
- Gram negative staining
ii. Acid fast staining
2. Negative staining: where the cells cleared (uncolored) and the background is colored to create a contrast
to acid in the better visualization of the image example. Indian ink and nigrosine is used.
3. Impregnation staining: bacteria which too thin cannot be seen under microscope & clarity so they can
be made visible by thicking which impregnation of silver on the surface.
 Differential staining
1. Gram staining:
 Principle: this is the most important staining method for the bacteria. By this method not only the
shape, size & other structural details are made visible but organisms can be grouped into gram
positive & gram negative.
 Gram positive bacteria retained violet color of methyl violet. E.g. Staphylococci’s.
26

 Gram negative bacteria decolorized by alcohol and stain with counter stain like carbolfuschine
which gives pink color to them e.g. E coli
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 Method:
i. Apply methyl violet on the bacterial smear on the slide. Stand for a minute wash out the stain
with water.
ii. Apply gram iodine & allow acting for one minute.
iii. Decolorize the slide with 70% of alcohol. Wash slide again with water.
iv. Counter stain with dilute carbolfuschine for one minute. Wash it with water clean& dry the
slide. Examine under the microscope by oil immersion method.
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 Observation:
i. Gram positive gives the violet colour.
ii. Gram negative bacteria give pink colour.
2. Acid fast staining:
 Principle: this technique was discovered by Ehlirich to observe that after staining with aniline
dyes tubercle bacilli resist decolourization with acids. Staining consist of 3 steps.
i. Staining with carbolfuschine
ii. Decolourization with acid
iii. Counter staining with methylene blue
 Method:
i. Zeihl nelson’s method: Take the smear on the slide with concentrated carbolfuschine. Allow
it to act for 5 minutes. Heat the slide intermittently till steam evolves without allowing the
stain to boil. Wash the slide with water.
ii. Decolorized the slide with 20% H2SO4.
iii. Wash the slide with water.
iv. Apply methylene blue on the slide & leave it for one minute. Wash the slide & dry it examine
under microscope by using oil immersion method.
 Observation:
 Acid fast bacteria show red colour stain.
 Non-acid fast bacteria shows blue stain

Q. Define and classify protozoa.

Ans.
 Protozoa:
Protozoas are defined as a diverse group of unicellular eukaryotic organisms with animal like
behaviour such as molality & predation.
 Classification of protozoas:
 By means of morphology:
1. Flagellates: example. Giaridia lamblia
2. Amoeboid: example. Enta amoeba histolytica.
3. Sporozoans: examples. Alveolata, rhizoria, fungi, cnidaria
4. Ciliates: example. E coli
 By means of locomotion:
1. Sarcomastigophara
a. Mastigophora
b. Sarcadina
c. Oplinata
2. Sporozoas
3. Cmidaspora
a. Microsporidea
4. Ciliospora

Q. Describe in detail staining of protozoa.

Ans.
 Staining of protozoa’s:
1. Iron haematoxylin stain:
27

i. Preparer slide with smear.

ii. Fixed slide with fixative solution for 30 minutes.
Page

iii. Place in 70% ehanol iodine for 5 minutes.

iv. Wash slide with water for 10 minutes.
v. Place slide in iron haematoxylin solution for 10 minutes.
vi. Place slide in picric acid for 10 minutes.
vii. Place slide in 95% alcohol for 10 minutes.
viii. Clean slide with xylem solution.
ix. Examine under microscope.

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2. Wheatley trichrome staining:
i. Prepare slide with smear.
ii. Fixed slide with fixative solution for 30 minutes.
iii. Place in 70% ethanol iodine foe 5 minute.
iv. Wash slide with water for 10 minutes.
v. Place slide in trichrome solution for 10 minutes.
vi. Place slide in 95% alcohol for 10 minutes.
vii. Clean slide with xylene solution.
viii. Examine under microscope

Q. Give detail account of Viruses.

Ans.
 Virus:
Virus is infectious agent that replicates only inside the living cells. Virus can infect all type of life
styles from animals & plants to microorganisms include bacteria & other organisms.
 Classification:
1. DNA virus- herpes virus
2. RNA virus – HIV virus
 Isolation of virus:
1. Animal isolation: virus can be isolated by inoculating them with animals like monkey, mice &
rabbits by intracerebal and s subcutaneous route.
2. Embryonated egg: virus can be isolated by inoculating by chlorio allantoic membrane (CAM) of
yolk sac.
3. Tissue culture: they can be cultivated i8n tissue organ & the cell culture
 Shape & structure of virus:
 Size: varying in their sizes between 20-30 nm.
 Shape: spherical, bullet & brick. Rabies virus shape is bullet like.
 Structure: virus core is surrounded by proteinous covering called capsid. Capsid with nucleic acid called
nucleocapside. Viruses are of enveloped & none enveloped.

