Technical Engineering College/ Kirkuk

The Power Mechanincs Techniques Engineering Dept.

Heat Transfer Lab.

Thermal conductivity
Experiments
 Assist. Professor Ehsan Fadhil Abbas 2020-2021

DESCRIPTIONS

This apparatus has been designed for the determination of Coefficient of

Thermal Conductivity for both good conductors and thin specimens of
insulates. The apparatus consists of a self-clamping specimen stack
assembly with electrically heated source, calorimeter base, “Dewar" vessel
enclosure to ensure negligible loss of heat, and constant head cooling water
supply tank. Two mercury and glass thermometers are provided for water
inlet and outlet temperature readings. Four NiCr/NiAl thermocouples are
fitted to provide a digital display of specimen temperature via a four point
rotary switch. Six metal specimens are provided; two of 25mm Ø and 64mm
length of copper and aluminum, three of 25mm ø and 38mm length of mild
steel, copper and stainless steel, and a single full length aluminum specimen
of reduced diameter (18mm). The end faces of these specimens are very
carefully prepared by lapping and must not be damaged in any way. Two or
four holes are provided in each specimen for insertion of the thermocouples.

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The approximate text book values for thermal conductivity for the
specimens provided are:

Aluminium 172 W/mK

Copper 400 W/mK

Mild Steel 63 W/mK

Stainless Steel 15 W/mK

However, the actual values of the specimens will vary from text book
values, as any variation in material composition will affect this. Although the
thermal conductivity is quoted in S.I units or W/mK the thermometers used
in this apparatus are marked in degrees Celsius. The units of Kelvin and
Celsius temperatures interval are identical. Heat is applied to the top of the
stack of specimens by contact with the thermostatically protected heater
block, and is collected at the base of the stack by contact with a
water-cooled calorimeter. The heat transmitted through the specimens can
thus be easily calculated from a measurement of water flow and
temperature rise of the water. Heat losses by radiation and conduction from
the heater block other than from contact with the specimen are
unimportant, since measurement is made of heat collected from the
samples rather than heat delivered to them.

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 Assist. Professor Ehsan Fadhil Abbas 2020-2021

Exprement No. 1

Exprement Title : DEMONSTRATION THAT HEAT FLOW IS DIRECTLY

PROPORTIONAL TO TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN FACIS

1) The Objective:

Conduction transfer heat through a solid sample is directly proportional to

the temperature of the gradient at the steady state.

2) Introduction

When a temperature gradient exists in a body, experience has shown that

there is an energy transfer from the high-temperature region to the
low-temperature region. We say that the energy is transferred by
conduction and that the heat-transfer rate per unit area is proportional to
the normal temperature gradient:
𝑞 ∂𝑇
𝐴
~ ∂𝑥
(1)

When the proportionality constant is inserted,

∂𝑇
𝑞 =− 𝑘𝐴 ∂𝑥
(2)

∂𝑇
Where q is heat transfer rate, A is cross section area, and ∂𝑥
is

temperature gradient in the direction of the heat flow. The positive k is

called a thermal conductivity of the material, and the minus sign is inserted
so that the second principle of thermodynamics will be satisfied; i.e., heat

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 Assist. Professor Ehsan Fadhil Abbas 2020-2021

must flow downhill on the temperature scale, as indicated in the coordinate

system
of Figure 1-3. Equation (1-1) is called Fourier’s law of heat conduction after
the French mathematical physicist Joseph Fourier, who made very significant
contributions to the analytical treatment
of conduction heat transfer.

