THIRD EDITION

EmLUATION
OP
FOOD PROCESSING
Third Edition

Edited by
Endel Karmas
Department of Food Science
Rutgers University
New Brunwick, New Jersey

Robert S. Harris
Department of Nutritional Biochemistry
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Cambridge, Massachusetts

An cWI Book
Published by Van Nostrand Reinhold Company
New York
Dedicated to the memory of
Robert Samuel Harris

An AVI Book
(AVI is an imprint of Van Nostrand Reinhold Company Inc.)
Copyright © 1988 by Van Nostrand Reinhold Company Inc.
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 87-29588
ISBN 0-442-24762-1
All rights reserved. No part of this work covered by the
copyright hereon may be reproduced or used in any form or
by any means—graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including
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16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Nutritional evaluation of food processing.
“An AVI book.”
Includes bibliographies and index.
1. Food—Analysis. 2. Food industry and trade.
I. Karmas, Endel. II. Harris, Robert Samuel
TP372.5.N873 1987 664 87-29588
ISBN 0-442-24762-1
Contents

Contributors x
Preface xiii

Part 1
INTRODUCTION 1

1 General Discussion on the Stability of Nutrients 3

ROBERT S. HARRIS

2 The Major Food Groups, Their Nutrient Content, and

' Principles of Food Processing 7
ENDEL KARMAS
The Major Food Groups and Their Nutrient Content 7
The Principles of Food Processing 15
References 18

Part 2
NUTRIENTS IN FOOD-RAW AND PROCESSED 21

3 Effects of Agricultural Practices, Handling, Processing,

and Storage on Vegetables 23
D. K. SALUNKHE and B. B. DESAI
Major Chemical Components of Vegetables and
Their Nutritional Significance 23
Effects of Agricultural Practices on Nutritional
Composition of Vegetables 32
Effects of Harvesting, Handling, and Storage on
Nutritional Composition of Vegetables 53
References 66
4 Effects of Agricultural Practices, Handling, Processing,
and Storage on Fruits 73
STEVEN NAGY and WILFRED F. WARDOWSKI
Agricultural Practices 74
Harvesting and Handling 83
Holding and Storage Conditions 86
References 92

iii
IV Contents

5 Effects of Agricultural Practices, Handling, Processing,

and Storage on Cereals 101
Y. VICTOR WU and GEORGE E. INGLETT
Cereal Composition 101
Wheat 101
Corn 105
Rice 108
Oats 110
Barley 113
Sorghum 114
Tritieale 115
References 116
6 Effects of Agricultural Practices, Handling, Processing,
and Storage on Legumes and Oilseeds 119
WALTER J. WOLF
Edible Legumes 119
Oilseeds 129
References 147
7 Effects of Agricultural Practices, Handling, Processing,
and Storage on Meat 153
H. W. OCKERMAN
World Meat Dietary Patterns 153
Overview of Nutrients in Meat Products 155
Genetics 165
Influence of Age, Season, Sex, Type, and Grade 165
Level of Nutrition 174
Fat in the Diet 175
Vitamins ^ 175
Minerals 175
Hormones 177
Antibiotics 177
Insecticides 178
Slaughter and Processing 179
Salting and Curing 180
Storage 181
Meeting Nutritional Needs 188
Bioavailability 190
The Relationship of Meat to Health Problems 191
Processing of Meat 197
Summary 197
References 197
8 Effects of Agricultural Practices on Milk and Dairy Products 203
EDMUND RENNER
Milk Fat Composition 203
Milk Protein
205
Minerals and Trace Elements in Milk 207
Vitamins in Milk
208
Effect of Processing and Storage 209
References
220
 Contents v

9 Effects of Agricultural Practices on Poultry and Eggs 225

GLENN W. FRONING
Poultry Meat 225
Effect of Production Factors 225
Effect of Processing and Storage 229
Effect of Management Systems 230
Composition of Mechanically Deboned Poultry Meat 231
Effect of Cooking 232
Eggs 233
Effect of Production Factors 235
Effect of Processing and Storage 239
Effect of Cooking 240
References 241

10 Effects of Handling, Processing, and Storage on Fish

and Shellfish 245
JUDITH KRZYNOWEK
Baseline Information 245
Harvesting and Handling of Fresh Seafood 253
Preservation Techniques 256
References 261

Part 3
EFFECTS OF COMMERCIAL PROCESSING AND
STORAGE ON NUTRIENTS 267

11 Effects of Freeze Preservation on Nutrients 269

OWEN FENNEMA
Vegetables 271
Fruits 287
Animal Tissues 293
Dairy Products and Margarine 305
Miscellaneous Observations 306
Discussion 307
References 310

12 Effects of Heat Processing on Nutrients 319

DARYL LUND
Definition of Blanching, Pasteurization, and Sterilization 320
General Reviews on the Effects of Processing on Nutrients 321
Effect of Heat on Nutrients 321
Optimization of Thermal Processes for Nutrient Retention 330
Effect of Blanching Methods on Nutrients 334
Storage of Blanched Foods 338
Effect of Pasteurization Methods on Nutrients 339
Storage of Pasteurized Foods 341
Effect of Commercial Sterilization Methods on Nutrients 341
Storage of Commercially Sterile Foods 343
Summary 347
References 349
vi Contents

13 Effects of Baking on Nutrients v 355

GUR S. RANHOTRA and M. ANN BOCK
Protein and Amino Acids 355
Vitamins 356
Minerals 360
Fats and Carbohydrates 363
Conclusions 363
References 363
14 Effects of Extrusion Processing on Nutrients 365
JUDSON M. HARPER
Introduction 365
Extrusion Processing 365
Processing Conditions 367
Starch Digestibility 368
Blended Foods 371
Dietary Fiber 379
Extruded Whole Bean Flour 380
Vitamin Stability 383
Amino Acid Loss 385
Textured Protein 387
References 388
15 Effects of Moisture Removal on Nutrients 393
PETER M. BLUESTEIN and THEODORE P. LABUZA
Chemical Kinetics and Moisture Removal 394
Concentration 398
Dehydration 401
Nutrient Losses 406
Conclusion v 419
References 419
16 Effects of Fermentation on the Nutritional Properties
of Food 423
ROGER F. McFEETERS
Characterization of Nutrient Changes in
Fermented Foods 423
Effect of Fermentation on the Energy Content
of Food 424
Lactic Acid Isomers in Food Fermentations 426
Effects of Fermentation on Protein Content, Quality,
and Availability 427
Effects of Fermentation on Changes in Vitamins 431
Removal of Phytic Acid by Fermentation 441
Outlook 442
References 443

17 Effects of Treatment with Food Additives on Nutrients 447

WINIFRED M. CORT
Additives Detrimental to Nutrients 447
Additives Beneficial to Nutrients 4 51
References 454
 Contents vii

18 Use of Ionizing Radiation to Preserve Food 457

MIRIAM H. THOMAS
Introduction 457
Types of Radiation 458
Hazards 458
Packaging 430
Carbohydrates 462
Lipids 466
Proteins 468
Vitamins 472
Conclusions 483
Glossary of Some Basic Terms and Concepts 483
Acknowledgment 484
References 484

19 Stability of Nutrients during Storage of

Processed Foods 491
SEYMOUR G. GILBERT
Historical Basis of Stabilization of Foods
by Packaging 491
Scientific Basis of Nutrient Retention in
Packaged Foods 491
„ Packaging Materials 493
Effects of Storage Conditions on Nutrient
Content 497
References 501

Part 4
EFFECTS OF PREPARATION AND SERVICE OF
FOOD ON NUTRIENTS 503

20 Effects of Food Preparation Procedures in Nutrient

Retention with Emphasis on Foodservice Practices 505
PAUL A. LACHANCE and MICHELE C. FISHER
Introduction 505
Garden Fresh versus Market Fresh 507
Losses during Cooking 509
Summary 550
References 551

21 Effects of Home Food Preparation Practices on

Nutrient Content of Foods 557
CATHERINE E. ADAMS and JOHN W. ERDMAN, JR.
Changing Food Habits 557
Storage 559
Losses Due to Preparation Procedures 574
Effects of Cooking 575
Conclusion 595
References 595
viii Contents

Part 5
NUTF
NUTRIENT ANALYSIS 607

22 Addition of Vitamins, Minerals, and Amino Acids to Foods 609

BENJAMIN BORENSTEIN and HOWARD T. GORDON
Stability 609
Bioavailability 614
Technology of Addition 615
Minerals 621
Amino Acids 623
References 624
23 Protein Complementation of Foods 627
RICARDO BRESSANI
Introduction 627
Protein Quality Improvement 628
Mixtures of Proteins Giving Maximum Protein Quality 638
Amino Acid Patterns Resulting from Optimum Protein
Quality Mixtures 648
Applications 650
References 653

24 Improving the Nutritional Quality of Vegetables

through Plant Breeding 659
H. C. BITTENBENDER and JOHN F. KELLY
Common Bean: Phaseolus vulgaris 660
Pea: Pisum sativum 662
Broad Bean: Vicia faba 663
Cowpea and Yardlong Bean: Vigna unguiculata spp. unguiculata
and V. unguiculata ssp. sesquipedalis 665
Mung Bean and Black Gram: Vigna radiata and V. mungo 665
Lupines: Lupinus albinus, L. angustifolius, L. luteus,
and L. mutabilis 666
Pigeon Pea: Cajanus cajan 666
Chickpea: Cicer arietinum 666
Hyacinth Bean: Dolichos lablab 667
Winged Bean: Psophocarpus tetragonolobus 667
Tomato: Lycopersicon esculentum 667
Cucumber and Bitter Gourd: Cucumis sativa and
Momordica charantia 668
Chili: Capsicum annum 669
Lettuce: Lactuca sativa 669
Spinach and Indian Chard: Spinacia sativa and
Beta vulgaris var. bengalensis 669
Celery and Parsley: Apium graveolens
and Petroselinum hortense 669
Celosia: Celosia argentea g70
Brassica spp. g70
Turnip and Rutabaga: Brassica rapa andB. napus 671
Chinese Cabbage: Brassica rapa or campestris
(chinensis andpekinensis Groups) 671
 Contents IX

Oilseed Rape and Mustard: Brassica napus and

B. campestris or rapa 672
Potato: Solanum tuberosum 672
Sweet Potato: Ipomoea batatas 674
Cassava: Manihot esculenta 675
Carrot: Daucus carota 675
Assessing Breeding Priorities 676
References 679

25 The Role of the United States Government in Regulating the

Nutritional Value of the Food Supply 687
VICTOR P. FRATTALI, JOHN E. VANDERVEEN, and ALLAN L. FORBES
History 687
Food Standards Amendments 689
The Food Additives Amendment 690
Vitamin and Mineral Supplements Amendment 691
The Infant Formula Act 692
Relationship of the FFD&C Act to the Nutritional
Quality of Foods 695
References 704

26 The Contribution of Consumption of Processed Food to

Nutrient Intake Status in the United States 707
JOHN P. HEYBACH, GUS D. COCCODRILLI, JR.,
and GILBERT A. LEVEILLE
Food Processing, Nutrient Intake, and Health Status 707
Population Nutrient Intake Status 709
Summary and Conclusions 717
References 717

27 Methodology for Nutrient Analysis 719

JESSE F. GREGORY III
Vitamin Assay Methods 720
Biological Activity and Bioavailability 729
Summary 735
References 736
28 Nutrient Data Banks for Nutrient Evaluation in Foods 745
LENA BERGSTROM
Users of Food Composition Data 745
Nutrient Data Base Systems 746
Designs of a Nutrient Data Base System 747
Nutrition Evaluation 748
References 763

Index 765
 \

Contributors

Catherine E. Adams International Life Sciences Institute/Nutrition Foundation,

Washington, DC 20036
Lena Bergstrom Nutrition Laboratory, The National Food Administration,
S-75126 Uppsala, Sweden
H. C. Bittenbender Department of Horticulture, University of Hawaii at Manoa,
Honolulu, HI 96822
Peter M. Bluestein Thomas J. Lipton, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ 07632
M. Ann Bock Nutrition Research Group, American Institute of Baking, Manhattan,
KS 66502
Benjamin Borenstein Roche Chemical Division, Hoffman-LaRoche, Inc., Nutley,
NJ 07110
Ricardo Bressani Division of Agricultural and Food Science, Institute of Nutri¬
tion of Central America and Panama, PO Box 1188, Guatemala City, Guatemala
Gus D. Coccodrilli, Jr. Nutrition and Health Sciences Technical Center, General
Foods Corporation, White Plains, NY 10625
Winifred M. Cort 4395 Brandywine Drive, Sarasota, FL 34241
B. B. Desai Mahatma Phule Agricultural University, Maharashtra State, India
John W. Erdman, Jr. Department of Food Science, University of Illinois, Urbana,
IL 61801
Owen Fennema Department of Food Science, University of Wisconsin, Madison,
WI 53706
Michele C. Fisher Department of Food Science, Rutgers University, New Brunswick,
NJ 08903
Allan L. Forbes Office of Nutrition and Food Sciences, Center for Food Safety
and Applied Nutrition, Food and Drug Administration, Washington, DC 20204
Victor P. Frattali Division of Nutrition, Food and Drug Administration, Washing¬
ton, DC 20204
Glenn W. Froning Department of Food Science and Technology, University of
Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68583
Seymour G. Gilbert Department of Food Science, Cook College, Rutgers Univer¬
sity, New Brunswick, NJ 08903
Howard T. Gordon Roche Chemical Division, Hoffman LaRoche, Inc., Nutley,
NJ 07110
Jesse F. Gregory III Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Univer¬
sity of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611
Judson M. Harper Vice President for Research, Colorado State University, Fort
Collins, CO 80523

X
 Contents xi

Robert S. Harris Department of Nutritional Biochemistry, Massachusetts Institute

of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139
John P. Heybach NutraSweet Group, Searle Food Resources, Inc., G.D. Searle &
Co., Skokie, IL 60076
George E. Inglett Northern Regional Research Center, ARS USDA, Peoria, IL
61604
Endel Karmas Department of Food Science, Rutgers University, New Brunswick,
NJ 08903
John F. Kelly Department of Horticulture, Michigan State University, East Lansing,
MI 48824-1325
Judith Krzynowek Northeast Fisheries Center, Gloucester Laboratory, U.S.
Department of Commerce, Gloucester, MA 01930
Theodore P. Labuza Department of Food Science, University of Minnesota,
St. Paul, MN 55108
Paul A. Lachance Department of Food Science, Rutgers University, New Brunswick,
NJ 08903
Gilbert A. Leveille Nutrition and Health Science Technical Center, General Foods
Corporation, White Plains, NY 10625
Daryl Lund Department of Food Science, University of Wisconsin, Madison,
WI 53706
Roger F. McFeeters ARS USDA, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC
27695-7624
Steven Nagy Scientific Research Department, Florida Department of Citrus,
Lake Alfred, FL 33850
H. W. Ockerman Department of Animal Science, Ohio State University, Colum¬
bus, OH 43210
Gur S. Ranhotra Nutrition Research Group, American Institute of Baking,
Manhattan, KS 66502
Edmund Renner Department of Dairy Science, Justus-Liebig-Universitat Giessen,
D-6300 Giessen, West Germany
D. K. Salunkhe Mahatma Phule Agricultural University, Maharashtra State, India
Miriam H. Thomas 57 Eaton Road, Framingham, MA 01701
John E. Vanderveen Division of Nutrition, Food and Drug Administration, Wash¬
ington, DC 20204
Wilfred F. Wardowski Citrus Research and Education Center, University of Florida,
Lake Alfred, FL 33850
Walter J. Wolf Northern Regional Research Center, ARS USDA, Peoria, IL 61604
Y. Victor Wu Northern Regional Research Center, ARS USDA, Peoria, IL 61604
 Robert Samuel Harris
May 10,1904-December 24,1983
Preface

Dramatic changes in the attitudes toward human nutrition have taken place dur¬
ing the past decade. Food-related and medical professionals as well as consumers
are now, more than ever before, aware of and concerned about diet, nutrition, and
the beneficial and deleterious effects of food processing upon nutrients. The old
saying “We are what we eat” is still relevant. Nutritious food will contribute
greatly to consumers’ good health and ultimately reduce medical bills.
Food processing is essential to maintaining our food reserves from one harvest
to another, thus letting us serve our daily meals regularly. If food processing is
defined as including all treatments of foodstuffs from harvest to consumption, then
more than 95% of our food may be considered as processed. In most cases, food
processing and storage cause some reduction in the nutritional value of foods.
Advances in food science and food technology have resulted in an increase in nu¬
trient retention after processing. In addition, today’s consumer better understands
how to avoid excessive nutrient losses during food preparation.
The information presented in this completely revised reference and textbook
will help the reader to understand better the relationship between food processing
and nutrient retention. The authors’ scholarly contributions are greatly appreciated.
With the publication of the first edition of Nutritional Evaluation of Food
Processing, Dr. Harris was the very first scientist in the world who compiled,
systematized, and presented data on the effects of food processing on the nutrient
composition of foods. I must state with deep sorrow that Dr. Harris passed away
while the third edition was in preparation.
I remember the first time I met Dr. Harris. He invited me to collaborate on the
second edition. At first I was reluctant to accept his invitation and suggested
several names of renowned nutritionists, who, in my opinion, were much more
qualified for the task. Dr. Harris replied, “I am a nutritionist! I need a food
technologist, who already has experience in publishing books, to help me!” I
accepted his invitation, and from that moment on, a close collaboration and friend¬
ship developed between us. The second edition and the present edition, the third,
are the two last additions to Dr. Harris’s nearly 300 scientific publications.
Perhaps one of the saddest moments in Dr. Harris’s life occurred when he had
to tell me that his illness prevented him from further helping me with this edition.
At this tragic point, his battle with an incurable disease had already progressed too
far. I will always remember, with great gratitude, my association with Dr. Harris
who was a competent and distinguished scientist, a compassionate and generous
man, and a committed and true friend!

ENDEL KARMAS

xiii
 '

4
■

'
Introduction
 \

■v
V
 » 1
General Discussion on
the Stability of Nutrients
Robert S. Harris

Nutrients are destroyed when foods are processed largely because

they are sensitive to the pH of the solvent, to oxygen, light and heat, or
combinations of these. Trace elements, especially copper and iron, and
enzymes may catalyze these effects.
The relative stabilities of the vitamins and amino acids under these
various conditions are tabulated in Table 1.1. Vitamin A is stable under
an inert atmosphere, but rapidly loses activity when heated in the pres¬
ence of oxygen, especially at higher temperatures. It is completely
destroyed when oxidized or dehydrogenated. It is more sensitive to
ultraviolet light than to other wavelengths of light.
Ascorbic acid is fairly stable in acid solution and decomposes in light.
This decomposition is greatly accelerated by the presence of alkalies,
oxygen, copper, and iron.
A 50% loss in biotin occurs when it is boiled for 6 hr in 30% hydro¬
chloric acid or for 17 hr in 1 N potassium hydroxide, yet it is relatively
stable in air and oxygen or when exposed to ultraviolet light. It is in¬
activated by agents which oxidize the sulfur atom, and by strong acids
and alkalies.
Essential fatty acids isomerize when heated in alkali and are sensitive
to light, temperature, and oxygen. When oxidized, they become inactive
biologically and may even be toxic.
The stability of vitamin D is influenced by the solvent in which it is
dissolved, but it is stable when crystals are stored in amber glass bottles.
Generally, it is stable to heat, acids, and oxygen. It is slowly destroyed
in foods and feeds which are slightly alkaline, especially in the presence
of air and light.
The folic acid group is stable during boiling at pH 8 for 30 min, yet
large losses occur during autoclaving in acids and alkalies. This destruc¬
tion is accelerated by oxygen and light.
Inositol is stable during refluxing in strong hydrochloric acid or
potassium hydroxide. It occurs in plants mainly in the form of phytic
acid salts and as plant and animal phosphoinositides. These complexes
are broken down by phosphatases and similar enzymes. The free inositol
has the highest biological value.

3
4 Robert S. Harris

Table 1.1. Stability of Nutrients"

Effect of pH

Air Maximum
Neutral Acid Alkaline or cooking
pH 7 <pH 7 >pH 7 oxygen Light Heat losses (%)
Nutrient

Vitamins
Vitamin A S u s U U u 40
Ascorbic acid (C) u s u U U u 100
Biotin s s s S S u 60
Carotene (pro-A) s u s u u u 30
Choline s s s u s s 5
Cobalamin (B12) s s s u u s 10
Vitamin D s u u u u 40
Folic acid u u s u u u 100
Inositol s s s s s u 95
Vitamin K s u u s u s 5
Niacin (PP) s s s s s s 75
Pantothenic acid s u u s s u 50
p-Aminobenzoic
acid s s s u s s 5
Pyridoxine (B6) s s s s u u 40
Riboflavin (B2) s s u s u u 75
Thiamin (Bi) u s u u s u 80
Tocopheral (E) s s s u u u 55
Essential amino acids
Isoleucine s s s s s s 10
Leucine s s s s s s 10
Lysine s s s s s u 40
Methionine s s s s s s 10
Phenylalanine s s s * s s s 5
Threonine s u u s s u 20
Tryptophan s u s s u s 15
Valine s s s s s s 10
Essential fatty acids s s u Lf u s 10
Mineral salts s s s s s s 3

a S, stable (no important destruction); U, unstable (significant destruction).

Vitamin K is stable to heat and reducing agents and is labile to alco¬

holic alkali, oxidizing agents, strong acids, and light.
Niacin amide is partially hydrolyzed by acid and alkali, yet the re¬
sulting niacin has the same biological activity. Niacin is generally stable
to air, light, heat, acids, and alkalies.
Pantothenic acid is most stable at pH 5.5-7.0, is rapidly hydrolyzed
under stronger acid or alkaline conditions, and is labile to dry heat, hot
acid, or hot alkalies.
p-Aminobenzoic acid is only slightly destroyed by autoclaving in 6 AT
sulfuric acid for 1 hr, is fairly stable in mild alkali, but is unstable in
strong alkali.
 1. The Stability of Nutrients 5

Vitamin B12 (cobalamin) is stable to heat in neutral solution if

pure, but is destroyed wherl heated in alkaline or acid media in crude
preparations, as in foodstuffs. Choline is strongly alkaline and is slightly
unstable in solutions in the presence of oxygen.
The vitamin B6 group contains pyridoxine, pyridoxal, and pyri-
doxamine. Pyridoxine is stable to heat, strong alkali, or acid, but is sensi¬
tive to light, especially ultraviolet light, when in alkaline solutions. Pyri¬
doxal and pyridoxamine are rapidly destroyed by exposure to air, heat,
and light. All three are sensitive to ultraviolet light when in neutral or
alkaline solution. Pyridoxamine in foods is sensitive to processing.
Riboflavin is very sensitive to light, and the rate of destruction in¬
creases as the pH and temperature increase. Thus, the riboflavin of
milk is rapidly lost (50% in 2 hr) on exposure to sunlight, and the re¬
sulting derivative (lumiflavin) in turn destroys the ascorbic acid in milk.
It is stable to heat if in dry form or in an acid medium.
Thiamin suffers no destruction when boiled in acid for several hours,
yet the loss approaches 100% when boiled at pH 9 for 20 min. It is
unstable in air, especially at higher pH values, and is destroyed by auto¬
claving, sulfites, and alkalies.
The tocopherols are stable to vigorous boiling in acid in the absence of
oxygen and are stable to visible light. They are unstable at room tempera¬
ture in the presence of oxygen, alkalies, ferric salts, and when exposed to
ultraviolet light. Considerable loss of tocopherols occurs in the oxidation
of fats and in deep-fat frying due primarily to destruction by chemically
active fatty acid derivatives formed in the fats during heating and oxida¬
tion. The esters of tocopherols are more stable than the free phenols.
Amino acids racemize in alkaline solutions, and the biological value
of some is reduced as a result. Arginine, cystine, threonine, and cysteine
are partially destroyed, whereas glutamine and asparagine are deaminized
by alkalies. In acid solution, tryptophan is rather readily destroyed,
cysteine is partly converted to cystine, serine and threonine are partly
destroyed. Phenylalanine and threonine are partially destroyed by
ultraviolet light. All amino acids in foods, and especially lysine, threo¬
nine, and methionine, are sensitive to treatment with dry heat and
radiations. Thus, in the roasting and toasting of cereals, legumes, and
prepared dry mixtures of foodstuffs, a significant reduction of the
biological values of their proteins may occur.
Mineral salts are not significantly affected by these chemical and
physical treatments. Some may be oxidized to higher valences by ex¬
posure to oxygen, but there is no convincing evidence that their nutri¬
tional value is affected.
Table 1.1 also gives the limits of losses of these nutrients when the aver¬
age food is cooked. More complete data on the losses of several of these
nutrients in specific foods during processing are presented in the follow¬
ing chapters of this volume.
;

'

'
 2
The Major Food Groups,
Their Nutrient Content, and
Principles of Food Processing
Endel Karmas

Nutrients are the building blocks of the human body. Nutrients are
needed for growth, to maintain and repair the body tissues, to regulate
body processes, and to furnish energy for the body’s functions. The nutri¬
ents that must be supplied daily to keep man in good health are the
macronutrients: proteins, fats, carbohydrates, and water; and the micro¬
nutrients: vitamins and minerals.
More than 50 essential nutrients have been identified, and the identi¬
fication of other nutrients is not yet complete. All essential nutrients
must be present in appropriate quantities to provide balanced nutrition.
Thus, the nutrient composition of a food is described in terms of its
content of all the macro- and micronutrients.
Man acquires his nutrients from foods of plant and animal origin.
The biochemistry of plants, animals, and man have much in common;
therefore, man requires essentially the same nutritional building blocks
as do plants and animals.

THE MAJOR FOOD GROUPS AND

THEIR NUTRIENT CONTENT
Both the growing and gathering of foods belong in the realm of the
agricultural sciences and technology. Figure 2.1 illustrates the biochem¬
ical cycle of man’s basic foods. The sun’s energy combines carbon
dioxide, water, and nutrients from the soil to produce the foods of
plant origin: vegetables, fruits, grains, tubers, and others. Foods of
animal origin are derived ultimately from herbivorous animals. Finally,
animals produce foods, such as milk and eggs. It is noteworthy that pro¬
teins increase in nutritive value as the amino acids from the proteins of
plant origin are converted to the various proteins of animal origin
(National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council 1963).
Raw foods are biological systems that spoil rapidly. Since man needs
food daily and food is harvested seasonally, foods must be preserved by

7
8 E. Karmas

AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES & TECHNOLOGY

V

GROWING GATHERING
FOODS OF FOODS OF

PLANT ORIGIN ANIMAL ORIGIN

VEGETABLES
PHOTOSYNTHESIS MEAT
MILK
CO* ♦ H*0 + NUTRIENTS ♦ ENERGY
FRUITS
$ POULTRY -^
GRAINS EGGS
FISH
METABOLISM
TUBERS

CONSUMPTION PROCESSING

SCIENCE OF NUTRITION FOOD SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

Fig. 2.1. Biochemical cycle of man’s basic foods.

various methods to provide food in off-seasons. This means that the bio¬
chemical cycle, pictured in Fig. 2.1, is temporarily arrested by food
processing. During times of hunger, however, man consumes his pre¬
served food and starts the reverse of photosynthesis, the metabolism, to
release free energy and obtain essential nutrients for his metabolic
needs. According to Nobel laureate Albert Szent-Gyorgyi (1966), one
of the basic principles of life is that free energy can be preserved and
stored in food molecules and utilized when necessary.
Detailed data on food consumption In the United States are avail¬
able from government sources [U.S. Department of Agriculture (USD A)
1984A]. Table 2.1 summarizes the per capita consumption of major
food commodities in 1983. Foods of animal origin and foods of plant
origin share about equally in the American diet, totaling about 85% of
all food consumed by weight. The total average per capita consumption
of food in 1983 was 617 kg, which is equal to about nine times the
weight of an average man.
Percentages of nutrients contributed by major food groups in the
United States food supply in 1983 are presented in Table 2.2 (USDA
1984B). An essential part of the food energy, protein, vitamin A,
niacin, vitamin B6, vitamin B12, iron, and zinc comes from the meat-
poultry-fish group. Dairy products provide most of the riboflavin,
calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium. Vegetables and fruits are rich in
ascorbic acid, but also in vitamin A, folacin, and fiber. Flour and cereal
products contain a plentiful supply of a wide variety of nutrients. Be¬
sides carbohydrates (food energy), they provide not only considerable
amounts of the enrichment nutrients thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, and
iron, but also plant protein, fiber, magnesium, phosphorus, and zinc.
 2. Principles of Food Processing 9

Table 2.1. Per Capita Consumption of Major Food Commodities in the United States
in 1983 '

Consumption
Food groups
kg %

I. Foods of animal origin 257.4 41.7

Meats and meat products 65.6 10.6
Beef 35.8
Veal 0.8
Pork 28.3
Lamb 0.7
Poultry and poultry products 29.8 4.8
Chicken 24.5
Turkey 5.3
Eggsa 15.0 2.4
Fishery products 5.8 1.0
Fresh and frozen 3.6
Canned and cured 2.2
Dairy products 141.2 22.9
Whole milk 60.4
Other milk beverages^ 48.1
Cheeses 11.3
Frozen desserts 12.3
Cream and canned milk 6.1
Dry milk products 3.0

II. Foods of plant origin 269.3 43.6

Vegetables 71.8 11.6
Fresh 45.4
Canned 21.4
Frozen 5.0
Potatoes0 37.3 6.0
Fresh 25.0
Processed 12.3
Cereals 68.0 11.0
Wheat flour 52.7
Rice 4.5
Other cereals and products 10.8
Fresh fruit 50.9 8.3
Citrus 14.0
Noncitrus^ 36.9
Processed fruit 36.3 5.9
Canned fruit 7.3
Canned juices 7.4
Frozen fruit 1.4
Frozen citrus juice 18.8
Dried fruit 1.4
Nuts 4.3 0.7
Spices and herbs 0.7 0.1

(continued)
10 E. Karmas

Table 2.1. (Continued)

Consumption

Food groups kg %

90.6 14.7
III. Other foods
Sweeteners 56.8 9.2
Sucrose 32.3
Corn syrup sweeteners (dry
wt) 23.7
Honey and other syrups 0.8
Fats and oilse 28.5 4.6
Butter^ 2.3
Margarine^ 4.7
Shortening 8.5
Lard and tallow 1.7
Other fats and oils 11.3
Dry beverage products^ 5.3 0.9
Coffee 3.5
Tea 0.3
Cocoa^7 1.5

Total food consumed 617.3

Source: Data compiled from “Food Consumption, Prices, and Expenditures 1963-
83,” Statistical Bulletin No. 713, U.S. Dept, of Agriculture (1984A).
a An average of 253 eggs per capita per year.
* Skim, low-fat, buttermilk; flavored drinks and yoghurt.
c Includes sweet potatoes (5.5% of the total potatoes).
^ Includes melons.
e Ratio of animal fats to vegetable oil consumption, 20:80.
/ Fat content of butter and margarine, 80%.
S In addition, 151 liters of soft drinks and 92 liters of beer per capita per year
were consumed.
^ Mainly used for chocolate and candy manufacture.

Fats and oils, sucrose, and other sweeteners yield food energy, other¬
wise they are essentially devoid of the nutrients listed in Table 2.2. It
should be mentioned that most cholesterol in the American diet comes
from eggs (41%), followed by red meats (26%) and dairy products, ex¬
cluding butter (15%).
Table 2.3 gives information about the quantities of nutrients available
for consumption per capita per day in the United States in 1983 (USDA
1984A). These estimates include produce from home gardens. No
deduction has been made for loss or waste of food, or for destruction
and loss of nutrients during preparation of food. These data include
nutrients added in fortification and enrichment to cereal products,
margarine, milk, fruit juices and drinks, and breakfast cereals.
The nutrients available to the American population (Table 2.3) can
be compared with the Recommended Daily Dietary Allowances (RDA)
in Table 2.4, established, based on present knowledge of nutrition,
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12 E. Karmas

Table 2.3. Nutrients Available for Consumption Per Capita

Per Day in the United States in 1983

Nutrient Unit Quantity

Food energy kcalfl 3450

14.4
Protein g 102
Carbohydrate g 394
Fat g 166
Vitamin A value IUC 8100
Thiamin mg 2.14
Riboflavin mg 2.43
Niacin mg 26.2
Vitamin B6 mg 2.02
Vitamin B12 ^g 8.7
Ascorbic acid mg 125
Iron mg 18.1
Calcium mg 880
Phosphorus mg 1500
Magnesium mg 347

Source: “Food Consumption, Prices, and Expenditures 1963-

83,” Statistical Bulletin No. 713, U.S. Dept, of Agriculture
(1984A).
a 1 kcal = 4.184 kJ.
HMJ= 239 kcal.
c 10 IU vitamin A activity from retinol = 3 ng retinol or 3
retinol equivalents.

by the Food and Nutrition Board of the National Academy of Sciences,

National Research Council (1980). These RDA requirements were de¬
signed to maintain good nutrition for practically all healthy people in
the United States.
Table 2.3 indicates that the average food energy available in the United
States in 1983 was 3450 kcal/capita/day, which is considerably higher
than the RDA for energy needs proposed for adult 23- to 50-year-old men
and women who require only 2700 and 2000 kcal/capita/day, respec¬
tively (National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council 1980).
The available quantities of protein, vitamin A, vitamin B12, and ascor¬
bic acid are about two to three times the RDA. However, vitamin B6,
iron, calcium, and magnesium available are probably below the RDA
values for many people.
In addition, estimated safe and adequate daily dietary intakes of other
selected vitamins and minerals are given in Table 2.5 (National Academy
of Sciences, National Research Council 1980). For these nutrients, data
on their availability in the food supply have not yet been compiled.
Although good nutrition is important to keep the body in good health,
it should be emphasized that man eats food, composite macro- and micro¬
nutrients, and not single nutrients. Therefore, it is essential that foods
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 2. Principles of Food Processing 15

Table 2.6. USDA Agriculture Handbook No. 8 Series

Series Year Number

no. Food group issued of items

8-1 Dairy and egg products 1976 144

8-2 Spices and herbs 1977 43
8-3 Baby foods 1978 217
8-4 Fats and oils 1979 128
8-5 Poultry products 1979 304
8-6 Soups, sauces, and gravies 1980 214
8-7 Sausages and luncheon meats 1980 80
8-8 Breakfast cereals 1982 142
8-9 Fruits and fruit juices 1982 263
8-10 Pork products 1983 186
8-11 Vegetables and vegetable products 1984 470
8-12 Nut and seed products 1984 117

Source: USDA (1976-1984).

be as balanced in overall nutrient content as possible, but also palatable

and safe. The nutrient content of many raw and processed-prepared
foods is listed in the Agriculture Handbook No. 8 Series (USDA 1976-
1984) as shown in Table 2.6.

THE PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PROCESSING

Foods are processed for three reasons: (1) to preserve, package, and
store foods (e.g., canning); (2) to manufacture desirable food products,
including nutrification (e.g., baking);and (3) to prepare foods for serving.
All raw foods are perishable commodities. From the time of harvest
or slaughter, the raw plant and animal tissues undergo gradual deteriora¬
tion by various biochemical reactions. The rate of deterioration may be
very fast or relatively slow. One of the primary factors of food spoilage
is the content of biologically active water in the tissue. Raw foods with
a high biologically active water content, such as leafy vegetables and
meat, deteriorate in only a few days, whereas dry seeds, containing only
structural water, can be stored for years under proper conditions.
The major causes of food spoilage are microbial growth and enzymatic
and chemical changes, the first being by far the greatest cause of food
loss. These actions and reactions take place rapidly at high water con¬
tent as well as at favorable temperatures, pH, and other environmental
conditions. The principles of food preservation are based on the manipu¬
lation of these environmental conditions. For instance, microorganisms
require an optimum temperature for growth; higher temperatures are
injurious, while lower temperatures greatly retard their metabolism.
16 E. Karmas

There are only six basic principles of food processing for preservation:

1. Moisture removal — drying; dehydration; concentration; inter¬

mediate moisture processing
2. Heat treatment — blanching; pasteurization; sterilization; baking,
cooking, frying, and so forth; extrusion cooking; microwaving
3. Low-temperature treatment — cold storage; refrigeration; freezing
4. Acidity control — fermentation; acidic additives
5. Chemical additive processing
6. Irradiation

Since all preserved foods have to be stored until they are consumed,
proper food packaging is an important coprocessing factor to the basic
food processing methods.
The metabolism of microorganisms requires plenty of free water.
Removal of the biologically active water through drying or dehydration
stops the growth of microorganisms. It also reduces the rate of enzymatic
activity and chemical reactions. Rancidity of the lipid constituents of
dehydrated foods is reduced if the protective structural water is left
intact. The effect of water removal on nutrients is relatively small if the
dehydration temperature is moderate and the food is subsequently ade¬
quately packaged. Freeze-dehydration offers decisive advantages in
nutrient preservation over dehydration at elevated temperatures.
The principal effect of heat treatment is the denaturation of proteins,
that is, the inactivation of the microbial and the native food enzymes.
Pasteurization frees the food from human pathogens and most vegeta¬
tive microorganisms, whereas sterilization, by definition, means the
destruction of all viable microorganisms. Heat sterilization, the most
effective process of food preservation, severely affects the labile vita¬
mins and reduces, mainly through the Maillard reactions, the nutritional
quality of proteins.
Low-temperature preservation, particularly freeze-preservation, is a
relatively harmless method of food preservation. Low temperature in¬
hibits microbial growth and slows down the rate of chemical and enzy¬
matic reactions. The activity of meat enzymes is essentially stopped in
commercial frozen storage, while many vegetables have to be blanched
before freezing in order to avoid undesirable quality changes due to
enzymatic activity at freezer temperatures. Vitamin losses are minimal
compared to other methods of food preservation. Losses in overall
quality occur mainly through unfavorable freezing, storage, and thaw¬
ing conditions, but also through defective packaging.
Spoilage of low-acid foods is relatively rapid. The growth of food
spoilage organisms is greatly inhibited in an acidic environment. Acidic
fermentation lowers the pH of carbohydrate-containing foods by pro¬
ducing lactic acid. Acidity of some foods may also be increased by
acidic additives, such as vinegar or citric acid, producing the same
 2. Principles of Food Processing 17

inhibitory effect on spoilage.. Loss of nutrients through the acidic fermen¬

tation process is small. In some cases the nutrient level may even be in¬
creased, particularly through microbial vitamin and protein synthesis.
Chemical additives can substantially contribute to the preservation of
foods by providing an inhibitory environment for microbial growth and
for enzymatic and chemical reactions. The effect of these methods on
nutrients is variable, but generally small.
Irradiation, the so-called cold-pasteurization and cold-sterilization
processes, is the most recent method of food preservation. The Food
and Drug Administration (FDA) categorizes it as “food additive,”
because ionizing radiation produces new unknown substances in ir¬
radiated foods. The free radical mechanism of irradiation destroys
microorganisms, but is also detrimental to nutrients, particularly to
vitamins. Another disadvantage of this method is the adverse flavor
change, particularly in the sterilized dairy and meat products. Steriliza¬
tion doses do not inactivate the enzymes, therefore the enzymes have
to be heat-inactivated.
The title of this book, Nutritional Evaluation of Food Processing, refers
to two sets of variables: changes in the initial level of nutrients that are
dependent on the various methods of food processing, processing severity
and duration. The initial level of a nutrient in a raw food is already a
variable due to the environmental and genetic factors. The Agriculture
Handbook No. 8 Series (USDA 1976-1984), the most voluminous refer¬
ence source on the nutritional composition of foods, gives only the initial
and the final levels for a particular nutrient in raw and processed prepared
foods, respectively. However, relatively little is known about the rate of
change in nutrient levels as a function of processing severity and duration.
A better understanding of the nutrient destruction kinetics in the future
will help reduce processing damage to nutrients by either eliminating
or improving processing steps which cause most degradation.
Foods are composite macronutrient systems that serve as media for
the micronutrients and influence their stability differently. This means
that some labile vitamins, such as thiamin and ascorbic acid, may be
protected by one food system more than by another. Figure 2.2, for
instance, illustrates a study on thiamin stability in meat irradiated at
various intensities (Karmas et al. 1962). The initial thiamin content of
pork decreased to 12% of the initial level in fresh and freeze-dehydrated-
rehydrated samples which contained 68.8% and 65.9% moisture,
respectively. About one-third of the initial thiamin content was de¬
stroyed by the freeze-dehydration process. However, thiamin was
stable in the medium of low water activity (moisture content 1.3%) of
the freeze-dehydrated sample. These data strongly suggest that thiamin
destruction resulted from the aqueous medium, present during both the
freeze-dehydration and irradiation processes, whereas the dehydrated
food was protective to thiamin.
18 E. Karmas

IRRADIATION LEVEL (megarads)

Fig. 2.2. Thiamin retention in irradiated pork. Source: Karmas et al. (1962).

In order to fully understand vitamin degradation resulting from food

processing, a good knowledge of vitamin chemistry is prerequisite. Be¬
cause there are numerous excellent monographs available on the nutri¬
tional, biochemical, chemical, and clinical aspects of vitamins (e.g.,
Machlin 1984), information on vitamin chemistry is not included in
this volume.
In general, food processing techniques in greatest use today do not
result in major losses in the nutritive value of foods (Institute of Food
Technologists 1974). The more sophisticated food processing methods
being developed by advanced technology should retain an even higher
percentage of nutrients. Besides improvements in food processing
technology, factors to be considered in efforts to increase the essential
nutrients must include food storage and distribution, institutional food
preparation, and an increasing awareness by the home consumer of the
importance of proper food handling.

REFERENCES

Institute of Food Technologists 1974. The effects of food processing on nutri¬

tional values. A scientific status report by the IFT Expert Panel and the Com¬
mittee on Public Information. Food Technol. 28(10), 77-80.
Karmas, E., Thompson, J. E., and Peryam, D. B. 1962. Thiamine retention in
freeze-dehydrated irradiated pork. Food Technol. 16(3), 107.
Machlin, L. J. (Editor). 1984. Handbook of Vitamins. Marcel Dekker, New York.
 2. Principles of Food Processing 19

National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council. 1963. Evaluation of

Protein Quality. Food and Nutrition Board Pub. 1100. National Academy of
Sciences, National Research Council, Washington, DC.
National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council 1980. Recommended
Dietary Allowances, 9th Edition. Food and Nutrition Board, National Academy
of Sciences, National Research Council, Washington, DC.
Szent-Gyorgyi, A. 1966. The strategy of life. Inti. Sci. Technol. 6, 48.
U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) 1976-1984. Composition of foods:
Raw, processed, prepared. In Agriculture Handbook 8, Vols. 8-1—8-12. USDA,
Washington, DC.
U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) 1984A. Food consumption, prices, and
expenditures, 1963-1983. Compiled by K. Bunch. Economic Research Ser¬
vice, USDA Statistical Bull. 713. Washington, DC.
U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) 1984B. Unpublished data from Human
Nutrition Information Service. Compiled by R. Marston and N. Raper. Wash¬
ington, DC.
 y

!»

,
Nutrients in Food-
Raw and Processed
V

V
 3
Effects of
Agricultural Practices,
Handling, Processing, and
Storage on Vegetables
D. K. Salunkhe
B. B. Desai

Today’s world is faced with an acute need to provide enough nutritive

food for all its people. Increased consciousness about nutrition, food,
and health has significantly influenced our modern agriculture and food
industry. About 90% of the world’s food (measured in calories) is vege¬
table products, of which 80% constitutes starchy foods, such as grains and
tubers. As pointed out by Salunkhe et al. (1974) in their account of assess¬
ment of nutritive value, quality, and stability of cruciferous vegetables
during storage and subsequent processing, this is an appropriate time to
assess food production, storage, and processing and to determine if
vegetable crops with more nutrients can be produced and preserved for
a longer time without much loss in quality and wholesomeness.
“Quality of vegetables” is an illusive concept which is difficult to de¬
fine although it can be discussed in terms of four basic characteristics of
food, namely, (1) color or eye appeal, (2) odor and flavor, (3) texture or
feel, and (4) nutritive value. All of the above but the nutritional quality of
food, a hidden characteristic, can be evaluated with human senses. Nutri¬
tive value and the presence of adulterants and toxic substances cannot.

MAJOR CHEMICAL COMPONENTS OF VEGETABLES

AND THEIR NUTRITIONAL SIGNIFICANCE

Carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals, and fiber are the

major chemical components of fresh vegetables in addition to a large
quantity of water. j3-Carotene (provitamin A), thiamin (B,), ribo¬
flavin (B2), niacin, pyridoxine (B6), pantothenic acid, folic acid (fola-
cin), ascorbic acid, and vitamins E and K have been reported present in
different vegetable products. Among the minerals present are calcium,

23
24 D. K. Salunkhe and B. B. Desai

Fig. 3.1. The nutritional contribution of some important fruits and vegetables.
Source: Salunkhe et al. (1974).

phosphorus, potassium, sodium, manganese, iron, magnesium, copper,

cobalt, sulfur, zinc, and fluorine. Salunkhe et al. (1974) have described
the major functions of these nutrients in the human body. The fruits
and vegetables are generally bought and consumed for their characteristic
flavor and taste rather than for their nutritive value. The nutritional con¬
tribution of 12 major fruits, 12 cruciferous vegetables, and 18 other im¬
portant vegetables compared to the percentage of total food supply is
depicted in Fig. 3.1.

Amount of Nutrients and Quantity of Food

Since the extent to which a food contributes nutrients to man’s diet is
governed both by the amount of nutrients present in the food and the
quantity consumed, vegetables are generally not regarded as economic
sources of energy, protein, fat, calcium, or riboflavin (Vittum 1963). A
vegetable may be rich in vitamins and minerals, but the consumer will
need another source of supply if only a small quantity of that vegetable
is eaten. The concentration of ascorbic acid in green peppers is about
seven times higher than that in potatoes, but the average consumer ob¬
tains more of this vitamin from potatoes than from peppers because of
higher consumption of potatoes. The relative concentration of ten
major vitamins and minerals in some fruits and vegetables and their im¬
portance in the typical U.S. diet (Table 3.1) shows that while tomatoes
and oranges are relatively low in concentration of nutrients, they con¬
tribute greatly to the U.S. diet because they are consumed in large
amounts (Rick 1978). Vegetables supply only negligible amounts of fat
 3. Vegetables 25

Table 3.1. Relative Concentration of 10 Vitamins and Minerals in Some Fruits

and Vegetables and Their Relative*Contribution to the U.S. Diet

Nutrient concentration, Contribution to diet,

Crop rank Crop rank

Broccoli 1 Tomato 1
Spinach 2 Orange 2
Brussels sprout 3 Potato 3
Lima bean 4 Lettuce 4
Pea 5 Sweet corn 5
Asparagus 6 Banana 6
Artichoke 7 Carrot 7
Cauliflower 8 Cabbage 8
Sweet potato 9 Onion 9
Carrot 10 Sweet potato 10
Sweet corn 12 Pea 15
Potato 14 f Spinach 18
Cabbage 15 Broccoli 21
Tomato 16 Lima bean 23
Banana 18 Asparagus 25
Lettuce 26 Cauliflower 30
Onion 31 Brussels sprout 34
Orange 33 Artichoke 36

Source: Rick (1978)

and protein (7 and 8% of the body’s energy requirements and protein

needs, respectively). Other foods such as cereals, meat, milk, and eggs are
more efficient sources of these nutrients. Vegetables, however, contribute
significantly to a well-balanced diet in that they are major sources of pro¬
vitamin A (j3-carotene) and vitamin C (ascorbic acid) and are good sources
of thiamin, niacin, and iron (Table 3.2). They also furnish bulk (dietary
fiber), which helps in the proper functioning of the human digestive
system. Several diseases of man, such as appendicitis, colon cancer,
constipation, deep vein thrombosis, diabetes, diverticulosis, gallstones,
hemorrhoids, hiatus hernia, ischemic heart disease, obesity, tumors of
the rectum, and varicose veins, have been claimed to be due to lack of
fiber in the diet (Wills et al. 1981). Most vegetables, especially the leafy
variety such as spinach, lettuce, celery, cabbage, and fenugreek, are
characterized by high water content and a high percentage of cellulose.
Owing to their succulence and large bulk (roughage), leafy greens and
root vegetables aid in the digestion of concentrated foods.

Energy: Fats and Carbohydrates

The body requires food energy for basal metabolism, synthesis of
body tissues, physical activity, excretory processes, and maintenance
of thermal, physiological, and psychological balance. Caloric food
allowances are established to provide energy and to maintain body
26 D. K. Salunkhe and B. B. Desai

Table 3.2. Percentage of Total Money Value and of Total Nutritive Value of
Vegetables in U.S. Diets

Dark Dry Other

All green beans green Other
vege¬ and deep Sweet and vege¬ vege¬
Nutrients tables yellow Tomato Potato potato peas tables tables

Cost 12.5 1.3 2.1 2.0 0.1 0.4 3.3 3.3

Calories 6.9 0.3 0.5 2.9 0.1 1.0 0.8 1.2

Protein 8.1 0.5 0.6 2.0 0.1 2.0 1.7 1.3

Fat 1.5 0.1 0.1 0.8 <0.1 0.1 0.1 0.3
Calcium 9.0 2.1 0.5 1.0 0.1 1.1 2.4 1.8
Iron 19.9 2.4 1.7 4.1 0.2 3.8 4.6 3.1
Vitamin A 43.6 26.8 7.2 <0.1 3.7 <0.1 4.3 1.6
Thiamin 15.8 1.0 1.9 5.3 0.2 1.9 3.4 2.1
Riboflavin 9.0 1.3 1.0 1.7 0.1 0.9 2.3 1.8
Niacin 14.2 0.9 2.4 5.8 0.1 1.1 2.1 1.9
Vitamin C 42.5 8.1 8.2 9.8 0.5 0.2 10.0 5.7

Source: Boswell (1961).

weight and health. Fats and carbohydrates are the most important
sources of food energy. According to the Food and Nutrition Board
of the National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council (1968),
of the total calories consumed, the American diet consists of about 41%
fats and 47% carbohydrates. The chemical (nutritional) composition of
12 cruciferous and 18 other vegetables in respect to proximate composi¬
tion, minerals, and vitamins (Table 3.3) indicates that most vegetables are
low in calories, fats, and carbohydrates (Salunkhe et al. 1974).

Proteins: Quantity, Quality, and Utility

The body’s protein needs depend upon the individual’s age, sex,
metabolism, and other physiological factors. Protein quality is deter¬
mined in terms of the pattern of essential amino acids in protein struc¬
tures. Salunkhe et al. (1974) pointed out that to evaluate the status of
vegetables with regard to their protein content, one must consider the
protein quality in terms of balanced essential amino acids. The biological
availablility of proteins is also an important consideration from a nutri¬
tional point of view and is determined by biological evaluation through
human and animal feeding experiments. The biological value of proteins
expresses the efficiency with which the body utilizes absorbed proteins
as a dietary source of amino acids. This biological value may be altered
if the body need for one amino acid or group of amino acids changes in
relation to the requirements of other amino acids. According to Salunkhe
et al. (1974), protein requirements are based on involvement of total
nitrogen, pattern of essential amino acids, optimal ratio of essential to
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28 D. K. Salunkhe and B. B. Desai

nonessential amino acids, and availability to body cells. Among the

various fruits and vegetables surveyed, the cruciferous vegetables were
found to be excellent sources of proteins and amino acids, especially the
sulfur-containing amino acids. When compared with peas and beans,
the crucifers were superior in terms of biological value, digestibility,
and net protein utilization.

Vitamins and Minerals

Vitamins and minerals present in the diet are necessary for normal
growth and metabolism and influence the utilization of other nutrients
such as protein. The deficiency of essential vitamins or minerals leads
to several physiological disorders and diseases, slowed growth, and lack
of deposition of proteins in tissues. An adequate supply of B-complex
vitamins is necessary for critical protein utilization. The deficiency of
minerals such as potassium, phosphorus, sodium, calcium, and magnesium
also influences the capacity of the body to utilize amino acids and
proteins.

Vitamins
The vitamins are a group of organic compounds that are essential in
relatively minute quantities for the metabolism of other nutrients in the
body and for normal growth, maintenance of health, and reproduction.
They prevent a number of systemic diseases and participate in the regu¬
lation of body processes. It has been recommended that a specific
amount of the 13 known vitamins must be included in the adult diet
each day (National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council
1968). These include the fat-soluble vitamins, provitamin A (/3-carotene),
vitamins D, E (a-tocopherol), and K, and water-soluble ascorbic acid
(vitamin C), biotin, folacin, niacin, pantothenic acid, riboflavin, thiamin,
pyridoxine (B6), and cobalamine (B12). Cruciferous and many other
vegetables contain most of these vitamins in significant amounts (Table
3.3). Data presented in Table 3.3 show that vegetables contain sub¬
stantial amounts of provitamin A (/3-carotene), riboflavin, niacin, and
thiamin. Information about folic acid, pantothenic acid, and pyridoxine
is limited. According to Salunkhe et al. (1974), in general, the crucifer¬
ous vegetables are the most efficient plant products in synthesizing high
concentrations of proteins, amino acids, minerals, and vitamins, and
they are low in caloric content.
Gopala Rao et al. (1980) reported the contents of /3-carotene, vita¬
mins of the B group (B,, B2, B6, niacin), reducing and nonreducing
sugars, starch, protein, soluble protein, and total nitrogen, calcium, and
iron in several leafy vegetables — amaranth (A. tricolor and A. spinosus),
drumstick leaves (Moringa oleifera), coriander (Coriandrum sativum),
mint (Menthasspicata), and garden sorrel (Rumex acetosa). They
recommended a new leafy vegetable (Trianthema portulacastrum) as
 3. Vegetables 29

nutritionally rich. Celosia and drumstick leaves also could be used as

leafy vegetables since they are rich in provitamin A and vitamin C.

Minerals
Minerals in the diet are required for proper growth and good health.
Those needed in macro-, or major quantities are calcium, phosphorus,
magnesium, potassium, sulfur, sodium, and chlorine, and those needed
in micro- (trace) amounts are iron, iodine, copper, cobalt, chromium,
manganese, selenium, zinc, fluorine, and molybdenum. Recent studies
have shown that silica is essential for the normal growth of rats, but its
essentiality in man is yet to be established. The cruciferous and many
other vegetables are excellent sources of minerals, particularly of
calcium, iron, magnesium, sodium, potassium, and phosphorus, and
most of these minerals are present in the available form (Table 3.3).
Tindall and Proctor (1980) summarized the nutritive values of some
selected tropical vegetables (Table 3.4). They concluded that vegetables
significantly contributed to man’s dietary requirements of carbohydrates,
proteins, vitamins, and essential minerals, especially in areas of low
animal protein availability and where cereals form the major part of the
human diet. Vegetables provide variety to an otherwise monotonous
diet containing a limited number of items.

Flavor and Consumer Preferences

In addition to the above-mentioned nutritional attributes, flavor is
one of the most important properties of vegetables. Aroma is constituted
by the presence of volatiles and by sweetness (sugars), acidity, and the
astringency contributed by the phenolics. Lindstrand (1979) stressed
the value of eye appeal of vegetables, as well as their being a source of
dietary fiber and minerals and their having physiological effects.
Water is the most abundant constituent of vegetables, with most con¬
taining over 80% moisture. Water is one of the most important nutrients,
having vast significance for the utilization of all other nutrients. In addi¬
tion to water, vegetables also supply lipids, organic acids, and volatile
compounds.

Toxicological and Antinutrient Considerations

Vegetables have been known to contain certain toxic factors. Crucifer¬
ous vegetables in general, and those belonging to the genus Brassica in
particular, contain goitrogens which are reported to be the antinutrients
that cause enlargement of the thyroid glands. Natural thioglucosides
(glycosinolate) are sources of goitrogens. The same thioglucosides, with
their associated enzymes, impart the desirable culinary flavor of cabbage,
broccoli, and cauliflower. A thioglucoside, allylthioglucoside (sinigrin),
is present in cabbage, kale, brussels sprouts, broccoli, cauliflower, and
 a Tr, trace. Figures in parentheses are estimates from related foods or, more rarely, the tentative values based on limited number of published sources (Paul
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 3. Vegetables 31

mustard. When these vegetables are chopped, a specific enzyme, thio-

glucosidase (myrosinase), hydrolyzes allylthioglucoside into glucose,
potassium bisulfate, and allylthiocyanate, a goitrogenic compound. In
another case, progoitrin or epiprogoitrin, which is responsible for the
typical flavor of kale, rape, turnip, rutabaga, and kohlrabi, upon hydrol¬
ysis subsequent to chopping by thioglucosidase yields glucose, potassium
bisulfate, and highly unstable intermediate compounds, namely thio¬
cyanate, nitrile plus sulfur, and goitrin, which are goitrogenic. Goitrin
(5-vinyloxazolidine-2-thione) is a potent thyrotoxin and is formed
through cyclization of an unstable isothiocyanate containing the
hydroxyl group. The thyroid-inhibiting effect of goitrins is due to the
inhibition of organic binding of iodine. Such action is consistent with
observations that this type of goiter is not alleviated by increasing
iodine in thyroids. However, thiocyanate, isothiocyanate, and nitrile ions
act as goitrogens only when the iodine content of the diet is low. In
regions where the iodine content of the diet is low, benign goiter may
be accentuated by eating excessive amounts of brassica vegetables
(Salunkhe et al. 1974).
Ethyl acetate extracts from leaves of broccoli, cabbage, rutabaga,
turnip, and radish inhibit human plasma choline esterase (Crosby 1966).
Such extracts contain chemicals that may modify the functions of the
nervous system. Salunkhe et al. (1974) stressed the need for identifica¬
tion and determination of the amount of each substance. Murphy
(1973) reported that the flatulence-distress syndrome after eating
cooked crucifers is not as chronic and offensive as that produced after
the consumption of beans, sweet potatoes, and onions.
Most of the goitrogen properties of vegetable products are lost during
cooking. Green (1962) estimated that iodine deficiency caused endemic
nontoxic goiter in all but 4% of the cases. Of this 4%, it could not be
demonstrated that goitrogens in brassica vegetables were the major
causal agents. Cauliflower and kale, among the crucifers, have high
concentrations of thiocyanate. However, a daily intake of about 10 kg
of cauliflower or kale would be required to furnish a goitrogenic con¬
centration of thiocyanate in the blood. Nevertheless, according to
Salunkhe et al. (1974), these thyrotoxic substances could be a matter
of concern to food technologists in developing new or improved process¬
ing methods for reasons of economy, convenience, nutrition, flavor, or
aesthetic appeal. It is essential to ensure that processed cruciferous vege¬
table products are not concentrated with goitrogenic substances.
Other naturally occurring toxicants of vegetables include oxalates,
salicylates, arsenic, nitrite, and alkaloids such as solanine. Potatoes
have been known to contain alkaloid solanine, arsenic, and nitrite, and
green leafy vegetables contain toxic oxalates. The anthraquinones of
rhubarb are mainly in the root, but human poisoning generally occurs
from eating rhubarb leaves. The petioles of rhubarb are a good food;
32 D. K. Salunkhe and B. B. Desai

the leaf poison is commonly thought to be the oxalates, but other factors,
possibly quinones, are also involved (Singleton and Kratzer 1973). In
terms of human lives lost from phenols originating in plants, the salicylate
aspirin is probably the most dangerous. The accidental and deliberate
consumption of salicylates produces of the order of four deaths per
million of the population every year. The salicylic acid content of
vegetables has attracted the interest of food scientists, technologists,
processors, and consumers since Feingold, in 1973, reported that low
molecular-weight salicylates are associated with hyperactivity in man.
Feingold (1975) further recommended a dietary treatment for hyper¬
activity based on an exclusion diet, omitting 21 fruits and vegetables
containing natural salicylates. Robertson and Kermode (1981), using
a sensitive spectrofluorometric technique, determined the concentra¬
tion of salicylic acid in fresh vegetables which ranged from 0.01 mg/kg
in cabbage to 0.10 mg/kg in whole-kernel sweet corn. Canned sweet
corn and some tomato products contained higher levels of salicylic acid
than fresh corn and tomatoes.
The distribution of oxalates varies with families and species of vege¬
tables, but generally leaves are higher in oxalate content than are stalks.
The ratio of oxalate:calcium content also varies widely. Based on this
ratio, Fassett (1973) grouped vegetables into three classes: (1) those with
an oxalate:calcium ratio of 2:7, e.g., spinach, beet leaves, and rhubarb;
(2) those with a ratio of about 1 (unity), e.g., potatoes; and (3) those
with a ratio of less than 1, lettuce, cabbage, and peas. Many kinds of
mushrooms also contain oxalates and other toxic factors.
Wu and Salunkhe (1976) reported that mechanical injuries to potatoes
such as brushing, cutting, dropping, and puncturing significantly in¬
creased glycoalkaloid synthesis in both The peel and flesh. The extent
of its formation depended on cultivar, type of injury, temperature, and
duration of storage. Ingestion of large amounts of green potatoes or
sprouts can cause poisoning in man and animals. Solanine is one of the
major alkaloids of potato.

EFFECTS OF AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES ON

NUTRITIONAL COMPOSITION OF VEGETABLES

Climatic and environmental factors such as light, temperature, rainfall,

season, location, altitude, soil fertility, irrigation, and plant protection
measures have been known to influence the nutritional status of vegetable
crops. The earlier work on effects of agricultural practices on foods of
plant origin has been reviewed by Harris (1975) in the previous edition of
this volume. The influence of environmental factors such as amount and
intensity of light, temperature, season of the year, location, fertilization,
and crop maturity on ascorbic acid, (3-carotene, essential amino acids, and
 3. Vegetables 33

other nutrients has been discussed. According to Harris (1975), the

nutrient content of freshly harvested edible plant parts, including vege¬
tables, may vary as much as ,20-fold. These wide variations result from
the interplay of a number of factors, chiefly genetic, but soil and
climatic factors such as sunlight, rainfall, topography, soil type, loca¬
tion, season, fertilization, and crop maturity significantly influence the
nutritional quality of vegetables.
Fundamental studies carried out in the past have shown that a close
relationship exists between genetics and plant biochemistry. Plant
enzymes are required for the synthesis of growth substances which may
later serve as vitamins for those who consume these products. Although
ability to synthesize these compounds is controlled by genetic factors,
the quantity of these principles present in vegetative tissue is influenced
by environmental factors and soil composition (Harris, 1975).

Climate/Environment
Man has very little control over climate, but climate does indeed exert
control over man through its influence on food production, nutritional
status, and health. The unwise use of forests and grazing lands has con¬
tributed its share to droughts, floods, and drastic changes in weather
adversely affecting agricultural production.
Some ecological, cultural, and physical factors significantly influence
the nutritional composition and anatomical and morphological structure
of vegetables. Light, temperature, and carbon dioxide, influence the
plant’s mechanism of conversion of sucrose and hexoses into ascorbic acid
and the eventual accumulation of ascorbic acid. The precursors of
ascorbic acid are produced during photosynthesis, which, in turn, is
significantly influenced by environmental factors such as light, tempera¬
ture, carbon dioxide, and location.

Light
Variations in amount and intensity of light influence the nutritional
composition of leafy greens, especially their ascorbic acid. A precursor
of ascorbic acid, produced by photosynthesis, is biologically converted
into ascorbic acid within the plant. Owing to the instability of ascorbic
acid in the detached leaves, its loss is caused more by metabolic activity
of the plant than by oxidation. The rate of formation of precursors is
influenced by changes in light intensity and does not affect the conver¬
sion of these precursors to ascorbic acid. The contrasting effects of
light upon ascorbic acid are discussed in the literature.
Winsor (1979) described factors contributing to the overall quality of
tomatoes, including appearance, firmness, and chemical composition.
It was reported that shading of plants decreased both the dry matter
content of the fruit and the sugar content of the expressed juices (Table
3.5). Mengel (1979), describing the influence of exogenous factors on
34 D. K. Salunkhe and B. B. Desai

Table 3.5. Effects of Shading on the Dry-Matter Content of

Tomato Fruit and on the Sugar Content of the Expressed
Juices

Cultivar Assessment Unshaded Shaded

‘Potentate’ Dry matter (%) 6.4 5.7

Sugars (g/100 ml) 3.8 3.0
‘Ailsa Craig’ Dry matter (%) 7.0 5.6
Sugars (g/100 ml) 3.7 2.7

Source: Winsor (1979).

the quality and composition of vegetables, stated that carbohydrates in

vegetables are influenced by intensity of light and have an inverse rela¬
tionship with each other. Warmth promotes growth processes and, thus,
the consumption of photosynthates; light intensity promotes the produc¬
tion of photosynthates. Thus, low temperature and high light intensity
favor the accumulation of carbohydrates in vegetables, whereas high
temperature and low light intensity decrease the carbohydrate content
(Warren-Wilson 1969). The latter environment often prevails under
glasshouse conditions. Although carbohydrates per se are not generally
regarded as nutritionally important constituents of vegetables, the
synthesis of vitamin C (ascorbid acid) is closely associated with carbo¬
hydrate metabolism, which is influenced by variation in light intensity.
The primary precursor is glucose, which is activated by UTP and then
oxidized to the activated form of glucuronic acid, the direct precursor of
vitamin C. Thus, all processes that promote the synthesis of UTP or
ATP and glucose favorably influence the synthesis of ascorbic acid.
The most important factors in this respect are light intensity and
potassium supply. Light intensity is directly involved in photosynthetic
ATP synthesis and, thus, in all synthetic processes of the plant.
Temperature
The optimum temperature for normal growth of vegetables does not
always equate with the optimum for synthesizing and accumulating
nutrients. Furthermore, the specific temperature promoting the great¬
est translocation, synthesis, and accumulation of one nutrient is often
different for another. Mengel (1979) stated that temperature is in¬
versely related to the synthesis of carbohydrates in vegetative plant
material. High temperatures prevailing under glasshouse conditions
often result in low carbohydrate content.
Rosenfeld (1979) reported the total ascorbic acid (TAA) content of
eight kinds of vegetables, namely, broad bean (Vicia faba), chicory
('Cichorium intybus), chive (Allium schoenoprasum), spinach beet (Beta
vulgaris, cicla), parsley (Petroselinum crispum Nym), cress (Lepidium
sativum), sorrel (Rumex acetosa), and turnip (Brassica campestris), grown
at 12 ,15 ,18 ,21 , and 24 C. The total ascorbic acid content was
 3. Vegetables 35

Fig. 3.2. The total ascorbic acid content of some vegetables at different tempera¬
tures. Source: Rosenfeld (1979).

highest at 12° and 15°C, except for turnip leaves which gave increasing
values with increasing temperatures. The lowest content of TAA was
found at the highest temperatures, with the exception of turnip leaves
(Fig. 3.2). Most of the vegetables studied seemed to obtain highest
TAA content at low temperatures. Broad bean and cress showed
unusually high content of TAA at low temperatures, which could be
traced to the degree of development of the plants. Turnip leaves showed
an opposite pattern of TAA content compared to its roots. The high TAA
content of turnip leaves at 24° C was not due to high evaporation or lack
of water, nor was the dry matter content significantly higher at high
temperatures. Rosenfeld (1979) reasoned that an increased transport
of carbohydrates from the root to the leaves at higher temperatures was
probably responsible for the lower TAA content of dried leaves in some
experiments. The rate of growth of vegetables was often highest at highest
temperatures. This often coincided with the lowest TAA content, with
the exception of turnips, in which the highest TAA content was obtained
at the highest rate of growth. The correlation between TAA and dry
matter content was positive for all kinds of vegetables. The higher TAA
36 D. K. Salunkhe and B. B. Desai

content at 24°C was attributed to higher respiration which probably

encouraged TAA synthesis (Franke 1959).
Cantliffe (1972) demonstrated that under light conditions conducive to
nitrate accumulation, nitrate accumulated at 5°C from 112 kg N/ha and
at 10°C from 56 kg N/ha. Nitrate accumulation did not occur where
nitrogen was not applied until the temperature reached 15°C, presumably
because mineralization and nitrification were impeded at the lower
temperatures (Maynard et al. 1976).
Bourne (1982) reported effects of temperature measured in the range
0°-45°C on the firmness of several raw fruits and vegetables. Most
commodities showed decreasing firmness with increasing temperature,
but there were several exceptions. For the majority of commodities
tested, the firmness-temperature relationship was approximately linear.