DEMOGRAPHY AND FAMILY PLANNING

Q. Define demography and describe demography cycle.

Ans.
 Demography:
It is the scientific study of human population.
Phenomenon’s which determines demographic processes are:
1) Fertility
2) Morality
3) Marriage
4) Migration
5) Social morbidity
 Demographic cycle: There are 5 stages of demographic cycle-
1) High stationary: It is characterized by high birth rate and high death rate and which cancel each other. So
the population remains stationary. India was in this stage in 1920.
2) Early expanding: There are decrees in death rate while the birth rate remains unchanged. So the
population expand developing countries are in this stage.
28

3) Late expanding: Death rate declined (decrease) and birth rate begins to fall but still there is an increase in
population as birth exceeds death. India appears to have entered in this stage.
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4) Low stationary: Low birth rate, low date rate. So population remains stationary. Sudan, Belgium,
Denmark and Switzerland are in this stage.
5) Declining: Population begins to decrease as birth rate is lower than death rate. East European countries
like Germany and Hungary are now in this stage.

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Q. Define fertility and explain factors affecting/regulating factors.

Ans.
 Fertility:
Fertility is actual bearing children.
Factors regulating fertility are:-
1) Age at marriage: - Early marriage cause population growth.
2) Duration of married life: - Maximum child were occurs in the first 15 years of married life.
3) Spacing of children: - Spacing between births reduces fertility rate.
4) Education: - Educated women give less number of birth compares to illiterate.
5) Economic status.
6) Caste and region: - Muslims shows higher fertility than Hindus and Christians.
7) Nutrition: - It has indirect effect.
8) Family planning: - It is important which can lower fertility.
9) Other factor: - Position of woman in society.
10) Widow marriage.

Q. Give definition, objectives and role of pharmacist in Family planning.

Ans.
 Family planning:
Family planning is defined as way of thinking and living that is adopted voluntarily upon the basis of
knowledge, attitude and responsible decision by individuals or couples in order to promote the health and
welfare of the family group and thus contribute effectively to the social development of country.
 Objects of family planning:-
1) To avoid unwanted birth.
2) To bring about wanted birth.
3) To regulate intervals between pregnancies.
4) To control the time at which birth occur in relation to age of parent.
5) To determine the number of children in the family.
 Role of pharmacists in the family planning:
Pharmacists cure various capacities throughout the country in most of villages and town. In most cases
pharmacists serves as a link between public and doctor. Less educated people don’t know the benefits of
family planning. In this pharmacists have important role:-
 Pharmacists can promote family planning are:
a) Displaying family planning posters in hospitals and drug store.
b) Arising people about importance of family planning and spacing of child.
c) By distributing pamphlets about family planning.
d) Explaining about oral contraceptives and family planning techniques.
e) Guiding people to hospitals and family planning centres for vasectomy and tubectomy.

Q. Give detail account of contraceptive methods.

Ans.
 Contraceptive method:
There are preventive methods which help women to avoid unsaturated pregnancies.
Classification:-
1) Temporary methods: (spacing method)
29