Fig. (2-1) Dirction of heat flow

3) Experiment procedures
1. The apparatus is assembles with the full length (102mm) aluminum
sample in position. Ensure that the ends of the sample are free
from dirt and apply a thin smear of contacting fluid to enable
efficient thermal contact to be made. Suitable contacting fluids are
silicone heat sink compound
2. Hold the clamping lever positioned on the front of the apparatus in
the downward position and place the specimen between the heater
and calorimeter block, and clamp in position by releasing the lever
3. Insert the thermocouples, in the sequence that they are wired to the
support posts, into the holes provided in the sample Connect up the

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Assist. Professor Ehsan Fadhil Abbas 2020-2021

potentiometer measuring instrument to the terminal provided on

the front of the panel. A small amount of conductive paste should
be used on each thermocouple.
4. Place the Dewar vessel on position over the specimens,
5. Fit the thermometers into the special leak proof connections
provided on top of the calorimeter base (left hand water out, right
hand water in), and connect the water pipes from the water supply
to the header tank, the header tank to the inlet on the apparatus,
the apparatus outlet connection to drain, via the spring valve
provided and the header tank overflow to drain.
6. Turn on the water supply and adjust the flow at source to give a
small regular overflow from the constant head tank to drain. Adjust
the height of the header tank and the clip on the outlet hose to
obtain a water flow through the apparatus of 0.5 to 1cc/sec, whilst
maintaining the overflow. During the experiment, if necessary,
re-adjust the clip on the outlet hose to prevent the difference in
temperature between the two mercury-in-glass thermometers from
exceeding 10°C, whilst maintaining the small overflow to drain.
7. Check the supply voltage as indicated on the serial number label
position apparatus is correct. Connect the apparatus to a single
phase AC supply point using provided in the right hand side of the
apparatus. Switch on the unit.
8. The heat delivered to the sample is controlled by regulating the
current supplied to the block using the control knob positioned on
the front panel under the ammeter Turn the knob fully clockwise so

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that the maximum current is supplied to the heater indicated by the

thermocouple selection knob on the front panel approach heater
until temperature T4 as indicated by the thermocouples selection
knob on the front panel approaches 80°C. Turn the heater until
temperature T4 stabilizes of approximately 80°C and maintain this
temperature until each of the three other thermocouples are
reading constant temperature.
9. . The following readings should be recorded in to the Table (2-1)

Tinlet = Water inlet temperature °C

Toutlet = Water outlet temperature °C

T1-4 = Thermocouple temperature °C

M = Mass of water collected, Kg

t = Time to collect M Kg of water, secs

The flow rate of water is determined by timing the collection of a 100ccs

sample of water using a stopwatch (not provided).

10. Progressively increase the heat supplied to the sample so that

temperature T4 increases at increments of about 40°C up to a
maximum value of about 250°C, and allow the temperatures to
stabilize for each progression. Record values of Tinlet , Toutlet, T1-4. M
and t, each time.
11. Switch of the apparatus.

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4) Interpretation of Results

The value of heat supplied to the calorimeter from the heater is given by:

𝑀
Q = CP X 𝑡
x(Toutlet –Tinlet) Watts

where Cp = specific heat capacity of water, (4186 Joules/Kg)

A graph of heat transmitted through the sample Q, by a temperature

driving force (T4-Ti) will be straight line with origin at zero, demonstrating
that heat flow is directly proportional to the temperature difference
between the faces - Fig. 2.2.

It will also be observed that for each value of T4, the temperature
differences T4 - T3, T3 - T2 and T2 - T, are the same, (the distances between
the thermocouples also being equal). In other words the temperature
gradient along the sample is always uniform for stabilized conditions. Thus,
the temperature of the two end faces of any sample can be determined by
extrapolation of the temperature versus length curve - Fig. 2.3.

Table (2-1) Experiment Data

Power
Time T4 T3 T2 T1 Tin Tout M.
V I

80

120

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160

200

250

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 Assist. Professor Ehsan Fadhil Abbas 2020-2021

Exprement No. 2

Experiment Title : DEMONSTRATION THAT HEAT FLOW IS

DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL TO CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA.

1) The Objective:
The objective of this experiment is to understand how the variable
cross-sectional area affects heat transfer by conduction.
2) Introduction

In some geometry, one-dimensional heat conduction occurs through a

material with an area that is not constant. In such cases, it is still necessary
to be able to make accurate predictions of heat transfer rates through the
material. We will investigate the effect of variable area on one-dimensional
conduction in this experiment. Thermal conductivity of the material will be
known.