Season
The season of the year has been known to influence the chemical
composition of vegetables. Harris (1975) concluded that this was
probably due to differences in temperature, length of day, light intensity,
and light spectrum, as well as other minor factors.
Winsor and Adams (1976) reported the results of a study of the
composition of tomatoes (cv. Grenadier) from a commercial nursery
throughout the season (late March to early October). The sugar content

Time of year
Fig. 3.3. Seasonal trends in the sugar content of the fruit juices of tomato (cv
Grenadier) together with integrated data for solar radiation. Source: Winsor and
Adams (1976).
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38 D. K. Salunkhe and B. B. Desai

Table 3.7. Effects of Cultivar and Location on Protein (N X 6.25) Content of

Dried Beans (% protein)
-^-
Locations

Deming Estancia State College

Variety (4300 ft a.s.l. f (6000 ft a.s.l.) (4000 ft a.s.l.) Mean

295 20.0 30.8 22.8 24.53

641 20.9 32.1 24.8 25.93
‘Michelite’ 23.8 34.4 25.7 27.97
‘Red Mexican’ 19.9 29.0 22.5 23.90
2574 19.9 30.9 24.4 25.07
2534 20.0 29.9 26.2 25.37
‘Calico’ 19.8 30.1 23.9 24.40

Mean 20.44 30.91 24.33 25.23

Source: Lantz et al. (1958).

a a.s.l. = above sea level.

of the juices increased from a very low value (1.9 g/100 ml) in March to
about 2.8 g/100 ml in June, declining to 2.4 g/100 ml early in October.
The data, in general, followed the same pattern as solar radiation (Fig.
3.3). Lantz et al. (1958) studied the effects of seasons (year) on the
protein and amino acid contents of beans. The contents of nine amino
acids, arginine, histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenyl¬
alanine, threonine, and valine, were studied (Tables 3.6 and 3.7).

Location/Area
Harris (1975) concluded that although the location or geographic area
where vegetables were grown had an effect upon their nutritional status,
this effect was generally very small. Salunkhe et al. (1974) reviewed the
earlier research work. Klein and Perry (1982) recently reported the ascor¬
bic acid and provitamin A activity of several selected vegetables from dif¬
ferent geographic locations in the United States. They determined the
reduced ascorbic acid (RAA) and provitamin A (carotenoid) contents of
six vegetables obtained from six cities during two seasons of the year. The
mean RAA content (mg/100 g) of cabbage was 45.2; carrots, 7.8; celery,
6.0; corn, 6.5; onion, 8.4; and tomato, 15.3. The vitamin C in cooked
cabbage was 22.1, corn, 6.2, and onion, 5.7 mg/100 g. The mean vitamin
A activity of carrot was 15,228; cabbage, 114; celery, 133; corn, 219;
and tomato, 217 IU. Both the RAA and vitamin A content of vegetables
from the six geographic areas varied significantly. The nutrient values of
vegetables in the different areas were variable, but not predictable. Be¬
cause plant foods are widely distributed from the point of growth, local
growing and cultural conditions do not have an impact on the occurrence
of specific nutrients in vegetables sold in supermarkets. The data ob¬
tained from this study (Figs. 3.4, 3.5, 3.6, and 3.7) indicated that the
 CELERY CARROTS

^001/WM 6"
6 001/VVU &ui
Fig. 3.4. Reduced ascorbic acid content of carrot, celery, tomato, and cabbage. Source: Klein and Perry (1982).
 T -D
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Reduced ascorbic acid content of corn and onion. Source: Klein and Perry (1982).
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41
 HB 8 = Hand book No 8 S = Seattle, WA

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Fig. 3.7. Vitamin A activity of cabbage and corn. Source: Klein and Perry (1982).
 3. Vegetables 43

ascorbic acid content and provitamin A activity of most of the vegetables

examined were lower than the values reported in the USD A Handbook
No. 8 (Table 3.3). Klein and Perry (1982) could not definitely state
whether this was due to changes in cultivars being grown or to shipping
and handling procedures. They further cautioned that if the dietary
evaluation of these two important nutrients is based on the tabulated
values without consideration of varietal differences or handling treat¬
ment, there may be an overestimation of their consumption.
The effects of locality, season (year), and planting data on amino
acid content and of variety and location on the protein content of dried
beans (Tables 3.6 and 3.7) indicated a very large influence of location
on both the amino acid composition and protein content of dried beans.
The differences due to variety and season were much less marked
(Lantz et al. 1958; Smartt 1976).

Soil Fertility and Fertilization

Salunkhe et al. (1974) and Harris (1975) reviewed the voluminous
literature concerning the early work on effects of soil fertility upon the
nutrient contents of vegetables. The contradictory observations generally
obtained with respect to effects of fertilization on nutritional quality of
vegetables are probably due to variations in soil properties, water avail¬
ability, and other environmental factors. Salunkhe et al. (1974) stated
that adequate fertilization with nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, cal¬
cium, magnesium, manganese, boron, and iron was essential for normal
plant growth and adequate yields of high-quality nutritious crops. Harris
(1975) summarized that the principal effects of improvement of soils
was to increase the yield rather than to enhance the nutritional quality
of crop plants. Endemic goiter caused by a deficiency of iodine was
probably the only evidence of the direct relationship between soil
deficiency and malnutrition. The complex interrelationships between
nutrient elements of the soil, the effects of one element upon the avail¬
ability of others to the crop, and their antagonistic and synergistic
effects upon each other have created confusion in the literature relating
to the effects of fertilizer elements upon nutrient content.
Vittum (1963) reviewed the effects of fertilizers on the quality of
vegetables. Based on published reports, he concluded that although
mineral fertilizers could increase the nutritional value of vegetables,
their chief effect on quality was to correct defects caused by nutrient
deficiencies. A well-fertilized crop is usually a high-quality crop.

Nitrogen
Nitrogen is usually deficient in most cultivated soils. The vegetable
crops grown on such soils show delayed growth, yellow leaves, poor
yields, and, occasionally, low protein content. The deficiency of nitro¬
gen not only reduces yield but also quality of those vegetables in which
44 D. K. Salunkhe and B. B. Desai

dark green color is desired (e.g., leafy greens). Nitrogen is an important ex¬
ogenous factor influencing the protein: carbohydrate ratio (Mengel 1979).
The suboptimal nitrogen supply results in higher content of carbohydrates
due to the fact that lack of nitrogen restricts protein synthesis so that
more photosynthates are available for the accumulation of carbohydrates.
The generous application of nitrogen tends to decrease the vitamin C
content of vegetables (Table 3.8). This effect probably results from the
competition between carbohydrate and amino acid metabolism for
photosynthesis. With high nitrogen supply, more photosynthates are
used for the synthesis of amino acids and, thus, less photosynthates are
available for the syntheses of hexoses, disaccharides, and polysaccharides
(Mengel 1979). The content of carotene is directly linked with the
supply of N to the plant. According to Mengel (1979), this relationship
is associated with the formation of chloroplasts. Habben (1972) ob¬
served that carrot roots, which normally do not form chloroplasts, also
showed a close relationship between N supply and carotene content
(Table 3.9). Kansal et al. (1981) reported that the leaf proteins,
|3-carotene, and reducing sugars were maximum when spinach was
grown on sandy loam soil with the highest level of N (90 kg/ha without
FYM). However, the yield, uptake of P, Fe, Mn, Zn, and Cu, and
ascorbic acid content were the greatest in response to the highest rates
of both urea and FYM.
Geraldson et al. (1973) compiled an extensive list of deficient, inter¬
mediate, and sufficient N03-N concentrations for several vegetable
crops at specific stages of maturity. Maynard et al. (1976) found that
heavy N fertilization caused accumulation of potentially hazardous con¬
centrations of N03-N, adversely affecting nutritional quality (Table
3.10). Nilsson (1979) reported that at normal fertilization, the nitrate
content in cabbage and leek was highest in plots receiving organic fertil¬
izers or organic nitrogen. Half the amount of fertilizer had a considerably

Table 3.8. Effects of N- and K-Fertilizer Application on the Content of Vitamin C

in Various Vegetables

Vitamin C ( mg/100 g fresh matter)

Species N, n2 n3 K! k2 k3

Spinacia oleracea 27.8 30.3 32.0 28.8 30.8 34.8

Lactuca sativa 9.1 9.1 8.6 8.6 9.1 9.4
Beta vulgaris type cicla 67.8 56.1 47.6 49.9 56.1 59.3
Brassica oleracea type
acephala 113.0 112.0 99.0 98.0 112.0 118.0
Cychorium endivia 14.0 13.8 13.1 13.1 13.8 14.2
Brassica oleracea type
ge mm if era 112.0 101.0 93.0 88.0 101.0 100.0

Source: Werner (1957), cited by Mengel (1979).

 3. Vegetables 45

Table 3.9. Effects of N Supply and Degree of Maturation on the Carotene Content
of Carrots
-f-
Carotene (mg/100 g dry matter)
Treatment
(g N/pot) First harvest Second harvest Third harvest

0.3 113 125 136

0.6 118 128 138
1.2 126 138 147
2.4 126 138 146

Source: Habben (1972).

lower nitrate content in the produce, regardless of the type of fertilizer

applied. This effect was more pronounced in leeks where the nitrate
content fell to about 20% of that present when the normal amount of
fertilizer was applied. High doses of NH -N have been known to in¬
4

duce deficiency of potassium (Barker et al. 1967); specific symptoms of

NH4 excess appear as stem lesions on tomato. This can be controlled
by maintaining the soil pH near neutrality or by supplying equivalent K
concentrations to enhance incorporation of NH -N into nontoxic N
4

compounds (Maynard et al. 1966, 1968).

Phosphorus
Rattan et al. (1957) reported that high rates of fertilizer phosphorus
had a higher sugar content, as measured by soluble solids in the raw juice,
than did tomatoes grown with low rates of phosphorus. However, the

Table 3.10. Nitrate-N Concentrations in the Edible Portion of

Fresh Vegetables

Plant part Vegetable NO3-N (ppm fresh wt)

Leaves Cabbage 165

Lettuce 170
Spinach 534
Petiole Celery 535
Rhubarb 91
Roots Beet 600
Carrot 32
Sweet potato 0
Radish 402
Fruit Peas 26
Snap bean 35
Tomato 20
Stem Asparagus 25
Bulb Onion 14
Tuber Potato 42

Source: Maynard et al. (1976).

46 D. K. Salunkhe and B. B. Desai

difference was barely significant, being detected only in the raw juice and
not in the processed product. Phosphorus deficiency leads to poor fill of
sweet corn ears, similar to that caused by imperfect pollination, and
beets receiving high rates of phosphorus were observed to have better
color than those grown at low rates (Blackmore et al. 1942). The direct
effects of excess phosphorus on the mineralogical composition of
vegetables are not known; some secondary effects include induced
deficiency of copper and zinc (Maynard and Barker 1979).

Potassium
The differences in the ascorbic acid content of various vegetables by far
outweigh the effects of nitrogen and potassium fertilizers (Table 3.8).
Werner (1957) found that among those studied, cruciferous vegetables
contained high vitamin C. Potassium enhances the efficiency of the
conversion of radiant energy into chemical energy (Pfluger and Mengel
1972). Data presented in Table 3.8 show the favorable effects of
potassium on vitamin C content of some vegetables. Winsor (1979)
found that increasing levels of potassium significantly increased titrat-
able and total acidity of tomato fruits. Under conditions of severe
potassium deficiency, titratable acidity as low as 4.3 mEq/100 ml
juice was recorded, in striking contrast to those for plants grown at high
levels of potassium (8.3-10.9 mEq/100 ml). Winsor further reported
that total acidity was highly correlated with potassium content of fruit
juice (r = .96). Pushkarnath (1976) reported the effects of K fertiliza¬
tion on total solids and starch contents of several varieties of potato
(Tables 3.11 and 3.12, respectively). Pushkarnath (1976) observed that
potash fertilization brought about little improvement in total solids or
starch content of potato. At low levels o#potash fertilization (56 kg/ha),
starch content could be increased only by about 1-2%. Vitamin C con¬
tent of cabbage and leek and carotene content of carrots were not
significantly influenced by organic or inorganic (mineral) fertilization
(Table 3.13) (Nilsson 1979).

Table 3.11. Average Percentage of Total Solids in ‘Kufri

Red’ and ‘Up-to-Date’ Potato Cultivars Treated with Potash

Total solids (%)

Potash
(kg/ha) ‘Kufri Red’ ‘Up-to-Date’ Mean

0 28.6 23.7 26.2

45 28.5 24,2 26.4
90 29.2 24.1 26.7
135 27.2 24.7 25.9
180 28.2 24.2 26.2

Source: Pushkarnath (1976).

 3. Vegetables 47

Table 3.12. Average Percentage of Starch in Six Cultivars of Potato Treated with
Potash

>
Average starch (%) with potash

Cultivar No application 56 kg/ha 112 kg/h a 168 kg/ha

‘Up-to-Date’ 15.7 17.5 17.4 19.3

‘Craig’s Defiance’ 18.1 18.6 19.3 19.1
Hybrid O.N. 1360 18.6 18.4 19.5 18.6
‘Kufri Safed’ 19.6 20.1 21.3 21.0

‘Kufri Red’ 19.7 19.2 18.5 20.1

‘Kufri Kuber’ 2.0.0 23.2 21.4 21.7

Average 18.5 19.4 19.6 20.7

Source: Pushkarnath (1976).

Table 3.13. Ascorbic Acid and Carotene Content of Vegetables ( mg/100 g fresh wt)
at Harvest (a) and after Storagfe (b) (mean of 1975 and 1976f7

Ascorbic acid Carotene

Cabbage Leek (stems) Leek (leaves) Carrot

Fertilization
treatment a b a b a b a b

1/1 level
NPK 54 54 13 25 29 29 17 20

Organic N 50 50 13 23 29 18 19 19
Organic N + PK 51 52 14 23 29 17 18 19
Average 52 52 14 24 29 17 18 19
1/2 level

NPK 51 55 14 23 29 16 18 19
Organic N 49 50 14 23 29 16 19 20

Organic N + PK 42 55 14 23 30 15 18 18
Average 51 53 -14 23 29 16 18 19
LSD (5%) n.s. 1.9 n.s. n.s. n.s. 2.0 n.s. n.s.
C.V. (%) 4.4 2.0 3.6 5.5 6.6 6.7 5.9 4.6
— *** — — — —
Fertilizers — —

*
Levels — — — — — — —

—
Interaction

Source: Nilsson (1979).

a n.s., not scored.
*, ***: significant at 5, and 0.1% levels, respectively.

Calcium and Magnesium

The amounts of Ca and Mg in the soil have an important effect upon
soil reaction (pH). The presence of adequate amounts of calcium in the
soil is required to increase availability of other nutrient elements (e.g.,
N, Fe, P, andMn). Adverse effects of high lime concentrations are usually
the result of alkalinity rather than the direct effect of calcium. High
alkaline conditions, in turn, decrease the availability of P, K,Mn, Fe, and
48 D. K. Salunkhe and B. B. Desai

Table 3.14. The Effects of Fertilization on Carotenoids of Carrot (mg/kg fresh wt)

Xantho-
Treatments^ j3-Carotene a-Carotene (3-+ a-Carotene j3-/a-Carotene phylls

0 105.7 44.0 149.7 2.4 10.1

NPKMg 134.3 51.9 186.2 2.6 17.2

-PKMg 143.5 47.8 191.3 3.0 14.1
N-KMg 122.7 55.2 177.9 2.2 11.9
NP-Mg 149.9 59.4 209.3 2.5 14.7
NPK- 137.3 59.4 196.7 2.3 12.7

Mean 132.2 53.0 184.9 2.5 13.5

Source: Vereecke et al. (1979).

a 0, without fertilization; NPKMG, complete fertilization; -PKMg, without N
fertilization; N-KMg, without P fertilization; NP-Mg, without K fertilization;
NPK-, without Mg fertilization.

B (Maynard 1979). Higher calcium content of vegetables grown in limed

soil is reported to influence pectic components of the cell wall. Cal¬
cium salts have been used to enhance the firmness of canned tomatoes
(Winsor 1979).
VereCcke et al. (1979) found that (3-carotene and a-carotene contents
of carrots from plots that were not fertilized with N, P, K, or Mg (controls)
were markedly lower than those from plots receiving fertilization (Table
3.14). The ratios of (3-carotene :a-carotene ranged from 3.0 (P, K, Mg
treatment) to 2.2 (N, K, Mg treatment). These investigators observed
that, in general, calcium content of carrot leaves increased, while
magnesium content decreased with aging of leaves. The sum of K, Na,
Mg, and Ca was almost constant, the lojvest value being obtained with
N, P, Mg treatment.

Micronutrients
During the growth period, iron content of carrot leaves decreased, and
no relationship was observed between values of iron and N fertilization
(Table 3.15). As noted in the experiments with onion, leek, and cauli¬
flower (Van Maercke and Vereecke 1976, 1979; Vereecke and Van
Maercke 1976), manganese content of leaves was lower for treatments
without nitrogen, reflecting a higher ratio of Fe:Mn (Vereecke et al.
1979).
Salunkhe and Desai (1983) concluded that postharvest changes in the
nutritional quality of vegetables in terms of their mineralogical composi¬
tion with respect to both macro- and micronutrients are influenced by
postharvest fertilization of these mineral elements and postharvest
handling and storage procedures. Various physiological disorders of
vegetable crops are related directly or indirectly to deficiencies or
toxicities of micronutrients, which influence postharvest behavior and
nutritional quality of the produce.
 3. Vegetables 49

Table 3.15. Trace Element Content in the Leaves of Carrot (ppm or dry-matter basis)

29-8-•1977 24-10-•1977

Treatment^ Fe Mn Zn Cu Fe Mn Zn Cu

0 400 85 63 7.3 194 56 33 8.1

NPKMg 472 126 61 6.9 234 136 45 9.0
-PKMg 425 59 47 7.6 214 55 27 7.4
N-KMg 447 98 64 8.0 220 137 48 8.3
NP-Mg 390 114 66 7.8 203 132 34 8.1
NPK- 420 99 59 6.8 158 120 44 7.3

Source: Vereecke et al. (1979).

a See Table 3.14 for key.

Bible et al. (1981) reported that boron-deficient radish plants showed

reduced growth and an increased content of the ionic toxin thiocyanate
both in foliage and roots. Copper is essential for normal photosynthesis,
its deficiency being reflected in the disruption of this vital process. Molyb¬
denum has an important role in nitrate reduction, and the nitrate ions
may accumulate in Mo-deficient plants, leading to specific disorders,
such as “whiptail” of cauliflower.

Irrigation/Soil Texture
Cevik et al. (1981) reported the effects of some irrigation systems on
yield and quality of tomatoes grown in a plastic-covered greenhouse in
southern Turkey. Tomato (cv. Linda Ft) was grown as a spring or autumn
crop in a plastic structure on clay loam or fine sandy loam soil and irri¬
gated by intermittent sprinkler, drip, or trickle irrigation. Intermittent
irrigation on the fine sandy loam and drip irrigation on the clay loam
soil increased yields of tomatoes in spring. Drip and trickle irrigation
produced fruit with the highest vitamin C content in the spring. Dry
matter content was higher on the clay loam than on the fine sandy
loam soil, but was not affected by the irrigation method.

Species/Varieties
The nutritional composition of vegetables varies greatly with plant
species and varieties and cultivars within the species. Watada (1982)
determined the ascorbic acid content of fresh fruits and vegetables of
several species. The vitamin C was extracted with 6% metaphosphoric
acid and determined effectively using a C18 cartridge in a radial compres¬
sion module and 0.5% NH4H2P04 mobile phase in a high-performance
liquid chromatograph (HPLC). Watada (1982) tabulated data for snap
bean, capsicum, kale, broccoli, cabbage, carrot, cauliflower, tomato,
and other vegetables. Ter-Manuel’ Yants (1980) estimated vitamin
50 D. K. Salunkhe and B. B. Desai

Table 3.16. Cultivar Differences in Fruit Firmness

of Tomato

Compression Walls and

Cultivar (mm)a placentae (%)

‘Potella’ 3.35 73
J 168 4.13 65
ES 5 4.50 65
‘Ailsa Craig’ 5.60 63
‘Harbinger’ 6.07 56

Source: Winsor (1979.)

a Under a 2-kg load.

content in different Brassica species. Of the seven Brassica species studied,

kale had the highest (134 mg/100 g) vitamin C content, red cabbage had
the highest (11.2 mg/100 g) content of dehydroascorbic acid, broccoli
had the highest (1.44 mg/100 g) content of nicotinic acid and choline
(90.3 mg/100 g), and brussels sprout had the highest (2.73/100 g) con¬
tent of vitamin K. Other species included in the study were head cab¬
bage, savoy cabbage, cauliflower, and kohlrabi.
According to Winsor (1979), many aspects of vegetable quality are
closely dependent on the choice of variety, including uniformity of color,
shape, size, firmness, and hollowness. The varietal differences in fruit
firmness and the inner-quality properties of certain varieties shown in
Tables 3.16 and 3.17 substantiate these observations (Winsor 1979;
Hardh et al. 1979). The inner quality varied significantly in tomato
fruits of different varieties. The fruits o# ‘Virosa’ and ‘Sonato’ had high
dry matter and soluble dry matter content. ‘Virosa,’ in addition, had
fairly high nitrogen and potassium content. The fruits of ‘Sonato’
showed the lowest potassium content. In .the organoleptic tests, the
flavor of ‘Stella’ was best (Table 3.17).

Table 3.17. Inner-Quality Properties of Tomato Cultivars in 1976

Soluble
dry Dry
matter matter Nitrogen Potassium Acids Acids/ Flavor
Cultivar (%) (%) (%) (mg/100 g) (mEq/g) sugar 0-5

‘Stella’ 4.0 5.7 0.13 264 1.72 0.43 3.5

‘Sonato’ 4.3 6.1 0.13 258 1.86 0.43 3.1
‘Revermun’ 4.0 5.3 0.10 268 1.53 0.38 1.7
‘Virosa’ 4.6 6.3 0.15 272 2.01 0.44 2.4

Source: Hardh et al. (1979).

 3. Vegetables 51

Maturity/Harvesting Time
The correct harvest maturity of vegetables is of prime importance,
since it is related directly to consumer preference. The purpose and
method of utilization of vegetables markedly influence the stage of
harvest maturity. Cabbage or cauliflower headed for local fresh markets,
for example, is harvested at prime maturity. For shipping or processing,
it should be harvested a week early. If harvested too early and stored for a
length of time, the vegetable shrivels and loses characteristic aroma, and if
harvested too late and then stored for a longer period, it may have higher
than average concentrations of sulfur compounds and less ascorbic acid
and other water-soluble vitamins (Salunkhe et al. 1974). Certain vege¬
tables such as snap beans and leafy greens are preferred if eaten while
semimature (e.g., lima beans, peas, and sweet corn) or fully mature
(e.g., banana, potato, beans, and peas), and others if eaten while over¬
mature or postmature (e.g., broccoli and cauliflower). Some vegetables
reach their highest nutritive value while they are still immature, others
when mature, and still others when overripe (Harris 1975).
Fritz and Weichmann (1979) harvested two early-maturing and two
late-maturing carrot cultivars in a sequence of different dates (after one
single sowing date for each of the two groups) (Table 3.18) and investi¬
gated the effects on quality and storage behavior. The carrots harvested
earlier contained less carotene than the ones harvested later, all cultivars
showing a similar trend (Table 3.19). The carotene concentration of fresh
matter of carrots was higher after storage as well when the crop was
harvested at later dates (Table 3.20). Fritz and Weichmann concluded
that the carrots of a late harvesting date contained more carotene at
harvesting as well as after storage. The ratio of sucrose :monosaccharides
increased with harvesting dates and was preserved during storage. The
later the harvesting date of early-maturing carrots, the smaller the
storage losses, which, in turn, were related to weather conditions (rain¬
fall intensity and relative humidity).

Table 3.18. Cultivation Data and Dates of Harvests of Late- and Early-Maturing
Carrots

Late-maturing carrots Early-maturing carrots

1974 1975 1976 1975 1976

Sowing 2.4 8.4 6.4 24.4 21.4

First harvest 2.9 4.9 3.9 4.8 2.8

Second harvest 16.9 18.9 14.9 18.8 17.8

Third harvest 30.9 1.10 28.9 1.9 31.8
14.10 15.10 12.10 — —
Fourth harvest
Fifth harvest 28.10 19.10 25.10

Source: Fritz and Weichmann (1979).

52 D. K. Salunkhe and B. B. Desai

Table 3.19. Influence of the Harvesting Date on the

Carotene Concentration of Carrot**

Harvesting
date Late-maturing Early-maturing

1 28.8 11.6

2 29.3 14.1
3 29.4 15.9
4 29.8 —
5 30.5 —

Source: Fritz and Weichmann (1979).

** Amount (mg/100 g) of fresh matter, mean of two
cultivars and four replications.

Table 3.20. Carotene Concentration of Late-Maturing Carrots after Different

Storage Periods and Different Harvesting Dates**

Carotene (mg/100 g fresh matter) after storage

Harvesting
date 2 months 4 months 6 months Mean

1 25.2 27.0 26.4 26.2

2 25.6 26.3 26.6 26.2
3 27.7 26.9 26.5 27.0
4 29.0 27.6 27.5 28.0
5 27.2 28.1 28.8 28.0

Source: Fritz and Weichmann (1979).

** Mean of two cultivars, three experiments, and four replications.

Table 3.21. Contents of Soluble Dry Matter, Dry Matter, Nitrogen, Potassium, and
Acids of Tomato and the Relationship of Acids to Sugars for Different Harvest Dates
in 1976

Soluble
dry Dry Total
Harvest matter matter nitrogen Potassium Acids Acids/
date (%) (%) (%) (mg/100 g) (mEq/g) sugars

May 19 4.0 5.0 0.13 299 1.93 0.48

July 21 4.3 6.2 0.14 272 1.77 0.41
Sept. 15 4.4 6.3 0.11 226 1.65 0.38
F 0.9 8.9* 3.3 40.6** 1.4 3.0
LSD at 1% 1.3 1.5 0.04 37 0.7 0.18

Source: Hardh et al. (1979).

*, **: significant at 5 and 0.1% levels, respectively.
 3. Vegetables 53

from the first clusters (Table 3.21) (Hardh et al. 1979). Serdyukov and
Emelin (1979) reported that it was necessary to harvest fruits of tomato,
sweet pepper, and aubergine under 60-70% of maturity to increase mar¬
ketability of the combine-harvested produce. The maturity of these vege¬
tables was the reason for increased cracked, squashed, and rotten fruit in
the gathered heap.

Days, Degree Days, and Heat Units

The number of days, degree days, and heat units required to grow vege¬
table crops depends on a number of factors such as species, variety, soil,
climatic condition, and plant nutrition. The number of days and degree
days required for maturation of three varieties of lima bean, namely,
‘Clark’s Bush,’ ‘Evergreen,’ and ‘Limagreen,’was almost identical, where¬
as ‘Fordhook 242’ and ‘Concentrated Fordhook’ required a greater
length of time for maturity (Salunkhe et al. 1959). Total days and
degree days for the maturity of each variety varied from year to year.
Salunkhe et al. (1959) stated that both total days and degree days were
too variable for the practical estimation of the harvest time of lima beans.
These authors further reported that the amount of riboflavin and
thiamin decreased progressively as the lima beans advanced in maturity.
The Limagreen variety had significantly higher amounts of riboflavin and
thiamin than the other varities studied. Regardless of variety, there was
no striking effect of time of harvesting noticed on the physical tests (shear
press, succulometer, refractometer, Hunter color and color difference
meter, specific gravity, number of beans in 100 g, brine separation, and
drained weight), chemical tests (contents total, alcohol-insoluble solids,
and starch grain character), or taste tests (flavor, cotyledon texture, and
color) of canned and frozen beans. Salunkhe et al. (1974) have de¬
scribed the influence of the heat units on the nutritional composition of
several vegetables, including ascorbic acid and provitamin A (/3-carotene).
Ottosson (1979) reported the changes in ascorbic acid content of vege¬
tables during the day and after harvest.

Size
Salunkhe et al. (1959) noted that regardless of varieties and harvest
periods studied, the physical and chemical analyses were directly corre¬
lated with the size of the lima beans. As the size of beans increased
from tiny to large, the shear press values, weight per bean, alcohol-
insoluble solids, and ratio of amylose:amylopectin increased because of
additional dry matter in limas.

EFFECTS OF HARVESTING, HANDLING, AND STORAGE

ON NUTRITIONAL COMPOSITION OF VEGETABLES

The nutritional composition of vegetables is markedly influenced by

various harvesting methods, handling procedures, and storage techniques.
54 D. K. Salunkhe and B. B. Desai

Harvesting
Serdyukov and Emelin (1979) investigated conservation of quality of
tomato, sweet potato, sweet pepper, and aubergines under mechanized
harvesting, storage, and sale. Tomato fruits harvested by combine mechan¬
ized harvesters (SKT-2) were stored under natural conditions of
storehouses for 2-3 weeks before sale or transported 1500 km with
relatively small losses. Combine-harvested sweet pepper fruits were of
high market quality and further sorting was not necessary. They were
suitable for the natural conditions of storehouses or refrigerators.
About 40-50% of the total yield was harvested at the first gathering,
the rest at the second harvest, which was usually carried out by com¬
bines. Manual picking caused yield decreases of combine-harvested
pepper of up to 25-36% and increased the number of red and rotten
fruits. The biochemical analyses of sweet peppers carried out during
the period from 25 to 30 days after the first harvest were characterized
by intensive vitamin C accumulation in fruits. Peppers of the ‘Mikhalev’
variety showed the ability to increase vitamin C over 25% during these
5 days (Table 3.22). The combine harvesting of tomato fruits increased
the content of insoluble dry substances and decreased the content of
acids, while the content of cellulose was approximately doubled. These
biochemical peculiarities increased content of dry substances (up to
4.6%). The biochemical composition of varieties and hybrids did not
differ significantly (Table 3.23).

Handling, Transportation, and Distribution

Pantastico and Bautista (1976) described postharvest handling of
tropical vegetable crops; the extent of their losses, handling procedures,
transportation, packaging, and market preparation; and problems re¬
lated to preservation of quality of vegetables during storage. According

Table 3.22. Dependence of Biochemical Content in Sweet Pepper Under Mecha¬

nized Harvesting (1977-1978)

Mikhalev pepper Padarok Moldovy

Days Dry Total Vitamin Dry Total Vitamin

Date of the first between matter sugar C matter sugar C
harvesting harvesting (%) (%) (mg %) (%) (%) (mg %)

August 5 20 6.2 3.4 104.4 5.0 2.6 122.2

25 6.8 3.3 173.2 7.1 3.9 183.4
30 7.2 3.6 220.8 6.5 3.2 200.3
August 10 20 6.1 3.2 76.8 5.5 2.6 53.9
25 6.7 4.1 151.1 9.4 3.7 181.6
30 7.3 3.0 198.6 6.4 9.4 190.4

Source: Serdyukov and Emelin (1979).

 3. Vegetables 55

Table 3.23. Biochemical Analysis of Tomato Fruits Available for Mechanized

Harvesting (1978)

Dry ' Vitamin Sugar-

matter Sugars C Acid acid
Varieties (%) (%) (mg/g) (%) index

Novinka Pridnestrov’ya 5.9 3.2 18.7 0.6 5.0

Machinery 1 5.8 3.5 26.5 0.6 5.4
Cross 525 6.6 3.7 24.5 0.5 8.1
Ventura 5.4 3.9 18.5 0.6 6.3
Nistru 5.8 3.2 22.1 0.7 4.3
Fakel 5; 2 2.8 20.7 0.7 4.2
Niagara 317 5.8 3.3 36.5 0.5 6.4
Florida MN-1 5.6 3.9 21.3 0.6 6.4
Florida 145 4.8 2.6 31.0 0.6 4.0
Ermak 6.4 3.7 20.8 0.5 6.8

Varieties of manual
harvesting (average) 3.6 2.5 18.2 0.8 3.1

Source: Serdyukov and Emelin (1979).

to Schoorl and Holt (1982), distribution is an integral part of horticul¬

ture, and, like production, it needs to be managed effectively. For fresh
fruits and vegetables, the management of distribution must be based on
the management of quality. This requires understanding of the nature
of distribution of its components, namely, the produce, environment,
transit time, and the interactions between these components. The
management of quality relies on the ability to predict changes in quality
(i.e., damage) to the produce. Physical deterioration leads to severe loss
in nutritional quality of fresh vegetables during subsequent handling,
distribution, storage, merchandising, and marketing.

Storage
Vegetables are living entities even after their harvest and carry out
all their life processes until senescence and death. Significant changes
in color, flavor, texture, and nutritional quality of vegetables occur dur¬
ing their storage. These changes are markedly influenced by temperature
and storage environment (composition and relative humidity). Soften¬
ing processes which occur during ripening continue throughout the sub¬
sequent shelf-life of the fruit. Significant biochemical changes occur
during ripening and storage both in fruit walls and in locular contents.
Salunkhe and Wu (1974) concluded that nutrient loss from vegetables
during storage is largely controlled by storage temperature and the
packaging medium. Vitamins, such as thiamin, are comparatively stable,
but are noticeably degraded during normal storage. Ascorbic acid,
56 D. K. Salunkhe and B. B. Desai

being heat and oxygen sensitive, is easily lost from vegetable products
stored under aerobic conditions. In general, niacin, vitamin B12 (cobala-
mine), and pyridoxine are stable during storage, especially in freeze-
dried products (Hollingsworth 1970); therefore, none of these will be
lost. However, riboflavin is degraded somewhat during storage.

Prestorage Treatments
Vacuum Cooling/Hydrocooling. Leafy vegetables and salad crops are
generally cooled by reducing the atmospheric pressure in hermetically
sealed chambers until the reduced vaporizing point of water, created by
low pressures in the cooling chambers, cools the produce. According to
Ryall and Lipton (1979), the outstanding advantages of vacuum cooling
are the speed and uniformity of cooling of adapted commodities. Leafy
vegetables, such as lettuce, are difficult to cool with water or air, but
they can be field packed and then cooled rapidly and uniformly by
vacuum cooling. Other vegetables adapted to vacuum cooling are globe
artichoke, asparagus, broccoli, brussels sprout, cabbage, celery, sweet
corn, and peas. Rapid cooling methods such as vacuum cooling have been
occasionally reported to cause damage to the produce from “shock.”
Ryall and Lipton (1979), however, stated that highly perishable leafy
vegetables like head lettuce, asparagus, spinach, and sweet corn had
better quality and longer shelf life when cooled as rapidly as the most
efficient vacuum cooling or hydrocooling system permits.
Hydrocooling, or cooling with cold water, is a rapid and effective
method of precooling, since water is an excellent material for transferring
heat from the produce to the cooling medium (ice or refrigeration coils).
Cooling is accomplished by flooding, spraying, or immersion. Some¬
times a small amount of fungicide is dissolved in hydrocooling water in
an attempt to control fungus growth during storage and transportation
of vegetables.

Curing. Sweet potato, Irish potato, taro, onion, and garlic are cured
under the sun to heal injured or bruised surfaces. Curing extends the
storage life of these vegetables by reducing their moisture content. It
also decreases rotting by eliminating surface fungal growth and reducing
internal necrosis of tissue.

Treatment with Ethylene. Salunkhe and Wu (1974) reviewed the ef¬

fects of ethylene and ethylene-releasing compounds on the storage
behavior and nutritional composition of fruits and vegetables. An exoge¬
nous application as low as 1 ppm of ethylene stimulates the rate of
respiration, hastens ripening, and inhibits seed germination and sprout¬
ing of potatoes. Ethylene responses of climacteric fruits have been
noted only during the preclimacteric phase, whereas in nonclimacteric
fruits, ripening and respiration can be accelerated at all stages of fruit
 3. Vegetables 57

maturity. This is probably due to the difference of climacteric and

nonclimacteric fruits in their relative abilities to produce ethylene
endogenously. If ethylene is produced in sufficient quantity, its ex¬
ternal application would not produce a response. However, addition of
ethylene to nonclimacteric fruit may be effective because of the low
rates of ethylene production. Salunkhe and Wu (1974) concluded that
foliar or postharvest applications of ethephon (2-chloroethylphosphonic
acid) had the following advantages: (1) Sorting cost of tomatoes may
be reduced due to uniformity of ripening; (2) fast ripening rates will
reduce weight loss and may prolong shelf life; (3) ripening rooms are
not necessary; (4) yield will increase from once-over harvest; and
(5) maturity may be hastened early in the season to obtain marketable
fruit with premium prices.
Significant differences in quality factors, such as color, acidity, and
sweetness, between control and ethylene-treated tomatoes have been re¬
ported. Tomato fruits dipped in solutions of 2-(p-chloroethylthio)tri-
ethylamine hydrochloride (CPTA, at 1200,2400, or 4800 ppm) developed
red color in the exocarp, not because of ripening, but because of
synthesis of lycopene and its accumulation in carotenogenic tissues
(Rabinowitch and Rudich 1972).

Refrigerated Storage
Thorne and Segurajauregui Alvarez (1982) derived equations relating
surface color and firmness of tomatoes to storage temperature. These
equations were used to predict color and firmness after storage under
various irregular temperature regimes. Changes in color and firmness
could be used to predict the storage life of tomato fruit under fluc¬
tuating conditions between 12° and 27°C. Smittle and Hayes (1979)
stored mechanically shelled southern peas (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp, cv.
Purple Hull Pinkeye) at temperatures of 5°, 25°, and 45°C for 3, 6, and
12 hr. Changes in quality were minimal with 5°C storage and increased
with prolonged storage at higher temperatures. These changes consisted
of decreases in percentage of green seed, total chlorophyll, sugar, starch,
and protopectin; increases in water-soluble pectin and Calgon®-soluble
pectin; and discoloration (Table 3.24). The total solids, hemicellulose,
and cellulose contents were not affected by storage treatments (Table
3.25). Smittle and Hayes (1979) developed a response curve relating
the rate of loss of green seed to storage temperature that will assist in
the coordination of harvesting, transport, and processing operations for
the maintenance of high-quality product during storage.
Salunkhe et al. (1972) reported the effects of light and temperature
on the formation of solanine in potato slices. At low temperatures (0
and 8°C) there was a slow but significant increase in solanine content
during a 48-hr period in the dark while the storage temperatures of 15°
and 24°C vigorously stimulated the formation of solanine. After 48 hr at
 58 D. K. Salunkhe and B. B. Desai

Table 3.24. Effects'* of Storage Treatments on Percentage of Green Seed, Chloro¬

phyll Content, and Seed Discoloration of ‘Purple Hull Pinkeye’ Southern Pea
.. ----- —T- ~

Green seed Total chlorophyll Seed

Storage (mg/kg)& discolorationc
treatment 1975 1976 1975 1976 1976

Initial 35a 59ab 3.0a 5.6a 1.0a

5° 3 hr 33a 59ab 3.0a 5.6a 1.0a
6 hr 32a 62a 2.8ab 5.8a 1.0a
12 hr 30ab 61a 2.6ab 5.6a 1.3ab
25° 3 hr 32a 57ab 2.7ab 4.6b 1.3ab
6 hr 30ab 55bc 2.4 be 4.2b 1.3ab
12 hr 27bc 53c 2.4bc 4.2b 2.0c
45° 3 hr 25bc 51cd 2.5abc 4.6b 1.3ab
6 hr 24c 46d 2.3 be 4.0bc 2.0c
12 hr 12d 29e 2.1c 3.4c 3.0d

Source: Smittle and Hayes (1979).

a Mean separation within columns, by Duncan’s multiple-range test, 5% level.
b Chlorophyll concentration on a fresh-weight basis.
c Panel ratings for seed discoloration: 1, none; 2, marginal acceptability; 3, un¬
acceptable.

24°C in the dark, the solanine content reached a concentration of

2.05 mg/100 g slices, which was seven times as much as that in the
original (zero-time) sample (Fig. 3.8). The rate of solanine synthesis
increased at the later stage. A considerable difference in solanine con¬
tent between potato slices in cold (0° and 8°C) and warm (15° and 24°C)
temperatures under light is illustrated in Fig. 3.9. In the 48-hr exposure

Table 3.25. Effects'* of Storage Treatment on-Carbohydrates of ‘Purple Hull Pink¬

eye’ Southern Pea^

Water- Calgon-
soluble soluble Proto¬ Hemicellu- Cellu¬
Storage Sugar Starch pectin pectin pectin lose lose
treatment (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)

Initial 3.7a 22a 0.18b 0.19b 0.18ab 2.5a 4.2a

5° 3 hr 3.7a 22a 0.19b 0.19b 0.18ab 2.4a 4.0a
6 hr 3.6ab 22a 0.18b 0.19b 0.18ab 2.6a 4.2a
12 hr 3.4ab 22a 0.18b 0.19b 0.18ab 2.3a 3.9a
25° 3 hr 3.4ab 20ab 0.20ab 0.19b 0.18ab 2.8a 4.3a
6 hr 3.2bc 20ab 0.20ab 0.20ab 0.19a 2.8a 4.3a
12 hr 3.2bc 19ab 0.21a 0.20ab 0.18ab 2.6a 4.2a
45° 3 hr 2.9c 20b 0.19b 0.20ab 0.19a 2.5a 4.4a
6 hr 2.4d 19b 0.20ab 0.21ab 0.17 be 2.5a 4.3a
12 hr 2.0e 18b 0.21a 0.22a 0.16c 2.6a 3.9a

Source: Smittle and Hayes (1979).

a Mean separation within columns by Duncan’s multiple-range test, 5% level.
b All carbohydrates are percentage of fresh weight.
 3. Vegetables 59

Fig. 3.8. Effects of temperature on solanine formation in potato slices stored in

the dark. Source: Salunkhe et al. (1972).

cn
O
O
\
CD
E
gc
a
o
tn

Hours
Fig. 3.9. Effects of light exposure (200 fc) on solanine formation in potato slices
at different temperatures. Source: Salunkhe et al. (1972).
60 D. K. Salunkhe and B. B. Desai

to 200 fc light at 24°C, the solanine concentration increased up to 7.4

mg/100 g slices. In general, the light increased the rate of solanine
synthesis three to four times more than in the dark.

Controlled Atmosphere (CA) Storage

Chang and Kays (1981) reported effects of low oxygen storage on sweet
potato roots. Respiration of sweet potatoes was significantly depressed
by low oxygen concentrations, from 5 to 15% compared to 20% 02, but it
was high at 2.5% 02. The total sugar accumulated with low oxygen (2.5
and 5.0% 02) storage. Protopectin was low in roots stored at low 02 con¬
centrations, but the water-soluble pectin was not significantly affected
(Figs. 3.10 and 3.11). Kurki (1979) measured leek quality with reference
to dry matter content, vitamin C and provitamin A, reducing sugars,
chlorophyll, total N, and storage loss after 3, 4, 5, and 6 months in CA
storage (1% 02 ; 10% C02 at 0°C, and 100% RH) and in two normal air
storages (-1°C, 75% RH and 0°C, 100% RH). In vegetables stored in the
optimum CA conditions, provitamin A and the amount of chlorophyll
were higher than in normal storage. The CA-stored leek had a strikingly
higher amount of chlorophyll and carotene (Table 3.26).

Fig. 3.10. Effects of storage gas

oxygen concentration on the total
sugar content (% dry weight) of
stored sweet potato roots (mean
separation by Duncan’s multiple
range test, 5% level). Source: Chang
and Kays (1981). %> O2

Fig. 3.11. Effects of storage gas

oxygen concentration on protopec¬
tin (% dry weight) of potato roots
(mean separation by Duncan’s mul¬
tiple range test, 5% level). Source:
Chang and Kays (1981).
 3. Vegetables 61

Table 3.26. Content of Dry Matter, Vitamin C, Reducing Sugars, Total N, Chloro¬
phyll, and Carotene in Leek Stored in Different Conditions
f--
Vitamin Reducing Total N Chlorophyll Carotene
Length of Dry C (mg/g sugars (% of (mg/g (mg/g
storage matter dry (% of dry dry dry dry
(months) (%) matter) matter) matter) matter) matter)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7

CA storage: 0°C, R.H. > 95%, 02 = 1%, CO:i = 10%

0 10.1 3.68 46.5 2.82 0.860 0.150
3 8.9 2.65 37.1 3.15 0.773 0.126
4 8.1 2.50 34.4 3.07 0.625 0.100
5 8.5 2.42 32.1 3.28 0.595 0.067
6 8.3 2.04 21.5 3.18 0.510 0.046

Cold storage: -1°C, R.H. = 75%, normal air

0 10.5 3.68 46.5 2.82 0.860 0.150
3 12.0 2.24 40.9 3.01 0.467 0.044
4 12.5 1.08 36.2 3.21 0.285 0.024
5 12.9 1.12 22.0 3.28 0.165 0.012
6 13.6 1.01 14.0 3.29 0.090 0.009

Cold storage: 0°C, R.H. > 95%, normal air

0 10.1 3.68 46.5 2.82 0.860 0.150
3 9.1 2.65 41.0 3.46 0.638 0.038
4 9.3 2.59 33.1 3.30 0.190 0.004
\

Source: Kurki (1979).

Singh et al, (1972A) observed that CA (2.5% C02 and 2.5% 02 at2°C)
with or without prestorage treatment with Phaltan® (1000 ppm) or poly¬
ethylene packaging inhibited chlorophyll degradation in lettuce (Lactuca
sativa L. cv. Great Lakes) throughout a 75-day storage period. A further
study by these authors indicated that lettuce heads could be stored for
up to 75 days in CA (2.4% 02 at 1.7°C and 90-95% RH). The pre¬
storage treatments with microbe- or senescence-inhibiting chemicals
(Captan®, 1000 ppm;Phaltan, 1000 ppm;Mycostatin®, 400 ppm; and N6 -
benzyladenine, 20 ppm) had detrimental effects on lettuce in CA storage.
Neither dry weight nor moisture content of the lettuce, however, was
affected by the CA storage. Singh et al. (1972B) reported the effects of
controlled atmospheric storage on the biochemical composition of
lettuce leaves.

Modified Atmospheric Storage/Packaging

In a test of packaging treatments, it was found that polyethylene bags
retarded respiration and transpiration and increased shelf life of several
fruits and vegetables (Salunkhe and Wu 1974). The use of plastic con¬
tainers usually resulted in less spoilage of vegetables. Cellulose acetate
was the most promising film for wrapping fruits and vegetables. The
62 D. K. Salunkhe and B. B. Desai

Fig. 3.12. Effects of subatmospheric pressure storage on the formation of lycopene

in tomatoes at 12.8°C and 90-95% RH. Source: Wu et al. (1972).

modified atmosphere developed (increase in C02 or N2 and decrease in

02) in the individual packages has been reported to enhance the quality
of the produce. Patil et al. (1971) exposed Russet Burbank potatoes to
a light intensity of 100 fc for 5 days at 21.1°C after irradiation with
gamma rays in C02-enriched (15%) clear polyethylene packaging. The
polyethylene packaging with C02 inhibited 33% of the chlorophyll
synthesis, but irradiation and the C02 environment, alone or in com¬
bination, did not affect solanine synthesis.

Subatmospheric Pressure (Hypobaric) Storage

Hypobaric storage has been shown to increase the storage life of several
fruits and vegetables (Burg and Burg 1966; Dilley 1977). The main effects

Days in Storage
Fig. 3.13. Effects of subatmospheric pressure storage on the j3-carotene content of
tomatoes at 12.8°C and 90-95% RH. Source: Wu et al. (1972).
 3. Vegetables 63

Fig. 3.14. Effects of subatmospheric pressure storage on the starch content of

tomatoes at 12.8°C and 90-95% RH. Source: Wu et al. (1972).

of subatmospheric storage are retardation of ripening, lowering of respira¬

tion rate, and removal of volatiles. Salunkhe and Wu (1975) reported the
effects of subatmospheric storage on the biochemical composition of
several fruits and vegetables such as tomatoes, potatoes, and others. The
effects of hypobaric storage on the contents of lycopene, j3-carotene,
starch, and sugar of tomatoes are depicted in Figs. 3.12, 3.13, 3.14, and
3.15, respectively (Wu et al. 1972). The synthesis of lycopene and |3-
carotene of tomato fruits was strongly inhibited by subatmospheric
pressures (Figs. 3.12 and 3.13); the lower the pressure, the longer the inhi¬
bition, especially for the lycopene content. With storage at 102 mm Hg,

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Days in Storage
Fig. 3.15. Effects of subatmospheric pressure storage on the sugar content of
tomatoes at 12.8°C and 90-95% RH. Source: Wu et al. (1972).
64 D. K. Salunkhe and B. B. Desai

lycopene formation was completely inhibited for 100 days. After

transfer to 646 mm Hg, lycopene formation was stimulated. The forma¬
tion of |3-carotene was less inhibited By subatmospheric pressure storage
when compared with that of lycopene. In tomatoes, decreases in
chlorophyll and starch and increases in lycopene, |3-carotene, sugar, and
flavor accompanied the ripening process. The inhibition of these changes
under subatmospheric pressure was attributed to the inhibition of the
ripening of tomato fruits.

Radurization
Radurization is preservation with ionizing radiation. In recent years, it
has mainly been used to inhibit sprouting of potatoes and onions and to
retard microbial growth and ripening in some fresh fruits and vegetables.
Salunkhe (1961) reviewed the effects of gamma radiation on the storage
behavior and nutritional quality of several fruits and vegetables. Ascor¬
bic acid is the most radiosensitive vitamin. According to Salunkhe
(1961), at the pasteurization and sprout inhibition dose, negligible losses
of nutrients take place in the irradiated fruits and vegetables. The
radiation dose effects were determined on several nutritional components
of fruits and vegetables such as vitamins, carbohydrates, proteins, pig¬
ments (jS-carotene), and minerals. In general, the degradation of the com¬
plex components of fruits and vegetables such as cellulose, hemicellulose,
and protopectin was noticed when these were irradiated at high (over
5 X 10s rad) doses. The softening effects of radiation showed some
promising possibilities. Slightly older corn, asparagus, or peas could be
irradiated (the pericarp of corn, the fiber of asparagus, and the cellulose of
peas could be “softened”) and the product could be made more “edible.”
Subsequent to irradiation, storage life of strawberries, sweet cherries, and
mushrooms can be increased by inhibiting microbial growth.

Chemicals Used to Preserve Vegetable Quality

Chemicals protect the quality of fruits and vegetables during their

growth, development, and postharvest storage. Various types of chemi¬
cals are used to protect food, including insecticides, herbicides, fungi¬
cides, nematocides, growth regulators, desiccants, antioxidants, ethylene
absorbents, senescence retardants, and wax emulsions. Chemical preserva¬
tion of food brings full flavor and nourishment to the consumer. Several
physiological disorders have been controlled by the direct postharvest
application of calcium to fruit and vegetable products. The ripening of
green tomatoes (cv. Daydream), as expressed by change of color, in¬
creased ethylene evolution, and respiration was inhibited when the cal¬
cium content of the fruit was raised to greater than 40 mg Ca/100 g
fresh weight (Wills and Tirmazi 1979). The inhibition of ripening was
not specific to calcium; other divalent ions such as Mn, Co, and Mg were
 3. Vegetables 65

as effective as calcium. The monovalent metal ions such as Na and K were

comparatively less effective than calcium, but did give some retardation
of ripening. It is thus possible that the nutritional quality of certain
fruits and vegetables can be preserved by treating them with more ef¬
fective chemicals, especially to protect the loss of valuable mineral
nutrients such as calcium, phosphorus, and iron.
Wu and Salunkhe (1974) described the use of several chemicals to in¬
crease the nutritional value and quality of economic plants, including
vegetables. Growth regulators such as auxins (2,4-D, s-triazines, and
other herbicides) have been used to increase protein content and to
favorably alter the amino acid composition. Increases in carbohydrate,
vitamin, mineral, and pigment contents due to chemical treatments
have been noticed. Salunkhe et al. (1962) reported that treatment of
N6 -benzyladenine (BA, at 5, 10, and 20 ppm) increased the shelf-life
of cauliflower, endive, parsley, snap bean, lettuce, radish, bunching
onion, and cabbage. General degradation sets in soon after the crop is
harvested, resulting in destruction of soluble ribonucleic acid (s-RNA).
Thus, protein synthesis slows down and, as the mechanism of protein
formation is hindered, the pigments and other biochemical constituents
disintegrate. Salunkhe et al. (1962) reasoned that the primary step in
the degradation of s-RNA probably involves the loss of the end group,
adenine. The treatment of crops with BA, therefore, provides the neces¬
sary adenine to restore s-RNA molecules. Due to this, protein synthesis
will be maintained and the treated produce will stay fresh for a longer
time.
El-Mansy et al. (1967) reported that pre- or postharvest treatments
of lettuce with 6-furfurylamino purine (kinetin) or BA, followed by
storage at 4.4°C and 85% RH, resulted in higher values of moisture con¬
tent, total chlorophyll, and total insoluble nitrogen. Inhibition of respira¬
tion (C02 evolution) during storage was directly related to the concen¬
trations of both kinetin and BA. On the other hand, the stimulation of
02 consumption under the action of both chemicals was conversely
related to their concentrations. The postharvest application of the
hormones yielded the most promising results. Kinetin was more effec¬
tive than BA, and both maintained higher quality ratings than untreated
(control) lettuce.
Salunkhe et al. (1971A) reported that the treatment of peas and
sweet corn with s-triazine compounds (Simazine®, Atrazine®, Igran®, or
2-methylthio-4-ethyl amino-6-isopropylamino-s-triazine, Ametryne®) at
the rate of 2 lb/acre decreased the total nitrogen and soluble-protein con¬
tents in the seeds of peas. However, Simazine or Igran at 0.5 and 0.125
lb/acre, Propazine® at 2 and 0.5 lb/acre, Prometone® at all three rates, and
Ametryne at 0.125 lb/acre significantly increased the total nitrogen and
soluble-protein contents, while decreasing the starch and soluble sugars
of pea seeds. The contents of total and individual amino acids in most
66 D. K. Salunkhe and B. B. Desai

Table 3.27. Effects of Soil Treatment of Telone and Nemagon on the Content of
Total and Reducing Sugars, Total Nitrogen, Total Carotenes, and (3-Carotene, and
the Rate of Respiration of Carrots under Field Conditions

Total Reducing Total Respiration

Dosage sugars sugars Total carotenes (1-Carotene (Ml
Chemical (gal./acre) (%) (%) N (%) (pg/lOOg) (pg/lOOg) 02/hr/g)

Control 4.70 2.27 0.14 5359 4927 108.8

Telone 10 5.95** 1.89ns 0.13ns 6361** 5881** 94.9*
20 5.42** 2.04ns 0.14ns 6746** 6270** 88.5*
30 5.72** 2.18ns 0.16ns 7790** 7315** 79.1**
Nemagon 1 5.00* 2.28ns 0.15ns 6216** 5668** 82.8*
2 6.10** 1.98ns 0.14ns 6734** 6182** 82.8*
3 5.95** 2.10ns 0.15ns 7724** 6650** 75.3*

Source: Salunkhe ef al. (1971B).

*, **, Significantly different from control at 0.05 and 0.01 levels, respectively, ns, Not signifi¬
cantly different from control at 0.05 level.

cases were in higher amounts when the plants were treated with s-triazine
compounds. In almost every treatment, isoleucine, histidine, and
cystine were lower in amount than the controls in pea seeds. In sweet
corn, only glutamic acid was lower in both years.
In an extensive study, Wu et al. (1970) demonstrated that soil fumiga¬
tion with Telone® (1,3-dichloropropane) and Nemagon® (l,2-dichloro-3-
chloropropane) brought about significant increases in the content of
total carotenes and (3-carotene of carrot and sweet corn. The amounts
of total carotenes were 10-46% and that of (3-carotene 11-48% above
control values. Further study by Salunkhe et al. (1971B) indicated that
soil fumigation with Telone and Nemagon brought about a considerable
increase in the contents of total carotenes (16-45%) and /3-carotene
(15-48%) in carrot roots grown under field conditions (Table 3.27).
Soil fumigation with these chemicals also influenced the composition of
sweet corn seeds. The total carotenoids of, sweet corn seeds increased
up to 33% in 1969 and 26% in 1970. The beneficial effects of these
chemicals on increase in /3-carotene were attributed to the probable in¬
crease in the rate of degradation of carotenoids in the plant or the ab¬
sorption of Telone or one of its metabolites and further metabolization
taking part directly in carotenoid biosynthesis.

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 4
Effects of
Agricultural Practices,
Handling, Processing, and
Storage on Fruits
Steven Nagy
Wilfred F. Wardowski

Fruits are held in high public regard as sources of wholesome food

and are valued for flavor, aroma, and texture. Fresh fruits appeal to
virtually all the senses: smell, taste, touch, sight, and even sound, as
when one bites into a crunchy apple. Vitamins and minerals are the
major contributions of fruits to the human diet; although some fruits
are also considered good energy sources and some may contribute
notable amounts of fat (e.g., avocados and nuts), sugar (e.g., dates and
figs), and protein (e.g., tucuma) (Hall et al. 1980; Nagy and Shaw 1980).
Fruits may play an important role in the diet by supplying fiber (White
1979). In the United States, there has been a decrease in consumption
of fiber from whole grain cereals with a concomitant increase in con¬
sumption of fiber from fruits and vegetables. Studies on the dietary
fiber contents of apples (Reiser 1979), citrus (Ferguson and Fox 1978;
Braddock and Crandall 1981), bananas (Forsyth 1980), and dates
(Vandercook et al. 1980) have recently appeared. Apples and oranges
are reported to produce higher plasma glucose levels and to be more
satiating than their respective fiber-free juices (Theander and Aman
1979). Fruits play an especially important role in low-sodium diets for
certain disease conditions, including hypertension and kidney dis¬
orders (Goddard and Matthews 1971).
One of the greatest health problems in the Western world is obesity
(White 1979), and fresh fruits can supply a large portion of a diet while
contributing very few calories (Goddard and Matthews 1979). Fruits
show favorable nutrient density ratios for some vitamins, that is, a
normal serving will supply the recommended daily dietary allowance
without concomitantly supplying excess calories (Hansen et al. 1979).
Human nutrient deficiencies are most commonly found in develop¬
ing countries and in specific subsections of industrialized nations

73
74 S. Nagy and W. F. Wardowski

(Munger 1979). Munger concluded that a breeding program to increase

nutrients would not change the nutrition of consumers in any important
way, but he and White (1979) agreed that the difficult task of changing
the eating habits of those with unbalanced diets would be the most
logical approach to improving nutrition. In fact, White (1979) judged
“increased consumption by those people who need more variety in
their diets for nutritional reasons” as the major challenge to the fruit
and vegetable interests.

AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES

Through the ages man has learned which crops grow best in his en¬
vironment. With time, he has developed an appreciation of the inter¬
play of complex variables associated with plant growth and the ability
to manipulate those variables. The external environment of plants may
be divided into three major divisions: soils, physiography, and climate.
These primary factors essentially control where a crop may be grown;
if one or more of these factors is limiting, the chances for high pro¬
ductivity are greatly diminished.

Soils

One of the first requirements for the successful growing of a fruit

crop is the selection of soil which allows good water drainage, aeration,
and extensive root development. Soil, loose surface material of the
earth, has been defined in terms of the proportions of particles of
different sizes that it contains. The particle-size composition of a soil
may be separated into three major s^e classes, sand, silt, and clay,
which, in turn, determine what is called the soil class, textural class,
textural grade, or texture (Black 1968). With certain exceptions, the
texture of the soil determines whether a fruit crop can be successfully
cultivated. Fruit trees differ in their requirements of rooting depth.
Citrus and apple trees grow well on well-drained, sandy loam soils
which permit deep root penetration, whereas the annonas are shallow
rooted and do not require deep soils (Ochse et al. 1961). Fruit trees
show a wide tolerance to soil pH, but most fruit trees thrive best under
slightly acidic conditions.
The attainment of a productive level for any given fruit crop depends
upon the supply to the tree of adequate levels of available essential
plant nutrients. Many fruit-growing soils around the world are supplied
with the necessary elements for tree growth. Sandy soils, however, as
found in Florida’s citrus growing region, provide a paucity of these
necessary elements, and these soils are regarded as infertile. Citrus trees
that grew on the sandy loam soils of Florida during the nineteenth and
 4. Fruits 75

early twentieth century produced low yields of fruit. As research

generated information on the nutrient requirements for effective tree
growth, fruit productivity increased as the result of judicious fertilization.
Nutrients required for fruit tree growth are customarily divided into
three groups on the basis of normal requirements (Ochse et al. 1961;
Black 1968; Childers 1975): major elements, nitrogen, phosphorus and
potassium; secondary elements, calcium, magnesium, sulfur and chlorine;
and minor or trace elements, iron, manganese, copper, zinc, boron, and
molybdenum. Knowledge of the total amount of individual nutrients
in soils is only of limited value in predicting the adequacy of supply of
nutrients for tree and fruit growth. Availability, or the effective amount
of a nutrient for plant growth, is decidedly the more important factor.

Fertilization

When a fruit crop is unable to obtain sufficient supplies of essential

nutrients, either because of insufficient quantity or availability, the
plant manifests a number of deficiency symptoms: defects of leaves,
flowers, roots, stems, twigs, branches, and trunks; reduced fruit yields;
and inferior quality fruit (Ochse et al. 1961). Replacement of soil
nutrients by fertilization is principally directed to restoring the health
of the plant’s vegetative parts and to improving the fruit yield. Effects
on the nutritive quality of the fruit are seldom considered (Beeson
1949; Maynard 1950, 1956). Nevertheless, direct as well as indirect
evidence show that fertilization does affect the nutrient content of tree
fruits.

Nitrogen
Nitrogen deficiency unquestionably is the most common nutrient
deficiency of soils (Childers 1975): Although soils vary considerably in
their content of organic matter and hence, nitrogen, even the richest
soil soon becomes impoverished if not supplemented with this impor¬
tant element. The concentration of nitrogen in citrus fruit is usually
increased by the application of nitrogen fertilizers (Sinclair 1961). In
addition, high nitrogen fertilization tends to increase total titratable
acidity (Jones and Parker 1949) and total soluble solids (mostly sugars;
Koo 1979) in oranges. Smith and Rasmussen (1961) and Smith (1969)
reported an inverse relationship between the quantity of nitrogen ap¬
plied to grapefruit trees and the amount of vitamin C found in juices of
those grapefruit. Reduced levels of vitamin C in juices of oranges
(Jones and Parker 1947), lemons (Jones et al. 1970), and mandarins
(Marsanija 1970), and in cantaloupe (Finch et al. 1945) and apple
fruits (Murneek and Wittwer 1948) have also resulted from the appli¬
cation of elevated levels of nitrogen fertilizer to these fruit crops.
This effect may be caused by increased acid metabolism (Harris 1975).
76 S. Nagy and W. F. Wardowski

Phosphorus
Phosphorus plays a direct role as a carrier of energy, takes part in
photosynthesis and is a component of both storage and structural com¬
pounds, for example, phytin, phospholipids, and nucleic acids. Citrus
fruits show variable responses to increasing phosphorus fertilization.
Increasing the phosphorus content of fertilizers from deficient to ade¬
quate levels markedly affects fruit quality, but increasing the phosphorus
content above those adequate levels results in debatable benefits
(Embleton et al. 1973A). The most consistent effect of phosphorus
when applied in amounts beyond those necessary for normal crop
yield is to cause the reduction of the juice’s citric acid and vitamin C
contents (Sinclair 1961).

Potassium
Deficiency of potassium in plants causes dysfunctions in many meta¬
bolic processes. Potassium is essential for several enzymatically catalyzed
reactions and is involved in protein synthesis and carbohydrate meta¬
bolism (Black 1968). Dalldorf (1979) showed, in trials on the effects
of potassium manuring of ‘Smooth Cayenne’ pineapples, that fruits
from soil deficient in K had an average sugar content of 11.5%, where¬
as those fruits that received K2 O at 200 kg/ha showed a sugar content
of 14%. Potassium fertilization influences citrus fruit quality more
than crop yield. High potassium fertilization is correlated with a
greater concentration of vitamin C and total acid in the juice and lower
total soluble solids, juice percentage, and ratio of total soluble solids
to acid (Embleton et al. 1973B).

Secondary and Trace Elements

Nutritional enhancement of fruit by soil or foliar application of
secondary (Ca, Mg, S, and Cl) or trace fFe, Mn, Cu, Zn, B, and Mo) ele¬
ments is not as apparent when compared to supplementation with the
major elements (N, P, and K). In Florida, most citrus trees are grown
on sandy soils which are naturally deficient in Zn, Mg, Mn, and Cu.
Stearns and Sites (1943) showed that Mg deficiency of oranges and
grapefruit in Florida resulted in lower total soluble solids and total
acids in the juice. Sites (1944) reported that correction of Zn, Mg,
Mn, and Cu deficiency in Florida soils resulted in citrus fruit with en¬
hanced vitamin C levels. Sites (1947) later concluded that no improve¬
ment in fruit quality or vitamin C levels would result from the addition
of Zn, Mg, Mn, and Cu in amounts exceeding those needed for normal
maintenance.

Climate and Geographical Growing Area

Temperature is the most important climatic factor affecting the geo¬

graphical distribution of fruits. Many studies have demonstrated that
the location where a fruit is grown has a definite bearing on the nutrient
content of that fruit.
Rathore (1979) showed that guavas harvested in the winter season
had a higher ascorbic acid content than fruits harvested in the spring
or in the summer. As the ascorbic acid content of the fruits harvested
in spring and summer did not differ much, Rathore concluded that the
low temperatures in the winter was the factor responsible for the differ¬
ence, rather than day length or humidity.
Bloom delay of ‘Bartlett’ and ‘Bose’ pears by evaporative cooling
caused a reduction in the soluble solids of these fruits (Collins etal. 1978).
Growth and maturation of citrus fruits are influenced by the climate
of the region in which the fruits are grown. Total available heat is
probably the single most important factor in determining the growth
rate and time of ripening of citrus fruit (Jones 1961). Scora and
Newman (1967) followed seasonal changes in the ratios of total soluble
solids to titratable acidity (Brix:acid ratio) for ‘Valencia’ oranges in six
major citrus-producing regions of the United States (Weslaco, Texas;
Orlando, Florida; Tempe, Arizona; and Riverside, Indigo, and Santa
Paula, California). From November to March, the highest Brixracid
ratios were found in fruit from Weslaco (climate classified as warm,
semiarid, subtropical, steppe) and the lowest ratios in fruit from Santa
Paula (subtropical climate; cool, dry summers; limited rainfall occurring
in late fall, winter, and early spring). ‘Valencia’ oranges require about
17 months after the mean blooming period to attain commercial
maturity in the coastal areas of California (e.g., Santa Paula), whereas
they require only 8 months to attain the same marketable maturity in
Weslaco. In controlled-environment studies in Japan with fruiting
satsuma trees, Kurihara (1969) showed that a programmed day-night
temperature regimen of 28°-23°C applied during the 3-month preharvest
period produced lower total soluble solids concentration in juice than
did 18°-13°C or 13°-18°C.
Comparison of grapefruit grown in desert areas of Arizona (summer
conditions of hot days and warm nights) to fruit of coastal areas of
California (cooler climate) shows that coastal fruit generally contains
more vitamin C than desert fruit when harvested on the same date (Rygg
and Getty 1955). In a controlled study, Reuther and Nauer (1972)
showed that ‘Frost Satsuma’ fruit contained more vitamin C when
grown under cool temperatures (20°-22°C day, 11°-13 C night) than
under hot temperatures (30°-35°C day, 20°-25°C night). Tropical
temperatures might have been responsible for the low vitamin C values
reported for Nigerian sweet oranges by Mudambi and Rajajopal (1977).

Sunlight Exposure and Location of Fruit

The role of the microclimate within a tree in determining fruit quality
has long been recognized. Many investigations (Smock 1953; Heinicke
78 S. Nagy and W. F. Wardowski

1966; Jackson et al. 1971) have shown that the shading of individual
apples and entire apple-bearing trees during fruit development adversely
affects the fruit’s red color development, size, and storage quality. Seeley
and co-workers (1980) showed that when ‘Delicious’ apples were grown
under differing radiant flux densities, red fruit color, soluble solids, starch
content, and size were positively correlated with high flux densities.
Wolpert and co-workers (1980) showed that the quality of ‘Concord’
grapes was affected by sunlight exposure. Exterior cluster grapes ex¬
posed to sunlight had a higher sugar content and weighed more when
compared to interior cluster grapes.
Sites and Reitz (1949,1950) studied the effects of light exposure on
the rates of chemical changes in ‘Valencia’ oranges and correlated var¬
ious chemical constituents with the position of the fruit on the tree.
Total soluble solids content was highest in the outside fruit, intermediate
in concentration in fruit located in the canopy of the tree, and lowest
in fruit located on the inside. Fruit increased in soluble solids with in¬
creased height on the tree. In an elaborate experiment, Sites and Reitz
(1951) determined the vitamin C content of each orange from a single
‘Valencia’ tree. Each fruit was removed from the tree and classified as to
the direction of exposure to light and the amount of light or shade that
it received. Figure 4.1 shows that outside fruit grown on the north and
northeast side contained lower amounts of vitamin C than outside fruit
from the south side. Canopy fruit, that is, fruit that are partially
shaded at all times, were lower in vitamin C than outside fruit from
their respective sector. Canopy fruit from the north side were generally
lower than canopy fruit from the other sides. Inside fruit, that is, the
fruit which hung inside the main body of the leaf canopy, contained
the lowest amounts of vitamin C for their respective sectors.