a) Barrier method
i. Physical method
Page

ii. Chemical method

iii. Combined method
b) Intro uterine devices (IUD)
c) Hormonal method
d) Post conceptional method.
e) Miscellaneous method.
2) Permanent method: (Terminal method)
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a) Male sterilization (vasectomy)
b) Female sterilization (tubectomy)
1) Temporary methods:
a) Barrier
i. Condom: It is the male contraceptives. It is made up of latex. It is fitted on erected penis before
intercourse. It acts by preventing deposition of sperms in the vagina.
Advantages: -
a. Cheap, safe, easy to used and reliable.
b. Give protection from STD.
c. No side effects.
d. Light compact easily disposable.
Disadvantage: -
a. Chances of breaking during intercourse.
b. It interferes sex sensation locally.
Precaution: -
a. It must be free from tears and leaks.
b. It must be discarded after single use.
c. After intercourse it must be carefully removed.
ii. Diaphragm: It is a female contraceptive. It is a shallow cup made up of synthetic rubber. It has
a diameter of 5 to 10 cm. It has a flexible spring. It is inserted in the vagina before intercourse. It
must remain in vagina for not less than 6 hours after intercourse.
Advantage: - Total absence of risk and medical contraction.
Disadvantage: -
a. Initially trained person is required to demonstrate.
b. If left in vagina for prolonged time it may produce toxic shock syndrome.
iii. Chemical method: In this, there is a use of chemical spermicides such as foams, cream, pesters,
jellies, suppositories, soluble film. This preparation contains surface active agent which attach to
the sperm and they inhibit oxygen uptake of sperms and thus kill them.
Disadvantage: -
a. High failure rate.
b. Must be used just before intercourse.
c. Causes irritation and burning sensation.
b) Intra uterine device (IUD) (MECHANICAL CONTRACEPTIVES)
Types of intra uterine devices are:
i. First generation of IUD
E.g. Lippels loop.
Advantage: -
a. Simple and easy insertion.
b. Cheap, and reversible.
c. Does not interference in sexual pleasure.
Disadvantage: -
a. Needs trained person for insertion.
b. Should be replaced periodically.
c. Rarely can it produce cancer of uterus.
ii. Second generation of IUD
E.g. Copper-T, Copper-7, Nova-T, Multiload devices.
Advantage: -
a. Lower incident of side effects.
b. Easy to fit.
30

c. Best contraceptive effect.

d. Effective if inserted with 3 to 5 days after intercourse.
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Disadvantage: -
a. Contradicted in carcinoma of genital track.
b. Vaginal bleeding.
c. It produces anemia.
iii. Third generation of IUD
E.g. Progestasert.
Advantage: - It reduces menstrual blood loss so they are useful in anaemic condition.

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Disadvantage: - High cost.
Mechanism of action: - They caused certain cellular biochemical changes in the uterus which are
unfavorable to the gametes. The gametes cannot survive and fertilization is prevented proper IUD’s act by
realising copper into uterus. Copper enhance in endometrium and alters the composition of cervical
mucosa. Progestesrate act by releasing 65 mg of hormones daily in the uterus it has a direct local action
on the cervical mucosa and sperms.
c) Hormonal method
Hormonal contraceptive can be administered orally by injection or by implants but orally oral
pills are most commonalty used. Oral pills are as follows-
i. Combined pills: - these pills contain 30 to 35 mg of synthetic oestrogen and 0.5 to 1.0 mg of
progestrogen 1 pill daily for 21 days beginning on the 5th day of menstrual cycle. A break of 7
days given and menstruation occurs during this period. They are of two types-
a) Mala N
b) Mala D
ii. Progestogen pills: - It is called as mini pill or micro pill. It contains only progestogen.
iii. Morning after pill: - It contains either hydose of oestogen or double the dose of combined
pills.
iv. Once a mouth pill: - It contains gossyplium which is the derivative of cotton seed oil. It act
by decreasing sperm production but it is highly toxic and produces permanent azzospermia
(stop of the sperm).
Adverse effect of oral contraceptive pills: -
a. Myocardial infarction.
b. Brest and genital cancer.
c. Hyperglycemia and Atherosclerosis (cholesterol disease).
d. Heapatocellular adenoma and jaundice.
e. Weight gain.
f. Headache, migraine (half headache) and nausea.
g. Reduce Brest milk production.
h. Return to fertility may be delayed.
Advantage: -
a. Easy to use.
b. Almost 100% effectiveness.
d) Miscellaneous method
I. Behavioural method:
i. Abstinence: - It is prevention and avoid of sexual intercourse but it is inpractical
method.
ii. Coitus interruptus: - It means which drawal of the penis before sperms is ejaculated
into the vagina.
Disadvantage: -
a. Pre-quarter secretion of the male may contain sperm and this is sufficient to cause
pregnancy.
b. Slight mistake in timing lead to deposition of sperm in vagina.
iii. Safe period: - It is the best on the fact that ovulation in the females occurs 14 days
before the onset of next menstrual cycle or 13 th day after the onset of present
menstruation.
A period of 3 days before and after roughly 10th to 12th day after the onset of
menstruation is taken as fertile period and it is not safe. This period must be avoided
for sexual intercourse. The other days are considered as safe period.
Disadvantage: - When menstrual cycle is irregular safe period cannot be predicted. It can be
31

known only by educated people. It has high failure rate.