In Experiment #1 we have seen how to compare between an amount of

heat transfer and the temperature difference between two faces of the bar
made of the same material and uniform cross-section. Now, we would like
to see how changes in cross-sectional area affect heat transfer. In this
experiment, we will use the same aluminum test bar, but instead of using
the 18 mm diameter aluminum sample, we will use the aluminum sample
with a diameter of 25 mm.

3) Theory

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 Assist. Professor Ehsan Fadhil Abbas 2020-2021

The equation that governs the heat flow is known as Fourier's Law, and in
the axial direction it is written as

𝑑𝑇
𝑞𝑥 =− 𝑘𝐴 𝑑𝑥
(1)

where qx is the rate of heat conduction in the x-direction, k is the thermal

conductivity of the material, A is the cross-sectional area normal to the
x-direction, and dT/dx is the temperature gradient in the x-direction. The
negative sign indicates that heat is transferred in the direction of decreasing

temperature. From the results originally obtained in Experiment#1 a plot is

derived of temperature difference between T4 and T1 against heat flow

along the sample, the distance between points T4 and T1 being 90mm. For
any given heat flow the temperature difference that would be required for a
hypothetical sample having distance between temperature probes of 50mm
can be found multiplying the temperature difference on the practically
5
derived plot by the ratio of 9
, thus enabling a new plot to be drawn of a

temperature difference versus heat flow between two points 50mm apart.

1. Heat transfer is calculated from experiment#1

𝑇4−𝑇1
𝑞 = 𝑘𝐴 0.09
(2)

2. For any given heat flow the temperature difference that would be
required for a hypothetical sample having distance between
temperature probes of 50mm is written:

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 Assist. Professor Ehsan Fadhil Abbas 2020-2021
𝑇4−𝑇3
𝑞 = 𝑘𝐴 0.05
(3)

where

𝑇4−𝑇1 𝑇4−𝑇3
𝑘𝐴 0.09
= 𝑘𝐴 0.05
(4)

Equation (4) can be simplified and the temperature difference becomes

(𝑇4 − 𝑇3) = 59 (𝑇4 − 𝑇1) (5)

4) Experiment procedures
1) Replace the full-length aluminum specimen used in experiment#1by a
combination of the 25mm OD aluminum sample and the mild sample,
the mild steel sample being in the lower position . Ensure that the
ends of the sample are free from dirt and apply a thin smear of
contacting fluid to enable efficient thermal contact to be made.
Suitable contacting fluids are silicone heat sink compound
2) Hold the clamping lever positioned on the front of the apparatus in
the downward position and place the specimen between the heater
and calorimeter block, and clamp in position by releasing the lever
3) Insert the thermocouples, in the sequence that they are wired to the
support posts, into the holes provided in the sample Connect up the
potentiometer measuring instrument to the terminal provided on the
front of the panel. A small amount of conductive paste should be used
on each thermocouple.
4) Place the Dewar vessel on position over the specimens,

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Assist. Professor Ehsan Fadhil Abbas 2020-2021

5) Fit the thermometers into the special leak proof connections provided
on top of the calorimeter base (left hand water out, right hand water
in), and connect the water pipes from the water supply to the header
tank, the header tank to the inlet on the apparatus, the apparatus
outlet connection to drain, via the spring valve provided and the
header tank overflow to drain.
6) Turn on the water supply and adjust the flow at source to give a small
regular overflow from the constant head tank to drain. Adjust the
height of the header tank and the clip on the outlet hose to obtain a
water flow through the apparatus of 0.5 to 1cc/sec, whilst
maintaining the overflow. During the experiment, if necessary,
re-adjust the clip on the outlet hose to prevent the difference in
temperature between the two mercury-in-glass thermometers from
exceeding 10°C, whilst maintaining the small overflow to drain.
7) Check the supply voltage as indicated on the serial number label
position apparatus is correct. Connect the apparatus to a
single-phase AC supply point using provided in the right-hand side of
the apparatus. Switch on the unit.
8) The heat delivered to the sample is controlled by regulating the
current supplied to the block using the control knob positioned on the
front panel under the ammeter Turn the knob fully clockwise so that
the maximum current is supplied to the heater indicated by the
thermocouple selection knob on the front panel approach heater until
temperature T4 as indicated by the thermocouples selection knob on
the front panel approaches 80°C. Turn the heater until temperature T4