Maturation

Biochemical changes occur throughout a fruit’s growth and matura¬

tion periods with the result that its composition varies considerably,
depending upon its degree of ripeness. Some fruits reach their highest
nutritive value while still immature, others when mature, and some when
overmature. Furthermore, even within a species, some cultivars will
differ significantly from other cultivars in their nutrient contents.
Vitamin C
Kiwi fruit (Okuse and Ryugo 1981) shows an increase in vitamin C
with maturation. Quinic acid, the main organic acid in young kiwi fruit,
disappears concurrently with the appearance of vitamin C. Papaya
(Arriola et al. 1980) also shows an increase in vitamin C with matura¬
tion, but mangoes (Askar et al. 1971), bananas (Thornton 1943),
maracuya passion fruit (Arriola et al. 1976), and acerola (Asenjo and
Moscoso 1950) show a decrease.
 4. Fruits 79

Fig. 4.1. Effect of direction of exposure and amount of shading on vitamin C (mg/
100 ml) of juice from ‘Valencia’ oranges. Source: Sites and Reitz (1951).

Figure 4.2 shows the relationship between stage of maturity and the
vitamin C contents of oranges, grapefruit, and tangerines (Harding et al.
1940; Harding and Fisher 1945; Harding and Sunday 1949). Immature
fruit contained the highest concentration of vitamin C, whereas ripe
fruit contained the least. Although there .was a lowering of vitamin C
concentration (mg/100 g juice) during ripening, the total vitamin C
content per fruit tended to increase because the volume of juice and
size of fruit also increased with advancing maturity.

Carotenoids and Vitamin A Precursors

It is well known that fruits do not synthesize vitamin A; however,
they do synthesize vitamin A precursors, which can be converted by
humans into vitamin A. Some provitamin A compounds which can be
80 S. Nagy and W. F. Wardowski

Fig. 4.2. Effect of maturation on the vitamin C contents of ‘Valencia’ orange (A),
‘Duncan’ grapefruit (O), and ‘Dancy’ tangerine (□). Source: Harding et al. (1940,
1945, 1949).

transformed into vitamin A are a-carotene, |3-carotene, /3-cry ptoxanthin,

and /3-apo-8'-carotenal. During the maturation of mangoes, a significant
increase in total carotenoids and /3-carotenoids (provitamin A com¬
pounds) occur both in the peel and irwthe pulp (John et al. 1970). At
maturity, /3-carotene (= 1.667 vitamin A/pg) constitutes about 50-60%
of the total carotenoids in Alphonso mangoes (Jungalwala and Cama
1963). Fair quantities of provitamin A carotenoid compounds have
been reported in cantaloupe (Howard et al. 1962), papaya (Arriola etal.
1975), citrus (Stewart 1980), acerola (Asenjo 1980), and plantains; all
of these fruits show an increase in the quantity of carotenoids with
maturation.

Thiamin (Vitamin Bx)

Hsu (1974) reported that the thiamin content of citrus fruit increased
with maturity. When compared at similar maturity levels, the early
season orange, ‘Hamlin,’ had the lowest vitamin Bx content, whereas
‘Valencia,’ a late season orange, had the highest. Compared with many
other fruits, grapes and blackcurrants show the highest content of
thiamin; the thiamin content of grapes increases during ripening (Peynaud
and Ribereau-Gayon 1971). Other fruits showing modest amounts of
 4. Fruits 81

thiamin (pg/100 g flesh) are pineapples (69-125), raspberries (20-30),

mangoes (35-60), melons (60-80), acerola (28-30), dates (80-150), figs
(61-79), and tamarinds (44-154) (Hulme 1971; Nagy and Shaw 1980).
Folic Acid
Folic acid, generically described as folacin, is chemically known as
pteroylmonoglutamic acid. There are several compounds that exhibit
folic acid activity and they differ only in the number of glutamic acid
residues they contain. Folic acid is generally found in minimal quan¬
tities in fruits; however, it was recently shown that citrus fruits are a
rich source of folacin (Ting et al. 1974). Amounts in the range of
20-50 pg/100 ml citrus juice have been reported by Ting et al. (1974)
and Varsel (1980). Ting (1977) reported that wide variation in the
folic acid content occurs throughout the growing season and that the
concentration increases with the maturation of the fruit. Of other
fruits, figs (39 pg/100 g dried; Hall et al. 1953), mangoes (36 jug/100 g
flesh; Gosh 1960), and avocados (10-60 pg/100 g flesh; Hall et al.
1955) contain modest amounts of folic acid, whereas grapes contain the
least (1-2 pg/liter juice; Peynaud and Ribereau-Gayon 1971).

Other Vitamins
Pantothenic acid, riboflavin, niacin, vitamin B6 (pyridoxine, pyridox-
amine, pyridoxal), vitamin B12, and tocopherols are found in many
fruits at levels below 10% of the U.S. RDA (Hulme 1971). Studies re¬
lating fruit maturation to changes in concentration of these minor
vitamins are limited. Mapson (1971) states that apricots, gooseberries,
blackcurrants, figs, and citrus fruits contain moderate amounts of
pantothenic acid. Mango, pineapple, papaya, ascerola, and passion fruit
are good sources of riboflavin, whereas tamarind, guava, and passion
fruit are good sources of niacin (Nagy and Shaw 1980). Among 26
fruits tested by Polansky and Murphy (1966), bananas (5.4 pg/g) and
avocados (4.5 pg/g) contained the highest and the second highest con¬
tent of vitamin B6 , respectively.

Rootstocks
Many tree fruit crops are scions budded to rootstocks. The selection
of a rootstock is based on many factors such as resistance to specific
diseases, compatibility with the scion, drought resistance, and tolerance
to soil conditions (e.g., salinity effect on scion fruit size, quality, and
other desirable features).
The chemical composition of citrus fruit is often influenced by the
type of rootstock to which the scion is attached. There are numerous
examples that show the effects of the rootstock on the scion fruit’s
soluble solids (Sinclair 1961; Castle and Phillips 1980), acids (Hearn and
Hutchison 1977), lipids (Nordby et al. 1979), j3-carotene (Issa and
Mielke 1980), and vitamin C (Nagy 1980).
82 S. Nagy and W. F. Wardowski

Chemical Agents Affecting Fruit Composition

There is an extensive literature on the effects of phytohormones and
growth regulators on fruit development and composition; the reader is
referred to those comprehensive works (Boysen Jensen 1936; Avery
et al. 1974; Audus 1953; Evans 1963; Coggins and Hield 1968; Nitsch
1971; Childers 1975) for a better understanding of this subject. In
addition, there are a multitude of sprays applied to fruit crops which
improve the marketability of the fruit; some of these sprays also cause
changes in the nutrient composition of the fruit. It is not our intent to
comprehensively cover this vast subject area. There are five main
categories of plant hormones that take part in fruit growth regulation
and composition: gibberellins, auxins, cytokinins, abscissic acid, and
ethylene. In sweet cherry production, growth regulators are extensive¬
ly used. Maturity of sweet cherries is delayed by gibberellic acid (GA)
and advanced by daminozide (succinic 1,1-dimethylhydrazide). GA
applied 4 to 6 weeks before harvest increased the ascorbic acid content
and decreased the anthocyanin content, but showed no effect on soluble
solids, malic acid, or fruit weight (Drake et al. 1978). Daminozide
application, on the other hand, increased the anthocyanin content of
Rainer cherries (Drake et al. 1980) and increased the soluble solids of
Bing cherries (Proebsting and Mills 1976). In nectarine fruit, applica¬
tion of daminozide and/or fenoprop (2,4,5-TP) at the initiation of pit
hardening enhanced fruit ripening and decreased the content of malic
acid (Ben-Arie and Guelfat-Reich 1979). Figaron (ethyl 5-chloro-l//-
3-indazolyl acetate), initially developed as a chemical thinning agent for
satsuma mandarins, was shown when sprayed at a later stage in fruit
growth to decrease acids, increase sugars, and enhance peel color of the
fruit (Iwahori 1978).
Ethylene is an important ripening hormone whose mode of action is
not understood. Preharvest spraying of fruit with ethylene precursors
(e.g., ethephon) or compounds which stimulate the production of
ethylene with the tissues of the fruit (e.g., auxins) causes noticeable
changes in the fruit’s composition (McGlasson 1971). In contrast,
compounds that inhibit production of ethylene cause a slowing of
the ripening process and therefore alter the fruit’s nutrient content.
Aminoethoxyvinylglycine (AVG) reduced ethylene production in
apples (Bangerth 1978; Bramlage et al. 1980) and blueberries (Dekazos
1980); these AVG-treated fruit showed higher acid levels than their
controls.
Soil Fumigation
Soil fumigants are used to control nematodes that attack the roots of
plants. Wilting, decreased growth, decreased yields, or total loss of the
fruit crop can result if these pests are left unchecked. Brominated and/or
chlorinated hydrocarbons are the usual fumigants used. Inorganic
 r

4. Fruits 83

bromine is commonly found as a residue in the harvested crop. Masui

et al. (1978) found that bromine in muskmelon (grown in fumigated
soil) was most concentrated in the pericarp, less so in the outer flesh,
and least concentrated in the inner flesh. The concentration of bromide
in tomatoes grown in fumigated soil is related to the concentration of
inorganic bromide present in the soil (Kempton and Maw 1973). There
is no relationship between bromide concentration found in fruit and
the state of ripeness or the position of the fruit on the plant (Kempton
and Maw 1973).
Working with different tomato cultivars, Wambeke et al. (1979)
observed proportional increases in bromide residue with the rate of
methyl bromide used, but this effect was no longer apparent in the
second crop. The bromide content was lower in the higher trusses of
the second crop. The K content was higher in fruits from fumigated
plots and the pH was lower in fruit from plots fumigated with 25 and
50 g/m2 methyl bromide. The titratable acid content was higher, but
these changes did not remain in the second crop. Fumigation reduced
the soluble sugars content of the first crop (Wambeke et al. 1979).
The uptake of nutrients (N, P, K, S, Ca, and Mg) by tomato plants
was increased when they were grown in soil treated with 75 and 150
ppm l,2-dibromo-3-chloropropane (DBCP) and decreased in plants
treated with 300 ppm DBCP (Elliott and Edmunds 1977). No adverse
effects on any nutritional components were found in carrots and citrus
grown on EDB-, DBCP-, or 1,3-dichloropropene-treated soil (Thomason
et al. 1971); however, these crops had higher (3-carotene contents than
ones grown on untreated soil (Thomason et al. 1971).
Sass (1975) found that treating soil, 2 months before planting Senga
strawberries, with Shell-DD® (a mixture of 1,3-dichloropropene,
1,2-dichloropropane, and traces of higher chlorides) raised the protein
content of the fruit. For the most part, there are no detrimental effects
from soil fumigation and, indeed, some nutrients actually increase.

HARVESTING AND HANDLING

The care exercised in harvesting and handling fruit often has an im¬
portant bearing on the quality and nutrient content of that fruit.
Chemical and biochemical changes continue throughout a fruit’s pre¬
harvest and postharvest life. The interruption of water supply to the
fruit after removal from the parent plant must be a trauma of the first
magnitude. Environmental conditions of temperature, humidity, and
atmospheric composition are important to the quality and indeed the
very life of fruits after harvest. Quality will decline concurrently with
transpiration, respiration, and a number of other biochemical and
physical changes. Fruit ultimately reaches a point at which it is not
84

acceptable to the consumer or processor, as, for example, the excessive

softening of apples caused by pectic enzymes and/or the spoilage of
citrus fruits by microorganisms. The principles and information for
fresh fruit generally apply whether they are to be consumed as fresh
fruit or utilized for processing (see Part III).

Time of Harvest
Most fruits are harvested before they reach optimum flavor, color,
and nutrient content. Fruits picked before the onset of ripening tend
to be firmer and less susceptible to bruising during harvesting and sub¬
sequent premarket handling. Harvest times for fruit differ considerably
and depend, in large measure, on the fruit’s ripening pattern. A large
number of fruits show a sudden sharp rise in respiratory activity,
termed the climacteric rise, during their life cycle; whereas others,
which do not show this rise, are classified as nonclimacteric. The time
of harvest for climacteric fruit is critical for maximum storage and
market life (Fig. 4.3). With the exception of the avocado, climacteric
fruits normally ripen on the tree; however, they are usually harvested
prior to the onset of the climacteric and stored under carefully con¬
trolled conditions to suppress the ripening process (Krochta and Fein-
berg 1975). Nonclimacteric fruits, such as citrus, are normally allowed
to ripen on the parent plant prior to harvesting (Sinclair 1961; Eskin
et al. 1971). Harvesting of citrus fruits in Florida, for example, is strictly

PRIME EATING QUALITY

-1|--

GROWING SEASON -► -4- - HARVESTING SEASON

Fig. 4.3. Life cycles of typical fruits. The respiration rate of a typical “climacteric-
type” fruit may increase 10-fold after harvest. This is not true of “nonclimacteric”
fruit such as citrus. Source: Grierson (1973).
 4. Fruits 85

regulated (Florida Department of Citrus 1975). Maturity tests covering

color break, juice content, Brix, total (titratable) acid, and ratio of
Brix:total acid are conducted on citrus fruit to ascertain whether they
can be legally sold (Wardowski et al. 1979).

Effects of Harvest Methods on Nutrients

The trend in harvesting fruit is toward more mechanization, although

hand picking is still an established practice for some fruits. Advantages
of hand picking over mechanical harvesting are as follows (Woodroof
1975): (1) The fruit is bruised less and can be held longer before process¬
ing; (2) the fruit may be allowed to become more mature before har¬
vesting; (3) picking is more complete and the total yield is greater;
and (4) the plants are bruised less and continue to produce over a
longer period of time. Ever-bearing varieties are hand picked to avoid
damaging both the mature and immature fruit. Some fruits, especially
berries, require multiple pickings because they ripen over several weeks.
Limited studies are available on the effects of rough-handled, hand¬
picked fruit on nutrient contents. Rough handling generally causes
structural and physiological disorganization of fruit tissue with a con¬
comitant increase in the activities of degradative enzymes. As a result
of cellular disorganization, oxidative destruction of vitamin C in fruits
by ascorbic acid oxidase, phenolase, cytochrome oxidase, and peroxidase
is enhanced. Dropping grapefruit from heights of up to 1.52 m onto a
hard surface increased respiration and ethylene production in relation
to the height of the drop (Vines et al. 1968). With grapefruit, ethylene
evolution contributes to the overall ripening phase by causing membrane
changes, increasing the activity of certain membrane-oriented enzymes,
and accelerating the activity of proteolytic enzymes associated with
color development (Sinclair 1972).. Bruising of tomatoes had little ef¬
fect on ascorbic acid content (Krochta et al. 1975), whereas dropping
mangoes to the ground caused a decided decrease of this vitamin during
storage (Yagi et al. 1978).
Mechanical harvesting of fruits may affect the composition of the
fruit and/or juice product. In mechanically harvested Montmorency
cherries, Arnold and Mitchell (1970) observed a greater movement of
tannins into the outer cortical cells during a 24-hr soak. Wounding of
mechanically harvested Engishofer apples stimulated acid breakdown
and increased glycerol production (Schumacher et al. 1974).
With the use of abscission chemicals to aid in mechanical harvesting,
an accompanying change in the physiological development of a fruit can
take place. The growth regulator ethephon (2-chloroethylphosphonic
acid) was found to reduce the ascorbic acid content in papaya and in¬
crease the total and reducing sugars and pectin content (Shanmugavelu
et al. 1973A). Conversely, the effect of ethephon on pumpkin was to
86 S. Nagy and W. F. Wardowski

increase the ascorbic acid and decrease the reducing sugars contents
(Shanmugavelu et al. 1973B).
Warren et al. (1973) showed that ethephon’s effect on fruit acidity
of blueberries varies with time of application. Early applications of
2000-8000 ppm lowered acidity and late applications raised acidity.
Ethephon at 50 to 200 ppm had no effect on the titratable acidity of
4 peach cultivars regardless of application date (Sims et al. 1974).
Sweet orange fruits dipped in ethephon at 200 and 400 ppm or in GA
(gibberellic acid) at 50 and 100 ppm 1 month before harvest showed a
reduction in acidity and an increase in total soluble solids (TSS) and
total sugars (Mazumdar and Bhatt 1976). Shaybany and Sharifi (1973),
working with ‘Rabbab’ pomegranate, found that with increased ethephon
concentrations the percent TSS and TSS:acid ratio of the juice de¬
creased appreciably.
Pigment content can also be affected by ethephon use. Kvale (1974)
found that ethephon at 400 ppm increased the anthocyanin content of
‘Raud Prins’ apples when applied in July. Applications in June or August
had no effect unless combined with daminozide. Anthocyanin levels in
peaches were raised as a result of ethephon treatment (Morini et al.
1974). Tomatoes treated with ethephon synthesized more lycopene
than untreated fruit (Russo et al. 1975).
Mechanical harvesting of citrus fruit has necessitated a need for
abscission chemicals that reduce the force for separating the fruit from
the stem. However, many of these abscission chemicals have been
shown to affect the chemical composition of cold-pressed orange oil
(Moshonas et al. 1976; Moshonas and Shaw 1977). Abscission agents
that caused injury to the peel also caused the formation of six phenolic
ethers not reported earlier as citrus constituents, namely, eugenol,
cis-methylisoeugenol, frarcs-methylisoeugenol, methyleugenol, elemicin,
and isoelemicin (Moshonas and Shaw 1978). Moshonas and co-workers
speculated that abscission chemicals enhance the aging process of fruit
and thereby cause adverse effects on the flavor quality of the juice
extracted from these fruit.

HOLDING AND STORAGE CONDITIONS

The separation of fruits from vegetables is an arbitrary division not

used in Tables 4.1 and 4.2, wherein the length of holding after harvest
and the usual cause of the end of produce storage life are listed. Horti¬
cultural fruits are included in all length holding categories (Table 4.1),
but are included in only 3 of the 5 groups for termination of storage
and marketing life (Table 4.2). The economic loss of fruit to over¬
whelming hazards, such as overmaturity and decay, results in virtually
the complete loss of the nutrient content of the fruit. Control of wilting
 4. Fruits 87

Table 4.1. Most Common Relative Length of Postharvest Life Required for Selected
Produce

Time Produce

Immediate marketing Aspafiragus, usually citrus (except lemons), radishes,

parsley, green onions, mushrooms, celery, water¬
melons, endive, lettuce, eggplant, rhubarb, spinach,
globe artichokes, berries
Immediate marketing Tomatoes, bananas, apricots, mangoes, cantaloupes,
after ripening papayas

Short-term storage (or Peaches, kohlrabi, citrus exports

equivalent long dis¬
tance transportation)

Long-term storage Most apples and pears, parsnips, rutabagas, potatoes,

onions, sweet potatoes

Source: Grierson and Wardowski (1978).

Table 4.2. Major Hazards Responsible for the End of Effective Storage and Market¬
ing Life of Produce

Limitation Produce

Wilting Lettuce, endive, celery, asparagus, spinach, broccoli

Overmaturity Apples, pears, cucumbers, bananas, corn on the cob

Decay Citrus, berries, tomatoes, sweet potatoes

Regrowth and sprouting Onions, Irish potatoes

Chilling injury in cold Grapefruit, limes, most purely tropical fruits and most
storage vegetables that are botanically fruits

Source: Grierson and Wardowski (1978).

decay, and fruit ripening after harvest has been attempted by adjust¬
ment of humidity, temperature, manipulation of the concentration of
gases in the surrounding atmosphere, and use of fungicides.

Humidity Control
Relative humidity (RH) is deceptive in that vapor pressure deficit
more accurately predicts the weight loss and shrinkage of fruits (Grier¬
son and Wardowski 1978). At constant temperatures, variations in high
(over 75 to 85%) RH are proportional to weight loss (Christopher et al.
1948; Smith 1933); with the exception of grapes for which transpira¬
tion increases down to 40% RH (Allen and Pentzer 1935). Constant
RH with increasing temperatures can cause large increases in moisture
88 S. Nagy and W. F. Wardowski

loss because of increasing vapor pressure deficit. For example, apples

lose twice as much weight at constant RH with an increase from 15 to
16°C than with an increase from 2° to 3°C (Smith 1933). A more
recent constant temperature study of apples, peaches, lemons, oranges,
grapefruit, and avocados showed that the increase in weight loss was
about 50% for each doubling of vapor-pressure deficit (Wells 1962).
The market tolerance for weight loss for apples (Pieniazek 1942) and
oranges (Kaufman et al. 1956) is about 5%, and although this value
varies with type of produce, visible shriveling is apparent at about half
the weight loss tolerated in markets (Hruschka 1977; Kaufman et al.
1956; Smock and Neubert 1950). The optimum storage RH for indi¬
vidual fruits has generally been recognized to be higher as research has
revealed that high RH does not necessarily result in increased decay and
that excessive weight loss frequently means total loss of the commodity
(Grierson and Wardowski 1978). A discussion of humidity and storage
necessarily must include consideration of temperature. Even slight
variations in temperature as the refrigeration cycles on and off can
cause wide fluctuations in relative humidity and result in the dehydra¬
tion of produce (Grierson and Wardowski 1975). With the recognition
that very high relative humidities result in less rather than more decay
for many crops, jacketed storages were developed to provide constant
high humidities under refrigerated conditions (van den Berg and Lentz
1978).

Temperature Control

The factor of colder temperatures (above freezing) to extend the

marketing life of fruits seems simple until some of the exceptions,
difficulties, and costs are considered. ^ Specific storage temperatures
are recommended for individual fruits and vegetables (Lipton and
Harvey 1977), and these can be followed, even to specific temperatures
for certain cultivars of apples fe.g., 30°-32°F except for 35°-38°F
for‘Yellow Newton,’ ‘McIntosh,’ and ‘Rhode Island Greensy’ and 34°-
36 F for ‘Grimes Golden’ (Patchen 1971)] as long as each storage room
has only one commodity. Specific ideal temperatures are not economi¬
cally feasible when refrigerated trucks carry mixed loads, and grocery
warehouses and stores handle all produce, ornamental plants, and dairy
products at one or two temperatures. Also, refrigerated shelf space is
so limited in supermarkets that only the most perishable commodities
are provided that luxury.
Rapid precooling (by hydrocooling) before storage or transit has been
widely adopted for peaches, but not for apples (Schomer and Patchen
1968). Peaches that are ripened to softness become firm when cooled
and resoften when warmed (Werner and Frenkel 1978). Citrus in
California and Arizona is frequently precooled with air, but Florida and
 4. Fruits 89

Texas citrus is rarely precooled (Grierson 1976). Vacuum cooling is

very efficient for leafy vegetables, but due to the low surface:weight
ratio is not practical for fruits.
Most storage studies with fruits have reported changes in keeping
quality, decay, weight loss, ahd in the case of citrus, sugar and acid.
Stahl and Camp (1936) confirmed earlier reports that for grapefruit
and, to a greater extent, for oranges, citric acid decreased and sugars
increased to an even greater extent than by weight loss concentration
during storage for several months at various temperatures. Reports of
changes in vitamin content of fruits during storage are rare. One report
by Bratley (1939) indicated that during 8 weeks of storage at 0°C,
tangerines nearly maintained their vitamin C levels, but at 7°-9°C
nearly one-fourth of the vitamin C was lost. Only slight loss of vitamin
C was observed for oranges held 10 to 16 days under simulated market¬
ing conditions (Harding 1954). The latter case is much more repre¬
sentative of the time and conditions for citrus marketed in the United
States.
Chilling injury occurs at temperatures above freezing. Bananas and
grapefruit are fruits well known to be injured by chilling. This injury
sometimes results in decay as pathogens can enter the weakened tissue.
Chilling injury of grapefruit is reduced by high (over 90%) relative
humidity and hypobaric (low pressure) storage (Grierson 1976), by
thiabendazole and benomyl fungicides (Schiffman-Nadel et al. 1975),
and even by benomyl applied several months before harvest (Wardowski
et al. 1975). Grierson (1976) observed that there is a generalization
with peel color for the sensitivity of citrus to chilling injury, wherein green
fruit are most susceptible, yellow fruit are somewhat less susceptible,
and orange fruit are the most resistant.

Gas-Concentration Manipulation
Controlled Atmosphere (CA) Storage
The basis of CA storage is that the storage atmosphere differs mainly
in the proportions of oxygen and carbon dioxide from normal air; the
proportion of 02 is usually lowered and that of C02 increased. The
best mixture of gases, however, varies with commodity, temperature,
and length of storage (Ryall and Lip ton 1979). Lipton (1975) lists
the main reasons for using CA as (1) retardation of ripening, (2) reduc¬
tion of decay, (3) prevention of specific disorders and retardation of
aging, and (4) alteration of the texture of the commodity.
Long-term CA storage is largely confined to apples because the
climacteric rise can be effectively delayed by temperature and CA
control. Anderson et al. (1967) indicated the feasibility of extending
the storage life of various stone fruits, namely ‘Redhaven,’ ‘Sunhigh,’
and ‘Loring’ peaches and ‘Late Le Grand’ nectarines, by CA storage.
90 S. Nagy and W. F. Wardowski
• ^
1
Organoleptic tests favored storage of these fruits in 1% 02 and 5%
C02. Covey (1960) found the best CA storage for Eldorado plums to
be 7% 02, 7% C02, and 86% N2; these conditions delayed ripening and
reduced the loss of soluble solids. \

The storage of avocado in CA has been studied by various workers

(Biale 1946; Biale and Young 1962; Spalding and Reeder 1972, 1975).
The optimum temperature for CA storage will vary with the cultivar,
and maximum storage time for any cultivar CA has been 60 days
(Spalding and Reeder 1972). Early studies with Fuerte avocados
showed that within the range of 2.5 to 21% 02 concentration, the time
to reach the respiratory climacteric peak was extended in proportion to
the decrease in 02 concentration (Biale 1946). The presence of low 02
and high C02 (5 to 10%) tends to suppress the intensity of respiration.
Studies by Hatton and Reeder (1965) and Spalding and Reeder (1972)
have shown that the use of 2% 02 and 10% C02 at 7.2°C doubled the
normal storage life over refrigeration alone of ‘Lula,’ ‘Booth 8,’ ‘Fuchs,’
and ‘Waldin’ avocados. Maximum storage time for these cultivars was
6-8 weeks (results of ‘Booth 8’ and ‘Lula’ shown in Table 4.3).
Initiation of banana ripening can be delayed by holding the green
fruit in an atmosphere of 1-10% 02 and 5-10% C02 or a combination
of low 02 and high C02 (Young et al. 1962; Mapson and Robinson
1966). Studies on pineapples (Dull 1971) and mangoes (Hatton and

Table 4.3. Fruit Quality of ‘Booth 8’ and ‘Lula’ Avocados after Storage for 20 and
40 Days in Controlled Atmosphere (CA) of 2% 02 and 10% C02 or in Air at 2.5°C
followed by Ripening at 21°C

Acceptable fruits (%) Softening time (days)

Storage time and
temperature (°C) Air CA Air CA
->►

‘Booth 8’
No storage 100 6.5
20 days
4.5 80 93 * 4.8 5.8
10.0 33 60 1.6 5.2
40 days
4.5 17 73 —
6.4
10.0 0 43 — 3.8

‘Lula’
No storage 100 6.4
20 days
4.5 80 100 3.3 6.0
10.0 47 100 3.1 6.0
40 days
4.5 0 100 —
5.1
10.0 0 100 — 5.4

Source: Spalding and Reeder (1972).

 4. Fruits 91

Reeder 1966; Lakshminarayana 1980) showed no obvious benefits

from CA storage. Storage of citrus fruits under CA conditions has
also not been successful because, as shown in Fig. 4.3, with these fruits
there is no climacteric to delay (Grierson 1970).

Ethylene
Ethylene gas is used in several commercial fruit ripening or degreen¬
ing processes (Mitchell et al. 1972). Degreening of citrus fruit grown in
humid subtropical conditions is standard practice; 1-5 ppm ethylene is
used in Florida (McCornack and Wardowski 1977). Controlled ripening
of bananas with ethylene is a precise science (Smock 1967) and this
technology has been adopted for plantains (Hernadez 1972). At times,
ethylene removal is desirable for bananas and plantains to delay the
time of ripening. For limes (Spalding and Reeder 1976), lemons (Wild
and Rippon 1973), and other citrus fruits, ethylene functions by delay¬
ing senescence rather than preventing ripening. Ethylene gas can be
used commercially to reduce the ripening time of mangoes. Condi¬
tions recommended by Barmore and Mitchell (1975) for treating
mangoes are 10-30 ppm ethylene for 24-48 hr at 21°C with high
humidity (95% RH).

Fruit Fumigation

The use of fumigation techniques for both fruit and soil disinfesta¬
tion has been a major success. The Mediterranean fruit fly can destroy
more than 200 varieties of fruits and vegetables. Disinfestation treat¬
ments do not vary much among fruit, and the focus here will be on
citrus fumigation.
Japanese importation requirements call for the fumigation of fresh
Florida citrus with ethylene dibromide (EDB). In Florida, citrus is
fumigated in cardboard cartons palletized in trailers. Fumigation at a
dosage of 8 to 16 g/m3 for 2 hr is followed by a 1-hr ventilation period
(Miller and Ismail 1977). Citrus fruit, especially, may be severely in¬
jured if placed in refrigeration before desorption of the fumigant is
essentially complete (USDA 1976). Singh et al. (1979), working with
navel and ‘Valencia’ orange fruit found EDB residue concentrations
(after fumigation at 24-42 g/m3) exceeded 0.5 pg/g after storage for
less than or equal to 14 days but none was detectable after 28 days.
Inorganic bromine concentrations were well below the Australian and
Codex Alimentarius legal limit (30 pg/g).
Respiration changes in papayas subjected to fumigation and hot
water treatments were studied (Akamine 1966). These treatments
accelerated the rate of ripening if the fruits were not promptly stored
at 7°-13°C for 7 days.
Ethylene dibromide fumigation of tomato fruits reduced red color
development in the outer pericarp, although the inner tissues remained
92 S. Nagy and.W. F. Wardowski

unaffected at EDB doses as high as 35 g/m3 (Rigney et al. 1978). Caro¬

tene accumulation was enhanced by EDB at 4 g/m3, but at higher doses
the carotene content of the tomato pericarp was reduced.
Sulfur dioxide, trichloroamine, ahd ethylene oxide gases are used to
reduce or control decay in grapes and citrus. Fumigation with S02 re¬
duces the rate of respiration in grapes. Emperor grapes receiving 22
ppm of sulfur dioxide had their rate of respiration reduced 82% while
in storage at 28°C (Winkler 1962). Increasing the amount of free sulfur
dioxide caused a proportional increase in the destruction of thiamin
(Winkler 1962).

REFERENCES

Akamine, E. K. 1966. Respiration of fruits of papaya (Carica papaya L. var. ‘Solo’)

with reference to the effect of quarantine disinfestation treatments. Proc. Am.
Soc. Hortic. Sci. 89, 231-236.
Allen, F. W., and Pentzer, W. T. 1935. Studies on the effect of humidity in the
cold storage of fruits. Proc. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 33, 215-223.
Anderson, R. E., Parsons, C. S., and Smith, W. L. 1967. For peaches, nectarines,
oxygen-carbon dioxide storage. Agric. Res. 15(11), 7.
Arnold, C. E., and Mitchell, A. E. 1970. Histology of blemishes of cherry fruits
(Prunus cerasus L. cv. Montmorency), resulting from mechanical harvesting.
J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 95, 723-725.
Arriola, M. C. de, Madrid, M. D. de, and Rolz, C. 1975. Some physical and chemi¬
cal changes in papaya during its storage. Proc. Trop. Reg. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci.
19, 97.
Arriola, M. C. de, Menchu, J. F., and Rolz, C. 1976. Characterization, handling
and storage of some tropical fruits. Ctrl. Am. Res. Inst. Ind. (ICAITI), Guatemala.
(Spanish.)
Arriola, M. C. de, et al. 1980. Papaya. In Tropical and Subtropical Fruits. S.
Nagy and P. E. Shaw (Editors). AVI Publishing Co., Westport, CT.
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Ting, S. V., et al. 1974. Nutrient assay of Florida frozen concentrated orange
juice for nutrition labeling. Proc. Fla. State Hortic. Soc. 87, 206-209.
U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) 1976. Plant Protection and Quarantine
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ington, DC.
van den Berg, L., and Lentz, C. P. 1978. High humidity storage of vegetables and
fruits. HortScience 13, 565-569.
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GENERAL MILLS, INC.

■ rs TECHNIOai n CFUTrcrri » 1 r-> --
100 S. Nagy and W. F. Wardowski
v*
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 5
Effects of
Agricultural Practices,
Handling, Processing, and
Storage on Cereals
Y. Victor Wu
George E. Ingle tt

Cereals are seed grains grown worldwide, principally as food sources.

The major cereals are wheat, corn (maize), rice, oats, barley, rye, grain
sorghum, and millet. Civilization could not exist today without early
man’s careful cultivation of these plants.

CEREAL COMPOSITION

The average chemical composition of wheat, corn, rice, oats, barley,

rye, grain sorghum, triticale, and millet is given in Table 5.1. All cereal
grains contain starch as the principal component, which is indicated by
the high nitrogen-free extract values in Table 5.1. The second highest
component of cereal grains is protein. Both content and nutritive value
of cereal protein vary widely and depend particularly on seed heredity
and environment during cultivation and harvest. An indication of
protein composition differences can be seen by the amino acid patterns
of the different cereal proteins (Table 5.2). Improvement in cereal
protein quality and quantity has been a major thrust in plant breeding
since the discovery by Mertz et al. (1964) that opaque-2 corn (high
lysine) has a protein composition that provides considerably better
nutrition than ordinary corn.

WHEAT

Milling
Milling of good clean wheat (Triticum aestiuum) is controlled by
modern processes to give as much quality flour, farina, and germ as

101
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Amino Acid Content of Cereals (Percentage of Amino Acid in the Protein)

Oats

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103
104 Y. V. Wu and G. E. Inglett
V

practical. Products from hard wheat are farina, patent flour, first clear
flour, second clear flour, germ, shorts, and bran. Since flour products
from milling are primarily for food applications, the wheat is cleaned
before conditioning (or tempering) 'and grinding. Modern flour milling
requires an intricate process involving many grinding and sifting steps.
Similar flour milling processes for soft and durum wheats provide
products for many foods that differ from those incorporating hard
wheat products. Additives, such as maturing agents, bleaching agents,
and self-rising ingredients are frequently blended into wheat flours at
the mill. Flour being shipped to the baker is not enriched at the mill,
but at the bakery. Family flour, packaged at the mill, is enriched at the
mill (Anderson and Inglett 1974).
A small amount of the wheat in the world is processed to starch and
gluten by wet milling, and the total production of wheat gluten was
about 120,000 tons a year (Sarkki 1980). The baking industry is the
largest user of gluten. Alkaline extraction procedures were used to
yield protein and starch from whole wheat (Wu and Sexson 1975A) and
mill feeds (Saunders et al. 1975). Protein concentrates from whole
wheat and mill feeds had higher lysine content (first limiting amino acid
in wheat) than wheat gluten (Wu and Sexson 1975B; Saunders and
Betschart 1977).

Nutrient Composition of Wheat Flour

Wheat flour, the principal refined product of wheat milling, is the
major ingredient in almost all breads, rolls, chapaties, crackers, cookies,
biscuits, cakes, doughnuts, muffins, pancakes, waffles, noodles, macaroni,
and spaghetti. Flour composition and functionality vary greatly, de¬
pending upon the milled wheat’s heredity and the environmental con¬
ditions of its culture and harvest (Inglett 1974). The nutritional value
of wheat foods depends largely on the chemical composition of the re¬
fined flour used in their preparation. The average percentage composi¬
tion of hard wheat milled products is given for illustrative purposes in
Table 5.3.

Table 5.3. Average Percentage Composition of Hard-Wheat Products

First Second
Patent clear clear
Constituent Wheat Farina flour flour flour Germ Shorts Bran

Moisture 12.0 14.2 13.9 13.4 12.4 10.5 13.5 14.1

Ash 1.8 0.4 0.4 0.7 1.2 4.0 4.1 6.0
Protein 12.0 10.3 11.0 12.7 13.5 30.0 16,0 14.5
Crude fiber 2.5 — — — — 2.0 5.5 10.0
Fat 2.1 0.8 0.9 1.3 1.3 10.0 4.5 3.3

Source: Inglett (1974).

 5. Cereals 105

Vitamin and mineral compositions vary directly with the degree of

flour extraction. These relationships have been extensively reviewed by
Dimler (1960). Vitamin concentrations in wheat and wheat food
products from later data are recorded in Table 5.4 (Toepfer et al. 1972).
The protein content of wheat is usually around 12%, but heredity and
environment exert a strong influence on that level. Since the discovery of
high-lysine corn (Mertz et al. 1964), some research emphasis has been
placed on increasing the protein quality and quantity of wheat (Johnson
et al. 1972). In the World Wheat Collection, maintained by the Agricul¬
tural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 15,000 hexaploid
and tetraploid wheats have been screened for protein and lysine contents.
Mean protein value was nearly 13%, ranging between 7 and 22%. The
lysine content of wheat protein varied between 2.2 and 4.2%, with a mean
value of approximately 3%. Successful breeding of wheat for better pro¬
tein quality and quantity can have an important impact on the nutrient
content of wheat food products.

CORN
Milling

Corn (Zea mays L.) is processed to give food ingredients, industrial

products, feeds, and alcoholic beverages. Approximately 1,100 million
bushels were used by wet-corn processors, corn dry millers, and fermenta¬
tion processors in 1985. Wet millers produce starch; modified starch
products, including dextrose and syrups; feed products; and oil (Ander¬
son 1970). The corn dry-milling process and the effects of dry milling on
nutrient composition have been reviewed by Inglett (1975). In modern
corn dry-milling plants a degerming system is the principal process em¬
ployed. In this system the corn kernel is separated into hull, germ, and
endosperm fractions that vary in particle size and fat content. Endosperm
products (grits, meal, and flour) are the primary products used by the food
processors and in consumer markets (Brekke 1970; Inglett 1970).

Nutrient Composition of Corn Dry-Milled Products

A modern corn dry miller, using a conventional degerming system,
can produce a wide variety of products. Typical yields and analyses of
products are reported for illustrative purposes in Table 5.5 (Brekke
1970). Human diets are improved by fortifying corn dry-milled products
with vitamins and minerals. Enriched corn grits contain thiamin, ribo¬
flavin, niacin, and iron according to Federal Standards of Identity from
Code of Federal Regulations, U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Cal¬
cium and vitamin D may be added as optional ingredients. These nutrients
may be blended with such carriers as wheat or corn starches containing
anticaking agents. The nutrients are added in powder form to the milled
products (Brockington 1970).
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Vitamin Concentration in Wheat and Wheat Products

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 5. Cereals 107

Table 5.5. Typical Yields and Analyses for Products That a Degerming-type Corn
Dry Mill Might Produce

Typical Crude Crude

particle Moisture Fat fiber Ash protein
Yield size (% wet (% dry (% dry (% dry (% dry
Product (%) range0 basis) basis) basis) basis) basis)
Corn 100 15.5 4.5 2.5 1.3 9.0
Primary products
Cereal flaking
(hominy) grits 12 -3.5 + 6 14.0 0.7 0.4 0.4 8.4
Coarse grits 15 -10 + 14 13.0 0.7 0.5 0.4 8.4
Regular grits 23 -14 + 28 13.0 0.8 0.5 0.5 8.0
Coarse meal 3 -28 + 50 12.0 1.2 0.5 0.6 7.6
Dusted meal 3 -50 + 75 12.0 1.0 0.5 0.6 7.5
Flour* 4 -75 + pan 12.0 2.0 0.7 0.7 6.6
Oil 1
Hominy feed 35 13.0 6.3 5.4 3.3 12.5
Shrinkage 4

Alternative products
Brewers’ grits 30 -12 + 30 13.0 0.7 0.5 0.5 8.3
100% Meal 10 -28 + Pan 12.0 1.5 0.6 0.6 7.2
Fine meal 7 -50 + Pan 12.0 1.6 0.6 0.7 7.0
Germ fractionc 10 -3.5 + 20 15.0 18.0 4.6 4.7 14.9

Source: Brekke (1970).

a U.S: standard sieve.
* Break flour.
c Yield is distributed between corn oil and hominy feed.

The discovery of the superior protein quality of opaque-2 corn (Mertz

et al. 1964) makes possible the production of dry-milled products with
improved nutritional value. Conventional dry milling of opaque-2 corn
(nigh-lysine) gave products of acceptable fat content using ordinary
dry-milling equipment (Brekke et al. 1971). However, the prime product
spectrum of the high-lysine corn produced no flaking grits, but a con¬
siderable amount of table grits, meal, and flour resulted. Opaque-2
corn is a floury variety, so the lack of large grit particles after milling is
not surprising. Corn breeding programs are underway to develop high-
lysine corn varieties with a greater horny (flinty) character.
A review of compositional and nutritional values of corn germ, a
product of current degerming dry-milling operations, indicated that this
fraction would provide a good quality protein source when properly
handled (Inglett 1972). Corn germ flour prepared from a commercial
dry-milled fraction appears to be a promising fortifying ingredient for
the food industry (Blessin et al. 1973, 1979; Tsen 1975, 1976).
108 Y. V. Wu and G. E. Inglett

Protein concentrates from normal and high-lysine corns (Wu and

Sexson 1976A) and from defatted dry-milled corn germ (Nielsen et al.
1973) were obtained by alkaline extraction of corn or corn germ and by
precipitating the extracted proteins by acid. The protein concentrates
had higher lysine content than the corns from which they were derived
(Wu and Sexson 1976B).

RICE
Milling
Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is one of the leading food crops of the world.
Rice-milling processes have been reported by Witte (1970, 1972). Four
basic operations are performed by all rice mills: (1) removal of foreign
matter from rough rice, (2) removal of hulls, (3) removal of bran, and
(4) sizing of milled rice. A primary objective of rice milling is to obtain
the maximum yield of unbroken grain. Broken kernels have about half
the commercial value of unbroken kernels.
Solvent extractive rice milling is a relatively new process with reported
higher yields of rice, fewer broken kernels, and two by-products—an
edible defatted bran and a crude dewaxed oil (Hunnel and Nowlin 1972).
The basic steps involved in this process are (1) pretreatment of brown
rice before milling, (2) milling the pretreated brown rice in the presence
of rice oil/hexane miscella, and (3) separation and recovery of the de¬
fatted bran, crude oil, and hexane.
The major constituent of milled rice is starch, and it is most con¬
centrated in the endosperm portion of the kernel. Protein is the second
most abundant constituent of rice grain and is unique among the cereal
proteins because it contains at least 80%^lutelin (alkali-soluble protein).

Table 5.6. Levels of Essential Amino Acids of Protein Fractions and Protein of
Milled Rice (g/16.8 g N) ,

Protein fraction

Amino acid Albumin Globulin Prolamin Glutelin protein (%)

Isoleucine 4.05 3.03 4.68 5.27 4.13

Leucine 7.89 6.56 11.3 8.19 8.24
Lysine 4.92 2.56 0.51 3.47 3.80
Methionine 2.54 2.27 0.50 2.61 3.37
Methionine +
cystine 5.40 2.27 0.80 4.09 4.97
Phenylalanine 2.97 3.32 6.26 5.42 6.02
Threonine 4.65 4.55 2.86 3.92 4.34
Tryptophan 1.88 1.34 0.94 1.16 1.21
Valine 8.72 6.18 6.97 7.31 7.21

Source: Juliano (1972).

 5. Cereals 109

Glutelin has the closest amino acid composition to milled rice protein,
probably because it is the major protein fraction (Table 5.6). The pro¬
tein content of rice of any variety can vary considerably even when
grown at the same location (Cagampang et al. 1966; Tecson et al 1971).
For example, protein content'of the high-protein variety BPI-76-1 may
range from 8 to 14% and the low-protein variety, Intan, from 5 to 11%
protein (at 12% moisture). Although protein quality tended to de¬
crease as protein contents increased, the decrease in quality was less
than proportional to the increase in protein content (Juliano 1972).

Nutrient Composition of Milled Rice

The composition of milled rice will vary depending on the variety, its
agronomic conditions during growth, and the extent of milling. The

Table 5.7. Chemical Composition of Outer Layer, Endosperm, and Entire Kernel
of Milled Ricea

Outer Entire
Constituent Unit layer^ Endosperm kernel0

Starch^ % 61.86 92.00 90.68

Amylose^ % 16.12 29.85 29.46
Reducing sugars g maltose/100 g rice 0.50 0.07 0.12
Nonreducing
sugars g sucrose/100 g rice 2.42 0.11 0.26
Total sugars % 2.92 0.18 0.38
Fiber % 1.47 0.22 0.28
Total N g N/100 g rice 2.53 1.27 1.39
Nonprotein N g N/100 g rice 0.04 0.02 0.02
Protein N g N/100 g rice 2.49 1.25 1.37
Albumin g (N X 5.95)/100 g rice 1.75 0.29 0.30
Globulin g (N X 5.95)/100 g rice 1.12 0.60 0.67
Prolamin g (N X 5.95)/100 g rice 0.72 0.22 0.25
Glutelin g (N X 5.95)/100 g rice 7.93 5.05 5.25
Insoluble
fraction g (N X 5.95)/100 g rice 3.28 1.48 1.69
Free amino N mg/100 g 25.11 2.55 3.40
Total lipids5 % 4.44 0.45 0.66
Free fatty acids % 1.34 0.15 0.21
Neutral fats % 2.53 0.26 0.38
Phospholipids % 0.57 0.04 0.07
Ash % 6.10 0.45 0.72
Calcium^ % 0.36 0.05 0.02
Ironf % 0.03 — 0.00
Phosphorus^ % 1.02 0.10 0.14

a Dry-basis data adopted from Barber (1972).

b Unless otherwise specified, 5% by weight of entire kernel.
c Unless otherwise specified, approximately 10% milling.
^ Commercially milled rice; outer layer 4.4%.
e Chloroform :methanol (2:1) extractable lipids.
/ Commercially milled rice; outer layer 4.27%.
110 Y. V. Wu and G. E. Inglett

Table 5.8. Vitamin Content of Rice and Its By-Products (mg/100 g)

Brown Milled Rice Rice Rice

Vitamin rice rice bran polish germ

Thiamin 0.34 6.07 2.26 1.84 6.5

Riboflavin 0.05 0.03 0.25 0.18 0.5
Niacin 4.7 1.6 29.8 28.2 3.3
Pyridoxine 1.03 0.45 2.5 2.0 1.0
Pantothenic acid 1.5 0.75 2.8 3.3 3.0
Folic acid 0.02 0.02 0.15 0.19 0.43
Inositol 119 10 463 454 373
Choline 112 59 170 102 300
Biotin 0.01 0.01 0.06 0.06 0.06

Source: Houston and Kohler (1970).

milled rice kernel is not homogeneous in composition, but will vary by

layers. The outer layer and the amount removed during milling are
most important in determining the nutrient composition of the rice.
The compositional differences of rice are illustrated by data given in
Table 5.7. The chemical composition of the outer layer and the endo¬
sperm of milled rice is compared with the parent milled kernel. These
data are based mainly on short-grain ‘Balilla’ rice originally milled to
10% (bran removed by weight of brown rice). The outer layer, account¬
ing for 5% by weight of the milled kernel, was obtained by tangential-
abrasive milling that left mainly the endosperm portion.
Vitamin contents of rice and its by-products are summarized in
Table 5.8 (Houston and Kohler 1970). The refining of rice to give the
milled product causes significant losses of essential vitamins. The en¬
richment of breakfast cereals based on milled rice appears justified.

OATS
Milling

The groat, or oat fruit, represents about 75% of the kernel weight
and is tightly held within the chaff or hull. The fat content of oat
groats will average about 7%, which is distributed throughout the kernel
with a slight concentration in the germ and outer layers. The protein
content will average 16-17%, with only a slight concentration in the
germ and outer layers (Salisbury and Wichser 1971).
The initial step in oat milling is cleaning to remove foreign materials,
such as sticks, corn, seeds, soybeans, barley, wheat, and dust. The
cleaned oats are dried on pan driers normally 10-12 ft in diameter and
placed one above the other in stacks of 7 to 14. As the oats gradually pass
down the stack, normally 3—4% moisture is removed. The temperature
 5. Cereals 111

of the oats seldom exceeds 93°C, but it is sufficient to cause a slight

roasted flavor considered desirable. Rotary steam-tube driers are some¬
times used by smaller millers, and many European plants use charcoal-
fired kilns.
In some mills that dehull oats without drying or conditioning, the
groats are heated separately to develop the desired toasted flavor. Be¬
sides flavor development, heating inactivates the lipolytic or fat-splitting
enzymes sufficiently to prevent the development of undesirable flavors
during processing.
Oats after drying and cooling are ready for the huller, which separates
the hulls from the groats. An impact huller produces the best yields
and requires less horsepower than earlier stone hullers did. Sizing the
grain before hulling assists oat and groat separation in the United States.
In a large system, the final step is the separation of free groats used
for producing old-fashioned flakes. Cutting converts the groats into
uniform pieces with a minimum of fine granules or flour. Cutting is
done with rotary granulators giving 2-4 pieces per groat. Cut groats
are separated from the uncut groats, oats, and long hulls by a cylinder
separator or disc machine. The cut material is heated with live steam at
atmospheric pressure just before flaking. The steam-heated groats or
cut groats are flaked on rolls that are adjusted to produce flakes of uni¬
form thickness or density measurement. Oat flour is made by grinding
steam-heated groats. For a white, lower-fiber flour, high-fiber frac¬
tions must be removed from the groats.

Nutrient Composition of Oat Products

The composition of oats, like other cereal grains, is greatly influenced
by variety (heredity) and agronomic conditions during culture and
harvest. Milled products will vary some between processors because of
differences in milling operations: Typical compositions for groats,
rolled oats, and oat flour are listed in Table 5.9.
The nutritional quality of oat protein is good; rolled oats have a
protein efficiency ratio (PER) of 2.2 compared to casein with a PER
of 2.5. Feeding studies of 7 pure oat varieties (Garland, Clintland,
Bonkee, Newton, Beedee, Lodi, and Newaha) which had PER values
between 2.25 and 2.38, indicated that the small variations in amino
acids observed in these oat samples were not great enough to influence
growth response (Clark and Potter 1972; Hischke et al. 1968). The
protein content of oat groats being used for food has a value between
11 and 15%. However, some oats found in the Near East have protein
contents varying between 14 and 25% in the groats.
Practically no research had been done on individual oat protein frac¬
tions until the pioneering work by Wu et al. (1972) at the USDA
Northern Regional Research Center. Protein concentrates have been
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 5. Cereals 113

Table 5.10. Selected B-vitamin Contents of Oats and Oat Products from Same
Milling (mg/100 g)

Product Thiamin Riboflavin Niacin Pyridoxine

Dry-milled oats 0.65 0.14 1.15 0.20

Finished groats 0.77 0.14 0.97 0.12
Hulls 0.15 0.16 1.04 —

Oat shorts 0.44 0.35 1.62 —

Oat flour, chips, and meal 0.78 0.17 1.25 —

Source: Geddes (1960).

prepared from oat flours of ordinary and high-protein varieties by air

classification (Wu and Stringfellow 1973) and by wet-milling proce¬
dures (Wu et al. 1973; Cluskey et al. 1973). These protein products
appear to have some promise for food applications.
Studies on selected B-vitamin contents of oats and oat products have
been reviewed by Geddes (1960) and are summarized in Table 5.10.

BARLEY

Barley is used for human food in the form of parched grain, pearled
grain for soups, flour for flat bread, and ground grain for porridge.
Barley flour is milled generally by conventional roller milling (Pomeranz
et al. 1971). Air classification can be used to separate barley flours
into high-protein and low-protein fractions.
Conventional roller milling of barley gives four major products:
flour, tailings flour, shorts, and bran. The flour contains primarily the
starchy endosperm; the shorts and tailings flour, a mixture of aleurone
and pericarp with some germ and endosperm; and the bran, hulls, and
pericarp. On a dry-matter basis, barley contains 63-65% starch, 1-2%
sucrose, 1% other sugars, 1-1.5% soluble gums, 8-10% hemicellulose,
4-5% cellulose, 2-3% lipids, 8-11% protein (N X 6.25), 2-2.5% ash,
and 5-6% other substances. The protein content of milled products
can vary widely. The yield, protein contents, and amino acid composi¬
tion of roller-milled barley to 65% extraction barley flour are shown in
Table 5.11 (Robbins and Pomeranz 1972).
A screening program of the World Barley Collection for genetic
varieties having high lysine and high protein was successful, and the
most promising variety, Cl 3947 (Hagberg and Karlsson 1969) was later
called Hiproly. The opportunities offered by this improved barley
variety and its properties have been reviewed by Munck (1972).
Barley protein concentrate from normal and high-protein, high-
lysine varieties was prepared by an alkaline extraction procedure (Wu
et al. 1979). The essential amino acid composition of protein concentrate
114 Y. V. Wu and G. E. Inglett

Table 5.11. Yield, Protein Contents, and Amino Acid Composition of Roller-Milled
Barley Products

Whole Flour, 65% Tailings

Assay kernel extraction flour Shorts Bran

Yield, % 100.0 65.0 17.7 11.9 5.4

Protein, N X 6.25, % 9.3 9.8 11.3 8.8 3.1
Amino acidsa
Lysine 4.2 4.1 4.1 4.8 5.0
Histidine 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.1 1.4
Ammonia 3.1 3.1 3.0 2.9 3.5
Arginine 5.3 5.5 5.7 5.9 4.6
Aspartic acid 7.4 7.1 7.5 8.2 8.6
Threonine 3.6 3.6 3.6 3.8 4.2
Serine 4.1 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.7
Glutamic acid 22.6 23.3 22.9 21.2 20.6
Proline 11.4 10.1 9.6 9.2 9.9
Cystine/2 1.1 1.4 1.3 1.1 0.3
Glycine 4.5 4.3 4.7 5.1 5.0
Alanine 4.6 4.4 4.7 5.1 5.0
Valine 5.3 5.2 5.3 5.5 6.1
Methionine 2.5 2.7 2.5 2.5 2.3
Isoleucine 3.6 3.7 3.6 3.7 3.7
Leucine 6.8 7.0 6.8 6.9 7.5
Tyrosine 2.7 3.2 3.0 2.9 2.5
Phenylalanine 4.9 5.0 5.2 5.0 5.1

Source: Robbins and Pomeranz (1972).

a Grams of amino acid per 100 g recovered.

from high-protein, high-lysine varieties was greatly improved compared

with normal barley. Fractionation of barley and malted barley flours
by air classification to yield high-protein flour and starch fractions was
reported by Vose and Youngs (1978).

SORGHUM

Dry milling of sorghum grain ranges from cracking, to produce a

crude product, to debranning and degermination that yield refined frac¬
tions of bran, germ, meal, and grits. The composition of typical com¬
mercial sorghum dry-milled products is shown in Table 5.12. Wall and
Ross (1970) and Rooney et al. (1980) provided information on sorghum
production and utilization.
Normal sorghum has the lowest lysine content among the cereal
grains. However, two floury lines of Ethiopian origin were exceptionally
high in lysine at relatively high levels of protein (Singh and Axtell
1973). Another high-lysine sorghum, P721 opaque, was produced by
chemical mutagen treatment of normal grain (Mohan and Axtell 1975).
 5. Cereals 115

Table 5.12. Composition of Dry-Milled Commercial Sorghum Products (%)

Product Protein Oil Fiber Ash

Whole . 9.6 3.4 2.2 1.5

Pearled 9.5 3.0 1.3 1.2
Flour
Crude 9.5 2.5 1.2 1.0
Refined 9.5 1.0 1.0 0.8
Brewers’ grits 9.5 0.7 0.8 0.4
Bran 8.9 5.5 8.6 2.4
Germ 15.1 20.0 2.6 8.2
Hominy feed 11.2 6.5 3.8 2.7

Source: Hahn (1969).

An alkaline extraction process gives protein concentrate and starch

from ground sorghum of normal and high-lysine contents (Wu 1978).
The protein concentrate from normal sorghum has a lysine content that
exceeded that of sorghum by 50%, whereas the concentrates from high-
lysine varieties showed an even larger increase in lysine content over the
already elevated lysine levels of the high-lysine grains. Air classification
of flour and horny endosperm from high-lysine sorghum yielded frac¬
tions with enriched protein content compared with the starting flour or
horny endosperm (Wu and Stringfellow 1981). In addition, the high-
protein fraction from horny endosperm also had considerably higher
lysine content than the starting material.

TRITICALE

Triticale is a cross between wheat and rye. Now, triticales are com¬
petitive in yield with wheat [Centro Internacional de Merjoramiento de
Maiz y Trigo (CIMMYT) 1982]. In acid soils, semitropical highlands, and
some specific disease areas, triticale usually shows better yield per¬
formance than wheat. Most of the food products made from wheat
flour can be made successfully from pure triticale flour, including
fermented and nonfermented dough products. Good-quality bread
can be made in mixtures of up to 75% triticale flour and 25% wheat
flour. The loaf volume of bread made with triticale-wheat flour mix¬
tures is higher than the loaf with 100% wheat flour in some cases.
Commercial dry milling of triticale is limited to 100% triticale flour
in the United States. Wu et al. (1976) prepared protein concentrates
and starch from ground triticale by an alkaline extraction process.
Lorenz (1974) reviewed the history, development, and utilization of
triticale; Hulse and Laing (1974) reported the nutritive value of triticale
protein; Wu et al. (1978) summarized some food uses of triticale; and
Bushuk and Larter (1980) reviewed the production, chemistry, and
technology of triticale.
 116 Y. V. Wu and G. E. Inglett

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 »
6
f *

Effects of
Agricultural Practices,
Handling, Processing, and
Storage on Legumes and Oilseeds1
Walter J. Wolf

Legumes and oilseeds are important sources of protein and oil for the
human diet. Major legumes used as foods include peas, beans, lentils,
peanuts, and soybeans. In some countries legumes are the main source
of dietary protein, but in the United States, where animal protein con¬
sumption is high, legumes provide only a minor portion of the daily
protein intake. Although they are legumes, peanuts and soybeans are
high in oil content and are also classified as oilseeds. Other oilseeds of
economic importance in the United States are cottonseed and sun¬
flower seed.

EDIBLE LEGUMES

There are more than 13,000 species of legumes, but only about 20
are eaten by man (Aykroyd and Doughty 1964). In the United States,
annual per capita consumption of peas and beans in 1983 was only 227
and 2815 g, respectively (USD A1984), or a total of about 8 g/capita/day.
This quantity supplies about 2 g of protein/day or 2% of the protein
intake. In contrast, in many tropical and subtropical regions of the
world, legumes provide the major supply of dietary protein and calories.
For example, in India the per capita consumption of legumes is about
40 g/day (Udayasekhara Rao and Belavady 1978), and in Latin America,
the common bean, Phaseolus vulgaris, is a staple, along with corn, in the
traditional diet (Bressani and Elias 1974). Many legumes are rich in
lysine, whereas cereals are low in this essential amino acid; consequently,
legumes and cereals complement each other, with cereals providing

1 Contribution from the Northern Regional Research Center, Agricultural Research

Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Peoria, IL 61604.

119
120 W. J. Wolf

methionine and cystine, which tend to be low in legumes. Legumes

also provide several B-complex vitamins plus minerals and dietary fiber.
For purposes of discussion here, the term edible legumes is restricted to
mature seeds of peas and beans; peanuts and soybeans are covered in the
section on oilseeds. Five groups of peas and beans important as foods
include chick-peas (Cicer arietinum, also called garbanzo, Bengal gram,
chenata, or chana); peas (Pisum sativum var. arvense Poir., field or
smooth pea, and P. sativum L., or wrinkled pea); broad beans (Vicia
faba, also called horse or field bean); lentils (Lens esculenta)\ and beans
(P. vulgaris, P. lunatus, P. aureus, and P. mungo). More detailed infor¬
mation on these legumes (often referred to as pulses) can be found
elsewhere (Pattee et al. 1982; Reddy et al. 1982A,B; Sgarbieri and
Whitaker 1982). Other legumes, such as certain Lathyrus species that
contain toxic compounds, have been excluded; they have been reviewed
recently (Padmanaban 1980).

Seed Structure
Pea and bean seeds consist of a seed coat (hull), hypocotyl-radicle
axis, plummule, and two cotyledons. In chick-peas (C. arietinum), for
example, the distribution is seed coat, 15%, cotyledons, 84%, and the
remaining portion of the embryo, 1% (Lai et al. 1963). The seed coat is
a protective barrier during storage and handling, and generally legume
seeds with thin seed coats absorb water more rapidly than seeds with
thick seed coats (Sefa-Dedeh and Stanley 1979). The cotyledons make
up 80-90% of the seed and are sites of the energy stores, which in peas
and beans is starch. Typically, cotyledon cells contain ovoid starch
granules 10-40 pm long and 8-25 pm wide embedded in a matrix of
protein bodies that contain the storage proteins (Fig. 6.1).

Composition
Representative proximate analyses of various peas and beans (Table
6.1) indicate that protein contents range from 22 to 31%, whereas
fat contents vary from 1 to 6%. Ash (2-4%) and fiber (4-7%) constitute
the remaining minor fractions. The major constituents are the carbo¬
hydrates that make up from 58 to 68% of the legumes. Composition
of some legumes may vary considerably; in peas, for example, protein
content varied from 14.5 to 28.5 (dry, dehulled basis) in one crop year
(Reichert and MacKenzie 1982).

Proteins
The proteins of legumes include metabolic, structural, and storage
types. Storage proteins are laid down during seed development and are
mobilized as nitrogen and carbon sources during germination; they make
up as much as 80% of the total protein (Sgarbieri and Whitaker 1982).
 6. Legumes and Oilseeds 121

Fig. 6.1. Scanning electron micrograph of a cross section of a white bean (P.
vulgaris) cotyledon showing starch granules (S) and protein bodies (PB). Source:
Sefa-Dedeh and Stanley (1979).

Table 6.1. Composition of (g/100 g, dry basis) Peas and Beans

Legume Protein Fat Ash Crude fiber Carbohydrate^

Chick pea (Cicer

arietinum) 21.9 6.1 2.3 4.9 64.8
Pea (Pisum sativum) 24.6 1.2 2.8 3.9 67.5
Lentil (Lens culinaris)* 30.8 0.9 3.0 7.1 58.2
Navy bean (Phaseolus
vulgaris) 25.8 1.8 3.6 6.6 62.2
Baby lima bean
(.Phaseolus limensis) 23.5 0.9 3.9 6.9 64.8
Cowpeas (Vigna
unguiculata) 25.3 1.3 3.7 7.1 62.6
Broad bean (Vicia fabaf 30.3 1.1 3.5 6.8 58.3

Source: Meiners et al. (1976B), except as indicated otherwise.

a Nitrogen-free extract, by difference.
* Without seed coat.
c From Al-Nouri and Siddigi (1982).
122 W. J. Wolf

The storage proteins consist mainly of two fractions, legumin and vicillin
(Derbyshire et al. 1976). Legumins from various legumes have sedimenta¬
tion coefficients of about 11 S and molecular weights in the range of
300,000 to 400,000. They are globulins with quarternary structures con¬
sisting of six subunits. Each subunit is comprised of an acidic polypeptide
(MW 27,000-37,000) and a basic polypeptide (MW 20,000-24,000).
Nielsen (1985) has reviewed the structures of the polypeptides of soybean
11 S globulin. Legumins have a high content of glutamic and aspartic acids
that occur largely as amides. Vicillin-type proteins have sedimentation co¬
efficients of approximately 7 S, molecular weights of 140,000 to 200,000,
and subunits with molecular weights falling in the range of 23,000 to
56,000 (Derbyshire et al. 1976). Several vicillins are glycoproteins (con¬
taining covalently linked carbohydrate), in contrast to the legumins, which
generally are low in carbohydrate content. In addition to the storage pro¬
teins, legumes contain phytohemagglutinins (~2-10% of total protein),
protease inhibitors (0.2-2% of total soluble protein), and a-amylase in¬
hibitors (Sgarbieri and Whitaker 1982).
Essential amino acid contents of selected peas and beans (Table 6.2)
show that these legumes are good sources of lysine, but are low in
methionine.

Lipids
Total lipids found in legumes vary with variety, origin, location of
growth, climate, seasonal and environmental factors, and soil type in
which the legumes are grown (Worthington etal. 1972). The lipids found
in peas and beans consist of neutral lipids (primarily triacylglycerols plus
di- and monoacylglycerols, free fatty acids, sterols, and sterol esters),
phospholipids, and glycolipids (Pattee et al. 1982). The relative amounts
of the three lipid classes vary with species. In peas, for example, distri¬
bution is as follows: neutral lipids, 46%; glycolipids, 10%; and phospho¬
lipids, 44% (Miyazawa et al. 1974). Representative values for fatty
acids found in pea and bean lipids (Table 6.3) show that unsaturated
fatty acids predominate, but that composition varies considerably from
species to species. Noteworthy is a content of 48% linolenic acid in
lipids of common beans; the other legumes contain only from 3 to 19%
of this highly unsaturated fatty acid.

Carbohydrates
The major carbohydrate in peas and beans is starch, but numerous
other sugar constituents are also present; there are the cell wall poly¬
saccharides plus the oligosaccharides, sucrose, raffinose, stachyose, and
verbascose. Table 6.4 shows the distribution of carbohydrates in six
species of peas and beans. Sugars range from 6 to 12%, whereas starch
varies from 24 to 41%. Contents of raffinose and stachyose are of practical
interest because of the propensity of these sugars to form flatus on inges¬
tion; the pentosans also appear to promote flatulence (Fleming 1981).
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124 W. J. Wolf

Table 6.3. Fatty Acid Composition (%) of Pea and Bean Lipids

Chick Broad Lima Common

pea Pea bean Lentil bean bean
(Cicer (Pisum (Vicia (Lens (Phaseolus (Phaseolus
arietinum) sativum) faba) esculenta) lunatus) vulgaris)

Total lipid 4.99 2.40 1.60 1.17 1.41 1.48

Total fatty acids 3.86 1.78 1.24 0.90 1.09 1.15
Acidfl
Myristic — ' 0.6 — — — —

Palmitic 11.9 17.4 14.5 16.7 25.7 13.9

Stearic 1.6 2.8 2.4 1.1 2.8 1.7
Oleic 28.2 20.8 25.8 21.1 11.9 9.6
Linoleic 56.0 48.9 52.4 47.8 40.4 27.0
Linolenic 2.6 9.0 4.0 11.1 19.3 47.8
Arachidic — — 0.8 1.1 — —
Eicosenic — — — 1.1 — —

Source: Calculated from data compiled by Exler et al. (1977).

a As percentage of total fatty acids.
Values may not total 100% because of round¬
ing off.

Table 6.4. Distribution of Sugars and Polysaccharides in Peas and Beans

Wrinkled
Chick field Green Mung Navy Kidney
pea pea lentil bean bean bean
(Cicer (Pisum (Lens (Vigna (Phaseolus (Phaseolus
arietinum) sativum) culinaris) radiata) vulgaris) vulgaris)

Sugars^
Total^ 9.00 12.39 7.88 7.24 6.19 7.98
Sucrose 1.5-3.0 5.0 1.5-3.0 0.81 1.5-3.0 1.5-3.0
Raffinose 0.67 1.47 0.60 0.37 0.67 0.37
Unknown I 2.76 — 1.67 0.17 — —

Stachyose 2.16 4.50 1.70 1.67 3.53 4.00

Unknown II 0.44 — 0.22 0.25 — —

Verbascose 0.43 2.70 0.70 1.73 0.50 0.40

Polysaccharides^
Starch 37.2 24.0 41.0 40.4 30.4 32.8
Glucans 0.72 0.41 0.45 0.45 0.62 0.66
Pentosans 1.60 1.90 0.91 0.85 1.76 2.22
Cellulose 2.19 4.15 3.20 2.49 3.18 2.52
Hemicellulose 0.35 0.91 0.66 0.63 0.54 0.31
Lignin 7.08 0.74 11.35 7.33 0.13 2.69

Source: Fleming (1981).

a Content expressed as percentage of whole seed, dry basis.
b Total sugars extracted by 80% aqueous methanol.
 6. Legumes and Oilseeds 125

Table 6.5. Vitamin Content of Peas and Beans0

Chick Red kidney Mung Broad

pea0 Pea0, ^ bean^ bean^ Lentils0 bean^
(Cicer (Pisiyn (Phaseolus (Phaseolus (Lens (Vicia
Vitamin arietinum) sativum) vulgaris) aureus) esculenta) faba)
Ascorbic acid 0.72 9.6 5.0 6.0 8 5.38
Tocopherol N.D. 0.76 0.79 2.20 N.D. N.D.
Carotene 0.07 39.82 3.35 4.53 N.D. 0.09
Thiamin 0.81 0.95 1.53 0.48 0.80 1.00
Riboflavin 0.19 0.26 0.19 0.25 0.32 0.34
Niacin 1.68 2.32 3.46 2.57 3.5 2.52

a 1° mg/100 g whole seed (dry basis), N.D., not determined.

b Craviotto et al. (1951).
c Early Alaska variety.
^ Fordham et al. (1975).
e Kylen and McCready (1975).