II. Natural family planning method :
Page

i. Basal body temperature method (BBT): - Due to production of oestrogen there is

increase of 0.3 to 0.5°C. Basal body temperature at the time of ovulation and this
time is avoided for intercourse. But it is not safe or practicable.
ii. Cervical mucous method: - At the time of ovulation cervical mucous becomes
watery, clear and smooth & slippery. These can be recognized and intercourse is
avoided during this period.

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iii. Symptothermic method: - It is the combination of BBT, Cervical mucous and safe
period. If one side fails other side sign.
iv. Brest feeding method: - It is generally believe that lactation prolongs menstruation.
It can prolonged protection against pregnancy but once menstruation returns lactation
does not protect against pregnancy.
2) Permanent method/ Terminal method:
a) Male sterilization (Vasectomy): - In these method pieces of vasa difference of about 1 cm is
removed and cut ends are folded back and sutured. Cut end phase away from each other. So that the
sperm cannot enter urethra.
Advice after vasectomy: -
The patient is not sterile immediately after operation. He is sterile immediately after 30
ejaculations. He must avoid cycling or weight lifting for 15 days.
Side effects: -
i. Sperms granuloma by pain and swelling.
ii. Psychological sterilization.
b) Female sterilization (Tubectomy): - In this both the fallopian tube are cut and tight so that ovum
cannot reach the uterus. Cut ends are folded back and ligated.
c) Laparoscopy: - A small incision just 1 cm made in the abdominal wall and the instruments
laparoscope is introduce in it. The abdominal is introduced in it. The abdominal is inflated with gas.
So that the tube is visible to the laparoscope small clips are applied on the fallopian tubes produces
very quick, effective whole process is required 2 to 3 minutes.
Advantage: -
a. Quick, effective, needs no hospitalization.
b. Painless.

Q. Give detail note on population problem in India or population explosion.

Ans.
 Population problem of India: (POPULATION EXPLOSION)
India has an estimated population of 1 billion. India is supporting 17% of world’s total population. India’s
land percentage is 2.4% currently. India’s population is more than USA, USSR & Japan together. Indian
population increasing and the rate of 25 million per year.
 Problem of expanding population:
1. Food production: - food production increasing day by day but per capital food supply has gone down
from 360 to 320 gm.
2. Clothing: - Against per capita minimum of 25m per annum but supply is 14m.
3. Employment: - The number of unemployed has grown up from 3.5 million to 10 million.
4. Education: - Still there are in 18 million child are not attending school.
5. Shelter: - Shelter and healthy house are not available to everyone.
6. Health: - Increase in population has caused pollution of air, water and soil.

EPIDEMIOLOGY

Q. Define Epidemiology and give uses to classify epidemiology.

Ans.
 Epidemiology:
It is the study of frequency distribution and determinants of health related states and events and disease in
human population.
32

Uses of Epidemiology: -
1. To study the health history of population and their disease. This helps in identifying health problem.
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2. To arrive at community diagnostic. This is necessary for initiating prevention and control measures.
3. To plan and evaluate health services.
4. Evaluation of risk and chances.
5. Searching for cause and risk factor.
6. Identification of disease syndrome.

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Q. Explain method to determine epidemiology.
Ans.
 Method to determine Epidemiology:
1) Quantitative study: - In this, basic measurement are used as follows-
a) Rate: - Rate measure occurrence of disease or health in a population during a given time period.
b) Ratio: - In this, different ratio are measured such as male, female ratio, doctor population ratio.
c) Mortality: - Mortality is a death.
Specific rate of disease = no. of death due to disease in a year
Midyear population
d) Morbidity: - It is defined as any debating from state of physical well-being. Two important
measurement of disease are Incidence and Prevalence.

Incidence: - It is defined as number of new cases of specific disease occurring in a definite population
during a specific period of time. It is given by the formula.

No. of new cases = Specific disease during a given time period

Total population

Prevalence: - Prevalence refers to all current and old cases in a given population at a particular point
of time.

Relation between Prevalence and Incidence:

Prevalence = Incidence X duration

Incidence = 20 cases per year in 1000 population.
Duration of disease 5 years.
2) Descriptive study: - It is the broad distribution of disease in terms of person, place and time that is
getting disease in person distribution where the disease occurs in place of distribution when the disease
occurs is the time distribution.
3) Analytical study: - These studies are focus on the determinants of disease.
Aims of analytical study are as follows:
a) To find out the association if any between the disease and suspected factor.
b) To study the problem in identifying in descriptive study.
c) To provide a basis for health planning & disease prevention.
Types of analytical study:
a) Case control study.
b) Cohort study.
4) Experimental study: - It is the study of disease amongst experimental study.
a) To obtain scientific proof of risk factor.
b) To measure the effectiveness of health services in the control and prevention of disease.