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 Assist. Professor Ehsan Fadhil Abbas 2020-2021

stabilizes of approximately 80°C and maintain this temperature until

each of the three other thermocouples are reading constant
temperature.
9) . The following readings should be recorded in to the Table (2-1)

Tinlet = Water inlet temperature °C

Toutlet = Water outlet temperature °C

T1-4 = Thermocouple temperature °C

M = Mass of water collected, Kg

t = Time to collect M Kg of water, secs

The flow rate of water is determined by timing the collection of a 100ccs

sample of water using a stopwatch (not provided).

10) Progressively increase the heat supplied to the sample so that

temperature T4 increases at increments of about 40°C up to a
maximum value of about 250°C, and allow the temperatures to
stabilize for each progression. Record values of Tinlet , Toutlet, T1-4. M
and t, each time.
11) Switch of the apparatus.

Table (2-1) Experiment Data

Power
Time T4 T3 T2 T1 Tin Tout M.
V I

80

120

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160

200

250

5) Results
1. Fill Table (2-2) with original data of experiment# 1, derived data from
experiment#1 and data of experiment#2.
Table (2-2) Experiments and derived data

Experiment 1 Derived data Experiment 2

q (W)
T4 - T1 T4 - T1 T4 - T1
80
120
160
200
250

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 Assist. Professor Ehsan Fadhil Abbas 2020-2021

2. Draw the heat transfer rate against the temperature difference in

three cases to find the effect of the cross-section area as shown in
Fig. (2-1)

Experiment No. 3

Experiment Title : Thermal contact resistance

1. The Objective
Although most surfaces seem flat in reality, on a microscopic level all of
them are found to possess micro asperities. This effectively reduces the
contact area when two surfaces are in contact with each other. For this
reason, the temperature drop is studied at the contact surface.

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2. Introduction
When a junction is formed by pressing two similar or dissimilar metallic
materials together, only a small fraction of the nominal surface area is
actually in contact because of the flatness and roughness of the contacting
surfaces. If a heat flux is imposed across the junction, the uniform flow of
heat is generally restricted to conduction through the contact spots, as
shown in Figure 3-1. The limited number and size of the contact spots result
in an actual contact area which is significantly smaller than the apparent
contact area. This limited contact area causes a thermal resistance,
the contact resistance or thermal contact resistance.

Figure 3-1  Magnified view of two materials in contact.

Thermal contact conductance is a complicated phenomenon, influenced by

many factors. Experience shows that the most important ones are as
follows:

a. Contact pressure.
b. Interstitial materials.
c. Surface roughness, waviness, and flatness
d. Surface deformations
e. Surface cleanliness

3. Theory

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Imagine two solid bars brought into contact as indicated in Figure 3-2, with the
sides of the bars insulated so that heat flows only in the axial direction. The
materials may have different thermal conductivities, but if the sides are insulated,
the heat flux must be the same through both materials under steady-state
conditions. Experience shows that the actual temperature profile through the two
materials varies approximately as shown in Figure 3-2b. The temperature drop at
plane 2, the contact plane between the two materials, is said to be the result of
thermal contact resistance. Performing an energy balance on the two materials,
we obtain

𝑇1−𝑇2,𝐴 𝑇2,𝐴−𝑇2,𝐵 𝑇2,𝐵−𝑇3

𝑞 = 𝑘𝐴𝐴 ∆𝑥𝐴
= 1 = 𝑘𝐵𝐴 ∆𝑥𝐵
(3-1)
ℎ𝑐𝐴

or

(𝑇1−𝑇3)
𝑞= ∆𝑥𝐴 1 ∆𝑥𝐵 (3-2)
𝑘𝐴𝐴
+ℎ𝐴+𝑘 𝐴
𝑐 𝐵

1
where the quantity ℎ𝑐𝐴
is called the thermal contact resistance and hc is
called the contact coefficient. This factor can be extremely important in a
number of applications because of the many heat-transfer situations that
involve mechanical joining of two materials.