Vitamins and Minerals

Vitamin contents of several peas and beans are summarized in Table
6.5. Peas and beans are poor sources of fat-soluble vitamins but contain
moderate amounts of the water-soluble vitamins.
Mineral analyses (Table 6.6) indicate that peas and beans are high in
potassium and very low in sodium. Phosphorus is the second highest
mineral and exists in several forms. In Bengal gram or chick-pea (C.
arietinum), phosphorus is distributed as follows: acid-soluble, 74%;
inorganic, 11%; phytate, 45%; phosphatide, 16%; and unaccounted
(mainly nucleic acid?), 10% (Verma and Lai 1966). Analyses of 50
varieties and lines of mature dry beans (P. vulgaris) revealed ranges of
0.26-0.57% total phosphorus, 0.54-1.58% phytic acid, 0.02-0.04%
inorganic phosphorus, and 0.05-0.14% organic, nonphytic acid phos¬
phorus (Lolas and Markakis 1975).

Minor Constituents
Legumes also contain minor components, including phytates and
tannins, that are important from a nutritional standpoint. In P. vulgaris,
54-82%, or an average of 69% of the total phosphorus, is phytic acid
(Lolas and Markakis 1975). A survey of 11 legumes revealed a range of
0.4% (faba bean) to 1.2% (soybean) in phytic acid content (Elkowicz
and Sosulski 1982). Reviews are available of phytates in legumes
(Reddy et al. 1982C) and their interactions in food systems (Cheryan
1980).
Tannins are found in several legumes, including broad bean (V. faba)
and chick-pea (C. arietinum). Testa (seed coat) of broad beans with
colored flowers contain 4-8% tannins, whereas the testa from white-
flowered broad beans contain less than 0.6% tannins (Griffiths and
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 6. Legumes and Oilseeds 127

Jones 1977). Tannin contents of other legumes are cowpea (Vigna

unguiculata), 0.0-0.6%; pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan), 0.0-0.1%; black
gram (P. mungo), 0.3%; and adzuki bean (V. angularis), 0.3% (Price
et al. 1980). Dehulling reduces the tannin content of dry beans (P.
vulgaris) by 68-95% because the pigments are concentrated in the seed
coat (Deshpande et al. 1982).

Nutritional Properties

The proteins of a number of legumes are deficient in sulfur-containing

amino acids (methionine, cysteine, and cystine); methionine, the first
limiting amino acid, is often less than 1% of the protein, whereas lysine
may range from 6 to 8% (Table 6.2). The biological value of legume
proteins is generally lower than that of other food proteins, partly be¬
cause of the low methionine content. Part of the poor biological value
is also attributed to heat-stable antinutritional factors such as cyano-
genic glycosides, phytic acid, phenolic compounds, saponins, and estro¬
gens. Other antinutritional factors such as protease inhibitors, amylase
inhibitors, and hemagglutinins are heat-labile proteins and can be, thus,
inactivated by cooking (Sgarbieri and Whitaker 1982). The low nutri¬
tive value of legume proteins has also been ascribed to their poor di¬
gestibility in the raw state, which can be markedly improved by cook¬
ing (Liener and Thompson 1980). Tobin and Carpenter (1978) and
Sgarbieri and Whitaker (1982) have reviewed the nutritional properties
of dry beans (P. vulgaris).

Processing

Soaking, cooking, and canning are the major processes used in the
United States in preparing peas and beans for edible consumption, but
other processes such as sprouting and roasting are being studied and
applied. Fractionation of peas and beans into starch and proteins is not
practiced in the United States, but extensive research and development
in this area has occurred in Canada.

Sprouting
Consumption of sprouted legume seeds in the United States has in¬
creased since the mid-1970s because of consumer interest in nutrition
and health foods. Changes in proximate analysis and vitamin and
mineral content have received attention because of claims by health
food proponents for sprouted seeds. Generally, legume sprouts are
good sources of protein, minerals, and some vitamins (Augustin et al.
1983; Fordham et al. 1975; Kylen and McCready 1975; Vanderstoep
1981). Some vitamins, such as ascorbic acid, increase in concentration
in some seeds upon sprouting (Fordham et al. 1975).
128 W. J. Wolf

Quick-Cooking Process
A major deterrent to greater home use of peas and beans in the
United States is the long time required for soaking and cooking. Soak¬
ing shortens the cooking time; salts such as sodium bicarbonate are
often added to the soaking and cooking waters to further reduce the
cooking time. Rockland et al. (1979) developed a procedure for quick
cooking of various legumes using a mixture of sodium chloride, sodium
tripolyphosphate, sodium carbonate, and sodium bicarbonate for soak¬
ing. After draining, such soaked beans cook very quickly (6-20 min) as
compared to beans soaked only in water (40-220 min). The quick¬
cooking salt mixture apparently facilitates solubilization of intercellular
pectic substances, thereby permitting cellular separation and softening
of the beans (Varriano-Marston and de Omana 1979). Kinetics of cook¬
ing for salt-soaked beans have been reported (Silva et al. 1981).

Canning
Consumer interest in nutritional information has prompted studies
on cooked legumes and canned products. Dry matter and nutrient loss
during processing may be significant. For example, with cowpea (V.
unguiculata) dehulling, soaking, and boiling result in losses of 19% in
dry matter and 16% in crude proteins (Walker and Kochhar 1982). Gen¬
erally, protein and fat are well retained during cooking, but losses may
occur in minerals and vitamins because of leaching into the cook water
and thermal destruction (Augustin et al. 1981; Meiners et al. 1976A).
Nutrient data for canned beans (P vulgaris) and lima beans (P.
lunatus) have been reported and are being used to provide nutritional
information on product labels (Halaby et al. 1981).

Roasting ^

Dry roasting also has been explored for preparing bean products that
are more convenient to use than conventional dry legumes (Aguilera
et al. 1982A). Roasted navy beans (P. vulgaris) can be ground into a
whole-bean flour or fractionated to yield a hull flour, a high-starch frac¬
tion, and a high-protein product (Aguilera et al. 1982B). The latter two
fractions are obtained by pin milling and air classification.

Flours, Concentrates, and Isolates

In the United States, commercial conversion of peas and beans into
products analogous to those of soybeans (e.g., flours, protein concen¬
trates, and protein isolates) is limited to flours made from peas, Great
Northern beans, lentils, or pinto beans.
Fractionation of legumes has been studied extensively in Canada.
For example, fine grinding and air classifying have been applied to a
variety of legumes, including field peas (P. sativum), navy beans (P.
lunatus), mung beans (V. radiata), lentils (L. culinaris), and horse beans
 6. Legumes and Oilseeds 129

(V. faba) (Reichert 1982; Sosulski and Youngs 1979; Vose et al. 1976).
Pilot plant preparations of isolates from faba beans {V. faba), mung
beans (P. aureus), and peas (P. sativum) have been described (Bramsnaes
and Sejr Olsen 1979; Sumner et al. 1981; Thompson 1977). In 1987
production in Canada consisted of flours, starches, high cell wall-
containing fractions, and hulls made from peas by pin milling and air
classifying. Pea protein isolates were also being produced.

Food Uses

Consumption of peas and beans is widespread, especially in countries

where animal proteins are scarce and expensive. In Mexico, for example,
the black variety of kidney bean (P. vulgaris) is a staple of the diet. The
legumes can be prepared by soaking in water, removing the seed coat,
and then cooking for 1 hr or more to soften them. In India, the beans
are mashed, cooked, and dried to form “grams.” Grinding into powders
or “dhals” is another popular method of preparation in India. Most of
these legume products are Consumed directly in the home.
In the United States, where consumption is lower than in other
countries, peas and beans are both prepared in the home and processed
commercially. In home use, the dried peas and beans are utilized in
soups and the latter are also baked. Home preparation of dried legumes
is low, however, because of the long time required for soaking and
cooking. The major bean produced in the United States in 1981 was
the pinto bean, followed by navy and ‘Great Northern’ beans. Pinto
beans are prepared in canned forms such as chili with beans and related
products, whereas navy beans are processed into canned pork and
beans, baked beans, and beans in tomato sauce.

OILSEEDS

Soybean, cottonseed, peanut, and sunflower are the major oilseeds

grown in the United States. Soybeans and peanuts are legumes, but
are atypical because of their high oil contents and little or no starch.
Soybeans, sunflowers, and particularly peanuts are consumed directly
as foods, but the four oilseeds primarily serve as sources of edible oils
and high-protein meals that are the mainstay of the animal feed indus¬
try. Of the four oilseeds, the soybean is the largest supplier of edible
oil and edible protein products.

Seed Structure
Soybeans, peanuts, and cottonseed are dicotyledons consisting of a
seed coat (hull), two cotyledons, and the axial organs, hypocotyl and
Fig. 6.2. Transmission electron micrograph of a mature, hydrated cotyledonary cell. Cell wall (CW), protein
bodies (PB), and lipid bodies (LB) are identified. Source: Saio and Watanabe (1968).
 6. Legumes and Oilseeds 131

radicle. Sunflower seeds consist of a pericarp or hull plus a single ker¬

nel. The oil and the bulk of the protein are stored in membrane-bound
lipid bodies and protein bodies, respectively, as illustrated for soy¬
beans in Fig. 6.2. In soybeans, the lipid bodies are from 0.2 to 0.5 jum
and the protein bodies range from 2 to 20 pm in diameter. Cotyledons
of most cottonseed varieites also contain pigment glands (storage sites
for gossypurpurin and gossypol) 100-400 jum long (Berardi and Gold-
blatt 1980). Glandless cottonseed varieties are available but are not
grown on a large scale. In contrast to peas and beans (Fig. 6.1), the oil¬
seeds contain only an occasional starch granule (not shown in Fig. 6.2).

Composition

Compositions for the oilseeds are given in Table 6.7. Except for soy¬
beans all have a high seed-coat or hull content. The high hull content
of the other seeds results in high crude fiber levels; some confectionary
varieties of sunflowers have as much as 28% crude fiber (Wan et al.
1979). Because of their high fiber content, the hulls are usually removed
when oilseeds are processed into food products; dehulling has a signifi¬
cant effect on protein content of defatted meals (Table 6.7) because
the hulls are high in cellulose and other polysaccharides.
Proteins
The proteins in the four oilseeds are complex mixtures consisting of
storage, metabolic, and structural proteins that fall into four major
groups with molecular weights of 8,000 to 700,000, exemplified by the

Table 6.7. Approximate Compositions of Oilseeds0

Protein in
Protein dehulled, defatted
Oilseed Hulls (%) Oil {%) (NX 6.25)(%) Ash (%) meal^ (%)

Cottonseed0 36 21.6 21.5 4.2 —

Cottonseed kernels — 36.4 32.5 4.7 63

Peanuts 20-30 — — — —
Peanut kernels 2-3. bd 50.0 30.3 3.0 57
Soybean 8 20 43 5.0 52
Sunflowere 47 29.8 18.1 — 67
Sunflower^ 31 48.0 16.9 — 60
Sunflower kernels^ — 64.7 21.2 — —

a Moisture-free basis. Taken from Smith (1958), except as noted otherwise.

^ Data vary with efficiency of dehulling and oil extraction, variety of seed, and
climatic conditions during growth.
c Acid delinted.
d Red skins or testa.
e Arrowhead variety low-oil type (Earle et al. 1968).
f Armavirec variety high-oil type (Earle et al. 1968).
132 W. J. Wolf

2 7 11 15

Fig. 6.3. Ultracentrifuge patterns for the proteins extracted with water from de¬
fatted soybean flakes in pH 7.6, 0.5 ionic strength buffer. Sedimentation coefficients
in Svedberg units (S) are given above peaks. Approximate molecular weights for
the fractions are 2S: 8,000-50,000; 7 S: 100,000-180,000; 11 S: 300,000-350,000;
15 S: 700,000. Source: Wolf (1970).

ultracentrifuge pattern for soybean proteins (Fig. 6.3). The 7 S and

11 S fractions are the major proteins, except in sunflowers where the
2 S and 11 S fractions predominate (Rahma and Narasinga Rao 1979).
Considered to be storage proteins, the.7 S and 11 S fractions are of the
legumin and vicillin types and are located in the protein bodies (Fig.
6.2, Derbyshire et al. 1976).
Amino acid compositions for the proteins in the defatted oilseed
meals are given in Table 6.8. Also shown is the essential amino acid
pattern for a high-quality protein to meet human dietary requirements
as established by the Food and Nutrition Board (FNB) of the National
Research Council. Soybean proteins meet or exceed the reference
pattern requirements, except for valine and the sulfur amino acids,
which are only slightly low. The other proteins, however, are deficient
in four or five amino acids, including lysine, threonine, valine, isoleucine,
and leucine.
Lipids
Fatty acid compositions for the crude oils obtained from the four
oilseeds indicate that the oils contain 70-85% unsaturated fatty acids,
with sunflower being the highest (Table 6.9). Soybean oil differs from
 6. Legumes and Oilseeds 133

Table 6.8. Amino Acid Composition (g/16 g N) of Defatted Oilseed Meals

FNB
Amino acid Cottonseed0 Peanut^ Soybean0 Sunflower0^ patterne

Lysine 4.4 * 3.4 6.4 3.8 5.1

Histidine 2.7 2.4 2.6 2.5 1.7
Ammonia 2.1 1.7 1.9 2.2 1.7
Arginine 11.6 12.0 7.3 8.9
Aspartic acid 9.2 13.0 11.8 8.7 _

Threonine 3.0 2.5 3.9 3.2 3.5

Serine 4.2 5.2 5.5 3.9 —

Glutamic acid 21.7 20.6 18.6 21.0 —

Proline 3.6 5.1 5.5 5.0 —

Glycine 4.1 6.6 4.3 5.1 —

Alanine 3.9 3.8 4.3 4.1 —

Valine 4.5 3.1 4.6 4.8 4.8

Cystine 2.6 2.5 1.4 1.8
Methionine 1.5 2.6
1.1 1.1 1.9
Isoleucine 3.1 2.3 4.6 4.0 4.2
Leucine 5.8 f 6.2 7.8 6.1 7.0
Tyrosine 3.1 3.6 3.8 2.7 1
Phenylalanine 5.4 5.0 5.0 4.7 J 1.0

Tryptophan 1.2 1.0 1.4 1.1 1.1

0 Means for eight glanded seed varieties (Lawhon et al. 1977).

* Means for 16 varieties (Young et al. 1973), except for tryptophan (Lusas 1979).
c Means based on 32 hydrolyzates except for proline, cystine, and tryptophan
(Cavihs et al. 1972).
^ Means for seven varieties (Earle et al. 1968).
e Food and Nutrition Board pattern for high-quality protein for human (NAS 1980).

Table 6.9. Fatty-Acid Composition (%) of Unprocessed Oils from Four Oilseeds

Fatty acids Cottonseed0 Peanut^7 Soybean0 Sunflower0

Saturated
10:0 0.48
12:0 0.38 — 0.10 —
14:0 0.79 — 0.16 0.1
16:0 22.0 10.5 10.7 5.81
18:0 2.24 3.2 3.87 4.11
20:0 0.19 1.4 0.22 0.29
22:0 — 2.1 — 0.61
24:0 — 0.7 — —
Unsaturated
16:1 0.78 _ 0.29 0.10
18:1 18.1 50.3 22.8 20.7
18:2 50.3 30.6 50.8 63.5
18:3 0.40 — 6.76 0.32
20:1 — 1.0 — 0.10

0 From Brignoli et al. (1976).

^ Mean values for 1968 crop of 82 peanut genotypes (Worthington et al. 1972).
134 W. J. Wolf
V
the others because it contains 4-10% linolenic acid, which is especially
sensitive to oxidative deterioration.

Carbohydrates
Oilseeds contain soluble mono- and oligosaccharides plus insoluble
polysaccharides. Data for the soluble sugars and total carbohydrates of
defatted oilseed flours are listed in Table 6.10. Sucrose, raffinose, and
stachyose are the main sugars present. Total carbohydrates minus the
total soluble sugars range from 11 to 19% of the flours and estimate the
amount of polysaccharides. Raffinose and stachyose are of practical
significance because of their contribution to flatulence when defatted
flour products are ingested (Rackis 1981).

Vitamins, Minerals, and Minor Constituents

Mineral and vitamin contents for the four oilseeds are compiled in
Table 6.11. Noteworthy are the low sodium and high potassium con¬
tents of oilseeds.
Among minor constituents of the oilseeds is phytic acid, which
occurs at the following levels:

Seed Phytic acid (%) Reference

Cottonseed kernels 2.2-3.8 Pons et al. (1953)

Peanuts 0.8 Pons et al. (1953)
Soybeans 1.0-1.5 Lolas et al. (1976)

Cottonseed kernels contain 1.1-1.3% gossypol (Lawhon et al. 1977)

plus related pigments that affect color and nutritional properties of the
oil and meal. In addition, cottonseed contains the cyclopropenoid
fatty acids, malvalic and sterculic acids in the form of glycerides that
are extractable with hexane. Crude cottonseed oils contain 0.6-1.0%
of these fatty acids (Bailey et al. 1966), whereas in refined oils the
values are lower, 0.04-0.42% (Harris et al. 1964).
Phenolic acids occur at low levels in soybeans, but are important
constituents of sunflower seeds. Chlorogenic acid (2.7%), quinic acid
(0.38%), and caffeic acid (0.2%) are found in defatted sunflower meal
(Cater et al. 1972). Chlorogenic acid is sensitive to pH and turns from
yellow to green and finally to brown as the pH is elevated from 7 to
11. These chromophoric properties give rise to undesirable colors
in sunflower protein preparations, thereby limiting their use in foods
(Robertson 1975).
Soybeans contain the isoflavone glucosides, genistin, daidzin, and
glycetein-7-/I-glucoside plus small amounts of the corresponding agly-
cones. Isoflavone contents range from 0.047 to 0.36% (Eldridge and
Kwolek 1983).
Other minor constituents are saponins found in soybeans and peanuts.
Soybeans are reported to contain 5.6% and defatted flours 2.2-2.5%
 6. Legumes and Oilseeds 135

Table 6.10. Carbohydrate Contents (%) of Defatted Oilseed Flours

Cottonseed

Constituent Deglanded0. Glandless Peanut Soybean Sunflower

Soluble sugars
Glucose Trace Trace 2.12 Trace 0.60
Sucrose 2.41 2.62 7.70 7.80 2.29
Trehalose — — — —
0.79
Raffinose 7.93 11.95 Trace 1.25 3.22
Stachyose 0.95 0.68 — 6.30 —

Total 11.29 15.25 9.82 15.35 6.90

Total carbohydrate^ 22.5 26.8 22.4 34.0 24.2

Source: Data from Cegla and Bell (1977).

a Prepared by liquid cyclone process.
^ Obtained by difference: 100 - (protein + oil + ash + crude fiber) = nitrogen-free
extract.

>

Table 6.11. Mineral and Vitamin Contents of Oilseeds

Constituent Cottonseed0 Peanut^ Soybean0 Sunflower6^

Calcium, % 0.18 0.02-0.09 0.22° 0.13

Phosphorus, % 0.55 0.25-0.66 0.71e 0.88
Sodium, % 0.14 0.001-0.05 0.0004e —
Potassium,% 0.97 0.54-0.89 2.52e 0.97
Magnesium, % 0.33 0:09-0.34 0.31° —
/3-Carotene, //g/g 0.22 0.26 0.2-2.4 —
Thiamin, //g/g 17-22f 2.5-14.0 11.0-17.5 21
Riboflavin, yug/g 2.3 1.05-1.57 2.3 2.4
Niacin, // gig 16 — 20.0-25.9 57
Pantothenic acid, //g/g 11 25-35 12 —
Pyrodoxine, //g/g 9.8 3.0 6.4 —
Biotin, //g/g 0.29 0.34-1.1 0.6 —
Folic acid, //g/g 3.8 2.8 2.3 —

Inositol, //g/g 3400 1800 1.9-2.6 —

Choline, //g/g 3.0 1650-1740 3400 —
Ascorbic acid, //g/g — 58 5.8 —

a From Altschul et al. (1958).

^ From Rosen (1958). Data for kernels.
c From Liener (1972), Fordham et al. (1975), and Osborn (1977).
^ From Adams and Richardson (1977). Data for kernels.
e Values for defatted, undehulled meal; values for seeds are about 20% lower.
/ Values for dehulled meats.
136 W. J. Wolf
v>
saponins (Fenwick and Oakenfull 1981), but these values are about 10
times higher than those of earlier workers.

Nutritional Properties
0/7
Unhydrogenated and partially hydrogenated oils from cottonseed,
peanuts, soybeans, and sunflowers are good sources of linoleic acid, an
essential fatty acid. Hydrogenation of soybean oil is used extensively
to impart high-temperature stability to cooking oil, extend shelf life,
and to give better flavor stability and physical and plastic properties.
Such processing lowers the content of linoleic and linolenic acid but
also causes migration of double bonds up and down the chain and con¬
verts cis to trans isomers (positional and geometrical isomerization).
Long-term tests with rats and short-term studies with humans have not
shown toxic effects on ingesting partially hydrogenated soybean oil,
but the problem is being studied further (Erickson et al. 1980). Hydro¬
carbons, cyclic hydrocarbons, alcohols, cyclic dimeric acids, and poly¬
meric fatty acids form during heating and oxidation of fats. Although
some of these compounds are toxic, an oil such as soybean oil is con¬
sidered safe and nontoxic under normal cooking conditions (Erickson
et al. 1980).
Cyclopropenoid fatty acids occurring in cottonseed oil affect several
species. The laying hen deposits these fatty acids in the egg yolks; on
storage the yolks become rubbery and the whites turn pink (Phelps
et al. 1965). Cyclopropenoid fatty acids act synergistically with
aflatoxins and as liver carcinogens (Hendricks et al. 1980). Adverse
effects have not been noted in humans; it is presumed that humans are
not affected at normal levels of ingestion (Mattson 1973). Processing
lowers the content of cyclopropenoid acids in crude cottonseed oil,
especially during deodorization (Harris et al. 1964).

Proteins and Meals

Nutritional properties of the oilseed meals and derived protein
products depend on their amino acid compositions plus the presence of
biologically active proteins and a variety of nonprotein compounds that
occur in the defatted meals. For example, phytic acid found in all four
oilseeds has been implicated in preventing absorption of dietary zinc,
calcium, magnesium, and iron (Reddy et al. 1982C).

Cottonseed. Cottonseed proteins are low in lysine, threonine, isoleucine,

and leucine when compared with the FNB ideal amino acid pattern
(Table 6.8). On moist heating of cottonseed, the e-amino group of lysine
reacts with the aldehyde groups of gossypol to form a derivative that
 6. Legumes and Oilseeds 137

makes the lysine unavailable during digestion, thus creating an even

greater imbalance with respect to lysine (Berardi and Goldblatt 1980).
Gossypol has other undesirable properties. It is toxic to monogastric
animals and, when fed to laying hens, it causes discoloration of the yolks
(Berardi and Goldblatt 1980; Phelps et al. 1965). Gossypol toxicity is
not a problem with ruminants unless large amounts are fed (Lindsey
et al. 1980). No toxicity has been observed when cottonseed flour con¬
taining gossypol was fed to humans, and cottonseed flour was used
commercially for many years (Berardi and Goldblatt 1980). The Food
and Drug Administration (FDA) limits free gossypol [the fraction
extractable with acetone:water, 70:30 (v/v)] in edible cottonseed flour
to 450 ppm.
The cyclopropenoid acids, sterculic and malvalic acids, occur as
glycerides in the seed, but extraction with hexane lowers their concen¬
tration from about 0.05-0.2% in the seed to 0.002-0.008% in defatted
meal (Levi et al. 1967).

. >
Peanuts. Low levels of lysine, threonine, isoleucine, and leucine (Table
6.8) make peanut proteins lower in nutritional value than soybean pro¬
teins, but peanut proteins generally are better than wheat or corn proteins
(Rosen 1958). Raw peanuts have a trypsin inhibitor level that is about
one-fifth that found in raw soybeans, yet it is high enough in concen¬
tration to induce pancreatic hypertrophy (enlargement) in rats. The
inhibitor is inactivated by moist heat, but such processing does not im¬
prove the nutritive value of peanut flour (Anantharaman and Carpenter
1969).

Soybeans. Methionine is the first limiting amino acid in soybean pro¬

teins, and synthetic methionine is commonly added to broiler rations to
correct this deficiency. Methionine supplementation, however, appears
unnecessary for human consumption of soybean proteins except possibly
for infants (Wilcke et al. 1979). It has been known for many years that
raw soybeans have poor nutritive value, but on cooking, the nutritional
quality is greatly increased. Trypsin inhibitors are believed responsible
for part of the low nutritive value of raw soybeans. Trypsin inhibitor
activity in raw soybeans is high, and when fed to rats, it causes poor
growth and pancreatic hypertrophy. Moist heat, however, destroys
most of the inhibitor activity, and there is no evidence that residual
activity is of any consequence when soybean proteins are ingested by
humans (Liener 1981). Ingestion by rats of commercial soy flour, con¬
centrate, or isolate for about 300 days failed to demonstrate pancreatic
hypertrophy (Rackis et al. 1979). Different species respond in dissimilar
ways to ingestion of raw soy flour that is high in trypsin inhibitor activity.
138 W.J.
v
Wolf

Rats, mice, and chicks exhibit pancreatic enlargement when they are
fed raw soy flour, whereas pigs and monkeys do not (Struthers et al.
1983). .
Poor digestibility has also been suggested as a factor responsible for
the poor nutritional properties of unheated soybean proteins (Liener
1981).
Sunflower Seed. Sunflower proteins are deficient in lysine and leucine
and borderline in threonine and isoleucine content as compared to the
ideal protein for humans (Table 6.8). Heating the seed before extract¬
ing the oil improves the nutritional value of the defatted meal (Amos
et al. 1975). Although this result suggests the presence of heat-labile
antinutritional factors, none has been clearly identified at present
(Robertson 1975).

Processing
Oil and Meal
Depending on the oil content of the seed, processing may consist of
screw pressing, prepress solvent extraction, or direct solvent extraction.
Pressing is usually used only with seeds having a high oil content. All
three techniques are used in processing cottonseed (Fig. 6.4). The seed
is cleaned (removal of sticks, stones, leaves, and other foreign materials),
delinted (mechanical removal of cotton fibers remaining after ginning),
dehulled, and flaked (passage between smooth rolls). Some processors
extract the flakes directly; others cook the flakes and then screw
press them or use a combination of screw pressing followed by solvent

Cottonseed

Fig. 6.4. Outline for processing cottonseed into

Oil Meal oil and meal.
 6. Legumes and Oilseeds 139

extraction. Peanuts are processed by screw pressing or by screw press¬

ing followed by solvent extraction, whereas sunflower seeds are screw
pressed, direct solvent extracted, or prepress solvent extracted.
Because soybeans contain only about 20% oil, virtually all are processed
by direct solvent extraction (Fig. 6.5). Soybeans are cleaned and dried,
if necessary, and then stored. After storage, they are cleaned further,
cracked to loosen the hulls, dehulled, and conditioned to 10-11% mois¬
ture for flaking. After conditioning, the meats are flaked and extracted
with hexane. Hexane and crude oil in the miscella (oil-rich hexane ex¬
tract) are separated by evaporation to recover the hexane. Residual
hexane in the flakes is recovered by evaporation in the desolventizer-
toaster, and the defatted flakes are cooked with moist heat (toasting)
to inactivate antinutritional factors and increase protein digestibility
(Liener 1981).

Edible OH Products
Crude oils obtained from oilseeds are processed further into salad
and cooking oils, shortenings, and margarines as exemplified by soy¬
bean oil (Fig. 6.6).
Phosphatides and gums are removed first by degumming to yield
crude lecithin, which is further refined or added back to the defatted
flakes just before the desolventizing-toasting step. Free fatty acids,
color bodies, and metallic prooxidants are removed by the alkali refin¬
ing. .Activated earth in the bleaching step removes additional color
bodies, and soaps. The deodorization process decomposes peroxides
and removes odors and residual free fatty acids. Partial hydrogenation,
under conditions for selective hydrogenation of linolenate, yields an
oil more stable at elevated temperatures to oxidation and flavor deteriora¬
tion. Winterization (cooling and removing solids that crystallize in the
cold) yields salad and cooking oils. Hardened fats are obtained by par¬
tial hydrogenation and may be utilized directly or blended with other
vegetable oils or animal fats for use as shortening and margarine. Blends
of oils of varying melting points are used to obtain desired mouth feel
and plastic melting ranges plus the most economical formulation.
Polyunsaturated fatty acids, especially linolenic esters in vegetable
oils, undergo oxidative deterioration resulting in undesirable flavors
such as beany, grassy, painty, or fishy. Exclusion of metal contaminants
(iron and copper), addition of metal chelators (citric acid), minimum
exposure to air, protection from light, and selective hydrogenation to
reduce the linolenate to about 3% are measures employed to control
oxidation (Erickson et al. 1980).

Edible Protein Products

At present, only defatted soybean flakes are processed into edible pro¬
tein products. Until about 1986, peanut flour and grits were prepared from
prepress hexane-extracted flakes and used as food ingredients (Ayres
 S3)|B|J
su83^ i!=JJ 3UBX8h pmbii

Fig. 6.5. Outline for processing soybeans into oil and meal by hexane extraction. Courtesy of Dravo Corporation.
 6. Legumes and Oilseeds 141

Fig. 6.6 Outline for manu¬

facture of edible soybean oil
products. D, deodorization;
W, winterization; Votator,
heat exchange equipment
for solidification of fats.
Source: Erickson et al.
(1980), courtesy of the
American Soybean Associa¬
tion and the American Oil Margarine
Chemists’ Society. (Stick, Whipped, or Tub)

et al. 1974); however, production has since been discontinued. Partially de¬
fatted peanut flours made by hydraulic pressing are still available commer¬
cially. Soybeans, on the other hand, are converted into defatted flours
and grits, concentrates, and isolates; their preparation is described below.

Defatted Soybean Flours and Grits

Edible-grade, defatted soybean flakes are manufactured basically as
shown in Fig. 6.5, but under more Sanitary conditions than are needed
to produce feeds, and the hexane is removed in a vapor desolventizer-
deodorizer or flash desolventizer (Becker 1978) rather than with the
desolventizer-toaster. After desolventizing, the defatted flakes are
ground and classified by screening. Grits have particle sizes larger than
100 mesh, whereas flours are 100 mesh or finer in particle size. Vary¬
ing degrees of heat treatment are given to grits and flours to inactivate
enzymes and to improve flavor and nutritional quality. Extent of heat
treatment is measured by determining the Nitrogen Solubility Index
(NSI) or the Protein Dispersibility Index (PDI), which estimate the
amounts of undenatured protein that remains dispersible in water under
conditions of the tests (American Oil Chemists’ Society 1976). Raw,
uncooked flours or grits have a PDI or NSI of about 90, and a fully
cooked product has values of 5-15. Defatted flours and grits have a
minimum protein content of 50% on a dry basis but will often analyze
higher, as illustrated by the compositional data for commercial products
(Table 6.12). Essential amino acid contents are summarized in Table 6.13.
142 W. J. Wolf

Table 6.12. Typical Compositions of Soybean Protein Products0

Protein

Constituent Defatted floors and grits Concentrates Isolates

Protein (N X 6.25) 56.0 72.0 96.0

Fat 1.0 1.0 0.1
Fiber 3.5 4.5 0.1
Ash 6.0 5.0 3.5
Soluble carbohydrates 14.0 2.5 0
Insoluble carbohydrates 19.5 15.0 0.3

a Analytical values on a moisture-free basis (Horan 1974).

Table 6.13. Essential Amino Acid Composition (g/16 g N) of

Soybean Flour, Concentrate and Isolate

Amino acid Defatted flour Concentrate Isolate

Lysine 6.3 6.3 5.7

Methionine 1.3 1.3 0.9
Cystine 1.6 1.5 1.2
Tryptophan 1.4 1.5 1.1
Isoleucine 4.4 4.6 4.6
Leucine 7.7 7.9 7.8
Phenylalanine 5.1 5.1 5.2
Valine 4.8 4.8 4.5

Source: Technical Service Manuals, Central Soya Co., Fort Wayne

IN.

Soybean Protein Concentrates

These products are made from defatted soybean flakes or flours by
removing the soluble sugars and other low-molecular-weight constituents.
Three basic processes have been used to prepare protein concentrates
(Fig. 6.7). The first method employs aqueous ethanol to dissolve the
sugars; the proteins and polysaccharides are insoluble in alcohol and
make up the concentrate after the solvent is removed (Mustakas et dl.
1962). In the second process, defatted flakes (or flour) are extracted
with dilute acid at pH 4.5. At this pH, the isoelectric region, the bulk
of the proteins are insoluble; after neutralizing and drying, the proteins
and insoluble polysaccharides constitute the second type of protein
concentrate (Sair 1959). In the third process, the flakes or flour are
first toasted to heat-denature and insolubilize the proteins. Water wash¬
ing then removes the sugars, leaving the denatured proteins plus the
polysaccharides (McAnelly 1964). A variation of the first process con¬
sists of adding alcohol to hexane-wet flakes after they leave the ex¬
tractor. The hexane-alcohol mixture is separated to remove lipids not
 6. Legumes and Oilseeds 143

Defatted Soybean Flakes or Flour

1. Aqueous alcohol leach
2. Oilute acid leach (pH 4.5]
3. Moist heat, water leach

Solubles Insolubles
(Sugars, ash, (Proteins,
minor components] polysaccharides)
Fig. 6.7. Outline of processes for preparing
Neutralize
soybean protein concentrates. Initial extrac¬
Dry
tion is made by one of the three solvents, as
described in the text. Concentrate!

extracted by hexane alone. Washing the flakes with aqueous alcohols

then removes the sugars and yields a protein concentrate (Hayes and
Simms 1973).
Protein concentrates by definition contain a minimum protein con¬
tent of 70% on a dry basis. A typical composition is given in Table
6.12. Essential amino acid content for a concentrate prepared by
alcohol washing is shown in Table 6.13.

Soybean Protein Isolates

Isolates are the most refined form of soybean proteins available.
They are processed one step beyond the protein concentrates by re¬
moving both the water-insoluble polysaccharides and the water-soluble
sugars (Fig. 6.8). Defatted flakes with a high protein solubility (high
NSI or PDI) are extracted with dilute alkali (pH 7-9) at 50°-55°C.
The spent flake residue (insoluble polysaccharides) is removed by
centrifuging to yield an extract containing the dissolved proteins plus
the soluble sugars. The extract is then adjusted to pH 4.5, the iso¬
electric point where the bulk of the proteins are insoluble and precipitate
as a curd. The curd is recovered by centrifuging to remove the whey
(soluble sugars, some proteins, salts, and other minor constituents).
The curd is then washed and may be spray-dried to obtain the isoelec¬
tric (water-insoluble) form of the protein. More commonly, however,
the washed curd is resolubilized by neutralizing to pH 7 and then is
spray-dried. This latter process yields the sodium, potassium, or cal¬
cium proteinates, depending on the alkali used for neutralization. The
proteinates are water-dispersible and thus easier to incorporate into wet
food systems.
An isolate contains a minimum of 90% protein on a dry basis, and a
typical composition is given in Table 6.12. Essential amino acid con¬
tent for an isolate is listed in Table 6.13.

Oriental Soybean Foods

Since the mid-1970s, several Oriental soybean products, including
tofu, miso, and tempeh, have become popular in the United States. A
 s

Fig. 6.8. Outline of process for commercial production of soy protein isolates.
 6. Legumes and Oilseeds 145

brief description for their preparation, as well as that for soy milk and
soy sauce, follows.

Soy Milk. This product traditionally is made by soaking soybeans in

water, grinding with water to form a slurry, cooking, and filtering to
remove the insoluble materials, cell wall polysaccharides and hulls
(Shurtleff and Aoyagi 1979A). The process has been modified over the
past 20 years to include heat treatment before or during grinding to in¬
activate the enzyme lipoxygenase, and thus prevent formation of grassy/
beany flavors that are objectionable to many Caucasians. Additional in¬
novations include use of vacuum pans to remove volatile flavors and
aseptic packaging by companies in Japan and the United States. Some
of the soy milks are sweetened and flavored; fermented (yogurt-like)
variations are also available.

Tofu. This product is made by adding a coagulant such as calcium sul¬

fate to soy milk to precipitate the protein and oil as a gelatinous curd.
The curd is then separated*from the soluble fraction (whey), pressed,
and soaked in water to yield a traditional food staple of Japan (Shurtleff
and Aoyagi 1975).

Miso. Cooked soybeans are fermented with Aspergillus oryzae in the

presence of salt with or without a cereal such as rice or barley to form
this paste-like product (Shurtleff and Aoyagi 1976). It is used as a soup
base and is consumed in Japan, China, Indochina, and the East Indies
and is produced on a small scale in the United States.

Tempeh. Cooked beans are inoculated with Rhizopus oligosporus and

fermented for 25 hr, resulting in an extensive mold mycellium that
binds the soybeans together (Shurtleff and Aoyagi 1979B). It is sliced
and deep-fat fried to a crisp golden brown. It is a traditional food of
Indonesia and is produced on a limited scale in the United States.

Soy sauce. This well-known soybean condiment is made by fermenta¬

tion or acid hydrolysis. The fermented type is made by mixing cooked
soybeans or defatted soybean grits with roasted wheat, and the mixture
is blended with a pure culture of A. oryzae. Brine is added and fermenta¬
tion proceeds for 6 to 8 months. The product is then filtered and
pasteurized (Fukushima 1981).

Food Uses
Cottonseed
Glandless (lacking the pigment glands containing gossypol) cottonseed
is produced on a commercial scale near Lubbock, Texas, and the roasted
kernels are used in breads and confectionary items. A defatted flour made
from glandless seed became available commercially in 1986. Glanded
cottonseed is processed into oil and meal. The oil is refined and used
146 W. J. Wolf

for salad and cooking oils, shortenings, and margarines. The meal is
utilized for animal feeds, primarily for beef and dairy cattle because of
its low lysine, gossypol, and crude fiber content. Some cottonseed meal is
also used for poultry feeds. Edible defatted cottonseed flour prepared by
screw pressing became available commercially in the United States in the
1930s (Altschul et al. 1958), but manufacture was discontinued in
about 1977. It formerly was used in doughnuts, biscuits, crackers,
and prepared food mixes. A prepressed-hexane extracted cottonseed
flour has been used since the 1960s in Latin America in the form of a
blend with corn flour, sorghum flour, and torula yeast; the blend is
known as Incaparina.

Peanuts
About one-half of the U.S. crop is processed into edible products;
peanut butter is the main edible form and others include peanut candy,
salted nuts, and roasted in-the-shell items. Peanut butter is made by
shelling the peanuts, dry-roasting the kernels, removing the skins, and
then grinding finely. The ground peanuts are then mixed with salt and
other ingredients that may include hydrogenated fat, dextrose, corn
syrup solids, lecithin, and antioxidants. Peanut butter is made and con¬
sumed mainly in the United States.
About 20-30% of the peanut crop is exported and the rest is processed
into edible oil and defatted meal (see this chapter, Oilseed Processing).
The defatted meal goes into animal feeds.

Soybeans
About 35-45% of the United States soybean crop is exported and
the rest is mainly processed into edible oil and defatted meal. Small
portions of the defatted soybean material are converted into edible
flours, concentrates, and isolates (see^this chapter, Oilseed Processing)
that are used as ingredients for processed foods (Wolf and Cowan 1975).
Soybean flours are used in breads and other baked goods, breakfast
cereals, infant foods, and dietary foods. Soy flours are also texturized
by thermoplastic extrusion to impart fibrous and chewy properties
resembling meat. Such texturized flours are used as extenders for
ground meats (especially beef) and as meat analogs (e.g., fried bacon
analogs). Soybean protein concentrates are used in meat products,
infant foods, instant breakfast bars, and meat analogs. They are also
texturized by extrusion to form extenders for ground beef. Isolates are
added to meat products and are used to make meat analogs, dairy
analogs (coffee creamers, milk replacers, and infant formulas), infant
foods, and confections.
Small amounts of soybeans are roasted and sold as snacks, canned in
tomato sauce, and converted into soy milk-based infant formulas.
Larger amounts of soybeans are converted into Oriental foods that have
become popular in the United States since the mid-1970s. These include
 6. Legumes and Oilseeds 147

tofu, miso, and tempeh. Soy sauce is a well-known condiment whose con¬
sumption has been increasing in the last two decades. In Japan, soy milk
markets expanded rapidly in the early 1980s with the introduction of im¬
proved processing, but then leveled off. A new soy milk plant with
modern Japanese technology opened in the United States in 1986.

Sunflower Seeds
The bulk of the sunflower seed crop is exported (about 75% in 1980-
1981), although the domestic crushing industry is growing. Processing
yields a high-quality edible oil and a high-protein meal that is used for
animal feeds. Direct food use of sunflower consists of roasting both in the
shell and in the dehulled form. Roasted nutmeats are utilized in candies,
cookies, snack items, spreads, and cakes. Small amounts are sold through
health food stores, and one variety of seed is grown and sold solely as bird
feed (Robertson 1975).

REFERENCES

Adams, C. F., and Richardson, M. 1977. Nutritive value of foods. USDA Home
and Garden Bull. 72. Washington, DC.
Aguilera, J. M., Lusas, E. W., Uebersax, M. A., and Zabrik, M. E. 1982A. Roasting
of navy beans (Phaseolus vulgaris) by particle-to-particle heat transfer. J. Food
Sci. 47, 996-1000, 1005.
Aguilera, J. M., Lusas, E. W., Uebersax, M. A., and Zabrik, M. E. 1982B. Develop¬
ment of food ingredients from navy beans (Phaseolus vulgaris) by roasting, pin
milling, and air classification. J. Food Sci. 47, 1151-1154.
Al-Nouri, F. F., and Siddigi, A. M. 1982. Biochemical evaluation of twelve broad
bean cultivars. Can. Inst. Food Sci. Technol. J. 15, 37-40.
Altschul, A. M., Lyman, C. M., and Thurber, F. H. 1958. Cottonseed meal. In
Processed Plant Protein Foodstuffs, pp. 469-534. A. M. Altschul (Editor).
Academic Press, New York.
American Oil Chemists’Society. 1976. Methods Ba 10—65 and Ba 11-65. Official
and Tentative Methods. 3rd Edition. Champaign, IL.
Amos, H. E., Burdick, D., and Seerley, R. W. 1975. Effect of processing tempera¬
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 7
Effects of
Agricultural Practices,
Handling, Processing, and
Storage on Meat
H. W. Ockerman

WORLD MEAT DIETARY PATTERNS

A total production of 137 million tons of meat was produced in

1979, and pork, beef, poultry, sheep, and goat meat accounted for
97% of this total (Jensen 1980). A great percentage of the meat is
consumed in the country in which it is produced, with only 5% being
exported [excluding trade between European Economic Community
(EEC) countries], and the developing countries, if considered as a block,
import approximately the same amount as they export (FAO 1980).
World meat production and consumption is extremely varied by area
and economic level (consumption is shown in Table 7.1). Two-thirds
of the world meat supply is produced and consumed in the developed
countries where one-fourth of the people live, and, three-fourths of the
world meat supply is consumed in the United States, USSR, EEC,
Eastern Europe, and China (Jensen 1980). Table 7.2 shows the produc¬
tion of the world’s four main types of meat (beef, sheep and goats,
pork, and poultry) for developing and developed countries. On a
world scale, pork and beef are almost equally important, with poultry
also being very significant and sheep and goat meat contributing only in
minor proportions. Not only are the totals of the developed and develop¬
ing areas different, but a greater subdivision indicates considerably
more variability in total consumption and types of meat consumed by
the different areas, as may be seen in Table 7.3. This table indicates
differences in areas of the world, but does not take into account socio¬
economic, ethnic, or religious groups within a country.
Consumption of meat in the United States in 1981 averaged 145.5
pounds of red meat at the retail level and this represents 3.3% ($291.25)
of total disposable income (NLSMB 1983A). These figures compare
with 135.9 lb and 4.2% of income in 1965. The average consumer in

153
154 H. W. Ockerman

Table 7.1. Contribution (%) of Vegetable and Animal Products to Calorie and
Protein Levels

Developed 45
market Poorest
economics countries World

Energy
Vegetables 67 94 83
Total animal products 33 6 17
Meat and offals (variety meat) 15 1 8

Protein
Vegetables 41 85 65
Total animal products 59 15 35
Meat and offals (variety meat) 29 4 19

Source: FAO (1977).

Table 7.2. World Meat Production, 1979

Millions
of tons Percentage

World 133 100

Beef 47 35
Sheep and goat meat 7 5
Pork 51 39
Poultry 28 21
Developed countries 87 66
Beef 32 24
Sheep and goat meat 3 2
Pork 32 25
Poultry 20 15
Developing countries 46 34
Beef 15 11
Sheep and goat meat 4 3
Pork 19 14
Poultry , 8 6

Source: FAO (1980).

the United States spends approximately one-fifth of his/her food and

beverage money on red meat.
Meat animals are often criticized as being in competition with the
human population for the scarce resources of the world. When viewed
from a cropland standpoint, economics dictates how much of the
product will be fed to animals. Animals are fed cropland products only
when there is no higher economic demand for the products for human
food, export, or manufacture. A great deal of the plant material fed to
animals is not desirable for human food and, of the products grown for
 7. Meat 155

Table 7.3. Consumption Patterns in Different Parts of the World

Percentage of total meat consumption

Total meat
Beef anfl Mutton and consumption
Area veal lamb Pork Poultry (kg/person/year)

Oceania 47 36 10 7 134
North America 46 1 26 27 113
Western Europe 37 6 42 15 57
Eastern Europe 29 4 57 10 55
USSR 47 10 35 8 43
South America 69 5 18 8 39
Central America 46 5 37 12 18
China 15 4 61 19 16
Eastern Africa 68 17 5 11 13
Near East 42 47 0 11 12
Northwestern Africa 39 43 1 17 11
East and Southeast Asia 23 2 57 18 9
Western Africa 46 31 8 15 7
Central Africa (*3 13 16 8 6
South Africa 56 33 0 11 2

Source: FAO (1971).

human food, many of the plant by-products are also utilized as feed for
animals. Cellulose, the most abundant constituent of plants, cannot be
digested by humans but can be utilized by ruminants as an energy
source to manufacture protein for human consumption. Much of the
world’s land (44% in the United States) is not suitable for crops, and
the only way it can be harvested is through grazing livestock.
The world has and will continue to have approximately 30 tons per
person of unutilizable organic biomass that is suitable for feeding
ruminants, but unsuitable for human consumption. This biomass can
be utilized through animals to produce highly nutritious human food
(Briggs 1980). Pasture, grass, and forage are traditional foods for
ruminants but research is currently being conducted, and in some cases
product utilized, for animal diets that would include stalks, stover,
straw, paper by-products, animal manure and litter, aquaplants, corn¬
cobs, municipal wastes, and wood and tree by-products (Briggs 1980).
Animals, in most cases, do not compete with hurp^ns (since humans
make the choice) for resources but convert products that cannot be
utilized or would not be utilized economically into products for human
consumption.

OVERVIEW OF NUTRIENTS IN MEAT PRODUCTS

Nutritional composition of meat products is extremely variable due

to species, genetic background, nutritional level of the animal, animal
156 H. W. Ockerman

age, animal sex, parts of carcass utilized, mixture of ingredients used,

and processing techniques involved. Some of this variability can be
observed in Tables 7.4-7.9 for beef, lamb, pork, veal, sausage, and
miscellaneous meat items, respectively. In spite of this variability,
some generalities (Ockerman 1981) can be drawn for the nutritional
value of meat products (Ockerman 1981). Lean meat tissue (including
pork) contains approximately 18.5-20.0% of extremely well-balanced
protein. As the fat level increases, the protein level decreases, and as
the moisture level decreases (as would happen during cooking), the
protein percentage increases. Most variety meat is also high in protein
level. Most bologna-type products would contain 11-18% protein,
with the protein level of dried sausage being much higher. Fat level in
meat varies with the nutritional level of the animal and even more with
the location in the carcasses. Lean meat will usually contain 5-10% fat.
Fresh pork sausage in the United States is usually less than 50% fat, and
bologna products are usually less than 30% fat; the maximum level is
controlled by the USDA. Variety meat, like lean meat, is usually low
in fat level. The mineral level in lean meat and variety meat is normally
in the 1% range and decreases as the fat level increases. Most of the
minerals in meat are readily available to the digestive processes of the
human. Mechanically deboned meat can vary in mineral level, depend¬
ing on machine adjustment, but the current maximum Ca level is 0.75%
[equivalent to a maximum bone content of 3% (CAST 1980)]. Cured
products vary in mineral level with the quantity of salt added. Gen¬
erally, the mineral level is equivalent to the salt level plus 1%. Muscle
and organ tissues are considered excellent sources of most of the
B vitamins and, in addition, organ tissue contains significant amounts
of vitamins A and C. Liver, in particular, is considered a source of
vitamins A, C, B6, B12, nrcotinic acid, pantothenic acid, and biotin.
Pork is very high in thiamin (Ockerman 1980).
Fat and cholesterol compositions for animal fats are shown in Table
7.10 and the quantity of saturated, oleic, apd linoleic acids for individual
meat items can be located in Tables 7.4-7.9. In general, animal fats,
like all fats and oils, are extremely concentrated forms of energy and
yield 9 kcal/g. Fat, in general, is low in ash and consequently is not a
particularly good source of minerals. Fatty acid composition varies
with digestive systems, with the ruminant animals (beef and lamb)
depositing a more saturated fat in their body than nonruminant (pork)
animals; but even with ruminant animals, the ratio of saturated to
unsaturated fat is approximately 1:1. In pork carcasses, the saturated
fat is only approximately 40% of the total fat. Another difference
in digestive systems is that the depot fat of ruminant animals can¬
not be easily varied with the type of feed consumed, whereas the depot
fat of nonruminant animals can be influenced by varying the diet.
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^ Outer layer of fat on the cut was removed to within approximately 1/2 in. of the lean. Deposits of fat within the cut were not removed.
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t: ** wi

Nutritive value of foods, Home and Garden Bull. 72, Science and Education Administration, USDA (1978).
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Source: Nutritive value of foods, Home and Garden Bull. 72, Science and Education Administration, USDA (1978).
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in go t> (N <N <N

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co co m
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CO CO
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Nutritive Values of the Edible Parts of Sausaj

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Table 7.8.

3 'a> a CA
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Nutritive Values of the Edible Parts of Miscellaneous Meat Items'7

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Table 7.9.

£ ® X
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163
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O 00 00 CO O
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O rH CO O O © o c- to TjJHrfCOI>CDinC£)inHOC3H
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Composition of Animal Fat**

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• —. cb.
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O u
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3 ^
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 7. Meat 165

For example, if a more unsaturated pork fat is desired, it can be ob¬

tained by feeding the animal more unsaturated fats. A few of the fatty
acids (linoleic, linolenic, and arachidonic) are essential for good health
and fats are a solvent for fat-soluble vitamins, so some fats are essential
for good human nutrition. Animal fats do contain some cholesterol, and
the quantity per unit of fat for the three species is shown in Table 7.10.
The chemical composition, including proximate analysis, minerals,
vitamins, fatty acids, cholesterol, and amino acids, of baby food items
containing meat is shown in Table 7.11.

GENETICS

Animal muscle composition varies not only by type of digestive sys¬

tem and species, but also there are large amounts of variability within
the species types. For example, most beef cattle have a heavier, thicker
muscular conformation than dairy cattle, which are usually much more
angular in shape. Also, wool and mutton types of sheep are very different
in body styles. Even within a body type and breed, various strains of
animals perform differently and this variability is considered by animal
geneticists when they are designing a breeding program. Heritability
estimates for many of the carcass characteristics can be found in Table
7.12. Most of these values are sufficiently large so that there appears to
be a high degree of genetic control and, therefore, animal structure can
be altered within a few generations. A word of caution should be
added, however, since the correlation between conformation and pro¬
ductive characteristics has been consistently poor (e.g., dairy beef gives
as much lean beef as beef breeds at the same degree of fatness).

INFLUENCE OF AGE, SEASON, SEX, TYPE, AND GRADE

Beef
As cattle increase in age, within a practical range, moisture level de¬
creases, fat normally increases, muscle becomes darker (increased myo¬
globin level), flavor increases, and tenderness decreases (increased branch¬
ing of collagen). Mature bulls increase in forequarter muscling, particular¬
ly in the neck area. Grass-fed cattle are normally sold in late summer or
early fall and usually grade no higher than U.S. Good. Often their fat is
somewhat yellow due to carotenoid pigments contained in the grass they
consume. Most feedlot cattle do not change drastically with the season,
are normally 10-20 months of age, and usually qualify for the U.S. Good
or Choice grade. Young bulls are normally castrated and used as feeder
animals in the United States, but bulls are used in Europe as meat
animals and are attracting increased attention as such in this country.
166 H. W. Ockerman

Table 7.11. Chemical Composition of Baby Foods Containing Meat

Beef, Beef, Beef with beef Ham, Ham,
strained junior heart, strained strained junior
Nutrient Unit 1 jar = 99 g 1 jar = 99 g 1 jar = 99 g 1 jar = 99 g 1 jar = 99 g

Proximate V
Water g 79.8 79.1 81.7 78.6 77.8
Food energy kcal 106 105 93 110 123
kJ 443 441 389 462 516
Protein (N X 6.25) g 13.5 14.3 12.6 13.7 14.9
Total lipid (fat) g 5.3 4.9 4.4 5.7 6.6
Carbohydrate, total g 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Fiber g 0.00 0.00 0.1 0.00 0.00
Ash g 0.8 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.0
Minerals
Calcium mg 7 8 4 6 5
Iron mg 1.46 1.63 1.97 1.02 1.00
Magnesium mg 17 9 12 13 11
Phosphorus mg 83 71 93 80 88
Potassium mg 218 189 198 202 208
Sodium mg 80 65 62 40 66
Zinc mg 2.430 1.980 1.817 2.224 1.683
Copper mg 0.043 0.091 0.128 0.064
Vitamins
Ascorbic acid mg 2.1 1.8 2.1 2.1 2.1
Thiamin mg 0.010 0.010 0.022 0.138 0.141
Riboflavin mg 0.141 0.157 0.353 0.152 0.192
Niacin mg 2.821 3.250 3.846 2.607 2.812
Pantothenic acid mg 0.337 0.349 0.000 0.505 0.526
Vitamin B6 mg 0.139 0.119 0.117 0.249 0.198
Folacin Mg 5.5 5.7 5.0 1.9 2.0
Vitamin Bi2 Mg 1.406 1.459 0.00 0.00 0.00
Vitamin A RE 55 31 37 11 9
IU 183 102 124 38 31
Lipids
Fatty acids:
Saturated, total g 2.55 2.57 2.06 1.92 2.21
10:0 g 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
12:0 g 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
14:0 g 0.16 0.14 0.13 0.07 0.08
16:0 g 1.00 1.23 1.06
18:0 g 0.88 1.00 0.75 0.59 0.68
Monounsaturated, total g 2.18 1.83 1.83 2.73 3.15
16:1 g 0.20 0.13 0.16 0.16 0.18
18:1 g 1.89 1.64 1.61 2.49 2.88
20:1 g 0.05 o.qo 0.01 0.06 0.07
Polyunsaturated, total g 0.20 0.16 0.21 0.78 0.90
18:2 g 0.09 0.11 0.15 0.70 0.81
18:3 g 0.05 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.03
20:4 g 0.05 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
Cholesterol mg
Amino acids •*
Tryptophan g 0.136 0.145 0.125 0.137 0.148
Threonine g 0.591 0.629 0.506 0.597 0.649
Isoleucine g 0.613 0.652 0.613 0.654 0.711
Leucine g 1.080 1.150 1.000 1.100 1.196
Lysine g 1.122 1.194 1.040 1.168 1.270
Methionine g 0.414 0.441 0.326 0.351 0.382
Cystine g 0.157 0.167 0.129 0.169 0.184
Phenylalanine g 0.522 0.555 0.518 0.525 0.570
Tyrosine g 0.448 0.477 0.361 0.461 0.501
Valine g 0.681 0.726 0.683 0.709 0.771
Arginine g 0.919 0.978 0.824 0.931 1.012
Histidine g 0.457 0.487 0.336 0.467 0.509
Alanine g 0.849 0.905 0.857 0.830 0 902
Aspartic acid g 1.186 1.262 1.161 1.313 1 428
Glutamic acid g 2.048 2.181 1.997 2.068 2.248
Glycine g 0.860 0.916 0.814 0.788 0.857
Proline g 0.675 0.719 0.650 0.639 0.695
Serine g 0.494 0.526 0.438 0.498 0.542
 7. Meat 167

Lamb, Liver, Meat sticks, Pork, Veal, Veal,

strained strained junior strained strained junior
1 jar = 99 g 1 jar = 99 g 1 jar = 71 g 1 jar = 99 g 1 jar = 99 g 1 jar = 99 g

79.5 78.5 49.3 > '77.6 80.0 79.0

102 100 130 123 100 109
426 417 545 514 418 455
13.9 14.2 9.5 13.8 13.4 15.1
4.7 3.7 10.4 7.1 4.7 4.9
0.1 1.4 0.8 0.0 0.0 0.0
0.00 0.00 0.1 0.00 0.1 0.2
0.8 1.2 1.0 1.1 0.9 0.9

7 3 24 5 7 6
1.48 5.23 0.98 0.99 1.26 1.24
13 13 0.00 10 12 11
96 201 73 93 97 97
203 224 81 221 214 234
62 73 388 42 64 68
2.728 2.947 2.247 1.980 2.493
0.054 1.965 0.071 0.040 0.074

1.2 19.1 1.7 1.8 2.3 2.1

0.019 0.049 0.042 0.145 0.016 0.018
0.198 1.796 0.122 0.201 0.157 0.181
2.896 8.245 1.052 2.246 3.516 3.770
0.406 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.426 0.449
0.150 0.340 0.057 0.203 0.148 0.117
2.3 334.0 1.9 5.9 6.6
2.168 2.138 0.980 0.00 0.00
25 11,337 15 11 14 15
85 37,754 49 38 45 50

2.29 1.36 4.13 2.37 2.27 2.37

o.bo 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.01 0.01
0.11 0.04 0.18 0.08 0.24 0.18
1.02 0.06 2.53 1.17 1.21
0.98 0.60 1.26 0.71 0.66 0.81
1.85 0.77 4.60 3.55 2.03 2.10
0.06 0.07 0.33 0.22 0.19 0.17
1.76 0.68 4.18 3.24 1.77 1.86
0.00 0.00 0.05 0.07 0.00 0.00
0.19 0.06 1.13 0.77 0.16 0.16
0.13 0.22 1.04 0.69 0.10 0.10
0.05 0.05 0.05 0r03 0.03 0.03
0.01 0.14 0.04 0.02 0.03
181.50

0.139 0.220 0.065 0.135 0.154 0.174

0.636 0.676 0.413 0.611 0.558 0.632
0.655 0.694 0.474 0.673 0.604 0.682
1.101 1.307 0.740 1.116 1.034 1.168
1.237 0.926 0.734 1.146 1.074 1.215
0.437 0.372 0.219 0.394 0.295 0.334
0.192 0.213 0.052 0.152 0.173 0.196
0.548 0.678 0.431 0.564 0.518 0.585
0.488 0.569 0.370 0.505 0.428 0.484
0.707 0.898 0.491 0.695 0.650 0.736
0.914 0.831 0.618 0.939 0.888 1.004
0.352 0.363 0.327 0.443 0.411 0.464
0.873 0.875 0.557 0.870 0.837 0.946
1.311 1.342 0.799 1.297 1.181 1.336
2.134 1.808 1.436 2.112 1.920 2.170
0.811 0.803 0.484 0.752 0.918 1.038
0.780 0.766 0.539 0.740 0.739 0.835
0.535 0.633 0.351 0.536 0.475 0.538

(Continued)
 168 H. W. Ockerman

Table 7.11. (Continued)

Vegetables Vegetables Vegetables Vegetables Vegetables
and bacon, and bacon, and beef, and beef, and ham,
junior strained strained junior strained
Nutrient Unit 1 jar = 213 g 1 jar = 128 g 1 jar = 128 g 1 jar = 213 g 1 jar = 128 g
V
Proximate
Water g 183.5 110.0 113.3 187.3 114.2
Food energy kcal 150 88 67 113 62
kJ 629 367 282 472 258
Protein (N X 6.25) g 3.9 2.0 2.5 5.0 2.2
Total lipid (fat) g 8.2 4.2 2.6 3.6 2.2
Carbohydrate, total g 16.1 11.0 9.0 15.8 8.8
Fiber g 0.4 0.5 0.3 0.4 0.2
Ash g 1.3 0.8 0.6 1.2 0.6
Minerals
Calcium mg 23 17 16 22 11
Iron mg 0.88 0.45 0.49 1.01 0.38
Magnesium mg 0.00 0.00 7 13 6
Phosphorus mg 81 40 52 91 29
Potassium mg 184 115 129 224 109
Sodium mg 96 55 27 52 15
Zinc mg 0.422 0.882 0.246
Copper mg 0.013 0.083 0.037
Vitamins
Ascorbic acid mg 2.4 1.7 1.5 3.1 2.1
Thiamin mg 0.109 0.042 0.027 0.066 0.041
Riboflavin mg 0.064 0.042 0.036 0.066 0.037
Niacin mg 1.163 0.678 0.646 1.397 0.517
Pantothenic acid mg 0.00 0.00 0.154 0.266 0.00
Vitamin B6 mg 0.136 0.102 0.069 0.136 0.042
F olacin Mg 19.2 11.7 6.0 10.4 6.3
Vitamin B12 Mg 0.00 0.128 0.320 0.556 0.00
Vitamin A RE 463 382 219 410 122
IU 3356 3409 1520 3011 872
Lipids
Fatty acids:
Saturated, total g 2.98 1.52
10:0 g 0.01 0.00
12:0 g 0.00 0.00
14:0 g 0.10 0.05
16:0 g
18:0 g 0.90 0.46
Monounsaturated, total g 3.97 2.03
16:1 g 0.22 0.11
18:1 g 3.67 1.88
20:1 g 0.07 0.-93
Polyunsaturated, total g 0.10 0.05
18:2 g 0.82 0.42
18:3 g 0.05 0.03
20:4 g 0.01 0.01
Cholesterol mg 4.10 '
Amino acids
Tryptophan g 0.036 0.019 0.026 0.049 0.023
Threonine g 0.130 0.069 0.091 0.181 0.084
Isoleucine g 0.175 0.084 0.106 0.213 0.100
Leucine g 0.273 0.133 0.173 0.345 0.165
Lysine g 0.232 0.109 0.179 0.358 0.152
0.079 0.041 0.041 0.081 0.047
Cystine 0.055 0.029 0.024 0.049 0.023
Phenylalanine 0.164 0.079 0.087 0.175 0.084
Tyrosine 0.121 0.070 0.065 0.130 0.068
Valine 0.207 0.109 0.128 0.256 0.118
Arginine 0.258 0.142 0.151 0.302 0.148
Histidine 0.085 0.044 0.056 0.113 0.060
Alanine 0.185 0.111 0.173 0.345 0.133
Aspartic acid 0.432 0.261 0.250 0.498 0.202
Glutamic acid 0.763 0.402 0.460 0.920 0.443
Glycine 0.173 0.091 0.197 0.396 0.111
Proline 0.181 0.088 0.157 0.315 0.119
Serine 0.147 0.077 0.092 0.183 0.086
 7. Meat 169

Vegetables Vegetables Vegetables Vegetables Vegetables Vegetables Vegetables, Vegetables,

and ham, and ham, and lamb, and lamb, and liver, and liver, dumplings, and dumplings, and
junior toddler strained junior strained junior beef, strained beef, junior
1 jar = 213 g 1 jar = 177 g 1 jar = 128 g 1 jar = 213 g 1 jar = 128 g 1 jar = 213 g 1 jar = 128 g 1 jar = 213 g
%

188.2 148.0 113.4 188.8 115.2 189.4 113.8 188.7

110 128 67 108 50 93 61 103
459 537 279 453 208 390 257 432
5.2 7.4 2.5 4.4 2.8 3.9 2.6 4.4
3.6 5.2 2.6 3.7 0.6 1.2 1.2 1.7
14.9 13.9 8.9 15.1 8.8 17.5 9.8 17.0
0.4 0.00 0.4 0.4 0.2 0.6 0.00 0.00
1.0 2.4 0.6 1.0 0.6 1.0 0.6 1.2

16 41 15 27 9 20 18 30
0.47 1.23 0.44 0.72 2.83 3.86 0.49 1.00
15 30 9 16 0.00 0.00 8 14
55 71 63 104 51 81 0.00 0.00
197 271 120 202 120 189 0.00 0.00
37 531 26 28 24 27 62 110
0.475 0.832 0.276 0.471 0.512 0.697
0.066 0.071 0.037 0.062

2.7 6.6 1.5 3.7 2.3 3.8 1.0 1.7

0.079 0.076 0.023 , 0.045 0.023 0.047 0.063 0.083
0.047 0.097 0.044 0.068 0.339 0.479 0.051 0.077
0.748 1.237 0.677 1.180 1.536 2.460 0.735 1.044
0.00 0.00 0.205 0.339 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
0.068 0.152 0.059 0.094 0.105 0.211 0.00 0.00
11.3 4.7 7.7 36.8 68.1 9.2 15.7
0.00 0.204 0.339 0.00 0.00
173 363 423 940 1524
1310 629 2554 3158 3981 8368 533 1407

1.85
0.00
0.00
0.07

0.54
2.52
0.15
2.32
0.05
0.30
0.27
0.04
0.02
13.63

0.055 0.101 0.029 0.051 0.041 0.058

0.194 0.301 0.093 0.164 0.114 0.158
0.232 0.370 0.115 0.202 0.133 0.183
0.381 0.575 0.188 0.330 0.244 0.339
0.354 0.540 0.187 0.328 0.209 0.290
0.109 0.143 0.038 0.066 0.064 0.089
0.055 0.083 0.022 0.038 0.037 0.051
0.194 0.320 0.101 0.177 0.133 0.183
0.158 0.251 0.079 0.141 0.097 0.134
0.271 0.405 0.124 0.217 0.175 0.243
0.343 0.471 0.170 0.300 0.168 0.232
0.141 0.202 0.059 0.102 0.068 0 094
0.307 0.384 0.145 0.256 0.168 0.232
0.469 0.837 0.253 0.445 0.284 0.394
1.022 1.243 0.508 0.890 0.415 0.575
0.256 0.354 0.128 0.224 0.148 0.207
0.275 0.395 0.140 0.246 0.150 0.207
0.198 0.313 0.093 0.164 0.110 0.151

(Continued)
 170 H. W. Ockerman

Table 7.11. (Continued)

Beef and Beef and
egg noodles, egg noodles Beef and rice, Beef lasagna, Beef stew,
strained junior toddler toddler toddler
Nutrient Unit 1 jar = 128 g 1 jar = 213 g 1 jar = 177 g 1 jar = 177 g 1 jar = 177 g
\
Proximate
Water g 113.4 186.9 144.9 145.7 153.8
Food energy kcal 68 122 146 137 90
kJ 286 511 610 572 375
Protein (N X 5.98) g 2.9 5.4 8.9 7.4 9.1
Total lipid (fat) g 2.2 4.0 5.1 3.8 2.1
Carbohydrate, total g 9.0 15.7 15.5 17.7 9.6
Fiber g 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.4 0.5
Ash g 0.5 1.0 2.6 2.4 2.4
Minerals
Calcium mg 12 18 20 32 16
Iron mg 0.53 0.92 1.23 1.55 1.27
Magnesium mg 9 16 15 20 20
Phosphorus mg 37 64 62 70 78
Potassium mg 61 99 212 216 251
Sodium mg 37 37 632 804 611
Zinc mg 0.480 0.854 1.623 1.239 1.540
Copper mg 0.038 0.068 0.096 0.00 0.00
Vitamins
Ascorbic acid mg 1.5 2.9 6.8 3.4 5.3
Thiamin mg 0.045 0.060 0.028 0.127 0.025
Riboflavin mg 0.054 0.077 0.122 0.158 0.115
Niacin mg 0.925 1.240 2.377 2.395 2.324
Pantothenic acid mg 0.274 0.490 0.00 0.00 0.00
Vitamin Bj mg 0.061 0.066 0.246 0.126 0.131
Folacin Mg 6.5 11.7
Vitamin B12 Mg 0.115 0.204
Vitamin A RE 141 187
IU 1053 1397 889 2058 2918
Lipids
Fatty acids:
Saturated, total g 1.03
10:0 g 0.00
12:0 g 0.00
14:0 g 0.05
16:0 g 0.14
18:0 g 0.39
Monounsaturated, total g 0.77
16:1 g 0.06
18:1 g 0.71
20:1 g 0.00
Polyunsaturated, total g 0.05
18:2 g 0.15
18:3 g 0.02
20:4 g ,-4
0.01
Cholesterol mg 22.18
Amino acids
Tryptophan g 0.032 0.058 0.081 0.083 0.094
Threonine g 0.114 0.211 0.354 0.289 0.372
Isoleucine g 0.159 0.294 0.434 0.365 0.435
Leucine g 0.238 0.443 0.694 0.573 0.687
Lysine g 0.212 0.394 0.666 0.526 0.697
Methionine g 0.060 0.113 0.218 0.145 0.251
Cystine g 0.033 0.062 0.096 0.085 0.094
Phenylalanine g 0.134 0.249 0.349 0.322 0.356
Tyrosine g 0.106 0.198 0.285 0.234 0.281
Valine g 0.151 0.281 0.487 0.409 0.481
Arginine g 0.180 0.334 0.598 0.448 0.625
Histidine g 0.084 0.158 0.227 0.181 0.227
Alanine g 0.172 0.317 0.600 0.469 0.588
Aspartic acid g 0.252 0.469 0.821 0.625 0 858
Glutamic acid g 0.594 1.101 1.540 1.574 1.457
Glycine g 0.175 0.326 0.644 0.494 0.621
g 0.214 0.396 0.542 0.577 0.568
Serine g 0.113 0.209 0.317 0.212 0.340
 7. Meat 171

Lamb and Macaroni Beef with Beef with Ham with Ham with Veal with Veal with
noodles, and bacon. vegetables, vegetables, vegetables, vegetables, vegetables, vegetables,
junior junior strained junior strained junior strained junior
1 jar = 213 g 1 jar = 213 g 1 jar = 128 g 1 jar = 28.35 g 1 jar = 128 g 1 jar = 128 g 1 jar = 128 g 1 jar = 128 g

% “
184.3 181.2 109.3 23.6 107.6 107.0 108.2 107.9
138 160 96 24 97 98 89 93
579 669 400 100 406 412 372 391
4.8 5.4 7.3 1.8 8.0 8.2 7.6 7.8
4.7 7.1 5.3 1.3 4.4 4.2 3.4 4.0
18.6 18.2 5.3 1.5 7.1 7.9 7.8 7.4
0.00 0.00 0.4 0.1 0.3 0.2 0.4 0.2
0.6 1.1 0.7 0.2 0.8 0.8 0.9 0.9

39 152 15 3 14 12 12 14
0.78 0.80 0.93 0.22 0.75 0.76 0.76 1.13
0.00 0.00 10 2 11 12 10 12
0.00 0.00 62 15 72 71 69 69
165 180 179 42 198 208 196 201
39 166 46 9 29 28 30 32
0.00 0.00 1.664 0.397 1.280 1.385 1.280 1.408
0.00 0.00 0.102 0.026 0.00 0.00 0.128 0.131

4.1 4.5 2.5 0.5 2.3 2.4 2.4 2.1

0.077 0.098 0.044 0.010 0.129 0.138 0.028 0.029
0.138 0.179 0.08T4 0.023 0.106 0.110 0.095 0.105
1.427 1.342 1.702 0.404 1.800 1.482 2.065 1.974
0.307 0.078 0.499 0.515 0.320 0.324
0.113 0.024 0.136 0.122 0.106 0.090
7.3 1.8 8.1 8.3 0.00 0.00
0.653 0.165 0.344 0.355 0.577 0.585
141 28 52 85 96 101
1667 2471 1003 225 214 332 349 545

1.51 1.44
0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00
0.05 0.05

0.44 0.41
2.05 1.94
0.13 0.12
1.87 1.78
0.04 0.04
0.32 0.30
- 0.57 0.54
0.03 0.03
0.04 0.04
22.59

0.059 0.014 0.078 0.079 0.078 0.079

0.279 0.068 0.312 0.317 0.307 0.312
0.307 0.075 0.353 0.360 0.343 0.351
0.544 0.133 0.599 0.608 0.596 0.608
0.539 0.132 0.626 0.636 0.608 0.620
0.204 0.050 0.198 0.201 0.174 0.178
0.078 0.019 0.092 0.093 0.091 0.093
0.275 0.067 0.284 0.288 0.294 0.301
0.209 0.051 0.224 0.227 0.221 0.227
0.361 0.088 0.371 0.378 0.378 0.385
0.449 0.110 0.494 0.502 0.520 0.529
0.219 0.054 0.287 0.291 0.244 0.250
0.460 0.112 0.421 0.429 0.468 0.476
0.663 0.162 0.742 0.755 0.735 0.749
1.073 0.262 1.211 1.230 1.272 1.297
0.598 0.146 0.434 0.442 0.563 0.573
0.431 0.105 0.407 0.413 0.415 0.422
0.243 0.060 0.262 0.266 0.273 0.278

Source: Composition of Foods: Baby Food, Agricultural Handbook 8 3, U.S. Dept, of Agriculture, Science
and Education Administration (1978).
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Heritability Factors for Meat Animals

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 7. Meat 173

They are leaner and more efficient than steers, but are slightly less
tender. If bulls are slaughtered at the appropriate age, however, their
palatability traits are very acceptable. Steers are slightly more efficient
and acceptable than heifers for feedlot usage. Beef cattle are generally
preferred for carcass beef but the feeding of dairy cattle is attracting
attention due to feed conversion efficiency and the Holstein is probably
the most popular breed among the dairy cattle for feedlot usage. U.S.
Department of Agriculture (USDA) grades of Prime, Choice, Good,
Standard, and Utility are reserved for cattle less than 48 months of age,
and Choice is the most popular grade found in the supermarkets; how¬
ever, Good, or equivalent (ungraded), and Prime beef can be located in
certain markets. Prime beef is often preferred by fine restaurants.
Canner and Cutter grades usually are used for sausage products.