Q. Explain mode of transmission of diseases.

Ans.
 Modes of transmission: -
 Infective agent animal can be transmitted to the host directly or indirectly.
1. Direct contact: - This can occur from skin to skin from mucosa of the same or different person.
2. Droplet infection: - Infective agents are spread as droplets of saliva or other secretion. This can
occur while coughing sneezing and talking.
3. Contact with soil: - Infection like tetanus is connected with soil.
33

4. Inoculation: - To skin or mucous aids is transmitted through contaminated needles and syringes.
5. Trans-placenta: - Disease like syphilis and indirect aids are transmitted through trans-placenta.
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6. Fommitting borne: - Transmission occurs through inanimate articles like cloth and towels.
7. Finger borne: - Transmitted through contaminated finger and hand.
8. Air borne: - Transmission occurs through dust.

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Q. Define immunity and give types of immunity.
Ans.
 Immunity:
Immunity is defined as resistance against any infective organisms. This is due to the antibodies produces
into the body.
 Types of immunity: -
1. Natural immunity: - This is the type of immunity which is form birth.
2. Artificial immunity: - It is produced by administration of vaccines or suitable substance.
3. Active immunity: - It involves administration of vaccine as toxoids in the response of these
antibodies are produced in the body.
4. Passive immunity: - It involves administration of antibodies which are produced in other animals.

Q. Define vaccines and give immunization schedule.

Ans.
 Vaccines: -
It is present containing an antigen which stimulant the production of specific antibody. Vaccines are live
vaccines, killed vaccines, toxoids and mixed vaccines.
- Immunoglobulins: -
Immunoglobulins are nothing but antibodies. There are 5 classes of immunoglobulins.
IgG, IgM, IgA, IgD, and IgE.
 Immunization schedule: -
Age Immunization
1. 0-15 days Oral polio & BCG
2. 6th week DPT & Oral polio
th
3. 10 week DPT & Oral polio
4. Nine month Measles
5. 18 month Booster dose of DPT & oral polio
6. 5 years T.T & typhoid
7. 10 years T.T & typhoid
8. 15 years T.T & typhoid

Q. Write a note on cold chain.

Ans.
 Cold chain: -
It is the system of transport and storage of vaccines at low temperature from the manufacturer to the point
of views.
 Important of cold chain: -
Vaccines are sensitive to heat if there are exposed to heat. They will lose their potency. When patency is
lost effective is lost so vaccines must be stored and transported at low temperature.
 Cold chain equipment: -
1. At the state and regional stored: - Cold rooms and Walking coolers.
2. At the district store: - Freezers, Refrigerators, Cold boxes and Vaccine carriers.
3. At the primary health centre: - Refrigerator, Ice land refrigerators, Cold boxes and Vaccine
carriers.
4. At the sub centre: - Cold boxes, Vaccine carriers, Thermacol boxes and Thermal flask
34

Q. Write a short note on Quarantine.

Page

Ans.
 Quarantine: -
It means isolation of healthy and normal persons till the incubation period of disease is over. This healthy
person might have come in contact with disease without actually suffering from it. So quarantine is
necessary to prevent the spread of infections from this person to other to have not been exposed to
disease. Quarantine is necessary for international travellers to have the possibility of carrying infection.

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Q. Write a short note on Quarantine.

Ans.
 Hospital acquired infection: -
These are infection developing in hospitalize patient which were not present at the time of their
admission. These infections produce their symptoms either during hospital study or discharge.
Factor of hospital required infection: -
1. Inferred defense metabolism.
2. Contaminated hospital environment.
3. Sepsis in hospital procedure.
4. Resistance of hospital infection to drugs and antibiotics.
5. From other patient.
Types of hospital infection: -
1. Wound infection.
2. UTI (Urinary Tract Infection).
3. RTI (Respiratory Tract Infection).
4. Bacteraemia.
Prevention and control: -
1. Diagnosis by routine bacterial logical method like smear and culture.
2. Identification of source.
3. Sterilization techniques must be tasted.
4. Infection control teams may be established in the hospitals.

35
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