Fig. (3-2)

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4. Experiment procedures
The apparatus is assembled with one short specimen (low conductivity
material) as an M. S in the lower position and one long specimen (high
conductivity material) as a Cu in the upper position. Proceed as
Experiment# 1 except that the temperature of the hot end of high
conducting material (T4) is bought to a temperature of approximately 200°C
and maintained at these temperature thermocouples indicate a stable
output. The following readings should be taken every five minutes
throughout the experiment time as shown in Table 3.1.

Table (3-1) Experiment Data

Power
Time T4 T3 T2 T1 Tin Tout M.
V I

0 200

10

15

20

25

30

Average

5. Results and calculations

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a. Plot a temperature distribution along with the two specimens

as shown in Fig. (3-3) and find interface temperatures.
b. Calculate the contact resistance.
c. Comparison of electrical energy and energy gain by water.

Experiment No. 4

Experiment Title : Measurement of Thermal Conductivity

of an Unknown Material

1. Objectives

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 Assist. Professor Ehsan Fadhil Abbas 2020-2021

✔ To examine the temperature profile and determine the heat transfer

resulting from axial heat conduction through an unknown material.
✔ To investigate the influence of thermal insulation upon the
conduction of heat between adjusting metals.

2. Introduction
Thermal conductivity refers to the amount/speed of heat transmitted through
a material.  Heat transfer occurs at a higher rate across materials of high
thermal conductivity than those of low thermal conductivity. Materials of
high thermal conductivity are widely used in heat sink applications and
materials of low thermal conductivity are used as thermal insulation.
Thermal conductivity of materials is temperature dependent.

3. Theory
In this experiment heat transfer in the axial direction in a copper bar was
to be calculated. To calculate the heat transfer through the copper bar
equation (4-1) was used.
𝑇4−𝑇3
𝑞= 𝑥𝑐𝑢,1 (4-1a)
𝑘𝑐𝑢,1𝐴

For long copper sample

𝑇2−𝑇1
𝑞= 𝑥𝑐𝑢,2 (4-1b)
𝑘𝑐𝑢,2𝐴

For short sample

Heat transfer is calculated from the energy used to heat the water

𝑞 = 𝑚˙ 𝐶𝑝 𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑇𝑖𝑛
( ) (4-2)

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The thermal conductivity of unknown material can be determined from

any of the above equations by applying the Fourier's law:
𝑇2𝐴−𝑇2𝐵
𝑞= 𝑥𝑢𝑛𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛 (4-3)
𝑘𝑢𝑛𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛𝐴

4. Experiment procedures
The sample of insulator should be flat and of circular shape and
diameter of 25mm such that it can be clamped between the two copper
specimens. If it is impossible to provide a specimen of exactly 25mm
diameter then a slight degree of overhead can be accommodated. The
thickness of the sample should not be so great that the heat conducted
through the test bank to the calorimeter is immeasurable, and will
obviously depend on the thermal conductivity of the insulator. For example,
cardboard samples of thickness up to 1mm can be accommodated.

The procedure is as with the previous experiment, with the exception that
the heater should be taken to its maximum temperature, i.e. 125°C so as to
provide as large a temperature difference across the specimen as possible.

The temperature difference between the faces of the insulator is

determined by extrapolation of the derived temperatures of the copper
specimens, as in Fig. 4.1

Table (4-1) Experiment Data

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Power
Time T4 T3 T2 T1 Tin Tout M.
V I

0 125

10

15

20

25

30

Average

5. Results and calculations

a) Plot a temperature profile along the three specimens as and find
interface temperatures.
b) Determine card board.

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