Sheep
Sheep usually give birth in late winter and lambs are normally
slaughtered before reaching 1 year of age. Therefore, there is normally
a good correlation between age and season. The first lambs normally
reach market around Easter at approximately 20 kg of weight and con¬
tain no more than 30% fat. Similar, but older lambs are slaughtered
during summer and early fall. Thin lambs usually go to feedlots and are
fed for a winter supply of market lambs (Byerly 1975). These feedlot
lambs are normally older, heavier, and fatter. The lean tissue is lower
in moisture and higher in fat with more marbling, greater juiciness,
darker color, and less tender lean. Older lambs are referred to as yearlings
and still older ones as sheep or mutton. Mutton flavor may be pro¬
nounced in some of the carcasses from older sheep, but its intensity
has often been exaggerated. Ram lambs are often superior in rate of
gain and cutability to ewe and weather lambs and even heavy ram car¬
casses are acceptable in palatability and tenderness. Sheep breeds are
normally divided into wool and mutton types. As the name would
suggest, the mutton breeds have more thickness in conformation, are
heavier muscled, and are normally considered superior for meat produc¬
tion. Most of the supermarket lamb cuts would qualify for the Prime
and Choice grades, with a great percentage of the Good and lower
grades of lamb, and most of the mutton, being diverted into processed
products.

Pork
Pork carcasses have changed tremendously in the past 30 years, with
a great deal of emphasis being placed on the production of lean meat
tissue. Swine have also become more efficient and, therefore, hogs are
reaching market weight at a younger age (in general, from 5 to 6 months).
Since hogs also tend to become fatter as they increase in weight, the
 174 H. W. Ockerman

normal slaughter weight of 220-260 lb tends to also encourage produc¬

tion of lean. As pigs mature, they tend to increase the percentage of
total saturated fatty acids in their fat, with a decrease in linoleic and
oleic acids (Ellis and Hankins 1925). With farrowing taking place
throughout the year, there is not much seasonal difference in swine
production except for the fact that heavy hogs tend to be marketed in
greater numbers in the summer months. In the United States, boars are
generally not used to produce pork because of an off-odor that is
produced as these animals mature, which is objected to by a fairly large
percentage (Plimpton 1971; 10% in young 70-kg boars and 30% in 100-
kg boars) of the population. Interest is growing in Europe in utilizing
the young boar as a producer of pork, and research is continuing in the
United States on methods of utilizing this leaner, more efficient sex.
Historically, hog breeds were classified into bacon and fat types, but
with the emphasis on lean production, these types today are very similar.
Market weight hogs are graded into U.S. 1, 2, 3, 4, and Utility (thin
belly thickness) based on carcass weight or degree of muscling, length,
and backfat thickness. A much larger percentage of desirable-quality
pork is cured than in the case of the ruminant animals. Boars are in¬
spected for odor and young boars, if acceptable, are utilized with market-
weight barrow and gilts in fresh and cured products. Mature boars and
stags are either condemned for odor or used in manufactured products.
Heavyweight sows are utilized in fresh pork sausage or for comminuted
product manufacturing.

LEVEL OF NUTRITION

Quantitative differences in animal diets are a major source of the

variability in chemical components of mOscle for all species. In many
areas of the world, feed is restricted due to unfavorable environmental
conditions. If young ruminant animals follow this period of restric¬
tion with full feeding, the carcasses are usually acceptable (Dockerty
et al. 1973). Moderate restriction of feed results in approximately the
same quantity of protein, but less fat deposited in a ruminant carcass
(Hiner and Bond, 1971). Increased level of nutrition often results in
improved flavor and tenderness in ruminants (Barbella et al. 1936),
and this is the reason why feedlot practices are so popular.
Mild limited feeding of pork is often practiced in Europe to produce
a leaner carcass. This can be accomplished by reducing feed avail¬
ability or by the use of fibrous feeds to reduce the energy level. Be¬
cause of labor costs, restricted feeding of pork is usually not practiced
in the United States. If excess fat is removed by trimming, a satisfac¬
tory carcass can be produced by either limited or full feeding of the
animal.
 7. Meat 175

FAT IN THE DIET

Ruminant animals usually hydrogenate dietary fat to manufacture a

more saturated depot fat, but feeding unsaturated fat can increase
slightly the linoleic acid content of body fat (Dryden and Marchello
1973) and feeding a high-roughage diet can slightly increase the oleic
acid of the depot fat (Rumsey et al. 1972). Major changes in depot fat
are possible by a new experimental technique of feeding unsaturated
fat treated with formaldehyde-casein, which encapsulates the fat and
allows it to pass through the ruman without being hydrogenated.
As they get older and heavier, swine produce firmer carcasses due to
the conversion of more carbohydrate to saturated fat (Ellis and Hankins
1925), but, in general, both young and old pigs tend to store fat similar
to the type they are fed. Therefore, feed containing soybeans, peanuts,
or garbage tends to produce a soft pork fat.

VITAMINS >

Vitamin A is stored in beef and lamb liver and the quantity fluctuates
a great deal, depending on the diet of the animal. For example, feedlot
cattle that consume little roughage would have livers lower in vitamin A
than grass-fed cattle. Vitamin A from beef liver is lost on heating and
follows first-order kinetics with activation energy ranging from 36 to
122 kJ/mol (Wilkinson et al. 1981, 1982).
Swine are particularly dependent on vitamins in their feed to meet
metabolic and tissue storage requirements. Pork is much higher in
thiamin than beef or lamb and tocopherol storage is reported to be re¬
lated to tocopherol level in the feed. Increased tocopherol level in pork
tissue also extends the stability of pork during refrigerated and frozen
storage (Buckley and Connolly 1980).

MINERALS

Soils in substantial areas of the United States are deficient in essen¬

tial minerals; therefore, forages grown in these areas are deficient in
essential minerals needed for animal nutrition. For example, ruminants
grown in areas deficient in phosphorus or cobalt are thin and poorly
fleshed (Beeson 1941). Copper, molybdenum, sulfate, and possibly
manganese metabolism and retention in the muscle and liver tissue seem
to be interrelated.
Copper is often used as a growth promoter in swine diets (Braude and
Ryder 1973; Braude 1976; Lima et al. 1981). Zinc is an essential nutrient
and zinc, copper, and calcium contents of the diet are interrelated and
 176 H. W. Ockerman
U
influence zinc storage in the tissue. Zinc levels in the muscle have been
postulated to be related to the type of energy metabolism occurring in
these muscles (Schricker et al. 1982) and most of the endogenous zinc
in beef tissue has been proven to be water insoluble (Rosenbloom and
Potter 1981).
Iodine is deficient in many areas, but is generally supplemented in
animal diets by the use of iodized salt and organic iodine additives in
the feed. Iodine content of meat does increase with the iodine level of
the diet but the percentage transfer of iodine to the tissue is relatively
small (Hemken 1980).
Selenium is deficient in many soils and forages and is also a neces¬
sary constituent for proper animal nutrition. The supplementation of
selenium increased its level in the muscle and liver tissue (Ammerman
et al. 1980), but selenium naturally occurring in plants has a greater in¬
fluence on animal tissue selenium than equal quantities added to the
diet in the form of an inorganic supplement. However, high levels of
selenium in forage can be toxic to animals, and this is a problem in
some western areas of the United States.
Tonic levels of arsenic are used as growth promoters for swine. At
these levels, arsenic accumulation in the animal tissue is not considered
hazardous to human health. Liver residues are likely to be higher than
those found in muscle samples (Frost and Spruth 1956); however, in a
USD A sampling (second quarter of 1973) of pork liver, no samples
were found that exceeded 2 ppm, the established tolerance level for
arsenic in liver. Arsenic is seldom found in measurable amounts of beef
tissue.
Lead is normally an accidental contaminant, usually originating on
painted objects and, of course, in seafood from contaminated water.
Lead in the diet of animals has been shown to elevate the level of lead
in the liver and kidney tissues (Dinius et al. 1973). Spalding (1972)
reported average levels of lead in USDA-inspected animals to be liver,
0.536; muscle, 0.361; and kidney, 0.625 ppm.
Spalding (1972), in the same report, listed the average level of cad¬
mium as liver, 0.207; muscle, 0.082; and kidney, 0.546 ppm.
Mercury is present in insignificant amounts in the tissue of animals
used for foods, with the exception of large marine fish. Another excep¬
tion might be animals fed seeds treated with mercurial fungicides that
were intended for planting. These treated seeds would be toxic to
animals or to man if consumed (Nelson 1971). Animals intentionally
fed mercury had accumulation in the liver and kidney much higher than
that found in the brain or muscle tissue (Wright et al. 1973A,B).
Spalding (1972) reported 18% of beef livers, 26% of beef muscles, and
53% of beef kidneys were positive for mercury but averaged only
26 ng/g of tissue. Selenium has been shown to protect against mercury
toxicity.
 7. Meat 177

Fluorine is found in feed components such as bone meal, rock phos¬

phate, phosphatic limestone, and smelter effluents and may also con¬
taminate water supplies (Byerly 1975). It may be transferred in small
amounts to soft tissue, but is found in higher concentrations in bone.

HORMONES

Diethylstilbestrol (DES), a synthetic female hormone, was used for

a number of years to increase feed efficiency in beef animals (approxi¬
mately 12%). Owing to small residues sometimes appearing in the fed
animal’s liver, this hormone was removed from animal feed, and its use
as an implant was prohibited in 1973 (FDA 1972, 1973A,B), even
though this product was used for two decades without a single known
instance of harm to humans (FDA 1973B).
Several growth promoters are still available, including melengestrol
acetate (MGA), which suppresses estros and increases rate of gain in
heifers (Ray et al. 1969; Hawkins et al. 1972); Zeranol® (resorcyclic
acid lactate), which is used as an implant in steers and lambs; Synovex S®
(progesterone and estradiol benzoate), which is used as an implant for
steers; Synovex H® (testosterone proprionate and estradiol benzoate),
which is used as an implant for heifers (Byerly 1975); and Compudase®
(estradiol benzoate), which improves growth rate and feed efficiency in
steers (Eli Lilly 1982). Androgens have been reported to increase the
percentage of round and lower the percentage of loin in calves (Burris
et al. 1953). Hormones have generally not been used in swine because
most reports do not indicate a rate of gain increase or a change in
composition. Pseudopregnancy and mammary development are un¬
desirable effects. DES has been proved experimentally to be effective
in controlling boar odor when used on intact males, but was never ap¬
proved or used commercially.

ANTIBIOTICS

Antibiotics are often used by veterinarians for therapeutic treatment

of animals and are sometimes used in dairy calves, particularly those
raised on milk replacers, to promote growth and for prophylactic pur¬
poses. With antibiotics, there is always a concern that selecting for re¬
sistant bacterial strains may result in the antibiotics being less effective
for therapeutic use with humans and in veterinary medicine. For these
reasons, carcasses are periodically examined by the USDA for anti¬
biotic residues; USDA (1973) reported that 11% of the cow carcasses
had levels above the tolerances and that 9% of the calf carcasses exceeded
the tolerance level for streptomycin, penicillin, and other antibiotics.
178 H. W. Ockerman

Antibiotics are also used as growth promoters in swine and again,

tissue is monitored (Swann 1969; FDA 1972) to ensure compliance
with therapeutic use of the antibiotics. Clausen (1956) reported that
fatter swine carcasses would be produced with ad lib feeding of low-
protein diets containing antibiotics, and Ashton et al. (1955) found
little evidence of an effect of antibiotics on carcass composition with ad
lib feeding and with protein levels of 10-20%. Broquist and Kohler
(1953) could detect no antibiotic activity in carcasses of pigs fed
chlortetracycline at 200 mg/kg of body weight, but did find 0.3 g/kg
in tissue of pigs fed 2 g/kg of body weight. This agrees with Jukes
(1955), who could find no activity in the flesh of animals fed 200 mg/kg
of body weight, but found 0.3 g/kg in tissue of swine fed 2 g/kg of
body weight.

INSECTICIDES

Insecticide residue in animal tissue may result directly from applica¬

tion to the animal, or indirectly through treated feed or treated facilities
or from naturally occurring chlorinated hydrocarbons. Chlorinated
hydrocarbon insecticides accumulate in animal tissue (Rubin et al.
1947; Stadelman et al. 1965; Stadelman 1973), but these insecticides
are regulated to prevent residues which might be hazardous to human
health. Marsden and Bird (1947) reported 6235 ppm of l,l-bis(p-
chlorophenyl)-2,2,2-trichloroethane (DDT) in turkey fat for birds that
were fed 1500 ppm of DDT in their diet, and Draper et al. (1952)
found 2000 ppm in fat from hens fed 56 ppm in their diet. Stadelman
et al. (1965) and Stadelman (1973) reported on lindane, heptachlor
epoxide, dieldrin, and DDT residues in poultry fat and also reported
on the disappearance of residues after treatment ceased. Hens were fed
10-15 ppm lindane for 5 days; the lindane level in the fat 1 week after
treatment was 0.7 ppm and was zero at 26 weeks after treatment.
Heptachlor epoxide fat levels were 10.2 ppm 1 week after treatment
and had decreased to 0.3 ppm after 26 weeks; dieldrin was 3.6 ppm
1 week after treatment and 1.0 ppm after 26 weeks; and DDT and
DDE were 9.6 ppm after 1 week and 0.7 ppm after 26 weeks. Spalding
(1972) reported on poultry slaughtered at USDA-inspected plants and
found the following: DDT and metabolites were not detected in 23%
of the carcasses, less than 0.5 ppm in 67% of the carcasses, and greater
than 0.5 ppm in 10% of the carcasses; dieldrin was not detected in
64% of the carcasses, and less than 0.5 ppm in 0.1% of the carcasses.
DeCampos et al. (1979) reported that extensive and heavily pesticide-
sprayed cotton fields in the Pacific coastal plains of Guatemala are
interspersed with pasture used for cattle. Residues are a problem re¬
sulting in decreased use of DDT; a new pesticide law resulted in a legal
 7. Meat 179

limit in beef fat of 7 ppm and, for meat shipped to the United States,
of less than 5 ppm.

SLAUGHTER AND PROOESSING

Several operations during the slaughtering process can influence the

chemical and physical characteristics and, consequently, the nutritional
properties of the carcass.
Some hogs are very stress susceptible and, if subjected to moderate
stress, may die prior to slaughter; under these conditions, the animals
are condemned and are not used for human food. If the stress is less
severe or if the animal is more tolerant, the preslaughter stress can still
influence the biochemical reactions that follow slaughter (Ockerman
1980). Under these preslaughter stress conditions, the glycolysis
reactions are accelerated and the pH drops faster than normal. The
combination of a low pH and a high temperature will denature some of
the tissue proteins, making them less efficient in binding water. The
resulting condition is called PSE, which means pale-soft and exudative,
and the term is fairly descriptive of the muscle appearance. The muscle
is light in color, soft in consistency, and will release some of its natural
juices. This muscle, though not detrimental from a nutritional stand¬
point, is discriminated against in the fresh state by the consumer be¬
cause of appearance. Due to the denatured properties of the protein,
it also does not work as well, although still satisfactorily for cured meat
and sausage production.
Electrical stimulation is a process of applying electrical current to a
carcass after slaughter (Ockerman 1980). It causes the carcass muscles
to contract, which accelerates glycolysis and causes a faster decline in
pH. It is primarily used on ruminant animals to speed up the post¬
mortem aging process and, nprmally, make the tissue more tender. It
also slightly reduces the microbiological population on the tissue. Its
influence on carcass nutritional value at the present time appears to be
limited in nature.
Hot boning is also gaining in popularity for meat tissue destined for
sausage manufacturing. This allows curing ingredients such as salt to
be added to the product while the tissue is still warm. This extracts the
protein and makes the tissue much more acceptable for processing and
also decreases the water activity prior to the time that microorganisms
have multiplied to any great extent, thus dramatically increasing the
shelf life of the manufactured product. This technique does not work
as well for nonground tissue since the technique also allows the muscle
to contract during rigor without restraint by the bone and, consequent¬
ly the solid tissue is less tender than would be produced by normal
chilling. The primary influence of hot boning on nutrition of meat
 180 H. W. Ockerman

would appear to be a reduction in bacterial numbers and a slight retarda¬

tion of glycolysis.

SALTING AND CURING

Salting is one of the primary methods of food preservation and has

been used with meat tissue since recorded history. Its function is to
reduce microbial growth, improve flavor, tenderize, bind water, and
extract proteins (Ockerman 1980). Salting also accelerates oxidation,
dilutes other meat constituents, and adds sodium and chloride ions to
the consumable product.
Curing adds nitrite, and sometimes nitrate, to the muscle tissue. The
purpose of these additions is to retard bacterial growth, including
Clostridium botulinum, develop cured color, produce cured flavor, act as
a potent antioxidant, and react as a wholesomeness indicater (Ockerman
1980). Nitrites and nitrates were first added as an impurity in salt,
and the early meat processors soon realized that this salt was superior
for curing; therefore, the history of its use also goes back to the same
area as salting. Nitrite is toxic in high levels, but the author could find
no documented case of human poisoning by consuming cured meat.
Tumbling and massaging is a newer system being used in the curing
areas and uses rotating or stirring energy to manipulate the muscle and
extract the salt-soluble proteins. These proteins, in turn, act as a bind¬
ing agent to hold small pieces together and give the appearance of a
solid meat tissue. This technique also more evenly distributes the
curing ingredients.
Mechanical deboning is a new process that removes soft tissue from
hard tissue and allows the processor to salvage nutrients that were
previously wasted due to inaccessibility or economics of removal. The
soft and bone tissues are ground or mashed and then placed under pres¬
sure, at which time the soft tissue is pressed out through extremely
small holes. By machine adjustment, different ratios of soft and hard
tissues are obtained. The soft tissue is extremely fine in texture and
will contain higher than normal calcium, which is normally deficient
in the U.S. diet.
Sausage making, in addition to chopping and emulsifying, uses salt
and nitrite as well as other additives such as water (to distribute cure),
sweeteners (several types of sugars), reducing compounds (to protect
color), phosphates (to increase binding properties, water-holding
capacity, and, in some cases, to accelerate cured color development),
binders (usually of cereal or milk origin), spices (usually a mixture to
give characteristic flavor), and smoke (natural or artificial smoke
collected from natural smoke). The quantity of water is regulated by
the inspection service and depends on label designators but seldom
 f

7. Meat 181

exceeds 10% and often is zero. Binders are the only other ingredients
added in sufficient quantities to have even a minor influence on diluting
nutritional properties of the meat and normally (type of labeling regu¬
lates quantity) the levels do not exceed 31/2% and, again, this is regulated
by meat inspection regulations.
Fermented meat products contain microorganisms (either added or
occurring naturally) that ferment carbohydrates into acids, which lower
the pH and give the product a “tangy flavor.” This lowered pH also
retards the growth of spoilage bacteria and, consequently, these products
have an extended shelf life. They are often dried, which also decreases
their perishability.
The chemical composition of sausage products can be studied in
Table 7.13.
Smoking and cooking are usually accomplished at the same time and,
normally, dehydration occurs during this process. In addition to de¬
positing smoke, which reduces the microbial load, improves flavor, and
acts as an antioxidant, smoking also tends to case harden the external
surface, which results in some product protection. The loss of mois¬
ture and, in some cases, fat during the heating process concentrates the
remaining nutrients, except those that are volatilized or denatured by
the heat. Cooking temperatures normally denature some of the more
sensitive vitamins, oxidize some of the fat and flavor components, and
denature some of the proteins, which lowers their functionality (water
binding and emulsifying capacity).

STORAGE

Since meat is a perishable product, it has a somewhat limited re¬

frigerated shelf life, which is normally shortened by microbiological
growth. If strict sanitation is practiced in the slaughter and processing
areas, this shelf life can be extended; and, if salt and nitrite are added,
the cured meat tissue has a greatly extended refrigerated shelf life.
Fresh meat freezes at 28.5°F (salted meat at lower temperatures) and
keeping it as cold as possible will retard the bacterial growth and ex¬
tend the useful refrigerated shelf life of the product. Packaging can also
help extend the shelf life by protecting the product from contamina¬
tion. Vacuum packaging can dramatically alter the type of micro¬
organisms that can grow and also can extend the shelf life. Under ideal
conditions, however, refrigerated storage life of ground meat (micro¬
organisms mixed and more surface area) should be limited to approxi¬
mately 2 days and solid refrigerated tissue for approximately twice that
long. Vacuum-packaged cured product can have refrigerated shelf life
of several weeks under ideal conditions.
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188 H. W. Ockerman

Freezing stops most microbial growth but a few molds can continue
to grow at the higher freezer temperatures. Oxidation, though retarded,
is not stopped and salted products can only be stored a few months
without flavor deterioration. Tissue with unsaturated fat (pork, poultry,
and fish) also has a shorter frozen shelf life than more saturated tissue
such as beef, which can be stored up to 1 year under appropriate
temperature and packaging conditions.
Dried products have reduced water activity and often can be stored
without refrigeration. Mold growth is still encountered and some addi¬
tional denaturation takes place due to the drying. Usually these products
are very nutritionally dense due to the low water level.

MEETING NUTRITIONAL NEEDS

Setting recommended nutritional standards for humans is very diffi¬

cult because of the tremendous range in variation for individual require¬
ments. This task is usually accomplished by setting the requirements
high enough to satisfy the highest end of the requirement spectrum.
Also, compositional variation in food complicates the use of any
standards that might be developed. Varying composition is found
naturally in fresh food, and this variability may be increased or de¬
creased by processing and is usually increased in cooked foods. Meat
can vary considerably in even its major constituents (Table 7.4), de¬
pending primarily on areas of the carcass, species, and animal nutri¬
tional level, and vitamins and minerals can be influenced by animal diet
and by the animal husbandry practices followed. In developed countries,
more nutritional attention is also being placed on “diseases of affluence,”
under the assumption that most people ^re adequately nourished and
that overnutrition is a major problem. Overconsumption in many
countries is a major problem, but even in the best nutritional environ¬
ment many people, because of financial considerations, education, or
lack of discipline, do not receive the appropriate balance of foods even
if the calorie content is adequate (in a few cases, the calorie level is not
even met).
Meat is a major supplier of nutritional ingredients and is a very de¬
sirable food source for a variety of reasons. In most developed countries
it is a major portion of the diet and supplies a large percentage of the
nutrients. The quantity of meat needed under different economic con¬
ditions may be estimated from Table 7.14. Even some people who are
vegetarian by choice prepare foods with meat-like flavors when possible,
and people who are vegetarians by necessity increase their consump¬
tion of meat when it becomes available (Bender 1981). Meat makes a
unique contribution to the nutritional well-being of the human popula¬
tion by supplying an extremely well-balanced source of protein, almost
 r

Table 7.14. Family Food Budgeting for Good Meals and Good Nutrition (Other Food Categories Not Shown Are Adjusted as the Meat

1 oz of cooked poultry or fish, one egg, 1/2 cup of cooked dry beans or peas, or 2 tbsp of peanut butter may replace 1 oz of cooked lean
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the only source of vitamin B12, one of the most valuable forms of iron,
a major source of zinc, and an important source of many of the B vita¬
mins. In fact, the British Committee on Medical Aspects of Food Policy
(Department of Health and Social Security 1980) suggested that re¬
placements or substitutes for meat should be nutritionally equivalent
to meat in certain aspects such as vitamins Bt and B12, iron, and zinc.
Also, it was recommended that these substitutes should contain 45-50%
protein on a dry-weight basis, which should have a protein efficiency of
1.6 or net protein utilization of 60, not less than 2 mg thiamin, 1.6 mg
riboflavin, and 10 jug vitamin BI2/100 g of protein; and a minimum of
20 mg iron and 20 mg zinc/100 g of protein.

BIOAVAILABILITY

Bioavailability is the movement of a nutrient across the intestinal

mucosa in a form that can be utilized by the body. When bioavail¬
ability and composition are combined with appetite appeal and satiety
value, meat is almost all encompassing when compared with the nutrients
required by humans (Davis 1981).
For efficient use of amino acids in body protein synthesis, the essen¬
tial amino acids must be present in the bloodstream at the same time
and this suggests that the correct balance must be present in a meal.
This places a special value on items such as meat that contain the quan¬
tity and distribution of amino acids required by humans. The bio¬
logical value and availability of amino acids in meat protein have con¬
sistently been demonstrated to be effective in supplying the amino
acids needed to build body protein. The bioavailability of meat protein
compares favorably with the acknowledged leaders in protein bio¬
availability such as milk and eggs. The first step in bioavailability is
digestibility; the protein of meat is 97% digestible and meat fat is 96%
digestible, so composition of these items in a consumable form is almost
equivalent to the bioavailability of these two components (Davis 1981).
The value of meat, especially liver, as a supplier of trace minerals,
especially iron, has long been recognized. Iron has normally been con¬
sidered to be approximately 30% available in meat and has an added
benefit in that meat increases the absorption of nonheme iron present
in other proteins of a meal.
Meat and meat products also are an excellent source of zinc and cop¬
per in a highly bioavailable form, while these two elements are often
chelated and made unavailable by high-fiber, high-carbohydrate com¬
ponents of foods.
Phosphorus and magnesium in meat are also readily bioavailable
sources of these two essential elements.
 7. Meat 191

THE RELATIONSHIP OF MEAT TO HEALTH PROBLEMS

Heart Problems
Atherosclerosis, or arteriosclerosis, is a blockage of the arteries
caused by fatty material >which is involved in most coronary heart
diseases. The blockage consists in large part of cholesterol, a substance
found in meat (Rogowski 1981). Cholesterol is an essential part of the
body’s chemistry and is manufactured in the body at the rate of 800 to
1500 mg/day even if no cholesterol is consumed (NLSMB 1983B).
Three ounces of cooked beef, pork, or lamb contain 75, 75, and 85 mg
of cholesterol, respectively (USDA 1974). Numerous research projects
and disagreement among heart specialists have failed to resolve the
question as to whether there is a relationship between dietary cholesterol
and heart disease. In the United States, deaths from heart and circula¬
tory diseases have declined by 20% from 1960 to 1980, and, at the
same time, the per capita consumption of meat has increased by 10%.
This, like other epidemiology data, particularly since it is related to
time, could be misleading. The “facts” seem to be clouded with vary¬
ing degrees of uncertainty. It is possible, but not certain, there is an
association between serum cholesterol content in the blood and the
probability of developing atherosclerosis (NLSMB 1983B). Even more
hypothetical is the possibility that dietary cholesterol and unsaturated
fats (less than 50% in most meat fat) have some significant influence on
serum cholesterol levels (Glueck 1979, Nichols et al. 1976, Porter et al.
1977; Flynn et al. 1979; Hill et al. 1979A,B; NLSMB 1983B). Other
dietary components such as carbohydrates, minerals, proteins, and
vitamins also have been reported to have an influence on the blood
triglycerides and cholesterol level (Ross et al. 1978; Dayton 1975;
Yudkin 1972; Masironi 1975; Classen 1977; Voors and Johnson 1979).
Of even greater uncertainty is the assumption that lowering the intake
of cholesterol and saturated fats will have any influence on a person’s
chances of having a heart disease problem (NLSMB 1983B; Rogowski
1981).
A publication from the National Academy of Science (FNB 1980) on
“healthy” nutrition made no explicit recommendations with regard to
the consumption of cholesterol and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA)
for healthy persons. The Surgeon General’s report on health and disease
prevention (Richmond 1979) stated that a good case could be made for
the role of high intake of cholesterol and saturated fat (usually of
animal origin) in producing high blood cholesterol levels, which are
associated with atherosclerosis and cardiovascular diseases and that
Americans consuming high fat diets should attempt to reduce serum
cholesterol by changing eating patterns.
These two references indicate the contradictory nature of advice in
the literature that could be best summarized by stating that current
192 H. W. Ockerman

knowledge suggests that the best route in preventing coronary heart

disease is to avoid the temptation to suggest that simple dietary change
alone can solve a problem of such complexity (Department of Health
and Social Security 1974).
One area where there seems to be'little disagreement is that people
who are overweight are at greater risk not only of circulatory problems,
but of a great number of other health problems. Since, on the average,
the U.S. population is overweight and since fat is the most condensed
form of calories, most scientists agree that overweight people should
probably reduce fat (animal or vegetable) or calorie intake.

Cancer
In the area of meat’s relationship to cancer, there seem to be three
current areas of concern: colon carcinogenesis, nitrosamines, and
smoking meat.
Fiber in food decreases the intestinal transit time and increases fecal
bulk, and Burkitt (1971) suggested that the incidence of colon cancer is
inversely related to the intake of dietary fiber. Hypotheses (Kritchevsky
1981) on the influence of fiber take many routes and some of them
are as follows: Reduce transit time of intestinal contents containing a
carcinogen to reduce contact time with intestinal mucosa, dilute con¬
centration of a carcinogen, and dilute bacterial contamination that
might modify a precursor into a carcinogen. Since meat is devoid of
fiber, these theories suggest that obtaining calories from meat and not
from high fiber foods would aggravate the problem. Other researchers
(Berg 1975) have suggested that calorie intake may play a role, and
Enig et al. (1978) implicated vegetable fat, but these, too, remain to be
proved.
Meat is presently cured with sodium or potassium nitrite and, in
some cases, with nitrate, which is converted to nitrite in a reducing en¬
vironment. These curing ingredients are used to produce the charac¬
teristic flavor and color of cured meat, retard rancidity development
and “warmed-over flavors,” and inhibit the growth of microorganisms,
particularly Clostridium botulinum, which is the most deadly type of
food poisoning. Nitrite can react, under specific environmental condi¬
tions, with certain nitrogen-containing substances (naturally present in
meat) to produce nitrosamines. Certain nitrosamines have been found
to be carcinogenic when given in large doses to laboratory animals.
Nitrosamines are sometimes found in extremely small quantities in
meat cured with nitrite (Krol and Tinbergen 1974). High-temperature
cooking of bacon seems to provide the best environment for this reac¬
tion, but still results only occasionally in extremely small amounts
being formed. There is no evidence that human cancer has resulted
from exposure to nitrosamines from any source (Smith 1980). Also,
there is no evidence of increase of tumors or cancer in laboratory
 r

7. Meat 193

animals fed diets high in cured meats even when some of the meats
were cured with a sizable excess of nitrite (Olsen and Meyer 1977;
Van Logten et al. 1972).
Smoke is known (Pearson 1983) to contain a number of polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) that are carcinogens. In the production
of smoke condensates and liquid smoke, steps are taken to eliminate
these PAHs. The phenols, which give smoke its desirable properties, do
not appear to be either mutagenic or carcinogenic (Pearson 1983).

Mycotoxin Residues Originating from Animal Feed

Animals must be considered as an active metabolic relay that can
modify items consumed as food. These modifications may be good or
bad. They may detoxify material or they may accumulate by binding
(especially with proteins) undesirable items. With the discovery of
aflatoxins, the possible transfer from animal feed to meat and the bio¬
availability of these products or their metabolites became a concern.
The presence of aflatoxins in muscle and organs of animals having in¬
gested mycotoxins in their feed have been summarized by Ferrando
(1981) and, in general, quantities are in the parts per billion (ppb)
range, with Germany having established a tolerance of 10 ppb maxi¬
mum for aflatoxin B!. There is no current evidence to suggest the
accumulation of mycotoxin or its metabolites in muscle products
(Ferrando 1981).

Pesticides
The possibility of agricultural pesticides reaching meat products by
way of the alimentary chain have been studied in fairly extensive detail.

Table 7.15. Pesticide Limits in Meat Items

Maximal limits
of residue
Pesticides Products (mg/kg) Indicative percentages

Chlordimeform Meat of cattle, sheep, No residue at the actual

pigs and poultry threshold of detection
(0.05 mg/kg)
Cyhexatin Meat 0.2
DDT Carcass 5 on the base
of the lipids
Phosmet Beef fat 1
Pirimicarb Meats 0.05
Trichlorfon Mutton 0.01
Carbendazine Beef and poultry meat 0.01
Mutton 0.01

Source: OMS-FAO Committee (1979).

194 H. W. Ockerman
k'
Table 7.16. Pesticide Residues (ppm) Found in Italy in 1975

Epoxyde
of DDT +
BHC Lindane heptachlor metabolites PCB Dieldrine

Meats 0.026 0.017 0.012 0.041 0.02 0.013

Perirenal fat
1-year-old calf 0.084 0.030 0.072 0.133 0.17 0.163
6-year-old ox 0.113 0.098 0.102 0.856 0.07 0.237

Source: Crisetig et al. (1975).

Daily allowable tolerances for certain pesticides have often been es¬
tablished, but they frequently refer to fruit and vegetables, sometimes
to fat and milk, and rarely to meat products. A few references to meat
were published by a joint OMS-FAO committee (1979) and are shown
in Table 7.15.
Quantities of pesticide residues reported in Italy by Crisetig et al.
(1975) for animal tissue are shown in Table 7.16.
Reports by Campanini et al. (1980) suggest that contamination of
animal products by organochlorinated compounds in Italy is not a
human health hazard and that the highest contamination is in the least
consumed products.
As pesticides are currently being utilized in a more controlled and
rational manner, it is expected that residue levels will decrease. The
negative publicity response to pesticide residues in animal products
must be counterbalanced with the alternative of consuming mycotoxins
and microbial pollution due to insects if these products were not
utilized and a tremendous reduction in the quantity of nutrients available
due to insect damage. Also, there have been several reports (Ferrando
1981) of pesticide residues being beneficial to biological systems.

Minerals

Minerals in meat and variety meats such as liver are usually biologically
available and contribute to the human body’s requirements for these
essential elements. Meat is a particularly good source of iron, which is
normally deficient in the U.S. diet. The quantities of calcium, phos¬
phorus, iron, and potassium in meat and meat items can be found in
Tables 7.4-7.9; the calcium, magnesium, potassium, sodium, and zinc
in animal fat is reported in Table 7.10, and the same minerals, plus iron,
in baby food items can be found in Table 7.11.
Public concern over the mineral content of meat can be categorized
into three primary areas: heavy metals, sodium or salt, and minerals
contributed by the animal’s bone in mechanically deboned meat.
 7. Meat 195

Table 7.17. Mercury (ppm) in Carcass Products

Added to feed0

50 ppm 5 ppm 5 ppm

mineral organic mineral
Part of carcass mercury mercury mercury Control0 Control^

Pork
Long dorsal muscle 0.36 0.12-1.43 0.12-0.73 0.10
Semitendinosus
muscle 0.41 0.41-0.46 0.14-0.94 0.10
Myocardium 0.69 0.28-0.60 0.13-0.29 0.13
Liver 2.88 3.74 1.78 0.11
Kidney 0.001-
0.013 for
certain
samples
Beef liver 0.007

0 Ferrando (1981). ^ Prior (1976).

Mercury poisoning of animals fed cereal treated with mercurial

derivatives and people who consumed tissue from these animals have
been reported by Curley et al. (1971) and Haselein et al. (1973). The
normal level of mercury in the carcass parts of animals fed mercury
derivatives are shown in Table 7.17.
Lead concentrates in an animal’s liver and kidney more so than in
the muscle tissue (FAO/OMS 1972), as presented in Table 7.18.
Cadmium levels reported in swine tissue are shown in Table 7.19.
Holm (1976A,B) and Durury and Hammons (1979) suggested that
cadmium levels are below the tolerance amounts suggested for con¬
sumers of 400-500 pg/person/week.
Copper is added as a growth stimulant in feed for swine and some¬
times for chickens. This mineral is also concentrated in the liver, as
shown in Table 7.19.

Table 7.18. Lead (ppm) in the Meat and Organs of Various Animal Species

Species Meat Organs Reference

Pigs (raised in an
industrial area) 4.08 of the Nagy et al. (1975)
wet tissue
Pig 0.85 (liver and Prior (1976)
kidney)
Ox 1.02 (liver) Prior (1976)
0.73 (kidney)
Pig 0.003-0.098 Hecht(1977)
(liver)
0.003-0.75
(kidney)
Ox 0.05 0.15 (liver) Kreuzer et al. (1978)
0.33 (kidney)
 196 H. W. Ockerman

Table 7.19. Cadmium and Copper Found in Animal Products

Species Mineral Level fed Tissue Level/tissue Reference

Swine Cadmium 0.20 mg/kg Muscle 0.0032 mg Vemmer and

dry matter Liver 0.085 mg Petersen (1977)
Cortical 0.55 mg
zone of
kidney
Swine Copper Normal diet Bacon Not detectable NRC (1977)
Beef Copper Normal diet Kidney 0.35 mg/100 g NRC (1977)
Beef Copper Normal diet Liver 2.1 mg/100 g NRC (1977)
Swine Copper Normal diet Muscle 0.09 mg/100 g NRC (1977)
Swine Copper 250 ppm 18 ppm Price et al.
(1979)

Ferrando (1981) suggests that mercury, lead, cadmium, and copper

residues in meat are not significant except for the exceptional reference
to misuse of mercury. Marketbasket sampling has also suggested
(Duggan 1968; Duggan et al. 1966, Manske and Johnson 1977) that the
average intake of potentially toxic metals is below the dietary intake
levels established by FAO-WHO and, therefore, the normal intake does
not present a known hazard.
Salt (sodium chloride) is added to processed meats to retard bacterial
growth, improve flavor, tenderize, and also to extract protein and
promote cohesion in a comminuted product (Ockerman 1980). Salt
levels normally range from 2.25 to 2.75% for most cured products.
The average U.S. citizen consumes 10-12 g of salt (3900-4700 mg
sodium)/day (Terrell and Olson 1981). Sodium chloride has been
associated with problems related to human health including hyper¬
tension, and a number of reports have suggested a lowering of salt in¬
take [Senate Select Committee on Nutrition and Human Needs 1977A,B;
Kolari 1980; American Medical Association (AMA) 1978] might be
desirable. The major problem with lowering the salt levels in processed
meat is “reduction in shelf life” due to bacterial growth and a greater
dependence on other types of preservation which would reduce the
safety factor these meats have so long enjoyed.
Mechanically processed (species) product or mechanically deboned
meat is meat with a very finely ground appearance because the meat is
forced through very small openings to separate it from the bone. The
product contains some bone powder (smaller than 0.5 mm) and bone
marrow. This separation system allows the processor to salvage great
quantities of protein that would otherwise be wasted. The maximum
amount of mechanically deboned meat permitted in processed meat is
20% of the meat block (CAST 1980).
The additional nutritional properties of mechanically deboned meat
include easily available quantities of calcium and iron (CAST 1980).
 r
7. Meat 197

Trace elements are not present in sufficient quantities to be a health

hazard (Kolbye and Nelson 1977), but the fluorine level has been a con¬
cern to a few (CAST 1980). The protein quality is high (2.5 protein
efficiency ratio) and the cholesterol level is similar to that of hand
deboned meat. > '

PROCESSING OF MEAT

Meat is processed in order to preserve it and to provide variety and

convenience. The influence of processing on nutritional value is fairly
slight but if high temperatures are used some vitamins may be reduced
and the physiological availability of some proteins may also be lowered.
Curing has normally been reported (Hendricks et al. 1947; Hoagland
et al. 1947) to have no significant effect on the nutritional value.
The USDA and/or FDA examine the justification for and the pre¬
scribed use of all extenders and additives used in processed meats.
There is also continuous surveillance sampling of food products for
additives.

SUMMARY

Muscle tissue as a source of human food receives excellent marks

when evaluated from almost any direction. It allows conversion of un¬
usable crop residue into a high-density, highly nutritious, and well-
balanced source of protein. The flavor is very desirable and meat has
a great deal of satiety value. Although a few problems are possible for
special high-risk patients, there seem to be no major health problems
associated with its consumption, except perhaps excess calorie con¬
sumption, which could be said of all foods and particularly those with
less nutritional benefits. Processing procedures do not seem to drastically
alter quality, currently approved additives have a very favorable risk-
benefit value, and surveillance monitoring for unapproved and/or un¬
intentional adulterants is in place. Nothing is perfect, but meat as a
food source seems to come relatively close.

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 8

Effects of
Agricultural Practices
on Milk and Dairy Products
Edmund Renner

MILK FAT COMPOSITION

Milk fat consists of,more than 200 different fatty acids, many of
them, however, occurring only in trace amounts. The fatty acids in¬
clude saturated, unsaturated, and branched-chain fatty acids as well as
hydroxy acids and cyclic compounds. Milk fat has, therefore, the most
diverse composition of the natural fats. Only 15 fatty acids occur in
proportions greater than 1% of the milk fat (Table 8.1). The fatty acid
composition of milk fat is quite variable.
With regard to feeding, there is a positive correlation between the
content of unsaturated fatty acids in the fat of the feed and that in the
milk fat. However, the content of polyunsaturated fatty acids in the
milk fat is considerably reduced as a large part of these fatty acids is
hydrogenated by the rumen bacteria. Certain constituents of con¬
centrate, for example, coconut oil, soya bean oil, linseed oil, cotton¬
seed oil, and safflower oil, influence the fatty acid composition of milk
fat (Banks et al. 1976; Renner et al. 1971).
The content of polyunsaturated fatty acids in milk fat can be con¬
siderably increased by feeding if the animals are given highly unsaturated
oils (safflower, soya bean, or sunflower oil) encapsulated in casein
hardened by formaldehyde. This casein is resistant to degradation in
the rumen so that the encapsulated polyunsaturated acids are protected
from hydrogenation there. The casein is hydrolyzed later in the acidic
part of the alimentary tract so that the fatty acids are absorbed in the
small intestine. In this way the proportion of the polyunsaturated fatty
acids, particularly that of linoleic acid, can be increased to 20-30%, in
some cases even to 35%. At the same time, the fraction of myristic,
palmitic, stearic, and oleic acid is reduced (Fig. 8.1). However, the milk
fat shows an increased sensitivity to oxidation (Aicken 1974; Renner
and Hahn 1978, 1979).

203
 204 E. Renner

Table 8.1. Seasonal Variations in the Fatty Acid Composition of Milk Fat

Proportion (%) in milk fat during

Fatty acid Winter Summer

Butyric acid c4 3.9 3.6

Caproic acid c6 2.5 2.1
Caprylic acid c8 1.5 1.2
Capric acid Cio 3.2 2.5
Laurie acid C12 3.9 2.9
Myristic acid 0 14 11.7 9.7
Myristoleic acid Ci4:i 2.1 1.8
Pentadecanoic acid C15 1.5 1.3
Palmitic acid Cl6 30.6 24.0
Palmitoleic acid Ci6:i 2.2 1.8
Margaric acid C17 1.4 0.9
Stearic acid Cl8 8.8 12.2
Oleic acid c 18:1 22.2 29.5
Linoleic acid Ci8:2 2.0 2.1
Linolenic acid E-18 .'3 1.2 2.4

Source: Renner (1983).

Fig. 8.1. Effect of feeding encapsulated soya bean oil on the content of linoleic
and palmitic acid in milk fat (E, experimental animals; C, control animals)
Source: Kreuder and Renner (1975).
 r

8. Milk and Dairy Products 205

There are clear seasonal variations in the composition of milk fat be¬
cause it is affected by the composition of the feed. Table 8.1 shows
that during the summer months all C18- fatty acids, but particularly
oleic acid, are found in greater concentrations in milk fat than in the
winter months, while, on the other hand, the fraction of palmitic acid is
much reduced.
Only the cis- forms of unsaturated fatty acids occur in vegetable fats
and oils. However, in the production of hardened fats catalytic hydro¬
genation takes place and, during the passage of the feed through the
rumen, bacterial hydrogenation occurs, producing trans- isomers of the
unsaturated fatty acids. It has been reported that 70-90% of the linoleic
acid in the fat of the feeding stuff is biologically hydrogenated. This
would account for the relatively low linoleic acid concentration in milk
fat. Such hydrogenation processes explain why trans- fatty acids are
found in milk fat as well as in margarine and vegetable frying fats. Milk fat
contains on average 2.5% (0-5%) of elaidic acid (trans-octadecenoic acid).
The concentration of trans- fatty acids is higher in summer than in
winter (Akesson et al. 1981; Renner and Yoon 1982).

MILK PROTEIN

Table 8.2 shows the average values of the amino acid composition of
milk protein and its main fractions, casein and whey protein. The data
show that milk proteins are relatively rich in essential amino acids and
that there are considerable differences between the individual protein
fractions, whey proteins containing more threonine, lysine, isoleucine,
and tryptophan than casein. Because the proportions of the individual
protein fractions in the total milk protein are subject to seasonal varia¬
tions, the amino acid composition of the total protein varies with the
season. It has been noted that it is related to the outside temperature:
In the warmer months the animal produces less protein, but this protein
has a higher essential amino acid content (Kirchmeier 1973).
Table 8.3 compares the biological value of the milk proteins as well
as the protein efficiency ratio (PER) and net protein utilization (NPU)
values with those of other dietary proteins. The figures show that the
nutritional value of milk proteins is only a little lower than that of
whole egg protein. There is a clear difference between casein and lactal-
bumin. The latter has the highest biological value of all the milk pro¬
teins, higher even than that of whole egg protein.
Because milk proteins contain a surplus of some essential amino
acids, they can raise the biological value of a diet when added to other
dietary proteins, particularly vegetable proteins. It has been suggested
that milk proteins be added to bread and other cereal products to in¬
crease the lysine content of the diet. A mixture consisting of 76% milk
 206 E. Renner

Table 8.2. Amino Acid Composition of Milk Protein, Casein, and Whey Protein

Content (g/100 g protein)

Total Total Total

Amino acid protein casein whey protein

Tryptophan 1.4 1.4 2.1

Phenylalanine 5.2 5.1 3.8
Leucine 10.4 10.4 11.1
Isoleucine 6.4 5.7 6.8
Threonine 5.1 4.6 8.0
Methionine 2.7 2.8 2.4
Lysine 8.3 8.3 9.9
Valine 6.8 6.8 6.8
Histidine 2.8 2.9 2.2
Arginine 3.7 4.0 3.0
Cystine 0.9 0.3 2.4
Proline 10.1 11.2 5.2
Alanine 3.5 3.1 5.0
Aspartic acid 7.9 7.3 11.3
Serine 5.6 5.8 5.2
Glutamic acid 21.8 23.0 19.2
Glycine 2.1 2.1 2.2
Tyrosine 5.3 6.0 3.5

Source: Renner (1983).

Table 8.3. Nutritional Value of Milk Proteins and of a Number of Other Dietary
Proteins

Food protein Biological value PER value NPU value

Whole egg 100 3.8 94

Cows’ milk 91 3.1 82
Casein 77 2.9 76
Lactalbumin 104 3.6 92
Beef 80 , 2.9 73
Potato 71 _
Soya protein 74 2.1 61
Rice 59 2.0 57
Wheat 54 1.5 41
Beans 49 1.4 39

Source: Renner (1983).

protein and 24% cereal protein is said to be ideal, as its biological

value is higher even than that of milk protein alone. As a general rule,
the biological value of such a mixture is higher than that calculated
from the individual values of the components (den Hartog 1980; Porter
 8. Milk and Dairy Products 207

MINERALS AND TRACE ELEMENTS IN MILK

Cow’s milk contains, on average, 7.3 g of minerals per liter. Table 8.4
shows the average content of minerals and trace elements. Of the cal¬
cium and phosphorus, 209c is bound to casein in the form of a calcium
caseinate complex. These elements are, thus, important for the stability
of that complex. Trace elements in milk occur largely as organic com¬
pounds. Some, such as copper, zinc, manganese, and iron, are found in
the fat globule membrane. Of the iron, 60-70% is bound to the casein
micelles, 80% of the zinc is bound to casein, and 20% to immunoglobulins.
Most of the copper and iodine are associated with milk proteins (Basch
et al. 1974; Mendy et al. 1981).
The concentration of minerals in milk cannot easily be influenced by
feeding. The content of some of the minerals, namely, Ca, P, Na, and
Cl, is increased at the end of the lactation period. Being insensitive to
feeding the mineral content varies little with seasons (Renner and
Kosmack 1977).
The large range in the content of some trace elements in milk can, in
part, be explained by the influence of such factors as feeding, season,
and the stage of lactation. An increased uptake of the elements Co, B,
Al, Mo, Mn, F, Br, Ti, and Se from the feed may increase their content
in milk, but feeding can only very slightly influence the content of Fe,
Ni, As, and Si (Conrad and Moxon 1979; Schwarz and Kirchgessner
1978, 1979).
Udder disinfectants in the form of iodophores are often used as
prophylactic measures against udder disease. In such cases, iodine can

Table 8.4. Minerals and Trace Elements

in Milk

Minerals ' Unit Mean value

Ca g/liter 1.21
P 0.95
K 1.50
Na 0.47
Cl 1.03
Mg mg/liter 120
S 320
Zn 3.6
Fe 0.53
Cu /J g/liter 120
F 125
I 75
Mo 55
Mn 50
Co 0.8

Source: Renner (1983).

208 E. Renner

Fig. 8.2. Lead content of milk and blood of cows fed contaminated feeds. Source:
Blanc et al. (1971).

be transferred into the milk. Investigations have revealed that the

iodine content of milk rose after such an application from a normal
value of 30-90 p g/liter to 120-150 pg/liter, in some cases even to
350 pg/liter (Hemken 1979).
With regard to the heavy metals lead, mercury, and cadmium, their
concentrations in milk are hardly changed by an increased uptake from
the feed. Analysis of hay from the side of the road or from the middle
of a motorway in Switzerland showed a lead content of 99 mg/kg of
dry matter. When this was fed to cows, the lead content of the milk
was 40-70 pg/liter compared to 20 p g/liter in the milk of cows fed hay
from a traffic-free area (Fig. 8.2).

VITAMINS IN MILK

Milk contains all the known vitamins. Table 8.5 shows the average
vitamin content and the contribution by 1 liter of milk to the recom¬
mended daily vitamin intake. Some of the vitamin requirements, such
as those for some of the B-group vitamins (B2 and Bj2), are completely
met by the consumption of 1 liter of milk, while milk and milk products
can make a significant contribution to the supply of the vitamins A, B,,
B6 , D, and pantothenic acid.
 8. Milk and Dairy Products 209

Table 8.5. Vitamin Content , of Milk and the Con¬

tribution to the Recommended Vitamin Intake

Content Supply by
of milk 1 liter of milk
Vitamin (mg/liter) (%)

A + Carotene 0.58 46
Bi (thiamin) 0.42 32
B2 (riboflavin) 1.72 104
B6 (pyridoxine) 0.48 25
B(cobalamin) 0.0045 113
Nicotinic acid 0.92 6
Folic acid 0.053 15
Pantothenic acid 3.6 43
C(ascorbic acid) 18 30
D (cholecalciferol) 0.0008 32
E (tocopherol) 1.1 11

Source: Renner (1983).

The vitamin A and carotene content of milk can be influenced by the

type of feed because there is a close relationship between the carotene
content of the feedstuff and that of the milk. The same applies to
vitamin E. The ascorbic acid content of milk, on the other hand, is not
affected by the feed. Similarly, the vitamin B content can be influenced
to only a very small extent by feeding. An exception is vitamin Bj2 ,
whose concentration in milk can be increased by adding cobalt to the
feed. The vitamin D content of milk is not influenced by the amount
taken in orally by the animal because the body produces this vitamin
from dehydrocholesterol under the influence of ultraviolet (UV) light.
This is why increased concentrations of vitamin D (maximum values of
2.8 pg/liter) have been found in the milk of cows on summer pasture,
especially in mountainous regions where the UV content of the sun¬
light is high. The effect of season is shown by the fact that milk con¬
tains more carotene and vitamins A, D, and E in the summer months
(or during the period of grazing) than in winter (Fig. 8.3) (Antila et al.
1979; Gregory 1975; Olson et al. 1974).

EFFECT OF PROCESSING AND STORAGE

Effect of Heat
The heating of milk at the time/temperature conditions used in the
dairy technology is not expected to produce any adverse effects on the
nutritional properties of the milk fat because the photochemical oxida¬
tion of lipids is affected only slightly by temperature. Pasteurization of
milk does not affect the content of polyunsaturated and essential fatty
210 E. Renner

40
vitamin D 20 _

E
35
16 »
TO
CJ>
tocopherol
O) 30
a, 12 Q
c
E
0) <0

so 25
8

20

J FMAMJJASOND

Fig. 8.3. Seasonal variations in the concentration of carotene and vitamins A, D,

and E. Source: Renner (1983).

acids in the milk fat since, for example, linoleic acid is stable at high
temperatures. There are only a few reports of a slight reduction in
essential fatty acid concentration in sterilized and ultrahigh tempera¬
ture (UHT) -treated milk (Henderson et al. 1980; Reimerdes and
Diekmann 1979).
The casein in milk is relatively stable to heat, since proline prevents
the formation of hydrogen bonds, which are necessary for aggregation.
The whey proteins, on the other hand, are denatured by the various
types of heat treatment to differing extents, the degree of denaturation
being a function of temperature and time: 10-20% of the whey pro¬
teins are denatured in pasteurized milk, 70-80% in UHT milk made by
the indirect heating process, and 40-60% in UHT milk produced by the
direct process; the whey proteins are not completely denatured even in
traditional sterilized milk (Deissmann 1977; Snoeren and Both 1981).
 8. Milk and Dairy Products 211

The denaturation of milk proteins is not detrimental from the point

of view of nutrition. Heating produces changes in the specific spatial
configuration, that is, in the secondary and tertiary structure of the
proteins. Since the loosened structure of the protein makes it more
accessible to the enzymes,,heat-denatured milk proteins are more easily
digested than native ones. It has therefore, been often found that the
protein of pasteurized and UHT-treated milk was better utilized than
that of raw milk. Digestion experiments with trypsin, pepsin, and
pancreatin confirmed that the enzymes attacked such proteins more
easily. Moreover, heated milk proteins are precipitated by the acid in
the stomach in the form of more finely dispersed particles, and this
also makes enzyme attack easier. Fewer problems with digestion were
encountered when UHT-treated milk was given to babies and small
children (Belikov et al. 1981; Roy 1981).
The changes in the milk proteins taking place during UHT treatment
are so small that their biological value is not affected. The PER and
NPU values of the proteins of pasteurized and UHT-treated milk also
showed no appreciable^differences (Sieber et al. 1980).
When proteins are heated under alkaline conditions, chemical reac¬
tions occur that lead to the formation of lysinoalanine (LAL). When
LAL was included in the diet of rats, they developed kidney damage in
the form of nephromegalocytosis. LAL was much less toxic for mice,
and for other animals it does not appear to be toxic at all. Therefore,
it, has been concluded that LAL is also nontoxic for humans. Milk,
milk products, and baby foods do not contain any LAL at all or only
very small amounts of it (Fritsch and Klostermeyer 1981).
At high temperatures or during long periods of storage, aidehydes,
ketones, and reducing sugars react with amino acids, amines, peptides,
and proteins (Maillard reaction). One of the first reaction products
detected in milk is often hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF), the concen¬
tration of which increases with an increasing intensity of heat treat¬
ment. With regard to the nutritional aspects of the reaction products of
the Maillard reaction, animal experiments have shown that HMF can
hardly be considered harmful to health. Since mankind has taken in
considerable amounts of these reaction products ever since fire was
used for the preparation of food, it can be concluded that these products
are harmless (Askar and Treptow 1982; Renner and Dorguth 1980).
In the Maillard reaction, aldehydes combine preferentially with the
e amino groups of lysine. However, normal heating processes cause
only very small losses of available lysine: 1—2% in pasteurized milk,
1-4% in UHT milk, 5% in briefly boiled milk, 6-10% in sterilized milk,
and about 20% in evaporated milk. Because the original lysine content
of milk is high, these small losses of available lysine in pasteurized and
UHT milk can be ignored (Blanc 1981).
 212 E. Renner

Table 8.6. Effect of Different Methods of Heat Treatment on the Vitamin Losses
in Milk

Losses (%) of

Vitamin Vitamin Vitamin Folic Vitamin

Procedure B, b6 B 12 acid C

Pasteurization <10 0-8 <10 <10 10-25

UHT treatment 0-20 <10 5-20 5-20 5-30
Boiling 10-20 10 20 15 15-30
Sterilization 20-50 20-50 20-100 30-50 30-100

Source: Renner (1983).

The fat-soluble vitamins A, D, and E and the vitamins B2, panto¬

thenic acid, biotin, and nicotinic acid are relatively insensitive to heat,
and there are generally no losses of these vitamins when milk is heated.
The vitamins Bj, B6, Bj2 , folic acid, and C, on the other hand, are less
stable to heat. Table 8.6 gives values of the average losses of these
vitamins due to different heating processes. It can be concluded that
the vitamin losses in pasteurized milk are so small that there is practical¬
ly no reduction in the nutritional value of the milk. The same applies to
UHT milk where the vitamin losses are of the order of 10-20%. It is
possible to optimize the UHT process conditions so that the required
destruction of spores is achieved while, for example, thiamin losses are
kept at less than 3%. The reduction in the vitamin potency of sterilized
milk is more serious (Kessler and Horak 1981; Zadow 1980).

Homogenization of Milk
The object of homogenizing milk isJ;o reduce the size of the fat
globules in order to prevent creaming in the longer-keeping types of
milk. It also has nutritional advantages because fat absorption is easier
the smaller the fat globules are. In rat experiments, homogenized milk
also produced a better utilization of protein (Lembke 1971).

Effect of Storage

On its way to the consumer, milk can be affected and its nutritional
value impaired, particularly by light and oxygen. Riboflavin and
ascorbic acid are very sensitive to light, while vitamin C and folic acid
are very sensitive to oxygen. When milk is exposed to direct sunlight,
up to 90% of the vitamin B2 is destroyed within a few hours. Milk
packages should therefore provide sufficient protection from light.
This is the case for cartons with an additional inner layer of aluminum
foil, but clear glass or plastic bottles and plastic films offer hardly any
protection from light. Figure 8.4 shows that the ascorbic acid content
 8. Milk and Dairy Products 213

Fig. 8.4. Effect of light on the ascorbic acid content of milk in different types of
packages stored in illuminated display cabinets. Source: Renner (1981).

of milk kept in glass or in polycarbonate bottles in display cabinets

already begins to fall during the first few hours of storage, and after
16 hours only very little remains. Cartons, on the other hand, give suf¬
ficient protection. In addition, the exposure of milk to sunlight causes
considerable flavor defects in the form of sunlight flavor (Kiermeier
and Waiblinger 1969).
Pasteurized milk loses some of its ascorbic acid after 2 days due to
the oxygen present. UHT milk made by the indirect process contains
approximately 8 ppm of dissolved oxygen, and its ascorbic acid content
is considerably reduced after 2 weeks of storage, whereas the vitamin C
content of UHT milk made by the direct process, during which oxygen
is almost completely eliminated, is practically unchanged. Folic acid is
also inactivated in an oxygen-rich milk, but in the absence of oxygen, it
remains at its original value over the whole of the storage period (Ford
et al. 1978; Renner 1979).

Cultured Milk Products

The composition of the starting milk is not changed significantly
by its conversion into cultured milk products. In protein-enriched
yogurt, the protein content is increased to 4-5% and the protein and
 214 E. Renner

mineral content of yogurt is also higher when concentrated milk is used

in its manufacture, as is often the case (O’Neil et al. 1979).
During the manufacture of yogurt, the lactic acid bacteria make use
of the vitamins in the milk, particularly during the phase of rapid
growth, but it seems that they are able to synthesize some of these
vitamins again at a later stage. Some authors have reported higher
values for folic acid, nicotinic acid, biotin, pantothenic acid, B6, and
Bj 2 in ripened yogurt compared to the original milk (Ayebo and Shahni
1980).
Cultured milk products are more digestible than unfermented ones.
This is thought to have two reasons: (1) The slow acid formation by
the lactic acid bacteria causes the milk to curdle in the form of small
particles; which present a large surface to the digestive enzymes, and
(2) during the ripening, the microorganisms break down a part of the
protein into peptides and free amino acids, causing what might be
called a predigestion of the protein. Raw milk needs twice as much
time as yogurt to reach the same degree of digestion (Aim 1981).
Fermented milk products improve the utilization of calcium even
more than lactose because lactic acid is additionally involved in the
utilization of calcium (Figure 8.5).

experimental period

Fig. 8.5. Effect of the consumption of yogurt on the calcium retention of rats [C,
control group (usual balanced diet); A and B, experimental groups receiving 20.25
or 40.50% of the dry matter in the ration in the form of yogurt]. Source: Dupuis
 8. Milk and Dairy Products 215

The two optical isomers of lactic acid, L-(+) and D-(-), have different
physiological properties because the human organism has only a limited
capacity for metabolizing D-(-)-lactic acid. Cultured milk products
contain both lactic acid isomers in different proportions: soured milk,
kefir, buttermilk, and fresh cheese contain very little D-lactic acid
(2-14%), while yogurt contains more (25-60%). The World Health
Organization (WHO) has suggested that the maximum daily intake of
D-(-)-lactic acid should not be more than 100 mg/kg of body weight.
This shows that only an extremely unbalanced diet could bring about
an accumulation of this compound in the body (Krusch 1978; Renner
and Muller 1981).
It was thought that the consumption of cultured milk products and
the microorganisms contained in them would help to establish a natural
intestinal flora. Therefore, yogurt was additionally inoculated with
Lactobacillus acidophilus and L. bifidus, which are organisms originally
derived from the gut. But it is generally not possible to colonize the in¬
testinal tract with microorganisms from food because of the strongly
acid gastric juices (pH value of 0.9-1.6) and because of the bactericidal
substances in the upper part of the small intestine, particularly the
desoxycholic acid in the bile. Therefore, it comes as a surprise to read
quite frequently that organisms taken in with food can colonize the gut
(Auclair and Mocquot 1974; Lembke 1976). These results may be ex¬
plained as follows:

1. It cannot be concluded from the presence of certain bacteria in

the intestinal flora that they originate in the food because a
number of constituents of the diet (in the case of cultured milk
products, mainly lactose and lactic acid) can change the com¬
position of the intestinal flora.
2. Such changes have been observed mainly in persons suffering
from intestinal disorders, but not in healthy people. It might
also be possible to influence the composition of the intestinal
flora of children by diet (Bianchi-Salvadori et al. 1978).

Cheese
The ripening of cheese is accompanied by a partial protein degrada¬
tion. The products of proteolysis are proteoses, peptones, polypeptides,
peptides, and free amino acids. Thereby a part of the water-insoluble
casein is converted into water-soluble nitrogenous compounds. The
nutritional importance of cheese arises from its high content of bio¬
logically valuable proteins. Cheese can contribute significantly to the
required supply of essential amino acids. Table 8.7 shows that the pro¬
tein content varies between 20 and 30%. In the manufacture of cheese,
it is mainly the casein of the milk that forms the cheese while most of
216 E. Renner

Table 8.7. Average Content of Fat, Protein, Calcium, Vitamin A, and Riboflavin
of a Number of Cheese Varieties

Content of

Fat Protein Ca Vitamin A Riboflavin

Cheese variety (%) (%) (g/kg) (mg/kg) (mg/kg)

Emmental 29.0 27.9 10.8 3.3 3.5

Cheddar 32.4 25.4 8.0 3.6 4.7
Edam 26.0 25.5 7.5 2.5 3.5
Blue cheese 29.0 22.4 7.0 3.6 2.9
Camembert 22.3 22.0 4.0 3.0 5.8
Cottage cheese 4.6 14.7 0.8 0.4 2.9
Fresh cheese 0-12 12-16 0.8 0-1 2.8

Source: Renner (1983).

the biologically valuable whey proteins pass into the whey. This is why
the biological value of the proteins in cheese is somewhat lower than
that of the total milk protein but still higher than that of casein alone.
If the essential amino acid index of milk protein is given a value of
100, then the corresponding values of the proteins in a number of
cheese varieties range from 91 to 97. Cheese ripening can be looked
upon as a sort of predigestion whereby the digestibility of the proteins
is increased (Blanc 1982).
The decarboxylation of free amino acids during cheese ripening pro¬
duces amines. The concentration of individual amines in cheese shows
great variation. The tyramine content of Cheddar cheese can vary
between 0 and 155 pg/kg and the histamine content between 0 and
1300 pg/kg. Physiologically active amines can affect the blood pressure,
with tyramine and phenylethylamine having a hypertensive and hista¬
mine a hypotensive effect. However, mono- and diamine oxidases
break down the biogenous amines relatively quickly and therefore the
amines contained in cheese and in other foods do not constitute a
health hazard for the consumer (Edwards and4 Sandine 1981; de Vuyst
et al. 1976).
The average Ca concentration in a number of cheese varieties is
shown in Table 8.7. For example, 100 g of hard cheese will completely
meet the daily Ca requirement and contribute 40-50% to the protein
requirement. Cheeses produced by rennet coagulation usually have
higher calcium contents than those made from acid-coagulated milk.
The minerals calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium in cheese are as well
utilized by the body as those in milk (Kansal and Chaudhary 1982).
Only 10-60% of the water-soluble B vitamins pass from the milk into
the cheese, the rest remain in the whey. However, milk contains such
high concentrations of some vitamins of the B complex that cheese is
still able to contribute significantly to the supply of these vitamins.
 8. Milk and Dairy Products 217

This is especially true of vitamin B)2. Some mold-ripened cheeses con¬

tain more of the B vitamins than other types of cheese. An example is
the high content of vitamins B2, B6, and nicotinic acid in Camembert
(Reif et al. 1976).
Because molds, particularly strains of Penicillium, are used in the
manufacture of blue cheese as well as of cheeses with a surface mold,
the question arises whether mycotoxins could be formed. The follow¬
ing substances are degradation products formed by the action of
Penicillium roqueforti:

1. From 0.05 to 6.8 ppm of the alkaloid roquefortin have been

detected in blue cheese. According to the currently available
toxicity data, these concentrations are too low to be toxic.
2. The so-called PR toxin is formed only by a few P. roqueforti
strains and then only on artificial nutrient media. This toxin
has therefore never been found in cheese.
3. The toxic mold product patulin, which is carcinogenic for
mice, is not produced by those strains of P. roqueforti that are
used in cheese making (Bullerman 1981; Moreau 1980).

In the case of cheese varieties that undergo a long ripening period,

there is the danger that anaerobic spore-forming Clostridia, particularly
Clostridium tyrobutyricum, which cannot be destroyed by pasteuriza¬
tion, may produce considerable butyric acid fermentation, resulting in
bloating of the cheese, which would make it unfit for consumption.
The addition of a maximum of 20 g of sodium or potassium nitrate per
100 liters of cheese milk is therefore permitted in the manufacture of
some types of cheese. During the ripening period the nitrates are re¬
duced to nitrites, which inhibit the growth of clostridia. As nitrite is
a toxic compound, cheese should not contain any harmful amounts of
it at the end of its ripening period. This is actually the case, because
the nitrite is rapidly destroyed again so that the finished product con¬
tains only traces of nitrite (Monzani etal. 1981; Zerfiridis and Manolkidis
1981).
There is the possibility that nitrosamines might be formed by a reac¬
tion between secondary amines and nitrite. Sixty different nitrosamines
are known and the majority of them have been found strongly carcino¬
genic in rats. Histamine and tyramine, which are the chief amines oc¬
curring in cheese, are not among those that can be converted to nitro¬
samines. The reaction is taking place preferentially in a pH range of 2 to
4.5, but cheese has a higher pH value, and this prevents the reaction lead¬
ing to the formation of nitrosamines. This is the reason why nitrosamines
are found only rarely, and then in very small concentrations, in cheeses
that have been made with the addition of the permitted amounts of ni¬
trates. The average daily intake of nitrosamines in the United Kingdom
218 E. Renner

is said to be about 1 Mg, of which cheese contributes only 4% (Gray

and Morton 1981; Klein et al. 1980).
In the production of processed cheese, the casein is hydrated and
peptized by the action of the emulsifying salts, and the proportion of
water-soluble protein therefore increases considerably. Polyphosphates
have the widest range of application. These salts taken in with food are
unable to exert a physiological effect because they are quickly broken
down by enzymes to monophosphates, which are then absorbed. In
this way, the phosphate contained in processed cheese might even con¬
tribute to meeting the protein requirement (Brieskorn 1972).
Processed cheese contains roughly the same proportion of nutrients
as the cheese from which it has been made. The digestibility of the pro¬
teins is increased. No change in the availability of lysine could be de¬
tected. Some losses of vitamins , B2, B12, nicotinic acid, and panto¬
thenic acid occur during the manufacture of processed cheese (Deodhar
and Duggal 1981; Lee and Alais 1981).

Whey
During cheese making, a large proportion of a number of milk con¬
stituents passes into the whey, which therefore has a relatively high
content of whey protein, lactose, minerals, and vitamins. The total
global whey production is estimated to be about 80 million tonnes per
year, containing more than 500,000 tonnes of high-quality protein. Be¬
cause of its high nutritional value, various attempts are currently being
made to increase its use in human nutrition. As the lactose content of
whey is very high, modern technology is used to separate the whey
proteins in as concentrated a form as possible. The same methods are
used to obtain the proteins from milk. The following milk protein
products can be obtained: rennet and .acid casein, caseinates, copre¬
cipitates, heat-precipitated whey proteins, and whey protein or milk
protein concentrates obtained by ultrafiltration (van der Merwe and
Downes 1981; Muller and Kabus 1979).
Depending on the degree of ultrafiltration, the protein in dry-matter
content can be increased from 12% in the whey to 70% in the whey
protein concentrate. The concentration of lactose in dry matter is
reduced from 70 to about 20% and that of the ash from 10 to 4%
(Fig. 8.6). The biological value of the proteins in a whey protein con¬
centrate is as high as that of the whey proteins themselves. Therefore,
they are particularly suitable for incorporation into special diets, which
are thereby enriched with high-quality protein, for example, to baby
foods as well as to the diets of sportsmen, children, and elderly people.
It should be pointed out again that whey proteins can increase the bio¬
logical value of vegetable proteins, such as those from wheat, maize,
and rice. Whey protein concentrates are especially suitable for the
 8. Milk and Dairy Products 219

Fig. 8.6. Changes in the concentration of protein, lactose, and minerals of whey
during ultrafiltration. Source: Delaney (1976).

protein enrichment of milk products and other foods such as low-fat

liquid milk, cultured milk products, quark, processed cheese, baked
goods, meat products, noodles, drinks, and confectionaries (Forsum
1979; Renner et al. 1981).

Evaporated Milk
Evaporated milk is manufactured by removing water from milk,
thereby increasing the proportion of dry matter two- to threefold.
Evaporation under low pressure and at the relatively low temperature
of about 55°-65°C causes only slight changes in the constituents of
milk. Greater changes occur during the subsequent sterilization of the
concentrated product. Therefore, in evaporated milk, as in sterilized
milk, the whey proteins are almost completely denatured. But the
amino acid composition of the proteins in evaporated milk is hardly
different from that of the proteins in the starting milk. Lysine losses
produced by the whole manufacturing process are about 20%, but there
is no significant change in the biological protein value. Losses of
vitamins in evaporated milk are very similar to those found in sterilized
milk, but vitamin losses in sweetened condensed milk are lower because
the sucrose in this milk type acts as a preservative so that a steriliza¬
tion procedure is not used (Graham 1974; Vitali 1974).
220 E. Runner

The extent of the changes in the constituents of evaporated milk

during storage is mainly influenced by the storage temperature. Losses
of vitamins are small, even after several years, if the milk is cold stored.
There is no appreciable change in the amino acid composition or the
PER value of the proteins after a 12-month storage period. The lead-
tin used for soldering the seams of cans does not cause an appreciable
rise in the lead content of evaporated milk during storage (Loney and
Bassette 1971).

Milk Powder
Since the degree of whey protein denaturation is related to tempera¬
ture, the mild treatment of spray drying causes little denaturation,
whereas roller drying affects the whey proteins much more. The grad¬
ing of skim milk powders according to heat treatment (low, medium,
and high heat) is based on the proportion of undenatured whey protein
nitrogen. Normal drying conditions produce only small losses of lysine,
that is, up to 5% in spray drying and 3-15% in roller drying. Deter¬
minations of PER and NPU have shown that the biological value of the
proteins of dried milk is very similar to that of the proteins of the start¬
ing milk. Milk powder, especially skim milk powder, has a high protein
content of about 36%. The mineral content, particularly that of cal¬
cium, is also high, as is that of the vitamins of the B group. Spray dry¬
ing produces relatively small losses of vitamins Bi, B|2, and C, but in
roller-dried powders they are considerably higher (Marschke and
Houlihan 1980; Renner and Maier 1981).
The quality of the protein is changed only very little when milk
powder is properly stored at not too high a temperature and a low rela¬
tive humidity. Some investigations have revealed a slight reduction in
PER values. Lysine losses of only 2% were found after 6 months of
storage. Also, the vitamin losses of milk powder during storage are
relatively low. In one case, losses of vitamins B! and C were 10% after
2 years of storage (Kramer et al. 1977; Womack and Holsinger 1979).

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Milchwissenschaft 34, 11-13.
Renner, E., and Kosmack, U. 1977. Genetic aspects of the minerals content of
milk (in German). Zuechtungskunde 49, 99-109.
Renner, E., and Maier, I. 1981. Study of protein value of dried skim milk (in
German). Deut. Molkerei-Ztg. 102, 588-589.
Renner, E., and Muller, U. 1981. Study of buttermilk quality (in German). Deut.
Milchwirtsch. 32, 1179-1182.
Renner, E., and Yoon, Y. C. 1982. Investigations on isomeric unsaturated fatty
acids in edible fats (in German). Milchwissenschaft 37, 264-266, 408-411.
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Renner, E., Bressanello, M. C. B. De, Bacchetta, R., Castelao, E., Gonzalez, R., and
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224 E. Renner

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 9
Effects of
Agricultural Practices
on Poultry and Eggs
Glenn W. Froning

POULTRY MEAT
General Composition
Poultry meat is an excellent source of many of the nutrients needed
in our diets. It has high-quality protein, is low in fat, and is easily
digested (Mountney 1976).
Recently, Posati (1979) updated the data on nutritive properties of
poultry meat. Table 9.1 presents the proximate composition of chicken
and turkey skin and meat without skin. Both chicken and turkey meat
are low in fat content. Skin is high in fat content and low in protein
content. The predominant protein found in skin is collagen, which is a
low-quality protein. White meat is generally highest in protein content
and lowest in fat content as compared to dark meat and skin. Since
poultry today is bred to have more breast (white) meat, the birds
today are likely more nutritious than their counterparts many years
ago. Scott (1956) reported that poultry meat contains high-quality
protein with all of the essential amino acids needed in our diets.
Poultry meat is high in unsaturated fatty acids and low in cholesterol
content (Table 9.2). Generally, turkey white meat contains the lowest
level of cholesterol.
Poultry meat is a good source of niacin and a moderately good source
of riboflavin and thiamin (Mountney 1976). Poultry livers are also an
excellent source of vitamin A. With respect to minerals, poultry meat
contains many of the minerals needed in our diets, including potassium,
magnesium, calcium, iron, and phosphorus. Poultry also is excellent
for those individuals on low-sodium diets.

EFFECT OF PRODUCTION FACTORS

Poultry Diet
Summers et al. (1965) reviewed previous work and indicated that
dietary changes could alter the ratio of moisture Tat in chicken carcasses.

225
226 G. W. Froning
v ^
Table 9.1. Proximate Composition (%) of Edible Portion of Roasted Poultry Meat

Total Caloric value

Water Protein lipid Ash (Real)
V
Chicken broiler
Skin 40.29 20.36 40.68 0.50 454
White meat without skin 64.76 30.91 4.51 1.02 173
Dark meat without skin 63.06 27.37 9.73 1.02 205
Turkey, young hens
Skin 35.53 19.03 44.45 0.63 482
White meat without skin 65.74 29.89 3.74 1.10 161
Dark meat without skin 62.74 28.42 7.79 1.02 192
Turkey, young toms
Skin 41.54 20.14 37.25 0.67 422
White meat without skin 66.56 29.88 2.92 1.05 154
Dark meat without skin 63.07 28.68 6.98 1.01 185

Source: Posati (1979).

Table 9.2. Lipid Composition (%) of Edible Portion of Roasted Poultry Meat

Broiler meat Young hens

Chicken Turkey,
white meat, Dark white Dark
no skin meat Skin meat meat Skin

Total fatty acids

Saturated 1.27 2.66 11.42 1.19 2.61 11.59
Monounsaturated 1.54 3.56 17.03 0.66 1.77 18.94
Polyunsaturated 0.98 2.26 8.57 1.00 2.33 10.18
Cholesterol, mg/100 g 85 93 83 68 80 106

Source: Posati (1979).

Their work further showed that protein content was not affected by
diet. Past work has shown that increased dietary fat is generally de¬
posited in skin and adipose tissue, with muscle tissue being little affected
(Dansky and Hill 1952; Essary and Dawson 1965).
Several workers have shown that dietary f&t affects fatty acid com¬
position of whole carcass lipid, neutral lipid, and phospholipid in
chicken muscle (Marion and Woodroof 1963, Marion 1965; Marion
et al. 1967; Jen et al. 1971; Schuler and Essary 1971; Salmon 1969).
They observed that fatty acid composition of turkey meat was similar
to that of the dietary fat. Salmon and O’Neil (1971) further noted that
dietary fat influenced turkey carcass fat score, carcass composition, and
cooking losses.
Marion et al. (1967) observed typical changes in fatty acid composi¬
tion due to diet, with the neutral lipid fraction of chicken meat show¬
ing the most pronounced changes in the C16 and C18 fatty acids (Table
9.3). Dietary soybean oil greatly increased the level of 18:2 fatty acids
in the neutral lipid fraction as compared to the other dietary treatments.
 9. Poultry and Eggs 227

Table 9.3. Effect of Diet on Neutral Lipid Fatty Acids in Chicken Meat

Added fat (%), 16% protein^ Added fat (%), 24% protein^

Fatty acida None CO BT SO MO None CO BT SO MO

10:0 0.0 2.9' 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
12:0 0.0 9.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 13.9 0.0 0.0 0.0
14:0 0.7 6.2 1.8 0.6 2.7 0.9 9.2 2.4 0.6 2.6
16:0 25.7 20.7 23.4 17.8 25.6 26 0 20.3 25.2 18.1 25.7
16:1 6.8 4.5 5.3 2.8 6.8 4.4 3.3 4.8 2.4 5.7
18:0 7.4 6.3 9.1 6.8 7.8 9.4 7.2 11.5 7.8 10.9
18:1 38.5 30.9 39.3 26.0 33.1 34.4 23.8 35.1 22.2 27.4
18:2 19.4 17.1 19.4 44.1 18.3 22.8 17.2 18.3 45.9 18.4
18:3 0.5 0.4 0.6 0.4 1.0 0.8 0.7 0.9 0.7 1.3
18:4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.5
20:4 1.1 1.9 0.8 1.4 0.4 1.5 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4
20:5 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 1.1 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.0 1.5
24:1 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.0 1.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.7
22:5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.3
22:6 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.5

Source: Marion et al. (1967).

a Fatty acid denoted by carbon chain length and number of double bonds. Each
fatty acid expressed as a percentage of total fatty acids.
^ CO, coconut oil; BT, beef tallow; SO, safflower oil; MO, menhaden oil.

Menhaden oil in the diet increased the levels of 20:5, 24:1, 22:5, and
22:6 in the neutral lipid fraction. Within the phospholipid fraction of
chicken meat, Marion et al. (1967) further observed that the most
marked difference due to diet was indicated in the substitution of 20:5
and 22:6 for 20:4 fatty acids when menhaden oil was fed. Thus, these
studies indicate that the amount of saturated or unsaturated fatty acids
in the meat may be markedly influenced by dietary fat.
Abdominal fat in chicken-broilers has received major emphasis.
There have been increased consumer complaints related to the high
amount of abdominal fat in broilers. Both nutritional and genetic
factors have been found to be involved in fat deposition (Cherry et al.
1978). Deaton et al. (1981) reported that higher abdominal fat was
noted in birds on diets with increased dietary animal fat. Coon et al.
(1981) and Kubena et al. (1974A) also observed that as dietary energy
increases the quantity of abdominal fat increases. Thus, these studies
generally indicate that abdominal fat could be decreased by reducing
dietary energy intake, although body weights were somewhat lower in
the birds receiving less dietary energy.
Wilson et al. (1983) determined the effectiveness of thyroactive
iodinated casein (protamine) in preventing fat deposition in broilers.
A protamine level of 100 mg/kg in the feed decreased fat deposition
without decreasing body weight. Higher levels of protamine in the diet
228 G. W. Froning
V
progressively reduced fat deposition but also induced some loss of body
weight. Protamine feeding also resulted in poorer feed conversion,
greater shrink and dressing losses, and, at the highest levels, increased
mortality, lower carcass grade, and lower conformation scores. Never¬
theless, these authors felt that protamine has potential as a tool in re¬
ducing excess fat in broilers.
In another study, Maurice and Deodato (1982) observed that 50-100
mM sodium chloride solutions provided in the drinking water, are ef¬
fective in reducing abdominal fat. This aspect may warrant further
study to ascertain its effectiveness.
Sheldon (1983) noted that dietary d/-tocopherol increased tissue
tocopherol levels in turkey meat. As dietary levels of tocopherol in¬
creased, there were corresponding increases in tocopherol deposition
for breast and thigh meat, but not for skin and fat. Dietary tocopherol
also decreased fat oxidation in stored meat, as measured by thiobarbituric
acid (TBA) values.

Age
Scott (1956) reported that fat content of turkey meat increases and
moisture content decreases with advancing age of the bird, especially
between the period marking the first stage of maturity and the com¬
pletely mature stage.
Kubena et al. (1972) reported that protein and fat content of chicken
broiler meat increased and moisture content decreased with age of the
birds. In another study by Kubena et al. (1974B), there was no signifi¬
cant difference in the quantity of abdominal fat in broilers slaughtered
at 7, 8, or 9 weeks of age when expressed as a percentage of body
weight. In general, females had a larger percentage of abdominal fat.
Posati (1979) updated the USDA handbook and reported that fat con¬
tent of both chicken and turkey meat increased with advancing age of
the bird. Sonaiya and Benyi (1983), analyzed 12- to 16-week-old
chicken broilers and reported that the proportion of fat in the body is
heavily influenced by body weight and not age. They indicated that fat
estimation can be accomplished by perintestinal fat thickness.

Breed and Strain

The poultry industry has made significant improvements in increased
efficiency through genetic selection. Today we are marketing turkeys
and chickens at a much younger age than we did 25 years ago. Also,
the birds today are bred to have more breast meat. Breast meat is pre¬
ferred by most consumers and is also lower in fat than dark meat.
Several workers have investigated the effect of breed and strain on
body composition. Edwards and Denman (1975) studied carcass com¬
position of various breeds. Significant differences in the quantity of
 9. Poultry and Eggs 229

moisture, protein, total lipid, and ash present in the total carcass were
found among certain breeds. The light Brahma contained the largest
amounts of total lipid, 10.4%, followed by White Plymouth Rock,
10.2; Black Jersey Giant, 9.5; Single Comb White Leghorn, 8.8; and
Dark Cornish, 8.6. Significant differences in fatty acid composition
were noted among breeds, but these differences were not considered
to be of major importance.
Genetists have studied the possibility of reducing abdominal fat in
chicken broilers through genetic selection (Aman and Becker 1981;
Ren-Yu Tzeng and Becker 1981). These studies generally indicate that
significant progress in reducing abdominal fat in chicken broilers is
feasible through genetic selection. Becker and Spencer (cited in Tzeng
and Becker 1981) have estimated that the poultry industry sustained a
loss of $92 million in 1978 while consumers lost $158 million in the
same year due to abdominal fat. The industry now is endeavoring to
lower abdominal fat through a two-pronged approach, using genetic
selection and modifying diets fed to birds.

EFFECT OF PROCESSING AND STORAGE

Poultry consumption has dramatically increased during the past 20

years. Much of this increased consumption may be attributed to the
further processing of poultry products. Today more than 50% of the
turkey products marketed are in the form of further processed items
such as turkey roasts, turkey hams, turkey frankfurters, and numerous
other products. The same trend has occurred in the marketing of
chicken meat. The consumer can now purchase breaded chicken breast
patties, chicken nuggets, precooked and battered chicken, canned
chicken, and chicken frankfurters as examples of the many products
available.
Posati (1979) has presented data on the composition of these processed
products (Table 9.4). Composition of these products varies, depending
on ingredients and processing procedures. For example, a battered and
fried turkey pattie picks up considerable fat from the deep-fat frying
process. Further, the added carbohydrate (flour, etc.) further dilutes
the other components in the meat. Salt also raises the ash content.
Sodium intake has been a concern of many consumers and processors.
There have been attempts to replace sodium chloride with other salts
such as potassium. However, consumers generally object to these alter¬
native salts because of their adverse influence on the flavor and func¬
tional properties of processed meat products.
Since deep-fat fried poultry products have become of increased im¬
portance, their composition has received emphasis by some workers.
Heath et al. (1971) reviewed some of the recent work in this area and
230 G. W. Froning

Table 9.4. Proximate Composition (%) of Various Processed Poultry Products

Moisture Protein Total lipid Carbohydrate Ash

Boned canned chicken

with broth 68.65 Si.77 7.95 0.0 1.81
Chicken frankfurter 57.53 12.93 19.48 6.79 3.28
Chicken roll 68.60 19.53 7.38 2.45 2.05
Turkey ham 71.38 18.93 5.08 0.37 4.23
Turkey pastrami 70.64 18.36 6.21 1.66 3.13
Turkey roll, light 71.55 18.70 7.22 0.53 2.00
Turkey pattie, breaded,
battered, fried 49.70 14.00 18.00 15.70 2.60

Source: Posati (1979).

studied the effect of cooking oil, batter recipe, and cooking time on
the fatty acid composition of batter-coated chicken parts. Cooking oils
were absorbed into and/or through the batter and into the tissue dur¬
ing deep-fat frying, as evidenced by changes in fatty acid composition.
The tissue content of both linoleic and linolenic acids were found to be
affected by the cooking oil. Cottonseed and mixed oils contributed
more saturated fatty acids than did corn and peanut oils. Corn oil
contributed less stearic and oleic acids than peanut but more linoleic
and linolenic acids. The increase of cooking time resulted in an in¬
creased content of myristic, palmitic, oleic, and linoleic acids in the
tissue.
Sheldon et al. (1983) studied the effect of tumbling turkey meat in
brine on the retention of thiamin, riboflavin, and niacin. Niacin con¬
centration in the muscle tissue was significantly lowered by tumbling.
Although their results indicated a loss of niacin from the muscle tissue
to the exudate, there was no indication Of destruction of the vitamin in
the exudate.
With respect to storage, Wladyka and Dawson (1968) reported larger
quantities of essential amino acids in the drip from frozen light meat
than that observed from dark meat after storage for 30 or 90 days. The
concentration of each amino acid, as a percentage of total amino acids,
was similar in meat and drip.

EFFECT OF MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

Management systems have been changing through the years and there
has been increasing interest relative to their influence on carcass com¬
position. Deaton et al. (1974) compared broilers raised in cages versus
those reared in litter-floor pens. Results indicated that more abdominal
fat and ether extract percentage of body weight were obtained from
 9. Poultry and Eggs 231

broilers reared in cages as compared to birds reared in litter-floor pens.

Jeffrey and Britt (1941) also found that chickens maintained for egg
production in cages have more fat than those maintained on the floor.
Kubena et al. (1974B) and Kubena et al. (1972) studied the effect of
environmental rearing temperature on carcass composition. Their
studies indicated that higher rearing temperatures increased the percent¬
age of abdominal fat and total carcass fat content. Thus, broilers
produced in the cool months would likely be more lean than those
produced during the hot summer months.

COMPOSITION OF MECHANICALLY
DEBONED POULTRY MEAT

Mechanical deboning of poultry meat results in a finely ground paste¬

like product (Froning 1981). The process affects the proximate com¬
position of the final product. Considerable quantities of lipid and
heme components are released from the bone marrow and thereby
accumulate in the mechanically separated meat product. Components
from the bone marrow dilute the protein fraction and increase the lipid
fraction in the resultant mechanically deboned meat product.
Froning (1981) reviewed the proximate composition data of mechan¬
ically deboned poultry meat (Table 9.5). He indicated considerable
variability in the composition of mechanically deboned poultry meat,
which may be attributed to age of the bird, bone:meat ratio, cutting
methods, skin content, and possible protein denaturation during the
deboning process.
Protein quality, as measured by protein efficiency ratio (PER) using
the rat method and computed technique (C-PER), of mechanically de¬
boned poultry meat has been reported to be comparable to hand de¬
boned sources (Babji et al. 1980; Mott et al. 1982). Babji et al. (1980)
reported that mechanically deboned turkey meat has a higher PER
and C-PER than did mechanically deboned chicken meat or cooked
mechanically deboned fowl meat.

Table 9.5. Composition (%) of Mechanically Deboned Poultry

Meat from Different Sources

Source Protein Moisture Fat

Chicken backs and necks 14.5 66.6 17.6

Backs 13.2 62.4 21.2
Skinless backs 15.3 76.7 7.9
Turkey frame 12.8 70.7 14.4
Spent layers 13.9 65.1 18.3

Source: Froning (1981).

232 G. W. Froning

Ang and Hamm (1982) studied the vitamin, mineral, and cholesterol
contents of mechanically deboned broiler meat. Cholesterol content
was about 14% higher in mechanically deboned broiler meat as com¬
pared to the hand deboned counterpart. Calcium content of mechani¬
cally deboned broiler meat was higher than the hand deboned counter¬
part. Froning (1981) reported that the increased calcium found in
mechanically deboned poultry meat would likely be beneficial to many
individuals. Essary (1979) and Murphy et al. (1979) analyzed several
minerals from various types of mechanically deboned poultry. They
concluded that none of the minerals present in mechanically deboned
poultry meat presented any health hazard.
Fluorine content of mechanically deboned poultry meat has been a
concern of some consumers. Froning (1981) and Klose (1979) reported
that the fluorine content of mechanically deboned young chicken or
turkey meat was quite similar to that noted in hand deboned sources.
Mechanically deboned fowl meat, however, may have a higher quantity
of fluorine, which is due to the cumulative effect of the increased age
of the bird.
Overall, mechanically deboned poultry meat is quite comparable to
the hand deboned poultry meat sources in many aspects of nutritional
quality. It is an economical source of high-quality protein that can be
obtained from underutilized poultry parts.

EFFECT OF COOKING

Composition of food products as affected by cooking is important

to the consumer: raw poultry meat is an excellent source of many
nutrients, but are these nutrients lost during the cooking process? This
aspect has received the attention of several researchers.
Singh and Essary (1971) indicated that cooked chicken broiler meat
showed lower niacin and thiamin content than that found in uncooked
muscles. Riboflavin was not affected by cooking. Lee et al. (1981)
also noted that the thiamin content of oven-baked chicken was signifi¬
cantly lower than that observed from the raw meat. Hall and Lin
(1981) reported that broilers cooked in a microwave oven retained
more thiamin than broilers cooked in an electric oven. There was no
difference in thiamin retention between broilers cooked in the micro-
wave oven at 800 and 1600 W. Broilers cooked in an electric oven at
204°C retained more thiamin than broilers cooked at 121°C. In another
study, Gilbert et al. (1981) observed that spent hen meat, which was
boiled, contained less thiamin than meat that was pressure cooked or
roasted.
Unklesbay et al. (1983) compared nutrient retention in turkey breast
roasts which were heat-processed by infrared and convection ovens.
 9. Poultry and Eggs 233

The analyses included proximate analyses, thiamin, riboflavin, 7 fatty

acids, 18 amino acids, ammonia, sodium, phosphorus, and iron. There
were few significant differences in nutrient retention when comparing
these cooking methods. After convection heating of turkey breasts,
arachidonic acid was significantly higher than that obtained after
infrared heating.
Sheldon et al. (1980) studied the effect of various end-point cooking
temperatures (74°, 79°, 85°, and 91°C) for turkey meat on protein
quality. The cooked meat was fed to mice and growth rates determined.
Average weights of mice were greatest when fed turkey meat roasted
to an internal temperature of 79° and 85°C. Amino acid levels were
highest in turkey meat roasted to an end-point temperature of 79°C.
Thus, with the exception of possibly thiamin, there is very little loss
of any essential nutrients from cooking of poultry meat.

EGGS
General Composition
Nutrient composition of eggs has been studied by several workers
and the composition of eggs has been well defined. Everson and
Souders (1957) reviewed and summarized much of the earlier work on
egg composition and factors influencing the nutrient makeup of the
egg. More recently, Cotterill et al. (1977) reevaluated nutrient com¬
position of shell eggs (Table 9.6).
Eggs are an excellent source of high-quality protein. Eggs are used as
a standard for measuring the protein quality of other foods. The pro¬
tein efficiency ratio for whole egg is approximately 3.2, as compared
to whole corn at 1,4 or nonfat dry milk at 2.7 (Hsu et al. 1978).
Lipids are concentrated in the yolk. Eggs are high in unsaturated
fatty acids. Cotterill et al. (1977) reported that 62% of the total fatty
acids are unsaturated with 15% of the total being polyunsaturated.
Linoleic accounted for 87% of the polyunsaturated fatty acid. Everson
and Souders (1957) reported a 2:1 ratio of unsaturated to saturated
fatty acids in whole eggs.
The egg is known to be high in cholesterol (Everson and Souders
1957; Cotterill et al. 1977). The dietary cholesterol issue and its rela¬
tionship to heart disease has been discussed for years and has become
quite controversial.
Eggs contain all of the vitamins needed in our diets, with the excep¬
tion of vitamin C. The protein avidin, found in egg white, binds biotin
in raw eggs, thereby rendering the biotin unavailable nutritionally
(Everson and Souders 1957). Test animals that have eaten raw egg
white have developed a biotin deficiency. Cooking eggs releases biotin
from the avidin-biotin complex, thereby making biotin available
234 G. W. Froning

Table 9.6. Nutrient Composition of Fresh Shell Eggs per 100 g

Whole White Yolk

Gross composition
Solids (g) 25.28 10.72 50.78
Protein 12.03 9.41 16.16
Total lipids (g) 12.30 — 34.10
Saturated 4.50 — 11.73
Monosaturated 5.36 — 14.51
Polyunsaturated 1.69 — 4.48
Cholesterol 0.49 — 1.37
Calories (C) 183 56 401
Ash 0.98 0.69 1.65
Vitamins
A (IU) 221 —
796
D (IU) 36.2 — 169.8
E (mg) 1.01 — 3.92
Bu (Mg) 1.08 .02 3.16
Biotin (p g) 18.30 5.05 40.78
Choline (mg) 824 1.25 1109
Folic acid (mg) 0.029 0.001 0.067
Inositol (mg) 15.47 3.73 33.97
Niacin (mg) 0.089 0.095 0.059
Pantothenic acid ( g) 1.376 0.127 4.904
Pyridoxine (mg) 0.137 0.005 0.349
Riboflavin (mg) 0.320 0.253 0.457
Thiamin (mg) 0.089 0.003 0.253
Minerals (mg)
Calcium 58.5 8.6 136.4
Chlorine 172.1 175.5 161.8
Copper 0.062 0.023 0.132
Iodine 0.072 0.007 0.167
Iron 2.25 0.011 5.92
Magnesium 12.41 „ 12.44 12.35
Manganese 0.041 0.006 0.113
Phosphorus 237.9 14.26 607.3
Potassium 138.0 147.2 110.1
Sodium 139.1 183.4 60.7
Sulfur 165.3 158.4 165.5
Zinc 1.50 0.009 3.76

Source: Cotterill et al. (1977).

nutritionally. Most diets contain an abundance of biotin. Thus, it is

quite unlikely that an individual would develop a biotin deficiency
from consuming raw eggs.
Therefore, eggs are one of nature’s most perfect foods, containing
most of the nutrients needed in our diets. Further, they are low in
calories and are highly digestible.
 9. Poultry and Eggs 235

Erroneous Information on Egg Composition

Occasionally, promotors will make invalid claims concerning the nu¬
tritional attributes of eggs.
Eggs from Araucana (a South American breed of chicken) hens have
been sometimes advertised as having little or no cholesterol. Cunning¬
ham (1977) collected eggs from Araucana hens at several different
places throughout the midwest and compared their composition to eggs
from commercial strains commonly used in the United States. There
were no differences observed in proximate composition. The choles¬
terol content of Araucana egg yolks was observed to be similar to that
found from egg yolks of White Leghorn hens.
Another common fallacy perpetuated by some food stores and the
popular press is that fertile eggs are more nutritious than infertile eggs.
There is no research to substantiate this claim according to Walczak
(1974). It has been stated that fertile eggs are lower in cholesterol.
Spencer et al. (1978) found that fertile eggs were not lower in choles¬
terol content than infertile eggs. Furthermore, fertile eggs deteriorate
much more rapidly than infertile eggs in the marketplace.
Some consumers wrongly feel that brown shell eggs are more nutritious
than white shell eggs, or vice versa. Again, there are no reported differ¬
ences in the composition of white and brown shell eggs.
So-called organic eggs are often merchandized as being more nu¬
tritious than commercially produced eggs. Organic eggs are produced
from hens which Eire allowed to range outside. In actuality, eggs from
hens raised outdoors may be exposed to more pesticides and herbicides
than those birds under environmentally controlled housing. Further,
birds on range will have a varied diet, likely not as well balanced as that
of hens in confined housing. Thus, organic eggs could possibly not be
as uniform in composition as eggs produced from commercial hens and
definitely would not be superior to commercially produced eggs.

EFFECT OF PRODUCTION FACTORS

Diet of Hen
Diet of the hen has been observed to markedly affect several nutrients
in the egg, as reviewed by Everson and Souders (1957). Total water,
calories, protein, fat, and carbohydrates in the egg are not affected by
the diet of the hen. However, virtually all of the vitamins may be in¬
creased substantially in the egg by feeding a higher level of vitamins in
the hen’s diet. Tuite and Austic (1974) found that high levels of
dietary vitamin B12 exerted a striking negative effect on riboflavin con¬
centrations in egg yolk. Also, certain minerals in the egg, including
iodine, fluorine, and manganese may be influenced by the diet of the hen.
236 G. W. Froning

Latshaw and Osman (1975) observed dietary selenium will increase the
selenium content in eggs. Selenium content of feedstuffs may vary
from different areas of the country.
Numerous studies have endeavored to reduce the cholesterol content
of the egg through dietary means. Clarenburg et al. (1971) reduced egg
yolk cholesterol by feeding the hen 2-4% sitosterol. Their work indi¬
cated that cholesterol was replaced by sitosterol in the egg. They
postulated that the simultaneous presence of sitosterol may depress
intestinal absorption of cholesterol in human diets. Singh et al. (1972)
fed two azaterol compounds, 20,25-diazacholesterol and U-22,593 A
(Upjohn Company). These drugs induced accumulation of desmosterol
in the blood and egg yolk at the expense of cholesterol. Egg produc¬
tion and egg size were reduced for birds receiving these two drugs,
suggesting that they interfered with the estrogen synthesis of choles¬
terol. These data indicate that sterol composition of eggs can be al¬
tered. Further research is needed to ascertain whether this approach is
economically feasible. Turk and Barnett (1972) found that feeding oat
hulls and pectin in wheat diets reduced egg yolk cholesterol, but there
was also a decrease in feed efficiency and egg size. Alfalfa in corn-soy
rations was also effective in reducing egg yolk cholesterol. Apparently,
increased fiber in the diet of the hen reduces absorption of cholesterol.
Fatty acid content of egg yolk has been observed by several workers
to be influenced by the dietary fat (Cruickshank et al. 1939; Reiser
1950; Fisher et al. 1957). Chung et al. (1964) reported that corn oil or
soybean oil in the diet of laying hens increased linoleic acid and de¬
creased oleic acid in egg yolk. In contrast, dietary hydrogenated
coconut oil increased short-chain fatty acids (lauric, myristic, and
myristoleic acids) in egg yolk.
Pankey and Stadelman (1969) studied fatty acid composition of eggs
from laying pullets that were fed a low^fat semipurified diet or a low-
fat diet supplemented with 10% vegetable oil (corn, soybean, olive,
safflower, or hydrogenated coconut oil) (Table 9.7). Corn, soybean,
and safflower oil increased linoleic acid at the expense of oleic acid.
Olive oil increased the oleic acid content of egg yolk, while hydrogenated
coconut oil increased lauric, myristic, and myristoleic acids. The fatty
acid composition of the fractions of the lipoprotein was influenced by
the dietary fats and varied between fractions.
Sim and Bragg (1978) fed basal diets containing either hydrogenated
coconut oil (HCO) or safflower oil (SFO), with or without supplemental
cholesterol (CH), soysterols (ST), or a combination of both (Table 9.8).
They noted that both dietary cholesterol and soysterols altered the
fatty acid composition of egg yolk lipids by increasing oleic acid and
decreasing palmitic and/or stearic acids. These changes were observed
to be significantly greater upon feeding cholesterol than soysterols.
However, the simultaneous feeding of cholesterol with soysterols exerted
 9. Poultry and Eggs 237

Table 9.7. Average Fatty Acid Composition of Total Yolk Lipid of Chicken Fed
for Days on Experimental Rations**

Fatty acid^1 (%)

Ration 12:0 14:0 14*; 1 16:0 16:1 18:0 18:1 18:2 20:4

LF — 0.95 — 25.05 4.73 8.48 55.26 4.84 1.04

SO — 0.38- — 22.33 3.02-- 7.98 40.64- 22.29+ 2.34
HCO 1.04 5.93+ 1.66 25.76 5.84 8.37 45.92- 4.95 0.77
CO — 0.32- — 23.51 2.79-- 6.77 42.70- 21.13+ 2.03
OO — 0.24- — 22.16- 3.94 4.86 58.13+ 9.74 0.92
SFO — 0.20- — 23.55 2.38 8.60 37.15- 27.03+ 1.10

Source: Pankey and Stadelman (1969).

** LF, low fat; SO, soybean oil; HCO, hydrogenated coconut oil; CO, corn oiljOO,
olive oil; SFO, safflower oil ration; (+), significant increase, (-), significant de¬
crease in this value as compared to the low fat ration (p<.05).
^ Chain length:double bonds.

the least effect on fatty acid composition. These authors postulated

that laying hens were stimulated to increase fatty acid synthesis, main¬
ly from palmitic or stearic acid, when large amounts of exogenous
cholesterol was fed.

Age of the Hen

Nutritive properties of the egg do change with the age of the hen.
These changes are generally related to the increasing egg size as the hen
becomes older. Cunningham et al. (1960) reported that egg weight
varied markedly, tending to be larger in the spring and smaller in the
summer. The relative amount of albumen to yolk per egg was not

Table 9.8. Effect of Dietary Oil, Cholesterol, and Soysterols on Fatty-Acid Com¬
position of Egg Yolk Lipids** ■

Fatty acids^ (%)

Treatments 12:0 14:0 16:0 16:1 18:0 18:1 18:2

HCO 0.9 4.2 22.8ab 3.9c 9.6bc 49.5c 7.9a

HCO + CH 0.8 3.6 22.9ab 4.2cd 8.0ab 50.1c 9.3b
HCO + ST 1.1 4.0 22.5ab 5.0e 9.6a 49.7c 9.0b
HCO + CH + ST 1.4 4.0 24.3b 4.8de 7.2a 42.0b 11.2c

SFO — 0.3 33.0c 2.1a 9.9a 32.8a 20.8d

SFO + CH — 0.6 19.9a 2.8b 9.5bc 42.5b 24.le
SFO + ST — 0.5 24.5b 2.6a 9.9c 35.0a 27.9g
SFO + CH + ST — 0.5 21.3ab 3.0b 9.2bc 39.2b 26.3f

Source: Sim and Bragg (1978).

** Means within column followed by same letters are not significant at the 1% level
of probability.
b Carbon chain length : number of double bonds.
238 G. W. Froning
V
influenced by the seasons of the year, but as the birds advanced in age
the percentage of yolk increased. The percentage of total solids in
albumen declined steadily with advancing age of the bird. The yield of
albumen solids tended to be higher during March and April and was
greater in eggs produced by older hens.
Fletcher et al. (1981) observed that as a layer flock increases in age,
egg weight, dry shell weight, deformation, and percentage of yolk in¬
creases while the percentages of shell, albumen, and albumen solids
decreases. Their work indicated that these differences would result in
an approximately 2% increase in dry yolk solids by using eggs from
older hens.
Marion et al. (1966) studied changes in egg lipids with advancing age
of the hen and observed that all fatty acids were significantly influenced
by age of the hen. Generally, saturated fatty acids (14:0, 16:0, and
18:0) and arachidonic acid (20:4) decreased with age while unsaturated
fatty acids (oleic acid and linoleic) increased with advancing age of the
hen. Bair and Marion (1978) further noted a lower cholesterol content
of eggs from older hens.
Tolan et al. (1974) observed an upward trend in riboflavin content
of eggs from older hens. Trends in folic acid and vitamin B12 content
varied throughout the year. It was postulated that the intake of these
vitamins over the year may vary because of the large number of factors
involved in feed intake.

Breed, Strain, and Specie

Several researchers have reported differences in composition of eggs

attributed to breed, strain, or specie. Cotterill and Winter (1954)
indicated strain variation with respect to total solids and total protein
in eggs. May and Stadelman (1960) also, showed that strain of the hen
significantly influenced moisture percentage, protein of fresh egg, and
protein of dry egg (Table 9.9). Lipid and fatty acid composition has
been shown to be influenced by both breed and strain of the bird
(Edwards 1964; Marion et al. 1965, 1966).

Table 9.9. Means of Egg Components for Five Strains

Strain
Variable A 11 21 22 23

Egg weight 62.2 61.1 60.1 59.6 60.8

Contents weight 54.8 53.5 53.1 52.9 53.6
Percentage water 72.9 73.0 72.7 73.5 74.4
Percentage protein (fresh) 13.2 12.8 12.9 13.2 12.7
Percentage protein (dry) 48.8 47.6 47.3 50.1 49.8

Source: May and Stadelman (1960).

 9. Poultry and Eggs 239

Since cholesterol content of eggs has been an important concern, the

relationship to strain and breed has received emphasis. Turk and
Barnett (1971) observed that egg production strains had a lower yolk
cholesterol content than broiler strains. Washburn and Nix (1974) ob¬
served a similar relationship when studying the genetic basis of yolk
cholesterol in two randomly bred populations. These studies generally
indicate a negative relationship between egg production and yolk
cholesterol level.
Bair and Marion (1978) studied yolk cholesterol of various avian
species. Species listed in increasing concentrations of cholesterol per
gram of yolk were guinea fowl, chicken, pheasant, quail, turkey, duck,
goose, and dove, with an overall range of 12.77-21.99 mg/g. Significant
differences in cholesterol concentrations also were found between
domestic and wild genetic groups for turkeys and ducks. They also
compared eggs from 7 inbred lines of chickens and observed significant
differences in yolk cholesterol.
These studies generally indicate that some progress could be made in
lowering yolk cholesterol through genetic selection. The effort, how¬
ever, would likely be expensive (Bair and Marion 1978).

Management Systems
Tolan et al. (1974) investigated the nutrient content of eggs from
hens in battery, deep-litter, and range management systems used in
cofnmercial operations. Free range eggs contained significantly more
vitamin B12 than eggs from deep-litter or battery systems and signifi¬
cantly more folic acid than eggs from battery systems. Eggs from
battery management systems were observed to have a higher calcium
content than eggs from either deep-litter or free range birds. Eggs from
deep-litter management systems were noted to be significantly higher in
iron than eggs from the other two systems. Although these differences
in nutrients among management systems were significant, they are not
likely to be important to the average consumer.

EFFECT OF PROCESSING AND STORAGE

Everson and Souders (1957) reviewed the effect of processing and

storage on egg composition (Table 9.10). Drying essentially has no
affect on nutrient content of eggs. Nevertheless, storage of dried eggs
may affect several nutrients, depending on the conditions of storage.
Maintenance of low moisture content, good packaging, and low tempera¬
ture will largely eliminate the loss of nutrients. There are some nutrients
lost in cold storage of shell eggs for storage times of 6 months or more.
However, shell eggs today are moved through market channels within a
few days. Thus, there should be essentially no loss of nutrients in the
240 G. W. Froning

Table 9.10. Effect of Storage on Nutrient Composition of Eggs

Type of egg Effect

Dehydrated eggs
Protein Generally no loss of protein
Vitamin A Significant losses due to oxidation particularly at
high storage temperatures; 9 months storage at
-9.4°C resulted in 60% loss; 75% loss at 21.1°C,
and 80% loss at 370°C
Vitamin D Little effect
Thiamin Little loss at -9.4°C; 46% loss at 21.1°C; less loss if
packed under nitinger
Riboflavin Stable
Niacin Stable
Shell eggs in cold storage
Moisture Loss of moisture through shell and transfer of
moisture from white to yolk
Vitamin A No loss
Vitamin D No loss
Thiamin No loss
Riboflavin 14% loss in 6 months at 0°C
Niacin 17% loss in 7 months
Folic acid 16% loss in 12 months at 0°C
Pantothenic acid 8% loss in 12 months at 0°C

Source: Everson and Souders (1957).

cartoned eggs bought by the consumer under the present marketing

systems used in the United States.
Recently, Cotterill et al. (1978) analyzed the nutrient composition
of spray-dried egg products to update the data base. Nutrient composi¬
tion of dried eggs was found to be comparable to shell eggs.
Protein quality is an important consideration in processed foods.
Hopkins et al. (1976) reported that spray-dried eggs had a protein ef¬
ficiency ratio comparable to lyphilized eggs. If glucose is not removed
from eggs prior to drying, the Maillard reaction may take place, causing
loss of protein quality during storage (Fennema 1976). The removal of
glucose from eggs today, prior to drying, has greatly improved the
quality of dried egg products presently produced in the United States
and has essentially eliminated any loss of protein quality during drying.

EFFECT OF COOKING

Everson and Souders (1957) reviewed the previous research on the

effect of cooking on the nutrient content of eggs. Previous work re¬
ported by these authors indicated loss of B vitamins depending on the
cooking methods used. Loss of thiamin was about 15% regardless of
 9. Poultry and Eggs 241

the cooking method used. Riboflavin loss was increased when eggs
were cooked in an uncovered pan and exposed to light. Folic acid was
the most susceptible to loss, exhibiting a 65% loss during baking of eggs.
Research reported by Hanning (1957) indicated that approximately
20% of the riboflavin was dost during scrambling, whereas little or no
riboflavin was lost during hard-boiling of eggs. Thiamin content was
affected minimally by all the cooking methods used.
With respect to protein quality, Hopkins et al. (1976) reported that
the adjusted PER value of hard-boiled eggs was slightly lower than that
found from lyophilized eggs. They offered no explanation for these
results.

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 9. Poultry and Eggs 243

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 10
Effects of
Handling, Processing, and
Storage on Fish and Shellfish
Judith Krzynowek

BASELINE INFORMATION
Proximate Composition
It would be very convenient if a simple table of proximate composi¬
tion for a variety of seafoods, such as Table 10.1, could give baseline
information. Table 10.1 can only supply approximate values for many
different reasons. Finfish are mobile and are exposed to a variety of
nutrients, contaminants, and water temperatures before they are caught.
Fish harvested year-round will exhibit compositional differences due to
physiological changes and reproductive cycles. Bivalves are usually
sedentary, and they must rely on the available food that drifts over
them. Season of harvest, therefore, becomes a very significant variable
in terms of the food supply.
Baseline fat data for any one species vary more than any of the other
proximate compositional components. Most natural flavors, the essen¬
tial fatty acids, and the fat-soluble vitamins are just a few of the com¬
ponents contained in the fat portion of the fish. The sex and body
part (Table 10.2) of the fish contribute to its proximate composition,
yet these parameters are rarely defined when reporting compositional
data. The body part becomes important because fat is not distributed
evenly throughout the fish muscle. The portion of the muscle in con¬
tact with the skin, called the flank muscle or dark muscle, the belly
flap, and the nape of the head tend to be about four to five times
higher in fat than other portions of the fish. Fat content ranged from
1.2 to 2.0% for muscle meat without orange-colored tissue in Atlantic
sturgeon (Acipenser oxyrhynchus) to 7.2% for whole steaks marbled
with orange tissue (Ackman et al. 1975). The bulk of the lipids of the
dark muscle or the fattier portions are usually neutral lipids, generally
triglycerides. The leaner muscles, containing little depot fat, will con¬
tain a larger percentage of cellular lipids, about 90% of which are
polar lipids.

245
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 10. Fish and Shellfish 247

Table 10.2. Concentration (%) of Lipids in Various Edible Portions

Atlantic
mackerel Pink salmon
Atlantic White
Scomber Oncorhynchus
mackerel » sucker
scornbrusc gorbuscha^
Portion Scomber Catostomus
sampled scombrusa commersonib Male Female Male Female

Dark muscle 14.1 6.2 12.84 8.94 11.3 13.7

White muscle 9.1 1.4 3.32 2.21 1.7 2.3
Belly portion 18.6 No data 27.84 22.20 8.8 11.3

a Leu et al. (1981) (seasonal means).

b Mai and Kinsella (1979).
c Ackman and Eaton (1971) (June sampling).
d Stans by and Hall (1967).

Fat is also distributed unevenly throughout the edible body parts of

Crustacea. However, there appears to be no hard and fast rule as to
which body part has the largest concentration of lipids. Krzeczkowski
and Stone (1974) reported values of 1.0 and 1.6% for claws and body,
respectively, in the snow crab, Chionoecetes bairdi. The reverse was
found for legs and claws (1.14%) and for body meat (0.86%) in the
queen crab, Chionoecetes opilio. Equal amounts of fat were found
in legs and claws (0.99%) and body meat (0.88%) in the red crab,
Geryon quinquedens (Lauer et al. 1974) and in the Alaskan king crab,
Paralithodes camtschatica, with about 1.5% in both body and claws
(Krzeczkowski et al. 1971).
Season of catch can be a major factor affecting the fat content of
seafood, with some species fluctuating between summer maximums of
12-20% fat to winter lows of 3-5% (Stansby 1973). There are two
major reasons for this fluctuation. The quantity and type of food
available to fish and shellfish is-seasonally dependent. This is particular¬
ly true in colder climates. As the supply of food is depleted through
the winter months, the animals draw on their fat reserves for energy.
This is usually reflected in a lowered fat content. The season of year,
for many species, also dictates the spawning cycles. Sexually ripe
blue mussels, Mytilus edulis, have a moisture content of 76% in the
spring, in contrast to a high of 86% for postspawned mussels in the
fall (Krzynowek and Wiggin 1979). Fat content was maximum at 2.6%
in the fall, to a low of 1.7% in the spring, probably reflecting avail¬
ability of food. Postspawned mussels have low yields and suffer flavor
and texture deterioration within 4 months of frozen storage. Slabyj
et al. (1978) noted similar seasonal changes in mussels. Oyster lipid
content (Sidwell et al. 1979) fluctuates seasonally from 1.4 to 3.0%.
The fat content of seafood deserves further scrutiny because of its
unique contribution to the human diet and the special problems it
248 J. Krzynowek

Table 10.3. Fatty-Acid Composition from Total Lipids in Finfish and Shellfish

Blue
Prawn mussels
Rainbow Red Yellowtail
Macrobrachium My tilus
trout crab flounder
rosen bergifi edulise
Salmo Geryon Liman da
Fatty acidfl a b gairdnerf quinquedens^ a b ferrugineaf

14:0 1.5 1.1 3.5 0.4 3.1 2.0 7.6

16:0 14.9 15.2 13.3 11.4 13.1 13.2 14.3
18:0 8.0 8.3 3.8 4.1 1.7 3.8 4.3

16:1 1.0 1.3 4.8 3.4 12.9 7.5 4.3

18:1 19.7 17.3 18.7 18.9 3.7 1.7 11.9
20:1 — — — 4.5 .5 6.0 7.7
22:1 — — — 1.7 2.0 3.6 8.5

18:2gj6 29.8 24.2 5.5 0.9 1.00 — 1.6

18:3gj3 2.5 2.0 5.9 — — — 1.5
20:4u>6 2.4 3.2 2.8 4.8 1.3 3.2 3.9
20:5co3 7.0 12.1 5.1 23.7 26.5 20.5 2.0
22:6co3 3.2 5.0 21.0 15.9 7.0 12.2 8.2

a Weight percent composition.

^ Sandifer and Joseph (1976): (a) commercial diet, (b) commercial diet plus “co3”
fatty acids.
c Kinsella et al. (1978).
^ Krzynowek et al. (1982).
e Krzynowek, unpublished data: (a) March harvest, (b) August harvest.
f Dudekefa/. (1981).

brings to the seafood industry. The American Heart Association has

advised substituting foods high in polyunsaturated fatty acids in place
of saturated fatty acids for the prevention of atherosclerosis. Most of
the polyunsaturates of land animals and'vegetables are dienes, which
means they have two double bonds per fatty acid molecule. We can see
from Table 10.3 that fish and shellfish contain fatty acids with five and
six double bonds. The predominant polyunsaturated fatty acids for fish
and shellfish are eicosapentaenoic acid (20:5co3) and docosahexaenoic
acid (22:6co3). The common usage notation for fatty acids is as follows
—carbon chain length (:) number of double bonds (co) placement of
the first double bond relative to the terminal methyl group. All other
double bonds are separated by one methylene group, unless otherwise
specified. The nutritional significance of these two fatty acids is still
subject for debate, but it appears that they are more effective in lower¬
ing serum cholesterol levels than the dienes. The absence of the 22:6co3
fatty acid in the human central nervous system has been associated with
multiple sclerosis (Alter 1972; Crawford and Sinclair 1972; Stansby
1973). These multiple sites of unsaturation, however, make fishery
products especially susceptible to oxidative rancidity which creates
unique problems for the seafood industry.
 10. Fish and Shellfish 249

The fatty acid values in Table 10.3 are also subject to fluctuations,
depending on size, sexual maturity, and season of catch (Ackman 1976;
Stansby 1981). The practice of fish farming and aquaculture and the
use of artificial food and growing conditions has altered the “norm” of
fatty acid profiles. Cultivated fish and shellfish fed commercial diets
containing plant materials tend to have higher levels of 20:4co6 and its
precursor acid, 18:2co6, than “wild” fish and shellfish. Both acids are com¬
monly associated with plant materials. Surf clams, Spisula solidissima,
raised in two different environs, but from the same parent stock, had
differing amounts of 22:1 (all isomers) and 20:5co3. The clams raised
artificially with estuary water had twice the amount of fat, about six
times less 22:1, and about three times more 20:5co3 than the clams
raised in tidal waters (Krzynowek et al. 1983).
Stressful situations can also cause changes in fatty acid composition.
Increases in total phospholipids and unsaturated fatty acids in response
to extreme temperature fluctuations have been reported in crayfish,
Procambarus clarkii (Farkas and Nevenzel 1981);in crustaceans (Chapelle
et al. 1979; Farkas and Kariko 1981; Brichon et al. 1980); in carp,
Cyprinus carpio L. (Wodtke 1981); and in rainbow trout, Salmo gairdneri
(Hazel 1979A,B; Leger et al. 1977). It is speculated that species unable
to metabolize the long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids, which have low
melting points, would not be able to survive reduced temperatures. It
is the polyunsaturated fatty acids which appear to be preferentially
utilized by fish under the stress of starvation. Cell membranes begin
to disrupt during periods of acute starvation, with mobilization of
phospholipids.
Cholesterol is another component of the lipid fraction. Its content
in seafood has been the subject for much debate. One myth about
shellfish is that they contain large quantities of cholesterol. Bivalves,
which are filter feeders, contain many sterols, roughly 50% of which are
plant sterols obtained through their diet of algae. Before gas chromato¬
graphic (GC) instrumentation was available for separating sterols, all
sterols were mistakenly labeled as cholesterol, thus accounting for the
overestimation of cholesterol in clams, oysters, and so forth. Choles¬
terol is the major sterol (greater than 90%) in crustaceans that feed
primarily on other animals, and pre-GC data are probably reliable for
crustaceans such as lobsters and crabs. Table 10.4 shows cholesterol
values for selected shellfish. An ordinary serving of many of the
species can be consumed under the recommended low-cholesterol
dietary allowance of 300 mg/day. Fish usually contain less than
75 mg cholesterol/100 g raw muscle, and some species have as little as
10 mg/100 g (Sidwell 1981). The roe in fish is considerably higher in
cholesterol than the muscle, sometimes as much as 100 times greater.
Fish is comparable to other animal sources as a supply of high-
quality, highly digestible protein. Protein constitutes about 16-20%
250 J. Krzynowek

Table 10.4. Cholesterol Content in Cooked Shellfish

Species mg/100 g Reference3

Softshell clam 40 1
Mya arenaria
Quahog 65 1
Mercenaria mercenaria
Blue mussel 60 1
Mytilus edulis
Rock shrimp 90 1
Surf clam 50 1
Spisula solidissima
White shrimp 150 1
Penaeus setiferus
Blue crab 120 2
Callinectes sapidus
Jonah crab 78 2
Cancer borealis
Rock crab 71 2
Cancer irroratus
Red crab 78 2
Geryon quinquedens

a Key to references: 1, Krzynowek, unpublished data; 2, Krzy¬

nowek et al. (1982).

of the raw fish weight. Fish contain the essential amino acids in amounts
equal to that of land animals (Table 10.5). As a generalization, fish
protein supplies more lysine and isoleucine and less tryptophan and
arginine than meat. Methionine is the limiting amino acid in fish.
Raw fish and shellfish are low in carbohydrates (0-5%) and ash
(0-3%). They contain roughly 80% moisture, accounting for the bulk
of the compositional constituents.
Many studies have dealt with seasonal variation in proximate composi¬
tion: Leu et al. (1979); de Andrade and de Almeida Lima (1980); and
Whyte and Englar (1982), to name some of the more recent findings.
Stansby’s proposed system (Stansby 1982) for generalizing the categories
of fish according to their oil and protein content probably classifies fish
as well as can be done with such widely fluctuating variables. Five
categories are suggested, ranging from Category A with low oil (under
5%) and high protein (15-20%), as in Pacific cod, Gadus macrocephalus,
to Category E with low oil (under 5%) and low protein (under 15%)’
as in butter clams, Saxidomus nuttalli.

Vitamins and Minerals

Table 10.1 lists some of the water-soluble vitamins in raw seafood.
Fish supply about 10-15% of the recommended daily allowance of
niacin and 5-10% of riboflavin. Fish contain a little less thiamin, ribo¬
flavin, and pantothenic acid than beef and lamb, but are a good source
 10. Fish and Shellfish 251

Table 10.5. Amino Acid Composition (g amino acid/100 g protein)

Atlantic
Oyster mackerel
Grey Milkfish Snow
Crassostrea Scomber
mullet 'FPC crab
spp.c r scornbruse
Mugil Chanos Ihionoecete
Amino acid cephalusa chanos^ K E bairdi^ D W

Alanine — 6.8 5.1 3.1 5.5 7.3 7.3

Aspartic 7.0 10.3 3.0 1.1 10.3 12.2 11.4
Glutamic 23.2 15.8 4.6 3.4 15.9 18.0 15.6
Glycine 0.6 7.4 3.2 0.8 5.7 6.2 4.6
Proline 4.5 5.1 0.5 0.2 3.9 4.6 1.5
Serine 3.7 4.3 1.6 0.9 4.2 5.2 4.1
Arginine 4.1 6.8 5.7 3.3 9.8 5.9 7.1
Histidine 4.5 2.1 0.5 0.1 2.2 3.8 5.2
Isoleucine 9.3 4.5 0.5 0.5 4.8 6.0 5.6
Leucine 5.1 7.8 1.0 0.7 8.2 10.0 8.8
Lysine 10.0 8.2 1.0 0.8 8.5 8.0 7.6
Methionine 4.0 3.0 0.9 1.0 3.2 4.6 2.8
Cystine 0.7 ^ 0.8 N.D. N.D. N.D. N.D. N.D.
Phenylalanine 6.0 3.8 0.7 0.4 4.4 4.0 3.1
Tyrosine 3.9 3.6 0.9 0.4 3.9 3.9 3.4
Threonine 4.6 4.9 1.3 0.3 4.6 5.5 5.5
Valine 5.4 5.4 0.9 0.4 4.6 6.8 8.5
Tryptophan 1.6 1.3 — — 1.1 — —

a Mpkundan et al. (1978) (raw sample).

^ Sikka et al. (1979) (raw sample).
c Burnette et al. (1979) (freeze-dried); K, Korean—C. gigas; E, Eastern—C. virginica.
d Krzeczkowski et al. (1974) (canned sample).
e Leu et al. (1981) (raw sample): D, dark muscle; W, white muscle.

of niacin and vitamin B12, the latter being especially rich in the fatty
species. Vitamin B is concentrated in the fish dark muscle, as much as
ten times higher than in the light muscle.
The fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K, like the fat which transports
them, are not distributed evenly throughout the body. Vitamin A is
present in lean fish muscle at about 50-200 IU/100 g. Fatty fish,
such as herring, and pigmented fish, such as salmon, have substantially
greater amounts of vitamin A (about 500 IU/100 g). Vitamin D is
present at 0-40 IU/100 g for lean fish and 300-1500 IU/100 g for fatty
fish. Fish livers are a good source of these vitamins, but some fish livers
(e.g., northern puffer) are toxic.
Seafood can make a significant contribution to man’s daily need for
essential minerals. Saltwater fish are an almost unique, natural source
of iodine and fluorine, containing nearly 10-50 times more iodine than
freshwater fish. Calcium is generally higher in crustaceans than in fin-
fish. Nutritionists are beginning to view selenium as an essential trace
element for humans, and seafood is the richest source of selenium.
252 J. Krzynowek

Selenium values in parts per million (ppm) for salmon (.35), shrimp
(.41), flounder (.50), mackerel (.46), whiting (.33), and pollock (.28)
have been reported by Dudek et al. (1980). Oysters have 100 times
more zinc than any other food. v.

Contaminants
Occasionally, fish from a specified area of a particular species will be
considered unsafe for human consumption because of heavy metal
accumulation, elevated pesticide concentrations, or harmful levels of
similar pollution-related compounds. Table 10.6 shows current Food
and Drug Administration (FDA) action levels for several deleterious
substances in fishery products. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
(PAH) find their way into the water from air and petroleum pollution,
creosoted docks, and land runoff. They are known carcinogens with,
as yet, no FDA health/safety limit. Marine fish have a slightly lower
level than do freshwater species primarily because of a dilution effect.
Lobsters held in tidal impoundments formed by creosoted pilings had
higher values than freshly caught lobsters (Dunn and Fee 1979). PAH
are soluble in the fat portion of animals, and, therefore, a greater
accumulation should be expected in the hepatopancreas (tomalley) of
the lobster than in the meat, because the tomalley is higher in fat
content.
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) are ubiquitous in the environment
due to the uncontrolled industrial practices of the past decades. The
acute toxic effects of PCB were first reported in Japan from studies on
humans exposed to high dosages of PCB. The current allowable toler¬
ance in seafoods is 5.0 ppm. The proposed reduction to 2.0 ppm has
not been finalized by the FDA.
Some metals in foods, such as mercury^ cadmium, arsenic, and lead, are
toxic. Mercury is cumulative. The older, longer-living, and larger fish and
those higher in the food chain will have an increased bioaccumulation

Table 10.6. FDA Legal Action Levels for Various Substances in Fish

Substance Product Action level (ppm)

Aldrin, Fish and shellfish: 0.3

dieldrin raw, smoked, frozen, canned
DDT, DDE Fish: raw, smoked, frozen, 5.0
canned
Endrin Fish and shellfish: 0.3
raw, smoked, frozen, canned
Mercury Fish and shellfish: edible portion 1.0
only, fresh, frozen, or processed
Mirex Fish 0.1
Toxaphene Fish: raw, smoked, frozen, canned 5.0
 10. Fish and Shellfish 253

of mercury. Thus, swordfish and tuna, both large apex predators, must
be closely monitored for mercury content. The current action level for
mercury in fish is 1 ppm. Lead and cadmium block the absorption of
iron in the body. The digestive glands of shellfish contain the highest
naturally occurring levels of cadmium. These organs are consumed by
people who enjoy eating oysters, whole clams, and the tomalley of
lobsters. While lobster digestive gland is also high in arsenic, it does
not constitute a health/safety hazard. The bioavailability of these
elements in seafood needs to be considered when determining human
tolerance. Fishery products containing bone and viscera contain
higher levels of lead than fillets. Values for lead, cadmium, and arsenic
in fishery products have been determined by Uthe et al. (1982).

Raw Seafood
Mention should be made when discussing baseline data of the nutri¬
tional significance of consuming raw fish. Some freshwater fish, a few
saltwater species, and some shellfish (e.g., clams, shrimp, and mussels)
contain an enzyme, thiaminase, which splits any thiamin present,
making it unavailable for metabolic purposes. This enzyme is heat
labile and is destroyed by cooking. Regular consumption of raw sea¬
food products could result in eventual thiamin deficiency and poor
nutritional health. Also, fish may contain parasites such as tapeworms
and nematodes. Under crowded, live pen-held conditions with inade¬
quate water and circulation, some fish may become heavily infested
(Hoffman and Sindermann 1962; Sindermann 1970). A few of the
parasites can continue to live in humans if the fish is eaten raw. They
are rendered harmless when the fish is thoroughly cooked. Cooking of
seafood is highly recommended for health and safety reasons.

HARVESTING AND HANDLING OF FRESH SEAFOOD

Now that baseline seafood nutritional information has been established,

what becomes of the product as it makes its way to the consumer? A
simple formula will highlight those practices that could alter the nutri¬
tional composition of seafood:

Nutritional value = Original _ Harvesting, fresh handling,

to consumer content preservation, storage losses

This formula addresses nutritional quality and should not be confused

with what is commonly called seafood quality. Quality changes such as
textural toughening, the development of off-odors and flavors, and
browning are beyond the scope of this chapter. The formula does seem
to imply that there are only losses encountered along the route to the
254 J. Krzynowek

consumer. For other foods, some of the processing practices could be

put in the formula with a plus (+) sign. Moderate heating improves the
digestibility and, therefore, the protein utilization of some foods, but
not necessarily fish. Additional nutrients are added to bakery products,
but generally not to fish and shellfish. A great many of the practices
employed by seafood processors have been imposed by the fragile
nature of the raw material in an attempt to retain the organoleptic
quality of fish and are used to deliver a product that closely resembles a
freshly caught product, possibly at the expense of nutritional quality.

Shipboard Practices
Before seafood reaches the processing plants, it is subjected to fairly
rough handling on board the fishing vessel. The catch is towed through
the water, brought aboard, possibly handled by hand (i.e., headed and
gutted), stowed, unloaded, and transferred. Fish destined for the retail
market as whole fish or fillets will not realize a good price if it is battered,
bruised, or torn. The end use of the fish, therefore, whether as a whole
fish or as a minced product, determines, to some extent, the type of
harvesting gear and method of transport and storage.
Spoilage of fish begins the minute the fish are hauled from the water
(Licciardello 1980), at a rate dependent on many factors. Some factors
are inherent to the fish, such as species and sexual maturity. The
salinity of the harvesting water, for example, influences the develop¬
ment of yeast in oysters (Hood 1983). Other spoilage factors are the
consequence of human handling.
Deterioration is a result of three processes: (1) bacterial decomposi¬
tion, (2) endogenous enzymatic activity, and (3) lipid oxidation. Lower¬
ing the storage temperature and eliminating slime and overcrowding can
reduce bacterial growth. Heading and gutting the fish can reduce the
enzymatic activity by removing blood and digestive organs. Bleeding
can reduce the heme content which in turn can depress the rate of
oxidation. Dragging huge nets and entrapping many thousands of
pounds of fish leads to great physical damage and the reduction of
glycogen and a decrease in pH in the fish through struggling. Many
different kinds of parasites can be found on the surface of fish. In the
natural environment, the parasites are kept to a level that does not
harm the fish. This is probably due to the fact that the parasites are
continually being washed from the fish with the swimming motion or
eaten from the surface of the fish. Poorly penned or boxed fish which
are crowded together with inadequate ventilation and poor water circu¬
lation can become heavily infested with parasites and bacteria with a
resulting reduction in the original weight of the fish.
The use of chilled (CSW) and/or refrigerated (RSW) seawater for
storage at sea offers a few advantages over iced storage (Licciardello
 10. Fish and Shellfish 255

1980). First, there is no loss of soluble protein, as occurs with iced fish,
and second, there is a slight reduction in the formation of enzymatically
produced formaldehyde. There is, however, a slight increase in salt
content for those fish held in CSW and RSW, and the soaking brine pro¬
vides a good medium for psychrophilic bacteria.
Sodium tripolyphosphate dips have been tried on fillets prior to
freezing for use at sea in an attempt to reduce the drip loss. In an ex¬
periment using filleted cod, Gadus morhua, Sutton and Ogilvie (1968)
found sodium levels increased in muscle at all concentrations, but
phosphorus content decreased in fish muscle that had been dipped in
dilute solutions. They attributed the reduction to diffusion of phosphorus
from the fish into the more dilute dip solution. V. G. Ampola (unpub¬
lished, 1982) found phosphorus levels doubled in clams after 30 min using
a solution of 7% sodium tripolyphosphate and 2.5% salt. The ideal
phosphorus:calcium ratio should be 1:1 in the human diet. This ratio
is already greater than 1 whenever meat is included in the diet, and the
phosphorus added by this practice may be nutritionally undesirable.

Mechanical Processing

Discards of fish and shellfish at sea can account for 70-90% of the
total catch, a substantial waste! Many of the fish are discarded because
they have storage instability, are not marketable, or are difficult to
process. Mechanical deboners have been developed in response to a
need to utilize the fish that are difficult to process by traditional
methods and have, therefore, previously been discarded. The finished
product, called minced fish, is usually darker in color than fillets be¬
cause of the inclusion of more blood during the deboning. The dark
minced product, which has been reformed into sausages or cakes or
patties, has met with considerable consumer resistance in the United
States. Bleaching comminuted flesh with hydrogen peroxide in buffered
solutions of varying pH has been tried experimentally (Young et al.
1980). While the product is lightened with no appreciable lipid oxida¬
tion, there is a reduction in total amino acid concentration with an
almost complete disappearance of the sulfur amino acids such as
methionine and cystine, and almost total destruction of the fat-soluble
vitamins. Washing of the minced fish also washes away the water-
soluble vitamins as well as some flavor (Higashi 1962). Surimi is water-
washed, minced flesh with added sucrose, sorbitol, or glucose, and
sodium tripolyphosphate. Kamaboko, a traditional food consumed in
Japan, is made by steaming or boiling surimi. If the mince is bleached
in acidic cystein solution while making kamaboko, mercury is removed
(Suzuki 1974).
256 J. Krzynowek

PRESERVATION TECHNIQUES

Curing
As stated previously, preservation techniques have been primarily
directed toward organoleptic quality. Nutritional losses, prior to
spoilage, are small. The use of marinades as a preservative extends the
shelf life of fish. Acid, generally acetic acid, is used to retard bacterial
activity by lowering the pH to a point where food poisoning bacteria
and most spoilage bacteria cannot grow. Salt is also added to the
marinade to slow down the enzymatic textural softening process. Both
bacterial and enzymatic activities will proceed steadily, however, and
the product will have a limited shelf life, dependent upon the storage
temperature. The end result nutritionally is a product with elevated
salt content.
Smoking used to be considered a primary preservation technique.
Today, smoked fish is usually frozen shortly after smoking for storage,
and the smoking itself is a means of adding flavor to the fish. Freez¬
ing, therefore, is the primary preservation technique, and the literature
does address quality changes of frozen smoked fish. Little has been
written on the nutritional changes in smoked seafood.
Fish is usually salted prior to smoking. There is an initial loss of
water-soluble proteins across the fish-salt interface and a denaturation
of the protein as the salt penetrates into the flesh. The latter effect
has little nutritional significance. Water losses during light salting re¬
sult in an unavoidable, but insignificant, loss of water-soluble vitamins.
Heavy salting has resulted in the reduction of 50% of the B vitamins in
salted herring. Clifford et al. (1980) reported a destruction of about
12-24% lysine after a 5 hr smoke. The phenolic substances associated
with smoking appear to be antioxidative.and protect against nutritional
losses due to fat oxidation.
Total lipids and cholesterol decreased over storage after smoking and
preserving in tomato sauce (de Andrade and de Almeida Lima 1980),
but it is difficult from the data to discern which of the processes
actually caused the decrease. Smoked salmon had higher fat content
than raw salmon due to the loss of moisture from the smoked product,
and cholesterol decreased from 62 to 50 mg/100 g after dry salting and
smoking (Krzynowek, unpublished, 1982). There was no significant dif¬
ference in relative percentages of fatty acids for the salmon. Mullet
(Koburger and Mendenhall 1973) showed increases in fat and protein
content with a subsequent decrease in moisture after soaking in a 20%
brine for 30 min and smoking over Red Oak sawdust at 180°F for 6 hr.
The salt content in the mullet tripled after this treatment. There were
losses of 6-33% in available lysine in five species of smoked African
fish (Hoffman et al. 1977).
 10. Fish and Shellfish 257

Many PAH have been identified in wood smoke. The fish absorbs
these compounds during the smoking process. Smoked fish containing
the highest levels of PAH were smoked in the traditional kilns, which
use smouldering wood or sawdust. Newer smoking facilities, utilizing
external smoke generators that can scrub the smoke prior to entering
the smoking chamber, offer a possibility of reducing PAH concentra¬
tions in fish. Larsson (1982), in reporting on practices in Sweden, has
found that the skin contains the greatest level of PAH and seems to
preferentially barricade against the absorption of the higher molecular
weight PAH. Larsson reports mean total PAH values in parts per
billion (ppb) for smoked herring of 235 for alderwood smoke, 220 for
for spruce or juniper twig smoke, 77-123 for a home smoking cabinet
held at 60°-80°C for 1.5-3 hr, 10-17 for a home smoke box using
sawdust smoke for 8-15 min, 879-1100 for a homemade kiln using
spruce twigs, and 28-46 for canned smoked herring in tomato sauce.
The use of liquid smoke will reduce the hazards from PAH in natural
smoking.
Nitrites have traditionally been added to smoked fish to inhibit
bacterial growth and for the production of a “cured” flavor. The addi¬
tion of nitrites to fish is being reassessed because of the ability of
nitrites to react with amines to form nitrosamines which are potent
carcinogens. The amines can be formed during cooking or through
bacterial or endogenous enzymatic action. The amines may also be
initially present in fish in the form of free amino acids, such as histidine
or tryptophan, or, in many marine species, in the form of trimethylamine
oxide, trimethylamine, and dimethylamine. The latter two compounds
are formed in the degradation of trimethylamine oxide during storage.

Prevention of Oxidation
Many techniques are employed to retard oxidation of the fish oils.
Oxidation in dark muscle may proceed 100 times faster than in light
muscle due to the presence of prooxidants such as heme compounds.
Oxidation results in the characteristic rancid odor and flavor, but, more
important nutritionally, is the loss of the fat-soluble vitamin activity
and the formation of potentially toxic oxidized fatty acids. Oxidized
fish oil may not be absorbed across the intestinal wall and may cause
membrane irritation. Oxidized lipids form covalent bonds with pro¬
teins, thereby damaging some proteins before the fish is considered un¬
fit for human consumption. Severely oxidized marine products would
probably not be consumed, however, because of the rancid taste and
smell. Butylated hydroxy toluene (BHT), butylated hydroxyanisole
(BHA), propyl gallate, and terf-butylhydroquinone (TBHQ) are used
in the fish industry to delay oxidation of the fish lipids, but their use
in fishery products is not as effective as for other foods. Caldironi and
258 J. Krzynowek

Bazan (1982), Zama et al. (1979), Mai and Kinsella (1981), and Hale
et al. (1982) have reported on the efficacy of using these various anti¬
oxidants for the extension of shelf life, but nutritional data is missing.
The first three have been shown to inhibit chemical carcinogenesis in
laboratory animals (Anonymous 198'2). Flexible packaging materials
of varying oxygen permeability have been tried to reduce the inclusion
of oxygen into the packaged fish product. No data are available on
detrimental effects to the nutrition of the packaged product.
Packaging of fish in modified atmospheres (MA) for the extension of
storage life has received considerable attention. Wang and Brown
(1983) investigated modified atmospheres with crayfish, Pacifastacus
leniusculus; Fey and Regenstein (1982), MA and potassium sorbate ice
with red hake and salmon; Lannelongue et al. (1982A,B), swordfish,
Xiphias gladius, and sheepshead, Archosargus probatocephalus; Brown
et al. (1980), rockfish, Sebastes miniatus, and silver salmon, Oncorhychus
kisutch; Mitsuda et al. (1980), sodium chloride dip prior to sealing with
C02 of Seriola aureuittata; and Varga et al. (1980), hypobaric storage
of cod, herring, and mackerel. A review of the methods has been
written by Wilhelm (1982). This literature, however, deals primarily
with organoleptic changes, the reduction of bacteria, and the reduction
in the formation of trimethylamine. Morey et al. (1982) determined
from protein efficiency ratio (PER) calculations that rockfish, Sebastes
spp., suffered no loss of nutritional quality from storage in an atmosphere
of 80:20%, C02:02.

Irradiation
Although there is a recognized potential for the use of high-energy
radiation for the preservation of seafood (Brooke et al. 1964, 1966;
Dubravcic and Nawar, 1969; Ronsivalli 'St al. 1971), the method does
not currently have the approval of the FDA. Some of the nutritional
research will be mentioned in this chapter, because the issue of irradia¬
tion continues to recur. Net increases in free amino acids, as much as
a 40% increase in clams, have been reported by Brooke et al. (1964)
and decreases of up to 10% have been reported by Proctor and Bhatia
(1950). There was a loss of riboflavin equivalent to the losses encountered
in normal cooking, a 47% loss of thiamin and no loss of nicotinic acid
upon irradiation of cod fillets (Kennedy and Ley 1971). Warrier and
Ninjoor (1981) used gamma irradiation (200 Krad) and heat (60°C
for 10 min) to prepare food protein concentrate (FPC) from Bombay
Duck, Harpodon nehereus, and the resulting FPC maintained normal
growth in rats when fed at 11% protein level. Irradiated Kamaboko
with added 5'-inosinic acid and hypoxanthine (Uchiyama and Uchiyama
1979) showed no mutagenecity using Salmonella typhimurium. There
was a 10% reduction in thiamin, riboflavin, and pyridoxine in scallops
 10. Fish and Shellfish 259

which had been sterilized with high-voltage cathode rays (Licciardello

et al. 1959). Exposure to either ultraviolet or to gamma irradiation
significantly reduced levels of a chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticide,
mirex, in environmentally contaminated brown trout, Salmo trutto
(Cin and Kroger, 1982). Ultraviolet irradiation is low-energy radiation.
Bacterial counts were reduced when using ultraviolet irradiation prior
to packaging for mackerel (Huang and Toledo 1982). An overview of
food irradiation has been written by Josephson et al. (1976).

Canning
Preservation by canning is frequently used in the seafood industry.
Vitamins Bj and C are substantially destroyed during canning if heated
in air. Vitamin C can be retained if heated with the exclusion of oxygen.
If the product is canned with brine, the water-soluble vitamins will
diffuse into the brine with a subsequent loss of about 30% of these
vitamins from the product if the brine is discarded. Table 10.7 shows
losses of about 70% for the B vitamins after canning for all but the
albacore tuna and small losses of riboflavin and niacin. If the product is
packed in oil, the fat-soluble vitamins will diffuse into the oil and be
discarded if the product is washed free of oil. Fat-soluble vitamins A
and E suffer the greatest destruction by canning. However, because a
% lb serving of fish supplies only a very small percentage of the daily
recommended allowance for vitamins, the vitamin losses due to canning
and freezing are probably insignificant. Fish is consumed because it is
a good source of high-quality protein, and it is the protein fraction that
should concern us nutritionally during canning. There is destruction of
cystine—cysteine, a decrease in the availability of many amino acids
(about 50% decrease), and a diminution of digestibility when foods
such as fish, which are low in carbohydrates and high in moisture, are
severely heated, as occurs in the canning process.

Table 10.7. Effect of Canning on B Vitamins

Thiamin Riboflavin Niacin

(jug/100 g) (Mg/100 g) (mg/100 g)

Raw Canned Raw Canned Raw Canned

44 43 45 60 15.75 13.43
Albacore tunaa
37 12 114 130 8.42 7.25
Chinook salmon0
34 11 34 15 1.58 0.78
Pacific shrimp0
189 9 305 150 28.00 20.00
Albacore tuna^
190 34 141 184 5.90 5.29
Red sockeye salmon0
140 45 320 310 6.71 6.40
Atlantic mackerel0

a Gordon and Martin (1982).

* Seet and Brown (1983).
c Dudek et al. (1981).
 260 J. Krzynowek

Freezing
Freezing and thawing must be mentioned together, because thawing
is a natural consequence of the freezing process. If oxidative rancidity
can be prevented, the fat-soluble vftamins will remain stable during
frozen storage. Several water-soluble vitamins may be discarded with
the water expelled from the fish (drip) during the thawing cycle, but
little nutritional work has been done on the drip. The amount of drip
from saltwater fish varies between 5 and 15% and is slightly higher than
the drip from freshwater fish. Drip can also vary depending on the
freezing process. Fish held several days before freezing have a greater
drip loss than freshly frozen fish. Fish held for long storage have
greater drip loss than fish held for short-term storage. Fish stored at
high temperatures have greater drip loss than those stored at low
temperatures, and slow-frozen fish have greater drip loss than quick-
frozen fish. The proteins do become denatured with freezing, but the
biological value appears to remain intact. Values for proximate composi¬
tion, sodium, potassium, and phosphate have been reported by Dyer
et al. (1977) for over 200 frozen retail fishery products.

Convenience Foods
To conclude, we will look at available data on novelty fishery products.
Sims (1978) reported values of about 11% protein and 14% carbo¬
hydrates for products called cod sticks, crab snacks, and smokies.
Fish cakes and fish and chips had slightly lower protein and higher
carbohydrate contents. Ahamad et al. (1983) compared fresh white
shrimp, Penaeus setiferus, with three commercially available breaded
frozen shrimp from different areas of the United States. Fat, niacin,
iron, and calories were equivalent among the products, and protein,

Table 10.8. Composition of Fast Foods per 100 g

Burger Chef Burger King McDonald

Skipper’s Treat , Whaler Filet-O-Fish

Weight (g) 121.7 170.4 129.3

Fat (%) 12.6 14.0 18.7
Moisture (%) 42.5 48.6 36.5
Fatty acids (g)
14:0 0.64 0.12 0.36
16:0 2.73 1.84 2.81
16:lto7 0.26 0.11 0.20
18:0 1.49 1.01 1.55
18:lco9 3.22 3.18 4.03
Other 1.79 1.15 1.13
Cholesterol (mg) 47.2 53.3 47.5
Source: Slover et al. (1980).
 10. Fish and Shellfish 261

carbohydrates, and calcium variability was attributed to geographical

variations of the samples. Thiamin values were considerably lower in
the commercial samples (18.3, 11.6, and 12.9 pg/100 g) compared to
the fresh and fresh breaded shrimp (29.6 and 24.5 pg/100 g, respectively).
This is probably due to the presence of the enzyme thiaminase, which
still actively cleaves thiamin in the muscle tissue post mortem. Table
10.8 is reprinted in part from Slover et al. (1980) and shows the fatty
acid profiles for some of the favorite fast fish foods in the United
States. Dyer et al. (1977) have also reported values for many con¬
venience foods and have found high salt levels (about 500 mg sodium/
100 g) in some fish sticks and cakes.

Conclusion
There are numerous fishery products and relatively little nutritional
data. However, as has been pointed out, fish is a very perishable
commodity and quality deterioration would probably occur before
there would be any significant loss of nutrients. Fishery products seem
to be able to maintain their integrity as a source of high-quality protein
through multiple processes.

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fish meat cake. J. Food Sci. 44, 681-683.
Uthe, J. F., Freeman, H. C., Sirota, G. R., and Chou, C. L. 1982. Studies on the
chemical nature of bioavailability of arsenic, cadmium, and lead in selected
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Varga, S., Keith, R. A., Michalik, P., Sims, G. G., and Regier, L. W. 1980. Stability
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 V,

.
Effects of
Commercial Processing and
Storage on Nutrients
'
Effects of
Freeze Preservation
on Nutrients
Owen Fennema

The handling, storage, and preservation of food often involves

changes in nutritive value, most of which are undesirable. The freezing
process (prefreezing treatments, freezing, frozen storage, and thawing),
if properly conducted, is generally regarded as the best method of long¬
term food preservation when judged on the basis of retention of sen¬
sory attributes and nutrients. The freezing process is, however, not
perfect, as is apparent from the fact that substantial amounts of the
more labile nutrients can be lost. Vitamin losses during freezing preserva¬
tion vary greatly depending on the food, the package, and the condi¬
tions of processing and storage. Losses of nutrients can result from
physical separation (e.g., peeling and trimming during the prefreezing
period, or exudate loss during thawing), leaching (especially during
blanching), or chemical degradation. The seriousness of these losses
depends on the nutrient (whether it is abundant or meager in the average
diet), and on the particular food item (whether it generally supplies a
major or a minor amount of the nutrient in question).
The approach taken in this chapter is to summarize nutrient losses
that occur in important classes of foods during various stages of the
freezing process. Although most of the important English literature
has been reviewed, no claim is made as to total coverage Because of
the emphasis in the literature, attention is given mainly to vitamins,
especially vitamin C in fruits and vegetables and the B vitamins in
animal products. Values of vitamin C reported in this chapter refer to
reduced L-ascorbic acid unless otherwise stated. Vitamin C and thiamin
have been studied most extensively, since they are water soluble (cannot
be stored in the body and are subject to leaching during processing),
highly susceptible to chemical degradation, present in many foods, and
sometimes deficient in the diet. If these vitamins are well retained dur¬
ing processing, it generally can be assumed that all other nutrients also
are well retained.

269
270 O. Fennema

When considering the various data presented in this chapter, it is im¬

portant to note that the reference value used for calculating nutrient
losses differs depending on the phase of the freezing process that is
under consideration. For example, blanching losses are based on the
difference in nutrient content between blanched and fresh products,
freezing losses in vegetables are based on the difference in nutrient con¬
tent between blanched-frozen-unstored products and blanched-
unfrozen products, and storage losses are based on the difference in
nutrient content between frozen-stored and frozen-unstored products.
This is mentioned so that improper conclusions will be avoided. For
example, if a given product loses 20% of its vitamin C content during
blanching and another 20% of its vitamin C content during frozen
storage, the absolute amounts of vitamin C lost during these two
phases will not be the same, since the vitamin C content of the fresh
product (large value) is used as the reference value for computing blanch¬
ing losses, and the vitamin C content of the blanched-frozen-unstored
product (a lower value) is used as the reference value for computing
storage losses.
It will be seen that nutrient losses reported for a given product
differ greatly from one investigator to another and in some instances
the results are contradictory. This should not be regarded as unusual,
since nutrient losses depend on many factors (product, handling, process¬
ing, and packaging) and when any two studies are compared, it is rare
to find that all factors have been controlled in a similar fashion.
The reader will soon note, especially with animal tissues, that ap¬
parent increases in the amounts of some vitamins occasionally occur
during the freezing process [indicated by plus signs (+) in the tables].
In some instances this can be attributed to analytical errors or to bio¬
logical variability, but there are instances where the increase is too large
to be accounted for in this manner. In^such instances, it has been sug¬
gested that the freezing process releases bound, biologically inactive
forms of the vitamin, or converts inactive precursors to the active
vitamin. '
Since this is a new edition of this volume, it is appropriate to briefly
indicate what changes have been made. Important new references have
been added, but for the most part, these new data have not been in¬
corporated in the previously existing summary figures and tables. Ex¬
ceptions occur when the new data are extensive and/or they differ
substantially from the previously summarized data. Usually, new data
are discussed in the text and/or are presented in the form of new tables.
This approach is taken since the summary figures and tables from the
earlier edition accurately represent numerous studies that were carefully
selected for reliability and comparability of conditions, and the addi¬
tion of a few new data would not have a significant effect on the means
and ranges presented. A point to keep in mind, however is that handling,
 11. Freeze Preservation 271

processing, and storage conditions for frozen foods have improved over
the years, so new data will often indicate somewhat smaller losses of
nutrients than the older data. Specific examples are the greater use of
steam blanching rather than water blanching (less loss of water-soluble
nutrients) and improved conditions encountered during product distribu¬
tion in retail channels.

VEGETABLES
Loss of Nutrients during Blanching and Cooling
Shown in Table 11.1 are mean losses of vitamins C and B, that occur
during water blanching and water cooling of vegetables. Losses of
vitamin C often amount to about 10-50% and losses of vitamin B[ are
often about 9-60%, depending on the product and the conditions.
Water blanching also causes approximately a 30% (14-53) loss of niacin
from lima beans (Cook et al. 1961, Guerrant et al. 1947; Guerrant and
O’Hara 1953), a 19% (14-24) loss of riboflavin from green peas (Guerrant
and O’Hara 1953; Guerrant et al. 1947; Lee and Whitcombe 1945;
Van Duyne et al. 1950), a 14% (11-17) loss of riboflavin from green
beans (Guerrant and Dutcher 1948; Lee and Whitcombe 1945; Phillips
and Fenton 1945; Van Duyne et al. 1950), and no significant loss of
carotene from broccoli, green peas, green beans, corn, brussels sprouts,
spinach, squash, collards, kale, beet greens, endive, carrots, and sweet
potatoes (Guerrant and O’Hara 1953; Guerrant et al. 1947; Stimson
and Tressler 1939; Sweeney and Marsh 1971; Zimmerman et al. 1940).
Losses of water-soluble vitamins during blanching occur primarily
by leaching rather than by chemical degradation. This is borne out by
the behavior of broccoli and spinach. Both of these products have
large surface :mass ratios that favor leaching, and both exhibit very
large losses of vitamin C during water blanching.
Several investigators have compared water and steam blanching with
respect to losses of nutrients in vegetables (Batchelder et al. 1947;
Dietrich and Neumann 1965; Dietrich et al. 1959; Guerrant et al.
1947; Holmquist et al. 1954, Moyer and Stotz 1945; Nobel and Gordon
1964; Odland and Eheart 1975; Pala 1983, Proctor and Goldblith
1948; Retzer et al. 1945; Wedler 1971). Substantially smaller losses of
water-soluble vitamins and most minerals generally occur during steam
blanching than during water blanching. This is particularly true when
products with large surface:volume ratios are being blanched, and when
steam blanching is followed by a method of cooling that does not in¬
volve liquid water (e.g., air cooling). Furthermore, microwave blanch¬
ing reportedly results in substantially smaller losses of nutrients than
steam blanching (Moyer and Stotz 1945; Proctor and Goldblith 1948;
Samuels and Weigand 1948).
272 O. Fennema

Table 11.1. Loss of Vitamins C and Bi from Vegetables during Blanching and
Cooling*2

Product C Bi References

Asparagus 10 (6-15) b
Beans, green 23 (12-42) 9(0-14) c
Beans, lima 24 (19-40) 36(20-67) d
Broccoli 36 (12-50) e
Brussels sprouts 21 (9-45) f
Cauliflower 20 (18-25) 8
Peas, green 21(1-35) 11(1-36) h
Spinach 50 (40-76) 60(41-80) i

a Vitamin content after cooling or after freezing, as compared to vitamin content of

the fresh product. The effect of freezing has been shown to be negligible. Almost
all of the data relate to water blanching and water cooling. Expressed as mean %
and range.
* Gordon and Noble (1959), Noble and Gordon (1964).
c Bedford and Hard (1950), Dawson et al. (1949), Farrell and Fellers (1942),
Fisher and Van Duyne (1952), Gordon and Noble (1959), Guerrant and Dutcher
(1948), Guerrant et al. (1947), Hartzler and Guerrant (1952), Lee and Whitcombe
(1945), Melnick et al. (1944), Morrison (1975), Noble and Gordon (1964), Phillips
and Fenton (1945), Proctor and Goldblith (1948), Retzer etal. (1945).
^ Cook et al. (1961), Guerrant and O’Hara (1953), Guerrant et al. (1947, 1953),
Gustafson and Cooke (1952), Tressler et al. (1937).
e Batchelder et al. (1947), Eheart (1967), Fisher and Van Duyne (1952), Gordon
and Noble (1959), Hartzler and Guerrant (1952), Noble and Gordon (1964),
Proctor and Goldblith (1948).
f Adams (1975), Dietrich and Neumann (1965), Gordon and Noble (1959), Noble
and Gordon (1964).
8 Gordon and Noble (1959), Noble and Gordon (1964), Retzer et al. (1945).
Barnes and Tressler (1943), Batchelder et al. (1947), Bedford and Hard (1950),
Feaster et al. (1949), Guerrant and O’Hara (1953), Guerrant et al. (1947, 1953),
Hartzler and Guerrant (1952), Holmquist et al. (1954), Jenkins and Tressler (1938),
Lamb etal. (1948), Lee and Whitcombe (1945), Morrison (1974), Moyer and Tressler
(1943), Proctor and Goldblith (1948), Tressler et al. (1936), Van Duyne et al.
(1950).
2 Bedford and Hard (1950), Fisher and Van Duyne (1952), Guerrant et al. (1947),
Hartzler and Guerrant (1952), Proctor and Goldblith (1948), Sweeney and
Marsh (1971), Tressler et al. (1936), von Kamienski (1972).

One purpose of blanching is to render the product more resistant to

vitamin losses during frozen storage (the major effect, apparently, is to
inactivate enzymes that otherwise would catalyze degradation of vita¬
mins). The advantage of blanching with respect to retarding losses of
vitamin C, Bj, B2, and carotene from vegetables during frozen storage
is clearly shown in Table 11.2.
One final point should be considered with respect to blanching. If
nutritional differences result from different blanching techniques, do
these differences persist during subsequent phases of the freezing process?
 11. Freeze Preservation 273

Table 11.2. Effect of Blanching on Loss (%) of Vitamins from Vegetables during
Frozen Storage*2

Storage Caro¬
Product conditions C Bi b2 tene References

Beans, green
Unblanched 9 months at 35 A Bedford and Hard
Blanched -19°C 10 «A (1950)
Unblanched 1 yr at 91 74 39 Farrell and Fellers
Blanched -20°C 47 22 3 (1942)
Beans, lima
Unblanched 6-24 months B Zscheile et al. (1943)
Blanched at -20°C B-10
Peas, green
Unblanched 6-24 months C Batchelderetal. (1947)
Blanched at -20°C C-50 Zscheile et al. (1943)
Unblanched 9 months at 40 Batchelder etal. (1947)
Blanched -19°C 14
Unblanched 6 months at D Jenkins and Tressler
Blanched -18°C «D (1938)
Spinach
Unblanched 9 months at 54 E Bedford and Hard
Blanched -19°C 24 E (1950)
Unblanched 6-24 months F Zscheile et al. (1943)
Blanched at -20°C F-28

a When absolute loss values were unavailable, it was necessary to express losses
between blanched and unblanched products on a comparative basis. For example,
if the loss of vitamin C in a given unblanched product is set equal to A, then the
loss in the comparable blanched product can be expressed in terms of A.

Unfortunately, only a few studies have dealt with this question and the
results are contradictory (Fisher and Van Duyne 1952; Retzer et al.
1945). Additional information on blanching is available elsewhere in
this volume.
Although blanching can decrease significantly the amount of water-
soluble vitamins in vegetables, it is not the only prefreezing treatment
of concern. Substantial losses of vitamins can occur if vegetables are
not promptly frozen following harvest. This important matter is dis¬
cussed in another chapter in this volume.

Loss of Nutrients during Freezing

The losses of vitamins that occur in vegetables during freezing (effect
of freezing alone) are shown in Table 11.3. The values reported are per¬
centage losses based on comparable unfrozen products. In addition to
the data in Table 11.3, freezing was reported to cause no loss of certain
nutrients in the following products: B6 in potatoes (Secomska et al.
1973), pantothenic acid in kale (Holmes et al. 1945), and carotene in
274 0. Fennema
' k>
Table 11.3. Loss (mean %) of Vitamins from Vegetables during Freezing

Product C B, b2 Niacin Carotene References

Asparagus 6 (ns)a b
Beans, green 3(0-10) 3(0-7) ' ~o 8 c
Beans, lima 14(0-28) 5(0-9) 6 ~o d
Broccoli 6(5-7) ~0 e
Brussels sprouts 5 (ns) ~o f
Cauliflower 3(0-6) g
Kale ~o ~o ~0 h
Peas, green 9(0-18) 8(1-15) 2(0-4) 16 ~o i
Potatoes ~o ~o ~o j
Spinach 4(0-8) ~o ~0 k

Grand means 6 4 2 4 1

a Not significant.
^ Gordon and Noble (1959).
c Fisher and Van Duyne (1952), Gordon and Noble (1959), Lee et al. (1946),
Phillips and Fenton (1945), Retzer et al. (1945), Van Duyne et al. (1950).
d Cook et al. (1961), Guerrant and O’Hara (1953), Guerrant et al. (1953).
e Fisher and Van Duyne (1952), Gordon and Noble (1959), Sweeney and Marsh
(1971).
f Gordon and Noble (1959), Sweeney and Marsh (1971).
S Gordon and Noble (1959), Retzer et al. (1945).
^ Holmes et al. (1945), Sweeney and Marsh (1971).
‘ Guerrant and O’Hara (1953), Guerrant et al. (1953), Lee et al. (1946), Van
Duyne et al. (1950).
I Secomska et al. (1973).
^Fisher and Van Duyne (1952), Noble and Gordon (1964), Sweeney and Marsh
(1971), Tinklin and Filinger (1956), Van Duyne et al. (1950).

collards, beet greens, endive, carrots, squash, and sweet potatoes

(Sweeney and Marsh 1971). In judgingjdiese data, it should be noted
that (1) loss values of less than 5% probably are not significant, and
(2) in many instances, the period studied was somewhat longer than
that needed to complete freezing; for example, some data were collected
24 hr after the conclusion of freezing, while other data relate to the
period beginning after blanching and cooling and ending when the final
storage temperature had been attained. In the latter instance, this
could, particularly in commercial situations, involve a significant hold¬
ing period between postblanch cooling and the start of freezing (grad¬
ing, packaging, handling). With these factors in mind, it must be
concluded from the data presented that losses of vitamins during
freezing generally are negligible.

Loss of Nutrients during Frozen Storage

Shown in Fig. 11.1 and Tables 11.4 and 11.5 are losses of various
vitamins and minerals that occur from vegetables during frozen storage.
 11. Freeze Preservation 275

STORAGE TIME

Fig. 11.1. Cumulative losses (after completion of freezing) of vitamin C from

vegetables during storage at -18°C (means plus ranges). References: Asparagus
[Gordon and Noble 1959; Guerrant 1957; Jenkins et al. 1940 (reduced ascorbic
acid plus dehydroascorbic acid)]; green beans (Derse and Teply 1958; Dietrich
et al. 1959; Pierce et al. 1955; Retzer et al. 1945); broccoli (Fisher and Van Duyne
1952; Gordon and Noble 1959; Guerrant 1957); cauliflower [Gordon and Noble
1959; Guerrant 1957; Jenkins et al. 1940 (reduced ascorbic acid plus dehydro¬
ascorbic acid); Retzer et al. 1945]; green peas (Bedford and Hard 1950; Derse and
Teply 1958; Guerrant and O’Hara 1953; Guerrant et al. 1953; Volz et al. 1949;
Weits et al. 1970); spinach (Bedford and Hard 1950; Dietrich et al. 1960; Fisher
and Van Duyne 1952; Guerrant 1957; Juries 1970; Tinklin and Filinger 1956;
Volz et al. 1949; Weits et al. 1970).

Percentage loss values are based on the difference in nutrient content

between blanched—frozen—stored products and blanched—frozen—
unstored products. Cumulative losses of vitamin C during storage of
frozen vegetables (Fig. 11.1) vary with the product and increase with
time at -18°C. Percentage losses of vitamin C are large in green beans
and cauliflower and small in broccoli and peas. The fact that losses of
vitamin C from broccoli are very large during blanching and relatively
small during frozen storage, again indicates that losses during blanching
occur primarily by the mechanism of leaching rather than by chemical
degradation.
Loss of minerals and vitamins (other than vitamin C) from six vege¬
tables during storage for 12 months at —18 C are listed in Table 11.4.
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278 O. Fennema

Iron is the only mineral that appears to undergo a significant loss, and
this is probably an analytical inaccuracy rather than a real loss. Vitamin
losses vary greatly depending on the product. Losses of vitamins from
green beans generally are greater than from peas, and losses of B2 and
niacin from lima beans are quite large compared to losses of these
vitamins from other vegetables. Vitamins B] and pantothenic acid ap¬
pear to be the least stable of the vitamins listed in Table 11.4, and
losses of these vitamins are similar to the losses of vitamin C reported
in Fig. 11.1.
In Table 11.5, losses of nutrients in green beans and peas during
storage at a constant temperature of -18°C are compared to losses
during storage at the same time-temperature condition except that
temperature during the last month of storage was -7°C. Exposure to
the -7°C condition almost invariably resulted in greater losses of
vitamin C, /3-carotene, folic acid, and pantothenic acid, but had no
significant effect on losses of niacin, riboflavin (B2), thiamin (Bj),
B6 and minerals (not shown). It is also evident that losses of vitamin C,
/3-carotene, pantothenic acid, and B6 are greater in green beans at any
given time than in peas. Vitamin C and pantothenic acid are by far the
most labile vitamins in both green beans and peas.
The effect of storage temperature on loss of vitamin C from four
frozen vegetables is shown in Fig. 11.2. Supplementary information for
the products in Fig. 11.2 is given in Table 11.6. Each line in Fig. 11.2
is a mean of at least three studies and most of the studies involve at
least three temperatures. Below -18°C the data sometimes departed
from a linear relationship and, when this occurred, loss values generally
were larger than would be expected from extrapolation of the lines pre¬
sented. Considerable variability is associated with each mean in Fig. 11.2,
so little significance should be attached to the relative positions of the
products. The lines, however, fit the mean values quite well, indicating
that the slopes probably are reasonably accurate. If this is true, then it
is apparent that changes in temperature affect the rate of vitamin C
degradation to a similar degree in all products, that is, a 10°C rise in
temperature within the range -18° to -7°C causes the rate of vitamin C
degradation to accelerate in all products by a factor of 6-20 X (Q10 =
6-20). This is an uncommonly large dependence on temperature.
Thus, low storage temperatures (-18°C or lower) will preserve vitamin
C content of vegetables far better than higher subfreezing temperatures.
Comparable information is not available for nutrients other than
vitamin C.
A few studies have dealt with nutrient losses during storage of
products at fluctuating storage temperatures as compared to comparable
constant temperatures. With respect to frozen green peas (Boggs et al.
1960; Gortner et al. 1948), frozen cauliflower (Dietrich et al. 1962),
and green beans (Gortner et al. 1948), losses of vitamin C do not differ
significantly between the two conditions.
 11. Freeze Preservation 279

Fig. 11.2. Temperature dependence of vitamin C degradation in frozen vegetables.

(See Table 11.6 for conditions and references.)

Table 11.6. Approximate Maximum Storage Period over Which Rates of Vitamin
C Degradation Are Valid for the Products in Fig. 11.2a

Months at:

product -7°C -9°C -12°C -18°C References

Beans, green
Cauliflower
Peas, green
Spinach

a Periods vary greatly, depending on the conditions.

^Bennett et al. (1954), Dietrich et al. (1957, 1959), Jenkins et al. (1940 data
include both reduced ascorbic acid and dehydroascorbic acid), Juries (1970).
c Bennett et al. (1954), Dietrich et al. (1957, 1962), Jenkins et al. (1940, data in¬
clude both reduced ascorbic acid and dehydroascorbic acid).
d Dietrich et al. (1957), Guerrant et al. (1953), Lindquist et al. (1950).
e Bennett et al. (1954), Dietrich et al. (1960), Juries (1970).
 280 O. Fennema

In some instances, the method of packaging can influence the degree

to which labile nutrients are retained during frozen storage. For exam¬
ple, in one study involving green beans and carrots stored for 24-40
weeks at -21 °C, retention of vitamip C was greater in the unblanched,
vacuum-packaged products than it was in products that were blanched
and vacuum packaged (Pala 1983). This leads one to suspect that
methods of excluding oxygen from frozen foods deserve greater atten¬
tion than they have received.

Loss of Nutrients during Thawing

Only a few studies of frozen vegetables have been conducted in a
manner so that the effect of thawing on nutrient value can be deter¬
mined (Fenton and Tressler 1938; Jenkins and Tressler 1938; Holmes
et al. 1945; Phillips and Fenton 1945). Results of these studies indicate
that proper thawing, as such, has a very small and probably insignificant
effect on the nutrient contents of foods.

Loss of Nutrients during the Entire Freezing Process

Shown in Table 11.7 are losses of vitamin C from seven important

vegetables during the entire freezing process (based on differences of
vitamin C contents of fresh products and products that were blanched,

Table 11.7. Loss of Vitamin C from Various Vegetables during the Entire Freezing
Process

Typical amount of Loss of vitamin C

vitamin C in during 6-12 months
fresh product at -18°C
Product (mg/100 g)a (mean % and range) References

Asparagus 33 10 (12-13) b
Beans, green 19 45 (30-68) c
Beans, lima 29 51 (39-64) d
Broccoli 113 49 (35-68) e
Cauliflower 78 50 (40-60) f
Peas, green 27 43 (32-67) g
Spinach 51 65 (54-80) h

a From IJSDA Handbook 456 (Adams 1975).

b Batchelder et al. (1947), Gordon and Noble (1959).
c Bedford and Hard (1950), Dawson et al. (1949), Fisher and Van Duyne (1952)
Gordon and Noble (1959), Jurica (1970), Retzer et al. (1945).
d Guerrant and O’Hara (1953), Guerrant et al. (1953).
e Batchelder et al. (1947), Fisher and Van Duyne (1952), Gordon and Noble (1959)
1 Gordon and Noble (1959), Retzer et al. (1945).
g Batchelder et al. (1947), Bedford and Hard (1950), Guerrant and O’Hara (1953)
Guerrant et al. (1953).
k Bedford and Hard (1950), Fisher and Van Duyne (1952), von Kamienski (1969).
 11. F reeze Prese rvati on 281

frozen, and stored for 6-12 months at -18°C). Losses differ among
products, among different lots, and among cultivars of the same type of
product. With the exception of asparagus and spinach, losses of vitamin
C average about 50% during the freezing process. This is unfortunate
since all of the vegetables, with the exception of green beans, contain
substantial amounts of vitamin C in the fresh state.
The losses in Table 11.7 can be directly compared to those in Table
11.1 (for blanching), since losses in both instances are calculated on the
basis of the fresh product. This comparison shows that blanching is
responsible for a major share of the loss of water-soluble nutrients that
occurs in vegetables during the entire freezing process.
Absolute values for a broad range of nutrients in frozen vegetables
“as purchased” are available in the USDA Agriculture Handbook 456
(Adams 1975) and in reports by Burger et al. (1956) and by the National
Food Processors Association (Dudek et al. 1982A).

Loss of Nutrients during Cooking of Previously Frozen Vegetables

This topic is appropriate for coverage since there is no assurance that
cooking will cause the same loss of nutrients from frozen and fresh
vegetables. Shown in Table 11.8 are losses of vitamin C that occur in
various frozen vegetables during cooking. These losses are calculated on
the basis of comparable uncooked products. Since large differences
are apparent with respect to conditions of frozen storage and cooking,
it is not proper to condense the data any further than has been done.
It is evident that vegetables usually lose substantial amounts of vitamin
C during cooking, and that time of frozen storage prior to cooking
usually is unimportant; but when it is, storage usually is detrimental
(green beans, grean peas). It is also evident from the amounts of
vitamin C that are recoverable in the cooking water, that leaching is a
major mechanism of loss. The independent effects of cooking time and
amount of cooking water cannot be determined from these data.
Losses of minerals and vitamins (other than vitamin C) from various
frozen vegetables during cooking are listed in Tables 11.9 and 11.10.
When losses of minerals are averaged over all vegetables, it can be seen
that losses of iron are greatest and losses of phosphorus and manganese
are least. Losses of many of the minerals can be accounted for in the
cooking water. One would expect 100% recovery of lost minerals in
the cooking water. According to Teply and Derse (1958), These
exceptions may have been due in part to package-to-package variation,
but were probably due mainly to large errors, percentage wise, in
determining some of the components present at low levels.
When the vitamin losses shown in Table 11.10 are averaged over all
vegetables, losses of B^ (24%), pantothenic acid (17%), and folic acid
(16%) are the greatest; losses of niacin (12%) and riboflavin (9%) are
intermediate; and loss of j3-carotene is least (5%). Mean loss of vitamin
C from frozen vegetables (31%, Table 11.8) during cooking exceeds any
of the mean values in Table 11.10.
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282
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283
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285
286 0. Fennema

Large but variable amounts of the water-soluble vitamins are re¬

coverable in the cooking water, again indicating that leaching is a major
mechanism by which water-soluble vitamins are lost.
Vitamin losses during cooking generally vary greatly from product to
product, and no doubt depend on factors such as product pH, surface:
mass ratio, and, perhaps, on the amount of the original vitamin content
that was lost during earlier stages of processing (von Kamienski 1972).
The vitamin data in Table 11.10 are in reasonably good agreement
with other comparable studies dealing with cooking losses of /3-carotene
in peas and green beans (Lee et al. 1946), thiamin in green peas (Barnes
and Tressler 1943; Lee et al. 1946; Martin et al. 1960), and riboflavin in
green beans (Lee et al. 1946; Phillips and Fenton 1945; Van Duyne
et al. 1950).
Lee et al. (1946) reported that riboflavin losses during cooking of
frozen green peas range from 0 to 39%, which is contrary to the results
in Table 11.10. Studies by Dawson et al. (1949), Lee et al. (1946),
and Phillips and Fenton (1945) indicate that thiamin losses during
cooking of frozen green beans range from 10 to 35%, which also is
contrary to the result in Table 11.10. Divergent results, such as these,
are to be expected for reasons already discussed.
The adverse effects of increased cooking time and increased cooking
water on losses of vitamin C from frozen spinach are clearly indicated
in Table 11.11.
The results of a study by Sweeney et al. (1961) indicate that average
losses of vitamin C during cooking of six commonly frozen vegetables

Table 11.11. Loss (%) of Vitamin C (Reduced Ascorbic Acid Plus

Dehydroascorbic Acid) during Cooking of Previously Frozen Leaf Spinach

Cooking water *v.

Product Percentage recoverable

(wt) Loss in cooking water3

Underdone
0.17 30 40
0.33 42 31
0.67 49 49
Done
0.17 35 17
0.33 55 24
0.67 65 28
Overdone
0.17 45 4
0.33 60 12
0.67 66 20

a Percentage of the amount represented in column to the left. From

Teply and Derse (1958).
 11. Freeze Preservation 287

do not differ between products obtained directly from the processor

and products obtained from the retail market.
According to van der Meer et al. (1973), loss of vitamin C in packaged
potatoes, spinach, green peas, and brussels sprouts is the same, regard¬
less of whether they are cooked in a microwave oven, in a convection
oven, or in hot water.

FRUITS
Loss of Nutrients during Prefreezing Treatments
Prefreezing treatments that have adverse effects on the nutrient con¬
tent of fruits usually involve storage for excessive periods or storage at
a temperature that is too high. For example, Loeffler (1946) found
that raspberries, when allowed to stand at ambient temperatures for
24 or 48 hr prior to freezing, lost, respectively, 17 and 30% of their
vitamin C content. On the other hand, storage of strawberries for 2-4
days at 0°-ll°C prior to freezing apparently has only a slight effect on
vitamin C content (Scott and Schrader 1947). Additional information
on this subject is available elsewhere in this book.

Loss of Nutrients during Freezing

Unfortunately, data on this subject are almost nonexistent. Two
studies on raspberries and black currants indicate that losses of vitamin
C during freezing are insignificant (Loeffler 1946; Sulc 1973).

Loss of Nutrients during Frozen Storage

Losses of vitamin C from several fruits during storage at -18°C are
indicated in Fig. 11.3. Losses of vitamin C from muskmelon can be
large, particularly if the melons are not packed in syrup. The variety
of muskmelon also has a large influence on loss of vitamin C during
frozen storage (Wolfe et al. 1949). According to Guadagni et al.
(1957C), raspberries packed in syrup lose only small amounts of
vitamin C during frozen storage. Based on several studies, losses of
vitamin C from frozen peaches (Bennett et al. 1954; DuBois and
Colvin 1945; Guadagni et al. 1957A; Guerrant 1957) and strawberries
(Bennett et al. 1954;Crivellietal. 1969;Derse andTeply 1958;Guadagni
et al. 1961; Guerrant 1957; Pierce et al. 1955) generally are moderate
during frozen storage. The oxygen-barrier properties of the package
have a profound influence on losses of vitamin C during frozen storage,
as is clearly indicated in Figs. 11.4 and 11.5.
Losses of vitamin C from citrus juice concentrates during storage for
9-12 months at -18°C usually are less than 5% (Derse and Teply 1958;
Huggart et al. 1954; McColloch et al. 1957; Wolfe et al. 1949). Plain or
288 O. Fennema

R-RASPBERRIES
P-PEACHES
)|- S-STRAWBERRIES
MP-MUSKMELON, PLAIN
MS-MUSKMELON, W/SYRUP

P S MPMS R P S
3 MO.- 6 MO. 9 MO.-1 H2 MQH
STORAGE TIME

Fig. 11.3. Cumulative losses (after completion of freezing) of vitamin C from

fruits during storage at -18°C (means plus ranges). References and conditions:
Raspberries, whole, 3+1 part 50% sucrose syrup, retail composite cartons (Guadagni
et al. 1957C); peaches, sliced, in syrup, various packages (Bennett et al. 1954;
DuBois and Colvin 1945; Guadagni et al. 1957A; Guerrant 1957); strawberries,
whole or sliced, sugared or plain, various packages (Bennett et al. 1954; Crivelli
et al. 1969; Dbrse and Teply 1958; Guadagni et al. 1961; Guerrant 1957; Pierce
et al. 1955); muskmelon, two varieties, sliced, packaged in cellophane-lined pint
containers (Wolfe et al. 1949).

syruped boysenberries, regardless of the kind of container, apparently

lose less than 1% vitamin C during storage for 3 months at -18°C
(Guadagni et al. 1960).
Few data are available concerning losses of minerals and vitamins
other than vitamin C from fruits during frozen storage.
The effect of storage temperature on losses of vitamin C from four
frozen fruits and fruit juices is shown in Fig. 11.6. Supplementary in¬
formation for the products in Fig. 11.6 is given in Table 11.12. Separa¬
tion of the strawberry data into two groups (I and II) was done simply
because the two groups behaved differently. The cultivars used could
account for the differences observed (Crivelli et al. 1969).
With the exception of the data for boysenberries, each line in Fig.
11.6 represents at least two studies, and most of the studies involved
at least three temperatures. All data points have been plotted for peaches
and strawberries II, whereas points for strawberries I, boysenberries
 11. Freeze Preservation 289

Fig. 11.4. Effect of container type on losses of vitamin C from frozen peaches.
(Sliced peaches, 50% sucrose syrup containing 0.1% ascorbic acid, enameled metal
cans or 12-oz composite-type containers.) Source: Adapted from Guadagni and
Nimmo (1957), courtesy of Institute of Food Technologists.

(plain and syruped products), and citrus juices are means. The ranges
of values for strawberries I are indicated on Fig. 11.6. The data ranges
for boysenberries and citrus juices are much smaller than those for
strawberries I.
Rates of vitamin C loss in peaches, strawberries I, and boysenberries
are affected similarly by temperature. For these products, a 10°C rise
in temperature in the range from -18°C to -7°C causes the rate of
vitamin C degradation to accelerate by a factor of 30-70X (Q10 = 30-70).
This is an uncommonly large dependence on temperature. For straw¬
berries II the factor is 10X and for citrus juice concentrates 1.5X.
Thus, low storage temperatures (-18°C or lower) will preserve vitamin
C contents of fruits (not applicable to citrus juice concentrates) much
better than high subfreezing temperatures. Comparable information
is unavailable for nutrients other than vitamin C.
A few studies have dealt with the effect of fluctuating storage
temperatures versus comparable constant temperatures on nutrient
losses from fruits. With respect to strawberries and raspberries, losses
of vitamin C do not differ significantly between the two conditions
(Gortner et al. 1948; Guadagni and Nimmo 1958).
290 O. Fennema

Fig. 11.5. Effect of container type on losses of vitamin C from frozen strawberries.
(Sliced strawberries, 4 + 1 sugar, enameled metal cans or composite-type containers.)
Source: Adapted from Guadagni et al. (1957B), courtesy of Institute of Food
Technologists.

Loss of Nutrients during and following Thawing

Information concerning losses of nutrients from fruits during thaw¬

ing is almost nonexistent and what little there is deals only with vitamin
C. As would be expected, losses of vitamin C from citrus juice con¬
centrates during thawing are insignificant (Huggart et al. 1954). Accord¬
ing to Bauernfeind et al (1946), the vitamin C contents of packaged
peaches, apricots, nectarines, and fruit salad (all in syrup), are not
affected significantly by the method of thawing (thawing times ranged
from 20 min to 19 hr). Thus, it is probably reasonable to assume that
properly conducted thawing has almost no detrimental effect on the
nutrient contents of fruits provided the syrup and thaw-exudate are
consumed.
Holding periods following thawing can result in significant losses of
vitamin C. For example, thawed raspberries in syrup can lose 15%
vitamin C when held 1 day at 20°C (Loeffler 1946), and thawed
peaches in syrup can lose 13% vitamin C when held 2 hr at room
temperature (Strachan and Moyls 1949).
 11. Freeze Preservation 291

Fig. 11.6. Temperature dependence of vitamin C degradation in frozen fruits.

(See Table 11.12 for conditions and references.)

Loss of Nutrients during the Entire Freezing Process

Shown in Table 11.13 are losses of vitamin C from several fruits and
fruit juices during the entire freezing process (based on differences in
the vitamin C contents of fresh products and products that were frozen
and stored for various times at -18°C). Losses vary greatly depending
on the type of product, the cultivar (Crivelli et al. 1969), whether or
not syrup is present, the solids content of the juices, and the type of
package. Most of the conventional fruits, when processed in a recom¬
mended manner, lose less than 30% of their origianl vitamin C content
during the entire freezing process, and concentrated citrus juices lose
less than 5%. Most of these losses occur during frozen storage. The
small losses of vitamin C from citrus juice concentrates are probably
292 O. Fennema

Table 11.12. Approximate Maximum Storage Period over Which Rates of Vitamin
C Degradation Are Valid for the Products in Fig. 11.6

Months at:

Product Conditions -18°C -12°C -7°C -1°C References

Strawberries I Sliced or whole, 12 6 1 1 week b

4+1 sugar, 30-lb
tins or composite
retail cartons
Strawberries II Sliced or whole, 10 2 -a c
sugared or plain,
plastic packages
Peaches Sliced, in syrup, 12 6 2 week d
composite or
plastic cartons
Boysenberries Whole, plain or in 4 4 1 week 1 week e
syrup, packaged
in cardboard car¬
tons, or composite
retail containers
Citrus juices Grapefruit, orange, >12 >12 >12 >12 f
tangerine, 42°
Brix; type of
package unknown

a —, No data.
^ Bennett et al. (1954), Guadagni et al. (1957B, 1961).
c Crivelli et al. (1969), Pierce et al. (1955).
^ Bennett et al. (1954), Guadagni et al. (1957A).
e Guadagni et al. (1960).
f Huggart et al. (1954).

attributable to the low pH values and low oxygen content of these

products (Thompson and Fennema 1971).
Some fruits are fortified with vitamin C (150-350 mg/lb of finished
pack; Bauernfeind and Pinkert 1970) prior to freezing so that enzyme-
catalyzed oxidative browning will be restricted. It has been shown that
about 80% of the vitamin C added to peaches, apricots, nectarines, and
cantaloupes is retained after 8 months at -18°C (Bauernfeind et al.
1946; Crow and Scoular 1955).
Information on the absolute nutritive composition of frozen fruits
“as purchased” can be obtained from USD A Agriculture Handbook
8-9 (Gebhardt et al. 1982), from a report by the National Food Proces¬
sors Association (Dudek et al. 1982A) and in papers by Burger et al.
(1956) and Lowenberg and Wilson (1959).
 11. Freeze Preservation 293

Table 11.13. Loss of Vitamin C from Fruits During the Entire Freezing Process0

Storage
time at Loss of
-18°C vitamin C
Product > (months) (%), range References

Strawberries
44 brands “as purchased” 45(9-85) Fagerson et al. (1954)
17 cultivars, sliced, 5 17(0-44) Scott and Schrader (1947)
sugared, in metal cans
Puree, 5 + 1 or 3 + 1 sugar 6 16 Wolfe et al. (1949)
Whole, no syrup or sugar, 10 34 Crivelli et al. (1969)
in polyethylene bags
Partially sliced, 6 + 1 10 42 Pierce et al. (1955)
sugar, polyethylene boxes
Citrus products
Orange juice, concentrate, 42° 9 1 Marshall et al. (1955)
Brix
Orange juice, unconcentrated 6 32 Tingleff and Miller (1960)
Orange segments 6 31 Tingleff and Miller (1960)
Grapefruit juice concentrate, 9 5 Marshall et al. (1955)
42° Brix
Grapefruit sections
Plain 9 4 Wolfe etal. (1949)
With syrup 9 4 Wolfe etal. (1949)
Apricots, in syrup 5 19 Crow and Scoular (1955)
Apricots, in syrup + added 5 22 Crow and Scoular (1955)
v vitamin C
Acerola juice, natural or di- 8 16 Fitting and Miller (1960)
luted, + added sugar, pH 3.3
Cantaloupes
In syrup 5-9 9-44 Crow and Scoular (1955),
Wolfe etal. (1949)
In syrup + added vitamin C 5 23 Crow and Scoular (1955)
Plain 9 65-85 Wolfe etal. (1949)
Cherries, sweet, pitted, in 10 19(11-28) Strachan and Moyls
syrup, with or without added (1949)
vitamin C and citric acid
Peaches
Sliced, in syrup, with 8 23 (12-40) Crow and Scoular (1955),
added vitamin C, 12 cultivars Strachan and Moyls
(1949)
Sliced, in syrup, 12 cultivars, 8 69(38-82) Strachan and Moyls
moisture-proof containers (1949)
Sliced, in syrup, in glass jars 5 29 Crow and Scoular (1955)

a Based on estimated initial concentration of 60 mg vitamin C per 100 g of product.

ANIMAL TISSUES
Loss of Nutrients during Prefreezing Treatments
A major prefreezing treatment for some animal tissues is aging. In
one study, 0.5-lb samples of longissimus dorsi and semimembranosus
294 0. Fennema

muscles from beef were aged 21 days at 1°C (Meyer et al. 1963). This
resulted in no loss of thiamin and riboflavin, but a 35% loss of niacin.
The same types of muscles were aged up to 42 days prior to freezing
and storage, and this treatment did not significantly decrease the
amounts of vitamin B6 or pantothenic acid (Meyer et al. 1966). In
another study, pork roasts were aged 7 days at -1°C and this had no
consistent effect on the amounts of thiamin, riboflavin, pantothenic
acid, and nicotinic acid (Westerman et al. 1955). If these data are
typical, it is likely that short-term aging at low nonfreezing temperatures
has little adverse effect on the nutritive value of animal tissue.
Treatment of fish with phosphates is a common practice and the
effects of this treatment on retention of vitamins and minerals were
studied by the National Food Processors Association (Dudek et al.
1981, 1982B). Fillets of Pacific whiting and Alaskan pollack were im¬
mersed for 2 min in a solution containing 8% sodium tripolyphosphate
and 2% sodium chloride, frozen and stored for 2 weeks, thawed, and
broiled. When these samples were compared to samples treated iden¬
tically except for omission of the phosphate treatment, no important
differences were observed with respect to retention of vitamins Bj, B2,
B12, and niacin or the minerals Fe, K, Na, Zn, Se, and Ar. However,
the samples treated with sodium tripolyphosphate did contain levels
of sodium three to seven times greater than that of untreated samples
and this will be of concern to persons on low-sodium diets.

Loss of Nutrients during Freezing

Losses of B vitamins in various animal tissues during freezing are
listed in Table 11.14. With the exception of pork, losses of the five
B vitamins are insignificant. Since freezing, as such, causes no signifi¬
cant alteration in the nutrient contents Of vegetables, fruits, and most
animal tissues, the losses encountered during freezing pork are indeed
puzzling. The losses for pork may be inflated somewhat, since both
freezing and thawing are involved, but even after compensating for the
approximate effects of thawing, the values are still substantial. Further¬
more, these values represent the work of two groups, so it is not possible
to simply disregard the findings. Thus, more detailed consideration of
these results is justified. Lee et al. (1954) reported that pork, during
freezing, lost sizable amounts of thiamin, riboflavin, pantothenic acid,
and pyridoxine and a small amount of niacin, whereas, after storage for
6 months at -18°C, they reported increases in the amounts of thiamin
and niacin, no change in the amounts of riboflavin and pantothenic
acid, and a further decrease in pyridoxine. Lehrer et al. (1951) re¬
ported that pork, during freezing, lost sizable amounts of thiamin and
niacin, whereas, during storage for 6 months at -18°C, the amount of
thiamin did not change and niacin decreased further. Although it is
 11. Freeze Preservation 295

Table 11.14. Loss (%) of B Vitamins from Various Animal Tissues during Freezing0

Vitamin Product Loss (%) References

Thiamin Beef steak ns Lee et al. (1950)

Beef liver sliqes ns Kotschevar (1955)
Beef stew ns Kahn and Livingston (1970)
Chicken a la king ns Kahn and Livingston (1970)
Shrimp Newburg ns Kahn and Livingston (1970)
Oysters ns Fieger (1956)
Pork chops 17-20^ Lee et al. (1954),
Lehrer et al. (1951)
Riboflavin Beef steak ns Lee et al. (1950)
Beef liver slices ns Kotschevar (1955)
Oysters ns Fieger (1956)
Pork chops +16-25^ Lee et al. (1954),
Lehrer et al. (1951)
Niacin Beef steak ns Lee et al. (1950)
Beef liver slices ns Kotschevar (1955)
Pork chops 6-18ft Lee et al. (1954)
Lehrer et al. (1951)
Pantothenic acid Beef steak ns Lee et al. (1950)
Oysters ns Fieger (1956)
Pork chops 18^ Lee et al. (1954)
Pyridoxine Beef steak ns Lee et al. (1950)
Oysters ns Fieger (1956)
Pork chops 22b Lee et al. (1954)

a Effect of freezing alone, unless stated otherwise; ns, not significant.

b Includes effect of thawing, but no frozen storage.

possible that large losses of vitamins could occur during freezing (accelera¬
tion of reaction rates by freeze concentration, Fennema et al. 1973)
and be followed by no further losses, or even apparent increases in
some vitamins during extended frozen storage, this pattern is not nor¬
mal in frozen foods. These results with pork, therefore, should be
viewed with skepticism until they are verified by other workers.
Loss of B vitamins during freezing muscles of bovine (Lee et al.
1950), ovine (Lehrer et al. 1952), and porcine (Lee et al. 1954,Lehrer
et al. 1951) animals is not affected significantly by freezing rate. How¬
ever, freezing rate can influence the amounts of exudate during thaw¬
ing and cooking (discussed later) and the extent of structural damage in
poultry (damage assessed by the amount of thaw-exudate) and cod
(damage assessed by the concentration of DNA-phosphorus in the
expressible juice from thawed cod). Furthermore, structural damage in
poultry and cod is not linearly related to freezing rate (Crigler and
Dawson 1968; Love 1958).
One final point, with respect to freezing rate, is that oxidative
changes in beef and pork apparently occur more slowly following slow
freezing than following rapid freezing (Nestorov et al. 1969). If this
296 O. Fennema

result is verified, it will have nutritional significance, since several vita¬

mins can be inactivated by oxidation.
Fluctuating temperatures apparently are not detrimental to vitamin
stability in meats. Gortner et al. (1948) stored pork loin roasts at con¬
stant and comparable conditions of fluctuating subfreezing tempera¬
tures and found that thiamin stability did not differ between these
two conditions. Moleeratanond et al. (1981) stored seven types of beef
products for 1 year at three different temperature conditions: (1) con¬
stant -23°C, (2) fluctuating -23° to -21°C with 12 hr at each tempera¬
ture, and (3) fluctuating -21° to -18°C with 12 hr at each temperature.
These three conditions did not significantly differ in their influence on
the stability of thiamin, riboflavin, or niacin.
A study by Lane (1966) is also worth mentioning. He found that
frozen fish, once it leaves the warehouse for distribution to retail out¬
lets, is generally exposed to temperatures that average well above -18 C.
This situation probably applies to most frozen foods and is highly un¬
desirable from the standpoint of vitamin retention.

Loss of Nutrients during Frozen Storage

Shown in Table 11.15 are limited data with respect to losses of B
vitamins in several animal tissues during storage for 6 months at -18°C.
Losses of pyridoxine appear to be the greatest and losses of niacin and
pantothenic acid the least. B vitamins are apparently more unstable in
pork and oysters than in beef and lamb. Unavailability of data pre¬
vents this subject from being covered as thoroughly as was done for
fruits and vegetables.

Table 11.15. Loss (%) of B Vitamins from Animal Tissues during Frozen Storage,
6 Months at -18°Ca

Pantothenic
Product Bi b2 Niacin acid Pyridoxine References

Beef steaks^ 0 1 + 10 22 c
Pork, chops and roasts + to 18 0-37 + to 5 0-8 18b d
Lamb chops + + e
Oysters^ 33 19 3 17 59 f

a Independent effect of storage, except some values include effect of thawing.

+ , Indicates an apparent increase in vitamin content.
b Data are of limited value, since only one study is involved.
c Kotschevar (1955).
d Lee et al. (1954), Lehrer et al. (1951), Westerman et al. (1955).
e Lehrer et al. (1952).
f Fieger (1956).
 11. Freeze Preservation 297

Table 11.16. Loss (%) of Thiamin from Animal Tissue during Various Methods of
Thawing

Product Loss References

Beef liver, sliced0 * 22b Kotschevar (1955)

Beef stew 1-11 Kahn and Livingston (1970)
Chicken a la king 2-9 Kahn and Livingston (1970)
Shrimp Newburg 4-10 Kahn and Livingston (1970)

a Apparent values for riboflavin and niacin increased during thawing.

b Probably mostly thaw-exudate.

Loss of Nutrients during Thawing

Shown in Table 11.16 are thiamin losses that occur during thawing
of a few animal tissues. Loss of thiamin from beef liver is substantial,
but much of this loss is probably accountable for in the thaw-exudate.
Losses of thiamin in the other products are relatively small and probab¬
ly border on being within the range of experimental error. If these
limited results are typical of all vitamins and all animal products, then
nutrient losses during thawing (aside from losses in the thaw-exudate)
are small.
Several studies have been conducted to determine the effect of thaw¬
ing method on nutrient losses. Losses of B vitamins from unpackaged
beef steak are generally greater when thawing is conducted in water
rather than in air at various temperatures (Westerman et al. 1949).
Leaching is undoubtedly an important mechanism of loss when meat is
thawed directly in water. When heat-transfer methods of thawing (air
or water) are applied to beef steak or poultry, the slowest method of
thawing (in refrigerator) generally results in losses of B vitamins that are
less, or no greater than, those which occur during more rapid thawing
(Westerman et al. 1949; Singh and Essary 1971B).
With respect to beef stew, chicken a la king, and shrimp Newburg,
thiamin losses are least during microwave thawing, slightly greater dur¬
ing infrared thawing, and greatest during thawing in boiling water
(packaged, Kahn and Livingston 1970). Except when unpackaged
products are thawed in water (undesirable), the method of thawing ap¬
pears to have a small influence on losses of B vitamins from animal tissues.

Loss of Nutrients in the Thaw-Exudate

This topic is appropriate for discussion since thaw-exudate contains a
substantial amount of nutrients, as is indicated in Table 11.17. It is
apparent that the concentrations of thiamin, riboflavin, and niacin
present in thaw-exudate from the products listed are roughly equal to
those existing in the parent products.
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 11. Freeze Preservation 299

Table 11.18. Nutrients Lost (%) from Beef

and Pork in Thaw-exudate

Nutrient Beef steak0 Pork chops^7

Thiamin > * 12 9
Riboflavin 10 4
Niacin 15 10.7
B6 (pyrimidine) 9 8.7
Pantothenic acid 33 6.9
Folic acid 8 —
Bn — 5.1
Isoleucine — 11.1

Leucine — 9.7
Lysine — 8.6

Methionine — 7.6
Tryptophan — 7.1

0 Frozen at -18°C, stored at this temperature

until needed for analysis, then thawed 14-15
hr in air at 26°C (Pearson et al. 1951).
^ Frozen at -18°C, stored at this temperature
until needed for analysis, then thawed 18-20
hr in air at 2°C (Pearson et al. 1959).

Actual percentage losses of vitamins and amino acids that can occur
in beef and pork via the mechanism of thaw-exudate are illustrated in
Table 11.18. Although losses of most nutrients generally are not large,
an awareness should be created about them so that thaw-exudate will
be utilized by the consumer and so that the processor will exercise
whatever control is feasible to minimize the amount of thaw-exudate.
The amount of thaw-exudate from animal tissue can range from less
than 1% to more than 30%. Factors that influence the amount of thaw-
exudate can be categorized as follows: (1) type of product, (2) natural
variations within a given product, and (3) processing variables.

Type of Product
Differences in the amount of thaw-exudate can occur depending on
the type of product being frozen. Amounts of thaw-exudate obtained
from beef (Bennett et al. 1954; Cook et al. 1926; Kotschevar 1955;
Ramsbottom and Koonz 1939, 1940, 1941; Pearson and Miller 1950;
Westerman et al. 1949) and pork muscle (Kotschevar 1955; Pearson
et al. 1959) often range from about 1 to 10%, amounts from poultry
(Crigler and Dawson 1968; Engler and Bowers 1975; Kahn and Lentz
1965; Kahn and van den Berg 1967) are generally less than 5%, and
amounts from fish are highly variable, but values of 5—10% are com¬
mon for salmon, halibut, and freshwater species (Botta et al. 1973;
Manohar et al. 1973). Other product characteristics also have a bearing
on the amount of thaw-exudate. For example, thaw-exudate from
300 O. Fennema

saltwater fish is greater then that from freshwater fish (Botta et al.
1973; Manohar et al. 1973), and glandular meats generally exhibit
greater thaw-exudate than muscle meats (Kotschevar 1955).

Properties of a Given Product \

The pH of meat has a profound influence on the amount of thaw-
exudate. A high ultimate pH of 6.4 will minimize thaw-exudate in pork,
mutton, and beef, and thaw-exudate will increase as the pH is lowered
to 5-5.2 (Ramsbottom and Koonz 1940; Sair and Cook 1938).
State of rigor at the time of freezing also can have a profound ef¬
fect on the amount of thaw-exudate. For tissues which are sensitive to
this effect (some fish, whale muscle, poultry, mammalian muscle), an
undesirable processing sequence involving rapid freezing prerigor,
storage at low temperature, and rapid thawing can result in very large
amounts of thaw-exudate (Bendall 1972; Kahn and Lentz 196 5; Manohar
et al. 1973; Tanaka and Tanaka 1956A, 1957).
Processing Variables
Aging of beef prior to freezing has been found to decrease the
amount of thaw-exudate (Ramsbottom and Koonz 1940).
Thaw-exudate is usually greater from small cuts of animal tissue
(large surface:volume ratio) than it is from large cuts of animal tissue
(Larson, 1956; Ramsbottom and Koonz 1939,1941).
Rapid freezing often results in less thaw-exudate than slow freezing,
particularly with small cuts of animal tissue (Ramsbottom and Koonz
1939, 1941; Cook et al. 1926; Kahn and van den Berg 1967). With
large cuts of beef, freezing rate generally has no influence on the
amount of thaw-exudate (Ramsbottom and Koonz 1941). With poultry,
freezing rate and the amount of thaw-exudate are not linearly related
(Fig. 11.7), and this behavior may well extend to small cuts of other
kinds of animal tissue (Love 1958). When animal tissues are frozen
prerigor, slow freezing generally results in less thaw-exudate than rapid
freezing (Tanaka and Tanaka 1957). Slow freezing causes the product
to remain at high subfreezing temperatures for a relatively long period,
thus allowing glycolysis to continue, and, thereby lessening the possi¬
bility of thaw-rigor (a large amount of thaw-exudate is often associated
with thaw-rigor).
The effect of storage temperature on the amount of thaw-exudate
apparently varies with the product and with other processing variables.
In two studies, large and small cuts of beef were stored for 4-12
months at temperatures ranging from -12° to -29°C and no difference
was noted in the amount of thaw-exudate as a function of storage
temperature (Bennett et al. 1954; Ramsbottom and Koonz 1941).
However, with cod the amount of thaw-exudate apparently increases
as the storage temperature is increased over the range -29° to -7°C
(Miyauchi 1962).
 11. Freeze Preservation 301

Fig. 11.7. Effect of freezing time (rate) on the percentage of thaw-exudate from
poultry. Source: Adapted from Crigler and Dawson (1968), courtesy of Institute
of Food Technologists.

The amount of thaw-exudate generally increases with increased

storage time, especially with small cuts of animal tissue (Ramsbottom
and Koonz 1941; Pearson and Miller 1950). The opposite effect can
sometimes occur when animal muscles are frozen prerigor (Tanaka and
Tanaka 1956B). When this occurs, prolonged storage apparently allows
glycolysis to proceed sufficiently so that thaw-rigor is less likely.
Thawing rate may or may not influence the amount of thaw-exudate.
In two studies involving pork and beef steaks, thawing rate was shown
to have little or no affect on the amount of thaw-exudate (Vail et al.
1943; Westerman et al. 1949). However, the amount of thaw-exudate
from animal tissues frozen prerigor often will be less if thawing is slow
rather than rapid (Tanaka and Tanaka 1957). The reason for this was
mentioned earlier when freezing rates and storage times were discussed.
With chicken broilers, very slow thawing has been reported to result in
a greater amount of exudate than rapid thawing (Singh and Essary,
1971A).
In a study involving thawing of relatively large blocks of postrigor
whale meat, very rapid dielectric thawing was shown to result in much
less thaw-exudate than very rapid thawing by resistance heating or by
slow thawing in air (Tanaka and Tanaka 1956A).
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 11. Freeze Preservation 303

Chemical treatments also can influence the amount of thaw-exudate.

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trisodium polyphosphate, the amount of thaw-exudate will be reduced
(Manohar et al. 1973).
> "

Loss of Nutrients during the Entire Freezing Process

Losses of B vitamins from animal tissues during the entire freezing

process are shown in Table 11.19. It is evident that losses are quite
variable. Changes in thiamin content during the freezing process range
from +34 to -42%, changes in riboflavin content range from +44 to
-43%, changes in niacin content range from +14 to -35%, and, based
on limited data, changes in pantothenic acid content range from +6 to
-8% and changes in pyridoxine content range from -24 to -46%.
Variability of vitamin losses within a given type of product (e.g.,
beef) appears to be fully as large as variability among different types of
products.
The phases of the freezing process that cause the greatest losses of
B vitamins appear to be frozen storage and thawing (thaw-exudate).
With pork, it is also possible that substantial amounts of B vitamins are
lost during freezing, but further work is needed to confirm or reject this
notion.

Loss of Nutrients during Cooking of Previously

Frozen Animal Tissues
Shown in Table 11.20 are the results of two studies dealing with
losses of B vitamins during cooking of previously frozen beef and pork.
The losses indicated presumably are total losses; that is, they include
both cook-exudate and chemical degradation of vitamins within the
meat. Losses of most B vitamins, with the exception of thiamin, are
relatively small.
Shown in Table 11.21 are results of a study dealing with losses of
various nutrients during broiling of previously frozen seafoods. In most
instances, losses of vitamins and minerals are insignificant to moderate.
The only nutrient lost in excess of 25% is riboflavin in shrimp.
With turkeys, retention of vitamin B6 following cooking is not
influenced in a consistent manner by the physical state (frozen, partially
frozen, thawed) of the bird at the onset of cooking (Engler and Bowers
1975).

Comparative Losses of B Vitamins from Fresh-Cooked

and Frozen-Stored-Cooked Animal Tissues
The results of two studies pertinent to this topic are summarized in
Table 11.22. Frozen-stored-cooked lamb chops, in one study, contained
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 11. Freeze Preservation 305

Table 11.21. Loss (%) of Nutrients during Cooking of Previously Frozen Seafoods0

Product Bi Eh Niacin Bn Fe K Na Zn Se Ar

Flounder 2 0 2 17 12 4 6 4 0 0

Salmon 8 6 0 24 0 0 5 3 0 0

Atlantic mackerel 0 0 0 0 0 5 8 0 0 0

Shrimp^’c 0 41 0 6 13 17 21 0 0 5
Alaskan pollack^7 14 0 11 0 8 19 24 12 0 8

Pacific whiting^7 0 1 0 0 1 2 6 0 0 0

~ S.D. ±15 ±15 ±15 ±30 ±20 ±12 ±10 ±15 ±15 ±25

Source: Dudek et al. (1982B).

0Frozen-cooked compared to frozen.
b No microwave, just baked or broiled.
c Less loss baked than broiled.

Table 11.22. Comparative Nutritive Values of Fresh-Cooked and Frozen-Stored-

Cooked Meats0

Cooked from frozen state

Fresh-cooked after 6 months at -22°C^

Product Bi Ba Niacin Bi b2 Niacin References

Lamb chops 4 82 4 134 Lehrer et al. (1952)

(0)* (+63)b
Pork. chops 15 3.5 207 14 3.1 113 Lehrer et al. (1951)
(-7)* (“ID* (-45)*

0 Vitamin content, IJ-g/g.

b Percentage change as compared to cooked, unfrozen product.

as much thiamin and more niacin than the fresh-cooked product.

Frozen-stored-cooked pork chops contained slightly less thiamin and
riboflavin and considerably less niacin than the fresh-cooked product.

DAIRY PRODUCTS AND MARGARINE

During freezing and storage for 24 months at -10 C, butter loses

only a small amount of its original vitamin D content, and butter and
margarine lose about 17% of their vitamin A contents (Chick and
Roscoe 1926; Deuel and Greenberg 1953). According to Holmes et al.
(1946), ice cream frozen and stored for 7 months at -23 C loses 5% of
its original riboflavin, 16% of its original carotene, and 100% of its
vitamin C (actually, freshly made ice cream contains little or no vitamin
C). According to Lawrence et al. (1946), frozen milk stored for 19
weeks at -14°C loses no biotin or nicotinic acid.
306 O. Fennema

MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS

The stabilities of various antibiotic residues in frozen bovine muscle

have been studied by O’Brien etal. (1981). Residues of chloramphenicol,
oxytetracycline, and sulfadimidine Tost little or no activity during
storage for at least 50 weeks at -20°C, whereas ampicillin lost 20-40%
of its activity during 80 weeks storage at -20°C.
Information on the stability of pesticide residues in frozen foods has
been reviewed by Kawar et al. (1973). All of the organochlorine insecti¬
cides studied (DDT, dieldrin, endrin, heptachlor, and lindane) were stable
in butter and ice cream stored for 4 months at -26°C. Among the organo-
phosphorus insecticides studied (Bidrin®, chlorfenvinphos, dichlorvos,
dioxanthion, malathion, mevinphos, parathion, and tetrachlorvinphos),
the only ones exhibiting instability at subfreezing temperatures were
dichlorvos (2-62% loss in wheat stored for 2-11 months at-15°C), mal¬
athion, (40-47% loss in apples and plums stored for 1-8 months at -18°C,
but stable in black currants and spinach stored for 6 months at -10° to
-15°C), and perhaps parathion (conflicting results). Also, Kilgore and
Windham (1970) reported that 45-77% of the malathion residue on
broccoli is lost during blanching, freezing, and storage for 6 months at
-9°C. Among the fungicides studied by Kawar et al. (1973) (captan,
maneb, zineb) only captan was unstable (22-56% loss in apples, plums,
and strawberries stored for 1 month at -18°C). Among the herbicides
studied (chlorthiamid, cyanazine, dalapon, and dichlobenil), all were
stable during periods of storage normally encountered for frozen foods.
Only limited information is available on the subject of protein bioavail¬
ability as influenced by freeze preservation. Russian investigators studied
the effects of frozen storage on the nutritive value of semitendinosus mus¬
cles from beef (Golovkin and Meluzova 1974;Meluzova 1977). Nutritive
value, as estimated by the in vitro susceptibility of muscle extracts to tryp¬
sin, or trypsin and chymotrypsin, was studied in samples that were raw or
cooked, prerigor or postrigor, then stored for 12 months at -10°, -18°, or
-28°C.
When raw samples were frozen prerigor and then stored for 12
months at any of the three temperatures, susceptibility to enzyme attack
generally decreased significantly. When similar samples were cooked
prior to frozen storage, changes in susceptibility to enzymes after 12
months storage were inconsistent.
When postrigor samples, either cooked or raw, were frozen for 12
months at any of the three temperatures, susceptibility to enzyme attack
decreased, usually by amounts that appear to be of practical significance.
During the course of the 12-month storage period, cooking prior to
freezing influenced the behavior of the prerigor samples but not the
postrigor samples. For prerigor samples, cooking resulted in decreased
susceptibility to enzyme attack during the first 3 months of storage at
all temperatures, but for the remainder of the 12-month storage period,
differences between cooked and raw prerigor samples were insignificant.
 11. Freeze Preservation 307

It was also observed that susceptibility to enzyme attack changed,

sometimes dramatically, during the course of the 12-month storage
period. The authors correlated these changes with changes in the
amount of mucopolysaccharides (from the connective tissue) that bound
to the myofibrillar proteins.' When binding of mucopolysaccharides was
substantial, susceptibility of myofibrillar proteins to enzyme attack was
minimal and this condition was consistently observed after 5 months
storage at all temperatures.
Kramer and associates (Kramer 1977; Kramer et al. 1979) used a
conventional method (protein efficiency ratio, PER) to evaluate changes
in protein bioavailability during storage of frozen foods, and their re¬
sults differ from those of the Russian investigators. The products
studied by Kramer’s group were texturized vegetable protein (TVP)
that had been rehydrated and canned, and beef patties supplemented
with either TVP (8.5% dry powder by weight) or with TVP (8.5%) and
single-cell protein (2.5%). Samples were stored for periods up to 18
months at temperatures ranging from -10° to -30°C. PER values did
not change significantly during storage at any given temperature, and it
is therefore not surprising that storage for 18 months at -30°C resulted
in only marginally better retention of original PER values than storage
for the same time at -10°C. Since the PER approach to evaluating
bioavailability of proteins is well accepted, it appears justifiable to con¬
clude that the freezing process, as typically conducted commercially,
is unlikely to have a significant detrimental effect of the bioavailability
of food proteins.

DISCUSSION
Several points of interest are apparent when losses of vitamins dur¬
ing freeze processing of vegetables, fruits, and animal tissues are com¬
pared (Table 11.23). During the freezing process, vitamin losses in
vegetables are caused primarily by blanching and prolonged (6-12
months) frozen storage, in fruits by prolonged frozen storage and thaw¬
ing (if the syrup and thaw-exudate are not consumed), and in animal
tissues by prolonged frozen storage and by thawing (thaw-exudate).
Moderate to large amounts of water-soluble vitamins are lost from
vegetables during blanching, from animal tissues during thawing (thaw-
exudate), and presumably from fruits by leaching into the syrup and
during thawing (thaw-exudate). Almost all of these losses could be
avoided if (1) vegetables were blanched and cooled by means that do
not involve liquid water, and (2) the thaw-exudate from animal tissues
and the syrup and thaw-exudate from fruits were consumed.
With vegetables and animal tissues, significant losses of water-soluble
nutrients can occur during cooking (Table 11.23). With vegetables,
these losses can be minimized by using minimal cooking times and
minimal amounts of cooking water, and with animal tissues by con¬
suming the cooking-exudate, for example, in the form of gravy.
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 11. Freeze Preservation 309

The temperature dependence of vitamin C degradation in frozen

fruits and vegetables is also worthy of comment. The rates of vitamin C
degradation in several fruits and vegetables at -18°C are similar (Figs.
11.2 and 11.6). Furthermore, a rise in temperature causes uncommon¬
ly large increases in the rates of vitamin C degradation in several vege¬
tables (Q10 = 6-20 for green beans, cauliflower, green peas, and spinach)
and in several fruits (QI0 = 30-70 for peaches, boysenberries, and some
strawberries). This large temperature dependence is no doubt caused
by the fact that a high concentration of solutes exists in the unfrozen
phases of frozen foods and that this concentration (and accordingly,
oxygen solubility, viscosity, and molecular mobility) changes markedly
with a change in temperature (Fennema et al. 1973; Pincock and
Kiovsky 1966; Thompson and Fennema 1971). From the standpoint
of retention of vitamin C, the desirability of storing fruits and vege¬
tables at temperatures of -18°C or lower should be abundantly clear.
It would be useful as well as interesting to accurately compare the
nutrient losses incurred in foods during the primary methods of long¬
term preservation (freezing, canning, and drying). Unfortunately, this
is not possible to do with reasonable accuracy, even though two major
sources of nutrient data have recently appeared in print: the USD A
handbooks on “Composition of Foods” (USDA 1976-1982) and the
reports of the National Food Processors Association on the nutrient
contents of raw, frozen, and cooked fruits, vegetables, and seafoods
(Dudeketa/. 1981, 1982A,B).
The USDA source of data is unsuitable for comparing nutrient losses
in foods preserved by various methods because data pertaining to the
three major methods of food preservation are not presented for all
major food products, and even when they are, users of the data are
warned, for valid reasons, not to make this kind of comparison. For
example, in the section (Gebhardt et al. 1982) dealing with fruits, the
following statement is presented.

Nutrient data for different forms of a fruit were not derived from the same
sample. That is, a sample of peaches was not subdivided and analyzed raw,
canned, dried, and frozen. The data on the various forms were obtained
from many sources and represent different growing years, growing areas,
cultivars, laboratories, and possibly different methods of analysis. There¬
fore, differences in values for various forms of a fruit do not necessarily
show the effect of processing.

With regard to the studies conducted by the National Food Processors

Association, attention was directed primarily to the effects of various
methods of heating on nutrient retention. Drying was not studied and
freezing (storage conditions usually not indicated) was used as a com¬
mon preservative technique for samples that were ultimately cooked by
various means. Thus, comparative losses of nutrients during freezing,
canning, and drying can not be assessed from these data.
310 O. Fennema

Probably the most that can be appropriately said at this time is that
properly conducted freezing (no frozen storage) of foods that are not
normally blanched (fruits and animal tissues) results in better retention
of most of the labile nutrients than does canning or dehydration.
However, if the frozen foods are blanched prior to freezing (as are most
vegetables), especially if water-blanched, and the frozen products are
exposed to conditions of frozen storage as normally encountered dur¬
ing retail marketing, then thawed and typically prepared for consump¬
tion, the nutrient content of these foods will differ in few, if any,
important respects from the nutrient contents of canned or dehydrated
foods as typically marketed and prepared for consumption.
Furthermore, fresh-cooked vegetables will generally contain greater
amounts of chemically labile or leachable nutrients than will canned,
frozen, or dehydrated vegetables that have been normally marketed
and normally prepared for consumption; provided the fresh vegetables
are truly fresh, that is, they are utilized soon after harvest (within 2
days) and are kept cool during the interval between harvest and con¬
sumption. Foods purchased as “fresh” in the grocery stores often do
not conform to these stipulations.
Finally, vitamins in fresh fruits and animal tissues are generally less
labile than vitamins in vegetables.

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determine nutrient content of selected fruits and vegetables-raw, processed and
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1982B. Determination of effects of processing and cooking on the nutrient com¬
position of selected seafoods. National Food Processors Assoc., Washington, DC.
312 0. Fennema
V*
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 11. Freeze Preservation 313

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i

.
 12

Effects of
Heat Processing
on Nutrients
Daryl Lund

Heat processing is one of the most important methods for extending

the storage life of foodstuffs. Because of this extended storage life,
foods which are abundantly available only during relatively short har¬
vesting periods are made available throughout the year. There is no
doubt that this has increased the availability of nutrients to the con¬
sumer. However, heat processing also has a detrimental effect on nu¬
trients since thermal degradation of nutrients can and does occur.
Therefore, thermal processing makes it possible to extend and increase
availability of a foodstuff to the consumer, but the foodstuff may have
a lower nutrient content (compared to the fresh foodstuff). The
challenge to the food processing industry is to minimize the loss of
nutrients during thermal processing while providing an adequate process
to ensure an extended storage life.
Several processes involving the use of heat are currently applied to
foodstuffs. For some, the primary objective is to increase the palatability
of the food. An example is cooking which includes baking, broiling,
roasting, boiling, frying, and stewing. For other thermal processes, the
objectives are to increase storage life of the foodstuff and to minimize
food-borne diseases. Blanching, pasteurization, and sterilization are
examples of these processes.
Reduction in nutrient content of the foodstuff as a result of a ther¬
mal process depends on the severity of the process. In this chapter
effects of blanching, pasteurization, and sterilization on nutrients will
be discussed. The approach will be to define each of these heat processes,
mention general reviews currently available, discuss the effects of heat
on nutrients in general, examine the interaction between current tech¬
nology for accomplishing the objectives of each process and nutrient
retention, and review the effect of storage on nutrients in foodstuffs
that have received these heat processes.

319
320 D. Lund

DEFINITION OF BLANCHING, PASTEURIZATION,

AND STERILIZATION

Blanching is a heat process frequently applied to tissue systems prior

to freezing, drying, or canning. The objectives of the blanching process
depend on the subsequent treatment of the foodstuffs. For example,
blanching prior to freezing or drying is used primarily to inactivate
enzymes which would contribute to undesirable changes in color, flavor,
or nutritive value during storage. Blanching prior to canning serves
several different functions including wilting the tissue to facilitate
packing, removing tissue gases prior to container filling, increasing the
temperature of the tissue prior to container closing, and inactivating or
activating enzymes. Although the objectives of the blanching process
are dependent on the subsequent treatment, a criterion frequently used
for evaluating the adequacy of the blanching operation, regardless of
subsequent treatment, is enzyme inactivation. Generally, if enzymes
are inactivated, the heat treatment was sufficient to accomplish the ob¬
jectives of blanching prior to canning. In the special case of blanching
to activate the enzyme pectin methylesterase, van Buren et al. (1960)
and Kaczmarzyk et al. (1963) showed that blanching water temperature
must be greater than 150°F, but less than 180°F. An important con¬
cept about blanching is that microbial destruction is not a primary ob¬
jective of the process.
Pasteurization is a heat process designed to inactivate part, but not
all, of the vegetative microorganisms present in the food. Since the
food is not sterile, pasteurization, like blanching, must also be used in
conjunction with other preservation techniques such as fermentation
(e.g., pickles), refrigeration (e.g., milk), maintenance of anaerobic con¬
ditions (e.g., beer), or must be used on products such as high acid fruit
juices where the environment is not particularly suited for growth of
spoilage and health hazard microorganisms. The basis of the process
may be a spoilage microorganism (e.g., yeast in beer, yeast and molds
in high acid fruit juices) or a health hazard organism (e.g., Coxiella
burnetti, the Rickettsia organism responsible for Q fever in milk).
Sterile is a term that refers to a condition in which no viable micro¬
organisms are present, a viable organism being one that is able to re¬
produce under conditions optimum for its growth. Sterilization, then,
is a term applied to any process that produces a sterile condition in
food. Some microorganisms and their spores are extremely heat re¬
sistant and generally it is not practical to render a food sterile by heat
processing. To do so would alter the organoleptic and nutritive value
of the food to the point that it would be unacceptable. Therefore,
the “sterilization” process used in heat processing foods is also used in
conjunction with other preservation techniques, namely, packaging and
control of storage temperature. The requirement for these techniques
 12. Heat Processing 321

is that the remaining dormant microorganisms or their spores will not

grow in the environment of the food under the conditions of storage.
Foods that have been thermally processed and meet this requirement
are said to be “commercially sterile.”

GENERAL REVIEWS ON THE EFFECTS

OF PROCESSING ON NUTRIENTS

Several review articles which discuss the effect of heat processing on

nutrients have been published, and their contents are summarized in
Table 12.1. With the consumer demand for more nutrition information,
particularly as it applies to processed foods, it is understandable that
there is great interest and increased publication on this subject. Several
of these reviews treat only one particular product, process, or nutrient
while others are quite general. Most, however, point out that thermal
processing can in some instances enhance the nutritive value of food.
Examples of this are given elsewhere in this book.

EFFECT OF HEAT ON NUTRIENTS

Although several review articles have been published on the effects of

heat processing on nutrients, few authors have attempted to summarize
the, kinetic data which can be used to describe the time-temperature ef¬
fect on nutrients. Labuza (1972) took this approach in an excellent
review article on the effects of dehydration and subsequent storage on
nutrient content of dehydrated foods. But as Labuza pointed out, not
much data exist. The same situation is true for the thermal destruction
of nutrients under conditions normally found in blanching, pasteuriza¬
tion, and commercial sterilization processes. Many authors have re¬
ported the percentage loss of a nutrient in a food product that was
given a particular treatment. But these data usually have not been
complete enough to allow estimation of the kinetic parameters that can
be used to predict or calculate the response of the nutrient to the heat
treatment. For example, after analyzing the data compiled by Orr
(1969), Schroeder (1971) concluded that vitamin B6 and pantothenic
acid losses could be as high as 91% in canned foods and that the recom¬
mended daily allowance (RDA) for these two nutrients probably could
not be obtained from a menu of refined, processed, and canned foods.
Yet the parameters which are needed to predict the susceptibility of
these two nutrients to thermal processing were not known. The neces¬
sary parameters cannot be obtained from the data presented by Schroeder
or Orr due to the wide variation in processing conditions used in the
canning industry. Therefore, optimization of the process for retention
of these two nutrients could not be determined.
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323
324 D. Lund

Several kinetic parameters have been used to describe the effect of

time-temperature treatments on the rate and extent of nutrient destruc¬
tion. Basically two parameters are needed: (1) the rate of nutrient
destruction at a reference temperature and (2) the dependence of the
rate of destruction on temperature. 'In most chemical and engineering
applications these two parameters have been the reference reaction rate
constant (fy.) at temperature Tr and the Arrhenius activation energy (Ea).
The general rate expression for concentration dependence on time is

where c is concentration of component c, t is time, kR is the rate con¬

stant at temperature TR, and n is the order of the reaction for com¬
ponent c. For thermal destruction of nutrients in foods, the order of
the reaction (n) is often one (i.e., first-order reaction), or at least the
disappearance of the nutrient can be described by a first-order model
(i.e., pseudo-first order). For the canning industry, the time constant
base 10 has been used to characterize the time dependence of concen¬
tration as follows:

dc/dt = (-2.03/Dr) c

where Dr is the decimal reduction time (time constant base 10) at

temperature Tr. The decimal reduction time (DR) is the time at
temperature Tr for the concentration of the nutrient (or microorganism,
spore, or enzyme) to decrease by 90% (become one-tenth the initial
value).
For temperature dependence of the reaction rate constant (k or D),
the Arrhenius activation energy is used. -*•

In (k/kR) = 2.303 log (%/D) = (~Ea/R)[(l/T) - (1/TR)]

where k is the first-order rate constant at temperature T, kR is the first-

order rate constant at temperature Tr, Ea is the Arrhenius activation
energy, and R is the gas law constant. For the food processing industry,
an empirical equation has been used extensively to describe temperature
dependence.

log (D/Dr) = (Tr-T)/z

where 2 is the temperature change necessary to change D by a factor of

10.
For biological scientists, the Q10 is used to express temperature
dependence.
 12. Heat Processing 325

Q10 = + iq/^T

where feT+ 10 is the first-order rate constant at (T + 10)°C, and is

the first-order rate constant at T°C.
Determination and use of»these values and concepts are covered else¬
where (e.g., Aiba et al. 1965; Blakeborough 1968; Pflug and Schmidt
1968; Stumbo 1973) and will not be reviewed here.
Table 12.2 is a compilation of data from existing literature where
the authors have determined Ea and DR (or their corresponding values
in other terms) or have provided sufficient data to allow calculation of
these parameters. The parameters Ea and DR for a particular nutrient or
component are dependent on several variables: (1) pH, (2) oxidation-
reduction potential, and (3) medium composition (including presence
of catalytic factors such as heavy metals). For each study, information
is given on the component that was evaluated, the medium, pH, and
temperature range over which the parameters were determined. In
addition to presenting data on nutrients, some parameters for factors
such as color (pigments 'and nonenzymatic browning), texture, flavor
precursors, enzymes, microbial toxins, and microbial vegetative and
spore cells are given. These values are included in order to examine
how each of the three processes (blanching, pasteurization, and com¬
mercial sterilization) may be optimized with respect to nutrient reten¬
tion. It should be pointed out that for each of the studies reported in
Table 12.2, the component under study obeyed first-order reaction
kinetics.
Several conclusions can be drawn from Table 12.2. Most important,
perhaps, is the observation that the table contains many more entries
than a similar table in the previous edition of this book. This attests
to the fact that investigators are more conscientious of producing
quantitative data on effects of processing on nutrients. Furthermore,
more nutrients that have demonstrated some sensitivity to high tempera¬
tures have been investigated. This contrasts sharply to data available
in 1975 in which only thiamin (vitamin Bi) and ascorbic acid (vitamin
C) were widely used in kinetic studies.
Data on thiamin degradation in a variety of media can be used to
illustrate two important points. First, the destruction rate (D121) is highly
dependent on pH and medium composition. However, the Arrhenius
activation energy (Ea) is relatively insensitive to those parameters.
Another important observation is that rate of destruction of many
nutrients under a variety of conditions exhibits similar temperature
dependence (20-30 kcal/mol). These Arrhenius activation energies are
in the range for chemical reactions. This would be expected for many
nutrients, since loss of biological activity is through hydrolysis or oxida¬
tion of the nutrient. Observations on temperature dependence of other
constituents in foods has led to the generalizations shown in Table 12.3.
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330 D. Lund
V>
Table 12.3. Effect of Temperature on Rate of Destruction of
Various Food Components

Component Dj21 (min)fl £a( kcal/mol)

Vitamins '100-1000 20-30

Quality factors 5-500 10-30
(texture, color, flavor)
Enzyme inactivation 1-10 10-100
Vegetative cell inactivation 0.001-0.01 80-200
Spore inactivation 0.1-5 50-200

a Dn 1 is the time (min) at 121°C to decrease the component by 90%.

Vitamins and quality factors (e.g., texture and flavor) exhibit similar
temperature dependence, whereas inactivation of vegetative cells and
spores is much more temperature dependent. For enzymes, the range
of activation energies is very large due to the presence of heat-resistant
and heat-labile isozymes. For example, Ling and Lund (1978) reported
an activation energy of 22 kcal/mol for the heat-resistant fraction of
horseradish peroxidase and 36 kcal/mol for the heat-labile isozyme.
The fact that the thermal destruction rate for the basis of a thermal
process (enzymes, vegetative cells, or spores) is more temperature
dependent than thermal destruction of nutrients, means that for a given
increase in processing temperature, the rate of destruction for the basis
will increase more than the rate of destruction of nutrients. This has
been used to optimize thermal processes for nutrient retention.

OPTIMIZATION OF THERMAL PROCESSES

FOR NUTRIENT RETENTION

More recently, there has been an attempt to optimize the thermal

process for nutrient retention. This has resulted primarily from the use
of computers and the increasing public concern over the nutrient con¬
tent of processed foods. To determine optimum conditions for nutrient
retention, equations describing the time-temperature history of a
product must be coupled with the parameters describing the reaction
kinetics for destruction of nutrients and other factors. This allows the
process to be optimized with respect to nutrient retention, while assur¬
ing that the objective of the process has been accomplished.
Optimization of the blanching process with respect to nutrient reten¬
tion involves consideration of losses of nutrients in addition to losses
by thermal degradation. For example, blanching in hot water can re¬
sult in a considerable loss of nutrients due to leaching (Lee 1958).
Similarly, losses due to oxidation can result during blanching in hot air.
 12. Heat Processing 331

However, even if one only considers thermal degradation of nutrients

for blanching optimization, it is difficult to predict an optimum process.
This is true because the basis for the process (heat-resistant enzymes)
and nutrient factors exhibit nearly the same temperature dependence.
Therefore, blanching for a long time at a low temperature has no real
advantage over blanching for a short time at a high temperature. If,
however, significant leaching or oxidative losses could occur, then high-
temperature-short-time (HTST) blanching would result in a greater
retention of nutrients.
For pasteurization and commercial sterilization, there is an oppor¬
tunity to optimize the process for nutrient retention. For foods or
food fluids which are pasteurized, the HTST process results in maximum
nutrient retention (Hartman and Dry den 1965). This can be predicted
by comparing the activation energies of microorganisms to those of
nutrients. An increase in process temperature (with an appropriate
decrease in process time) will have a greater effect on increasing the rate
of microbial destruction than it will on the rate of nutrient destruction.
Consequently, HTST results in greater nutrient retention.
For commercial sterilization, optimization of the thermal process is
not as straightforward. For commercial sterilization either out of con¬
tainer (aseptic thermal processing) or in container by convection heat¬
ing, HTST processes will result in maximum retention of nutrients and
quality factors (Anonymous 1969; Clifcorn et al. 1950; Everson et al.
1964A,B; Feaster et al. 1949; Jackson and Benjamin 1948). As in
pasteurization treatments, this is caused by the difference in tempera¬
ture response of the rate of microbial destruction compared to the rate
of destruction of nutrients and quality factors. This is used to advan¬
tage in aseptic canning units where temperatures up to 350°F can be
employed. In food systems where natural enzymes may be present,
however, there are limitations on the maximum temperature that may
be used. That maximum occurs when the thermal process may impart
sufficient lethality for microorganisms but insufficient lethality for
enzymes. This is a consequence of the difference in the response of
microbial and enzymic rates of degradation to temperature (Farkas
et al. 1956).
At relatively low thermal processing temperatures, the destruction
rate for enzymes is greater than that for microorganisms, but as process
temperature is increased the destruction rate for microorganisms in¬
creases faster than that for enzymes. Hence, there exists some tempera¬
ture at which the destruction rate for the heat-resistant enzyme is equal
to the destruction rate for the microorganism used as the basis of the
process. Above that temperature, inactivation of the enzyme must be
used as the basis of the process, since the destruction rate of the enzyme
is less than that of the microorganism. If this is not considered in
processing products containing natural heat-resistant enzymes, product
332 D. Lund

quality can deteriorate during storage because of residual enzymic

activity (Anonymous 1969). The temperature range where the destruc¬
tion rate of enzymes equals that for microorganisms is generally 270°-
290°F. Therefore, for products containing heat-resistant enzymes,
processes above this crossover temperature must be based on enzyme
inactivation. Under these circumstances, process optimization for
nutrient retention is difficult to predict, since the rate of destruction
for nutrients and quality factors exhibit a temperature dependence
similar in magnitude to that of heat-resistant enzymes.
In addition to considering enzyme activity as a basis of the process,
Mansfield (1962) suggested that HTST processes over approximately
260°F may have to be based on product quality considerations. In
particular, the desired degree of cooking may not be attained under
these processing conditions. From Table 12.2 it can be seen that the
texture (degree of cook) for many vegetable products exhibits a depen¬
dence on temperature similar to that for heat-resistant enzymes. There¬
fore, HTST processes may result in adequate microbial lethality, but
poor consumer preference because of a too firm texture. This is
particularly important to the consumer, since “heat and serve” items
appear more desirable than “cook and serve.”
For products that heat primarily by convection and contain particu¬
lates, two important assumptions are made: (1) Surfaces of pieces in
the brine or fluid are at the temperature of the surrounding fluid, and
(2) particulates are sterile in the interior. Thus, if the thermal process is
based on the slowest heating point in the container, the lethality at all
points in the container and at the surface of the particulates will be
adequate for commercial sterilization. However, in foods containing
particulates that may not be sterile in the center (e.g., foods containing
fabricated pieces such as meatballs or stuffed noodles), the basis of the
process should be the temperature at the center of a particulate (the
slowest heating point). Under these conditions, and provided it can be
assumed that the nutrients are located in the particulates, designing the
process for optimizing nutrient retention is* basically the same as that
for conduction-heating foods.
Optimization of thermal processes for conduction-heating foods is
much more difficult than for the previously discussed situations. The
difficulty in optimizing the process lies in the fact that each point in
the cross section of the container or particulate receives a different
thermal process and these thermal histories may or may not be equiva¬
lent in microbial and nutrient destruction. It had previously been
thought that the center point received the least lethality. However, it
has been shown that the location of the least lethal point (critical lethal
point) is dependent on the geometry of the container and the boundary
conditions of the process (Teixeira et al. 1969A). Although this will
not be discussed here, suffice it to say that the overall lethality is the
 12. Heat Processing 333

mass-average (or volume-average) lethality obtained by integrating the

effect of the heat treatment at every point in the container over the
volume of the container.
Several investigators have developed methods for calculating the
average destruction of nutrients and microorganisms in foods which
heat by conduction (Ball and Olson 1957; Cohen and Wall 1971;
Hayakawa 1969; Jen et al. 1971; Lenz and Lund 1977; Manson et al.
1970; Stumbo 1973; Teixeira et al. 1969B). Most of these mehtods
require major computational effort and some require a computer.
However, for conduction-heating foods, the general considerations for
optimizing a thermal process for nutrient retention can be illustrated by
considering calculations presented in the study by Teixeira et al. (1969B).
Figure 12.1 shows the percentage of retention of a component (with
the Dr and 2 value indicated on the curves) as a function of processes

Fig. 12.1. Multinutrient optimization, percentage of nutrient retention versus

process time (min) (A) with corresponding retort temperature ( F) (B).
334 D. Lund

of equivalent microbial lethality. It can be seen that the optimum

retention of a low z value nutrient is obtained at a low-temperature
long-time process, whereas a high-temperature-short-time process
is optimum for a nutrient with a hi^h z value. The curve for z — 45 F,
D = 188 min is that for thiamin destruction in green bean puree
(Feliciotti and Esselen 1957). It can be seen that the optimum process
for thiamin retention is 90 min at 248° F, very close to existing processes
for green bean puree. More significantly, as the temperature of the
process is increased, thiamin retention decreases sharply. Thus in¬
container HTST is not the best thermal process for nutrient retention
in conduction-heating foods, and, moreover, each process must be
individually optimized.
Teixeira et al. (1975) also studied the effect of container geometry
on nutrient retention, and showed that by minimizing the critical
dimension for heat transfer (the smallest dimension of the container)
nutrient retention was maximized. These studies and the results
presented in Fig. 12.1 were simulated using a constant retort tempera¬
ture. Teixeira et al. (1975) also examined the effect of selected variable
retort temperature profiles on nutrient retention. Retort policies
considered included constant functions, ramp functions, single- and
multiple-step functions and sine functions. Unfortunately, the max¬
imum nutrient retention for the best temperature profile for each of
the process control functions was not significantly different than that
for the constant retort temperature process (current practice). Others
have used more rigorous search techniques to determine the best retort
temperature policy and have also shown that nutrient and quality fac¬
tor retention are not significantly improved over constant retort tempera¬
ture process (current practice). Others have used more rigorous search
techniques to determine the best retort temperature policy and have
also shown that nutrient and quality factor retention are not signifi¬
cantly improved over constant retort temperature policies (Saguy and
Karel 1979; Hildenbrand 1980; Martens 1980).
In conclusion, optimization of a thermal process for nutrient reten¬
tion is dependent on the relative temperature dependence of the rate
of destruction of nutrients. In Table 12.4 the methods by which
blanching, pasteurization, and commercial sterilization can be opti¬
mized with respect to nutrient retention are summarized.

EFFECT OF BLANCHING METHODS ON NUTRIENTS

For the blanching process, the effect of various methods of accomplish¬

ing the objectives of blanching on nutrients can be assessed by con¬
sidering thermal, leaching, and oxidative losses. For data published
prior to 1958, Lee (1958) presented an excellent review of the blanching
 12. Heat Processing 335

Table 12.4. Optimization of Thermal Processes, for Nutrient Retention

Process Method of Optimization

Blanching Based on considerations other than thermal losses

> (e.g., leaching losses, oxidative degradation,
damage to product)
Pasteurization HTST if heat-resistant enzymes are not present
Commercial sterilization Convection-heating foods and aseptic processing:
HTST until heat-resistant enzymes become
important
Conduction-heating foods: not necessarily HTST;
difficult but not impossible calculation

process. Feaster (1960B) also considered nutrient losses in the blanch¬

ing operation. Table 12.5 is a supplement to those reviews, and illus¬
trates the effect of various methods of blanching on nutrient losses.
The two traditional methods of blanching use either hot water or
steam as the heat transfer medium. Many systems have been designed
to contact product with the heating medium for the time required to
achieve a “blanched” condition. Since a process designed with either
of these heating mediums would accomplish the desired objectives of
the blanching operation, and since there would not appear to be an ad¬
vantage for an HTST process from the standpoint of thermal degrada¬
tion of nutrients (see previous discussion on blanching optimization),
the primary difference between these two processes with respect to
nutrient retention is the extent of leaching. As expected, for water
blanching the loss of water-soluble vitamins increases with contact
time, and fat-soluble vitamins are relatively unaffected (Table 12.5)
(Guerrant et al. 1947). Factors expected to affect losses during water
blanching would be those factors affecting mass transfer: (1) surface
area, (2) concentration of solutes in the hot water, and (3) agitation of
the water.
Steam blanching results in greater retention of water-soluble nutrients
than water blanching (Table 12.5) (Raab et al. 1973; Dietrich and Neu¬
mann 1965; Holmquist et al. 1954; Korobkinaetal. 1969;Schwerdtfeger
1971). A steam-blanching method called individual quick blanch (IQB)
was designed to reduce blanching effluent (Lazar et al. 1971). Bomben
et al. (1973) (Table 12.5) indicate that there may be a slight improve¬
ment in ascorbic acid retention with IQB as compared to conventional
steam blanching. The slight improvement may be the result of the fact
that in IQB each individual particle receives nearly the same heat treat¬
ment. With conventional steam blanching, the particles on the periphery
of the bed are generally overblanched while particles in the center of
the bed are just adequately blanched.
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338 D- Lund

Microwave heating has also been applied for blanching food products.
Since it can be assumed that microwave energy has no direct enhancing
effect on degradation of food components, other than through tempera¬
ture elevation (Lopez and Baganis 1971), microwave blanching should
result in nutrient retentions at least equal to that achieved during steam
blanching and better than that achieved during water blanching. Dietrich
et al. (1970) compared microwave, steam, and water blanching and
verified that microwave blanching resulted in better ascorbic acid
retention in brussels sprouts; however, the best product was achieved
with combination processes involving microwave and water-blanching
procedures. The microwave treatment gave rapid heat input into the
product, and a holding period in hot water following microwave treat¬
ment allowed thermal equilibration in the brussels sprouts. Although
microwave blanching is inviting from a nutrient retention considera¬
tion, the cost per unit of product is generally exorbitant (Huxsoll
et al. 1970). Other efforts have been reported with respect to com¬
bination blanching processes involving microwave heating and hot gas
treatments (Jeppson 1968, 1969); however, no data are available on the
retention of nutrients.
Hot gas blanching also has been developed primarily to reduce ef¬
fluent generated during the blanching operation (Ralls et al. 1972).
Although temperatures up to 250°F are used, product temperature
would not be expected to exceed 212° F because of evaporation of sur¬
face moisture. Ralls et al. (1973) (Table 12.5) reported the content of
selected nutrients in spinach after water or hot gas blanching. The
authors concluded that there was no significant difference between the
two blanching methods. Although no studies have been reported on
the effect of hot air blanching on nutrients, one of the factors which
would contribute significantly to nutrient loss is oxidation.
Superheated steam also has been used to blanch and partially dry
vegetables (Lazar 1972). Although no data were reported on the effect
of this process on nutrients, based on the fact that an enzyme was used
to assess blanching efficacy, it is likely that4 this treatment would have
no more effect on nutrients than hot gas blanching.
In conclusion, it appears that the blanching operation can significantly
reduce the nutrient content of foods, the extent being dependent on
the blanching method and the product. Variation of nutrient losses
between blanching methods can be rationalized on the basis of losses by
leaching and oxidative degradation.

STORAGE OF BLANCHED FOODS

As previously pointed out, blanching is a thermal operation applied

to foods which will subsequently receive an additional treatment. For
 12. Heat Processing 339

those foods that are frozen or dehydrated, see the appropriate sections
in this book (Chapters 10 and 11, respectively) on the effect of subse¬
quent storage on nutrients. Those foods receiving an additional thermal
process will be covered later.

EFFECT OF PASTEURIZATION METHODS ON NUTRIENTS

Some foods which receive pasteurization treatments are listed in

Table 12.6 (Shapton et al. 1971). Examination of Table 12.6 reveals
that most of the products which are pasteurized have a low pH either
because the natural pH of the system is low or because the product has
been fermented to produce an acid environment. Since most of the
heat-labile nutrients are relatively stable in acid conditions, nutrient
losses in those products are relatively minor.
Although thermal losses during pasteurization may be small, oxida¬
tive losses can be high. Thus, pasteurization of food fluids such as
fruit juices, beer, and wine is generally accomplished in indirect heat
exchangers (such as the plate or double-tube heat exchanger) rather
than open film-type pasteurizers (Heid 1960). Often, fluids are de¬
aerated prior to pasteurization.

Table 12.6. Examples of Pasteurization Treatments Used for Food Products

Temperature
range
(°C) Product pasteurized

60-65 Milk (holding process), milk for butter manufacture, egg, ice cream
mix, smoked hams (meat temperature), carbonated beverages
65-70 Ready to eat smoked meats (meat temperature), pickled sausages
([U.S.] meat temperature), canned hams (U.S.), wine (low-
temperature pasteurization), nonalcoholic fruit drinks
70-75 Dill pickles, piccalilli, milk (flash process), carbonated fruit juices,
mortadella sausage (pork and tongue)
75-80 Apple juice (holding process), grape juice, bread and butter pickles,
cream for butter manufacture, raspberries, strawberries, bilberries,
in syrup in cans or jars
80-85 Jamaica pickle, wine (U.S.), preserved and pickled vegetables, vege¬
tables in oil, ice cream mix (flash process), dessicated coconut
(other temperatures have been suggested)
85-90 Apple juice (flash process), canned olives, citrus juices, peeled
tomatoes (pH 4.1)
90-95 Marroni sciroppati (chestnuts in syrup), tomato puree, citrus juices
(flash process), prosciutti salati inscatolati (packaged hams),
tomato juice, peeled tomatoes (pH 4.5), jam
95-100 Wine (flash process), fruit puree, fruit juices, canned fruits (internal
can temperature), canned mortadella sausage (pork and tongue)

Source: Shapton et al. (1971).

340 D. Lund

Table 12.7. Loss (%) of Nutrients in Milk during Processing

Pasteurized Sterilized

Nutrient HTST Holder UHT In bottle

Protein 0 0 Whey proteins denatured

Fat 0 0 Some loss of polyunsaturated
fatty acids
Sugar 0 0 0 Slight loss of
nutritive value
Minerals 0 0 0 0
Vitamin A
Vitamin D
Riboflavin
Vitamin B6 0 0 0 0
Pantothenic acid
Biotin
Nicotinic acid
Thiamin 10 10 10 35
Vitamin C 10 20 10 50
Folic acid 0 0 10 50
Vitamin B12 0 10 20 30

Source: Thompson (1969).

The most important nonacid food fluid is milk. The effect of

pasteurization treatments on nutrients in milk has received considerable
attention. Vitamins in milk and milk products were extensively reviewed
by Hartman and Dryden (1965) in one of the best reviews published on
the effects of processing on nutrients in milk. Zadow (1984) reviewed
the effect of new technology on the nutritional value of dairy products.
Table 12.7 summarizes the effect of pasteurization and sterilization on
nutrients in milk.
As indicated in our earlier discussion, the HTST process results in
greater nutrient retention for those nutrients affected by the pasteuriza¬
tion treatment (primarily thiamin, vitamin C, and vitamin B12). Milk
and milk products can be considered as primary sources for these nu¬
trients, especially for the younger age groups (Hartman and Dryden
1965), and, therefore, these losses are very important nutritionally.
However, this is a perfect example of the need to provide a heat treat¬
ment even though there are adverse nutritional consequences. The
data in Table 12.7 indicate that ultra-high-temperature (UHT) process¬
ing results in significantly greater retention of the heat-labile nutrients
when compared to in-bottle sterilization. In UHT processing, tempera¬
tures up to 300°F are used for very short periods (on the order of
seconds).
 12. Heat Processing 341

STORAGE OF PASTEURIZED FOODS

Little information has been published on the storage stability of nu¬

trients in high acid, pasteurized products. However, those nutrients
that are more sensitive to high temperature are generally the same ones
that are of concern during storage. It would be reasonable that the
lower the storage temperature, the slower the rate of nutrient degrada¬
tion. Usually in these kinds of products, proper packaging is paramount
for extending the storage life, since oxidative losses and light-catalyzed
(both visible and ultraviolet) losses can be the major mechanism of loss.
In contrast to other pasteurized products, storage of pasteurized milk
has received extensive consideration (Hartman and Dryden 1965). Low
storage temperature and the relatively short storage time minimize the
loss of nutrients in milk. However, some nutrient destruction does
occur and is catalyzed primarily by visible and ultraviolet light. There¬
fore, packaging considerations are of primary importance (Karel 1960;
Singh et al. 1975). Packaging as a means of maintaining nutrients in
foods is covered in another section of this book.

EFFECT OF COMMERCIAL STERILIZATION

METHODS ON NUTRIENTS

The various methods available for commercial sterilization of food

have been reviewed by Brody (1971). Since the destruction of nutrients
during the thermal process is dependent on (1) time-temperature treat¬
ment used as the basis of the process and (2) rate of heat transfer into
the product, commercial developments have focused primarily on in¬
creasing the rate of heat transfer. into the product (Gutterson 1972).
Hence, agitated retorts such as the orbitort, steritort, flame sterilizer,
and hydrostatic cooker have been developed.
In addition to increasing the rate of heat transfer, however, there also
has been a gradual shift to higher processing temperatures. As pointed
out in the discussion on optimizing nutrient retention in commercial
sterilization, a HTST process results in greater nutrient retention in
those products heating primarily by convection. Ammerman (1957)
presented an excellent study on the effects of heat treatments of equal
microbial lethality on selected food constituents including nutrients,
color, proteins, and flavor compounds. Figure 12.2 from Ammerman
(1957) illustrates that retention of vitamin C in tomato juice is improved
when processing is conducted at a HTST condition. For natural products
containing enzymes the limitation of the benefits of HTST process¬
ing, as pointed out earlier, occurs when the basis of the process shifts
from microbes to enzymes (about 270 -290 F).
342 D. Lund

NoHeat 250 240 230 220

PROCESSING TEMPERATURE (°F)

Fig. 12.2. The effect of equivalent lethal heat treatments at the indicated tempera¬
ture on the retention of vitamin C in tomato juice.

The use of HTST processes is particularly adaptable to aseptic process¬

ing. In this system, processing temperatures in excess of 300°F are
used for very short periods (order of seconds). Under these conditions
nutrient retention may be greatly enhanced. In an evaluation of HTST
aseptic processing, Everson et al. (1964A,B) found that thiamin reten¬
tion was significantly greater in HTST products than in conventionally
canned and retorted products (Table 12.8). For pyridoxine, the bene¬
fit of HTST was not as evident, probably indicating that thermal
destruction of pyridoxine is not as temperature dependent as that of
thiamin. HTST aseptic canning also results in a significant improve¬
ment in organoleptic qualities (Anonymous 1970). Currently, there is
activity in developing aseptic processing eqtiipment for handling food
particulates.
As pointed out earlier, most of the reports on the effect of thermal
processing on nutrients only contain information on the content of a
specific nutrient after the thermal process and give the percentage re¬
tention or loss of the nutrient. In light of the fact that there are
numerous processing methods and time-temperature possibilities for
accomplishing commercial sterilization, it is not appropriate to assume
that the nutrient losses reported in the literature represent the average
or norm for the industry. For this reason, data of this type are of
limited value. However, these reports can be used, as Schroeder (1971)
used them, to point out a critical lack of particular nutrients in our
processed food supply.
 12. Heat Processing 343

Table 12.8. Effect of Aseptic and Conventional Thermal Processing Methods on

Nutrient Losses

Thiamin loss (%) Pyridoxine loss (%)

Product HTST Conventional HTST Conventional

Strained lima beans 15.8 40.3 9.5 10.1

Strained beef 9.2 21.6 4.1 2.9
Tomato juice concentrate 0 2.8 0 0

Source: Everson et al. (1964A,B).

USDA Agriculture Handbook 8 (Watt and Merrill 1963), Orr (1969),

and Mitchell et al. (1968) report nutrient content of processed foods.
Some of the data that they assembled were used to calculate percentage
loss of nutrients in selected vegetables during canning and are presented
in Table 12.9. Nutrient losses range from 0 to 91%, depending on the
nutrient and product. These losses represent the sum of the losses dur¬
ing the entire canning prbcess and, as pointed out in Table 12.5, blanch¬
ing losses can be quite large. However, the important observation is
that nutrient losses appear to be quite significant in the canning process.

STORAGE OF COMMERCIALLY STERILE FOODS

A common misconception among consumers and many foods indus¬

try personnel is that commercially sterile products remain unchanged
during storage. This is not the case. Organoleptic and nutrient changes
do occur during storage, the extent of the changes being dependent on
the time and temperature of storage, the packaging system, and the
product characteristics. Several extensive studies have been conducted
on the storage stability of nutrients in canned foods (Cameron et al.
1949; Goresline et al. 1955; Cecil and Woodroof 1962; Ball et al. 1963).
Cameron et al. (1955) reviewed thermal processing and storage of
foods and compiled Table 12.10 from existing literature. It can be seen
that low temperature storage results in an improvement in nutrient
retention. The 50° and 65°F storage temperatures would require re¬
frigerated warehousing and would be economically feasible only if the
consumer is willing to pay for the increased cost.
With the increased consumer awareness of nutrition, and with the
advent of nutritional labeling requirements, it may become economically
and legally advantageous to select storage temperatures that will result
in a stated shelf life with a specified level of nutrient.
Kramer (1974) adapted data from Feaster (1960A) and Cecil and
Woodroof (1962) to predict the maximum storage temperatures that
could be used for a variety of canned foods to assure that no more than
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 12. Heat Processing 345

Table 12.10. Retention (%) of Vitamins in Canned Foods during Storage

Storage
conditions
Ascorbic
Product °F Months acid Carotene Niacin Riboflavin Thiamin

Apricots 50 12 96 94 — — —
65 12 93 85 — — —
80 12 85 83 — — —
50 24 94 91 — — —
65 24 90 84 — — —
80 24 56 76 — — —
Asparagus, 50 12 97 97 89 92 89
green 65 12 94 88 85 87 79
80 12 89 85 84 83 66
50 24 93 88 93 81 85
65 24 91 84 91 77 72
80 24 86 76 87 72 54
Asparagus, 50 12 96 — 96 — 82
white 65 12 94 — 94 — 74
80 12, 87 — 97 — 62
50 24 90 — 96 — 72
65 24 87 — 98 — 65
80 24 82 — 97 — 52
Beans, green 50 12 92 — 83 72 92
65 12 90 — 81 69 86
80 12 85 — 80 62 78
50 24 88 — 86 62 82
' 65 24 81 — 86 57 80
80 24 74 — 86 42 67
Beans, lima 50 12 100 — 101 95 88
65 12 98 — 100 91 82
80 12 95 — 99 88 74
50 24 86 — 99 75 87
65 24 83 — 97 75 76
80 24 78 — 100 70 66
Carrots 50 12 — 94 — — —
65 12 — 97 — — —
80 12 — 93 — — —
50 24 — 90 — — —
65 24 — 95 — — —
80 24 — 91 — — —
Corn, white 50 12 98 — 82 — 97
65 12 92 — 85 — 85
80 12 86 — 88 — 78
50 24 90 — 84 — 94
65 24 88 — 86 — 89
80 24 78 — 88 — 71
Corn, yellow 50 12 98 85 89 84 90
65 12 94 87 89 80 86
80 12 89 84 91 78 74
50 24 92 69 91 71 89
65 24 89 72 90 68 76
80 24 81 87 96 61 60

(Continued)
346 D. Lund

Table 12.10. (Continued)

Storage
conditions
- Ascorbic
Product °F Months acid v Carotene Niacin Riboflavin Thiamin

Grapefruit 50 12 95 — — — 99
juice 65 12 91 — — — 100
80 12 75 — — — 93
50 24 94 — — — 99
65 24 82 — — — 94
80 24 57 — — — 84
Grapefruit 50 12 94 — — — —
segments 65 12 91 — — — —
80 12 73 — — — —
50 24 87 — — — —
65 24 77 — — — —
80 24 46 — — — —
Orange juice 50 12 97 — — — 100
65 12 92 — — — 98
80 12 77 — — — 89
50 24 95 — — — 101
65 24 80 — — — 94
80 24 50 — — — 83
Peaches 50 12 98 95 101 — 92
65 12 85 90 102 — 90
80 12 72 86 101 — 81
50 24 98 75 100 — 88
65 24 80 64 98 — 100
80 24 53 63 99 — 86
Peas, Alaska 50 12 91 97 82 91 91
65 12 89 95 77 84 86
80 12 84 91 82 82 75
50 24 90 95 99 80 89
65 24 88 93 87 73 85
80 24 81 ^9 85 68 68
Peas, sweet 50 12 94 98 95 93 93
65 12 92 92 87 89 88
80 12 88 91 4 90 84 73
50 24 92 94 96 88 91
65 24 89 90 95 84 85
80 24 81 90 95 81 72
Pineapple 50 12 110 — — — 93
juice 65 12 108 — — — 93
80 12 93 — — — 87
50 24 108 — — — 100
65 24 100 — — — 100
80 24 79 — — — 93
Pineapple, 50 12 100 — — — 97
sliced 65 12 95 — — — 96
80 12 74 — — — 89
50 24 83 — — — 102
65 24 78 — — — 103
80 24 53 — — — 89
 12. Heat Processing 347

Table 12.10. (Continued)

Storage
conditions
Ascorbic
Product °F Months y acid Carotene Niacin Riboflavin Thiamin

Plums, purple 50 12 —
102 95 84 _
(prunes) 65 12 — 100 93 82 —

80 12 — 97 103 78 —

50 24 — 90 86 84 —

65 24 — 98 91 82 —

80 24 — 86 95 76 —

Spinach 50 12 93 91 100 92 96
65 12 91 90 103 89 89
80 12 86 84 99 85 76
50 24 90 80 96 82 90
65 24 88 80 100 80 82
80 24 81 81 101 69 71
Tomatoes 50 12 95 94 91 94 94
65 12 94 98 93 95 93
80 12* 82 95 93 91 82
50 24 89 75 88 96 91
65 24 87 75 88 98 87
80 24 70 74 85 97 70
Tomato juice 50 12 100 98 99 88 95
65 12 97 100 99 84 93
80 12 86 99 99 83 85
50 24 102 94 92 92 103
65 24 92 97 91 94 94
80 24 74 98 90 94 77

Source: Cameron et al. (1955).

10% of a specified nutrient was, lost during a stated storage period

(Table 12.11). It can be seen that the maximum storage temperature is
dependent upon the nutrient under consideration, since each nutrient
has a characteristic activation energy. It is also evident that most of
the temperatures are below ambient temperature and, therefore, the
products would require refrigerated storage.
In conclusion, it is evident that there is a significant loss of nutrients
during canning and that these losses increase during storage. Altering
processing and storage conditions to maximize nutrient retention is an
important and necessary direction for the food processing industry.

SUMMARY

The fact that application of thermal energy to foods reduces the

nutritive value of some components cannot be contested. However,
 Maximum Storage Temperatures (°F) for Canned Foods to Assure Not More Than 10% Loss of a Selected Vitamin 1 m lo (N 00 1 1 in. "3
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 12. Heat Processing 349

it is necessary to evaluate that consequence in view of the fact that

application of thermal processes results in decreased food wastage
through spoilage and decreased food-borne diseases. It is the respon¬
sibility of the preserved food industry to produce the most nutritious
food supply possible. » ‘

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 13
Effects of
Baking on Nutrients
Gur S. Ranhotra
M. Ann Bock

Various heat-utilizing techniques are employed in the commercial

processing of foods. Of these, baking is the major one. Destruction of
one or more nutrients often occurs during the baking process. This ad¬
verse effect on nutrients is more intense in the crust portions since the
interior (crumb) of most baked foods rarely approaches the oven
temperature. Temperature aside, other factors that influence nutrient
stability include time, pH, moisture (water activity), light, oxygen,
metals, oxidants, enzymes, and possibly certain additives.
Nutrient losses, or the possible formation of antinutritional sub¬
stances, are not the only consequence of baking. Baking may also im¬
prove the nutritional profile of food products, although this aspect of
baking is often not considered. Improvement results from inactivation/
destruction of undesirable microorganisms, certain antinutrients, for
example, amylase and protease inhibitors, and breakup of complexes
that otherwise render some nutrients poorly absorbable. In some cases,
content of some of the nutrients, B vitamins in particular, may actually
increase, for example, during fermentation because of synthesis by
yeast cells. These various effects on nutrients are briefly discussed here
under group headings of (1) protein and amino acids, (2) vitamins,
(3) minerals, and (4) fats and carbohydrates.

PROTEIN AND AMINO ACIDS

While the heat of baking denatures protein and this enhances protein
digestibility, in the presence of reducing sugars, for example, maltose,
fructose, and lactose, the quality of protein may be adversely affected
by nonenzymatic (chemical type) browning—the Maillard reaction.
Maillard reaction primarily affects the basic amino acids of which lysine
is particularly significant.
Maillard reactions are complex and, as yet, incompletely understood.
The initial step involves a reaction between the carbonyl group of the

355
356 G. S. Ranhotra and M. A. Bock

reducing sugar and the free amino group of an amino acid. The Amadori
rearrangement converts this reaction product to deoxyketosyl compound,
and the browning reaction then proceeds along complex pathways
(Dworschak and Carpenter 1980). These reactions are responsible, in
part, for the odors and flavors of freshly baked products.
A variety of factors influence the Maillard reaction, such as the
amount and type (pentoses react more intensely than hexoses) of re¬
ducing sugar present, the time and temperature of baking, and the mois¬
ture and pH of the foodstuffs. Milk solids or milk replacers (whey-soy
blends) added to bread intensify the Maillard reaction (from the high
concentration of lactose), as does the excessive addition of sweeteners.
A rise in pH enhances the Maillard reaction, whereas reduction of pH,
as results from increased dough fermentation, lessens this reaction.
Maillard reaction products appear to have no nutritional value for
the mammalian system (Anonymous 1978). In fact, they may be of
toxicological concern, although a few studies have also shown them to
possess hypocholesterolemic properties (O’Brien and Reiser 1982).
Lysine, the most limiting amino acid in grain products, is not the
only amino acid destroyed during the Maillard reaction; almost all
amino acids are adversely affected. In one study (Ranhotra et al. 1971)
where breads were made with flour increasingly replaced with wheat
protein concentrate (a product prepared by the grinding and sifting of
wheat bran and shorts), significant losses in the contents of all essen¬
tial amino acids except tryptophan occurred (Table 13.1); lysine loss,
in particular, increased as the level of replacement, and hence the lysine
content, increased.
Assays (chemical/biological/microbiological) readily detect amino
acid losses during Maillard reaction, but they are time-consuming
methods, especially the bioassays. Jokinen and Reineccius (1976)
proposed mathematical models to predict lysine losses during thermal
processing of soy protein. However, practical significance of this ap¬
proach remains to be tested.
While lysine losses invariably occur during breadmaking, bread
products (and other baked foods) may yet show improved protein
quality if ingredients are included that increase the lysine content of
the bread mix substantially. This is often observed in products made
with whole grain flours as compared to those made with refined flours.
Results in Table 13.2 exemplify this; in these studies, Iranian flat
breads were prepared with wheat flour of increasing extraction and thus
increasing lysine content (Faridi et al. 1982).

VITAMINS
In addition to amino acids, the effect of baking on vitamins has also
been widely investigated. Vitamins are quite heat-labile nutrients, with
thiamin and vitamin C being the most susceptible to baking losses.
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358 G. S. Ranhotra and M. A. Bock

Table 13.2. Protein Efficiency Ratio (PER) of Iranian Flat Breads

Extraction rate of
flour used Lysine in bread PER
Product name (%) (g/100 g protein) valuea

Barbari 78 2.0 1.13 ± 0.19

Lavash 82 2.2 1.14 ± 0.09
Taftoon 84 2.2 1.29 ± 0.12
Sangak 87 2.6 1.29 ± 0.09
Village 97 2.7 1.39 ± 0.14

Source: Faridi et al. (1982).

a Corrected to PER value for casein diet of 2.50 ± 0.09.

Table 13.3. Vitamin Losses (%) in Fortified

Graham Crackers

Loss

Vitamin Average Maximum

A 18.0 24.8
E 27.2 50.2
C 59.8 61.6
Thiamin 20.3 25.8
Bj2 10.3 23.6
Folic Acid 7.2 15.3

Source: Bednarcyk (1978).

Vitamin C is often added to bread systems for functional reasons.

However, this addition confers no nutritional value on the product
since the vitamin rarely survives the balking temperatures. Losses are
quite substantial even when the exposure to baking temperatures is
only brief, as in the making of graham crackers (Table 13.3). Pro¬
longed warming of foods at low temperatures seems to be equally
detrimental. Hallberg et al. (1982) reported vitamin C losses of 76%
and 87% in two hamburger-based meals which were warmed for 4 hours
at 75°C (Table 13.4).
Thiamin is relatively stable at acidic pH. During the fermentation
process in breadmaking, the environment is mildly acidic (pH 4.5 to
5.5) and, thus, thiamin losses are rather small. Thiamin losses during
the baking of bread normally do not exceed 25%. Maleki and Daghir
(1967) examined the loss of thiamin (also riboflavin and niacin) in en¬
riched white Arabic bread (pita-type bread) and reported thiamin losses
in the range of 7-24% (Table 13.5).
When pH of the baked product rises above 6, nearly all of the thiamin
is destroyed. Such conditions exist in a variety of chemically leavened
 13. Baking 359

Table 13.4. Effect of Prolonged Warm¬

ing of Meals on Vitamin C Content

Content Loss
Meal* (mg) (%)

A 112 ± 4 76
B 48 ± 3 87

Source: Hallberg et al. (1982).

0 Meals contained hamburger, potatoes,
and onion sauce; meal A also contained
brussels sprouts. Warming was done at
75°C for 4 hr.

Table 13.5. Effect of Baking on Losses of Niacin, Riboflavin, and

Thiamin in Enriched White Arabic Bread

Level of enrichment Vitamin content Loss

Vitamin (mg/100 g flour) (mg/100 g) (%)

Niacin * 0.00 3.07 2

1.00 4.19 0
4.00 7.03 1
6.00 8.56 0
Riboflavin 0.00 0.05 19
0.10 0.14 15
0.30 0.29 13
0.60 0.65 9
Thiamin 0.00 0.16 24
0.20 0.41 18
0.50 0.88 8
1.00 1.34 7

Source: Maleki and Daghir (1967).

baked goods, including cookies and crackers. In a recent study on high-

protein cookies (Ranhotra et al. 1980), calculations based on ingredient
contributions revealed thiamin losses in these products to exceed 90%.
In contrast, losses of riboflavin and niacin were only modest. Products
baked at lower temperatures may show lower thiamin losses. For
example, Bednarcyk (1978) reported average thiamin loss of no more
than 20.3% in graham crackers made with fortified flour (Table 13.3).
It must be emphasized that thiamin loss, as well as the loss of any other
vitamin, in baked products differs from product to product and no
universal loss factor can be used. However, some vitamins, such as
vitamin C, thiamin, pantothenic acid, and folic acid, are, no doubt, less
stable than others.
Keagy and Stokstad (1973) studied folic acid losses during bread¬
making and reported nearly doubling of the content during fermentation.
360 G. S. Ranhotra and M. A. Bock

but about half this amount was destroyed during breadmaking. In

graham crackers, Bednarcyk (1978) reported an average folic acid loss
of 7.2% (Table 13.3).
In baked products, as studies with cookies revealed (Ranhotra et al.
1980), riboflavin and niacin appear to be relatively stable, with niacin
being more so than riboflavin (Table 13.5). A good portion of the
niacin in grain products, especially those made with less refined flours,
is present as bound niacin. This form of niacin is mostly unavailable to
man and animals. Carter and Carpenter (1982) demonstrated that
steam cooking does not free isolated bound niacin. The effect of bak¬
ing on bound niacin may be somewhat different, however, since it has
been shown by Hepburn (1971) that the proportion of the free niacin
(available niacin) was higher in bread, cakes, and crackers than in the
flours from which they were made. Alkali treatment of bound niacin,
as occurs in the processing of tortillas, improves niacin absorption prob¬
ably through hydrolysis of bound niacin at the baking stage of tortilla
production.
In the United States, most of the white pan bread and a number of
variety breads are made with enriched flour (thiamin, riboflavin, niacin,
iron, and possibly calcium added). No significant losses of these vita¬
mins occur in bread products. In addition, baking probably exerts
minimal adverse effect on fat-soluble vitamins, although at extreme
conditions of baking, fat breakdown products are known to cause oxi¬
dation of tocopherols. Bednarcyk (1978) reported some loss of vitamin
A in graham crackers (Table 13.3), but in general, information on fat-
soluble vitamins in baked products is quite limited.

MINERALS

Unless some discarding of the baking medium occurs, which is an

unlikely situation with most baked products, baking is not likely to
affect the content of minerals in foods. On the other hand, heat treat¬
ment may profoundly affect the absorption/utilization of certain
minerals, primarily through cleavage of complexes, which otherwise
render these minerals less absorbable even in the face of physiological
needs. Phytate, fiber, proteins, and certain minerals are particularly
suspect as components of these complexes.
Phytate can undergo hydrolysis during the breadmaking process
(Ranhotra et al. 1974). This most likely improves the absorption of
both the phosphorus as resultant inorganic phosphorus (Table 13.6)
and the mineral(s) phytate is suspected to complex. This was observed
in a study on zinc present in soy-fortified breads (Ranhotra et al. 1978).
Increasing yeast and fermentation periods appears to increase (Harland
and Harland 1980) phytate hydrolysis during breadmaking (Table 13.7);
 13. Baking 361

Table 13.6. Phytate Hydrolysis during Breadmaking0

Phytate Inorganic phosphorus

Protein In bread mix Hydrolyzed In bread mix Increase

supplement (mg/loaft) (%) (mg/loaf) (mg/loaf)

Soy protein isolate 318 80 44 195

Soy concentrate 337 89 45 251
Full-fat soy flour 261 84 54 157
High-fat soy flour 290 78 46 172
Defatted soy flour 320 84 45 220

Source: Ranhotra et al. (1974).

0 Breads were made using a mix of 90% wheat flour and 10% soy protein supplement.

Table 13.7. Effect of Yeast on Phytate Hydrolysis during Breadmaking0

Yeast added
Rising time
Bread type (hr) None One package Two packages

Rye 0 0.78 0.80 0.43

2 0.77 0.41 0.28
4 0.76 0.34 0.23
8 0.76 0.37 0.21
White 0 0.03 0.04 0.03
2 0.03 0.03 0.02
4 0.03 0.02 0.02
8 0.03 0.01 0.02
Whole wheat 0 0.64 0.64 0.60
2 0.59 0.56 0.57
4 0.59 0.48 0.47
8 0.59 0.42 0.43

Source: Harland and Harland (1980).

a Amount of phytate in bread (%).

greater reduction in rye breads is postulated to be a function of more

phytase in rye flour. Phytate hydrolysis may also be closely related to
the pH of the medium (influenced, or not, by yeast activity), becoming
intense as it approaches the pH optimum of phytase activity.
Where chemical leavening instead of yeast leavening is used in baked
products, phytate hydrolysis may not be significant. Under this condi¬
tion, phytate is likely to continue to adversely affect mineral absorp¬
tion. Using rat as the test model, this was found to be the case (Table
13.8) for zinc in soy-fortified cookies (Ranhotra et al. 1979).
During the baking process, some fiber components, for example, hemi-
celluloses, may undergo transformation. In fact, some fiber components
may be formed, for example, Maillard reaction products. How these
transformations may affect mineral absorption is not known. Also,
362 G. S. Ranhotra and M. A. Bock
V*
Table 13.8. Bioavailability of Zinc in Protein-fortified Cookies

Added protein source

Egg Eg^ Soy Soy Soy

albumin albumin flour concentrate isolate

Phytate0 (mg) 0 1107 1107 1107 1107

Phytate
hydrolyzed (%) — 20 7 10 18
Zinc intake (jug) 3197 ±162 2995 ±296 3188 ±182 3204 ±258 3132 ±296
Femur zinc (jug) 46 ±3 34 ± 3 34 ±3 33 ± 3 32 ± 4
Zinc absorbed (%) 89 85 83 83 81
Relative BV of zinc in
bread^ 100 76 77 77 73

Source: Ranhotra et al. (1979).

a Total amount in the formula contributed by wheat flour (100 g), soy protein
source used, and added sodium phytate.
b Relative (diet in first column = 100%) biological value (BV) of zinc in cookies,
as based on femur zinc content.

little is known of the effect of baking on protein-mineral and mineral-

mineral complexes and how these might affect mineral absorption.
Some minerals, such as iron, may undergo oxidation (or reduction)
during the baking process, and this might affect their absorbability or
biological value (BV). However, in a study done by Ranhotra et al.
(1973) where two iron compounds of widely different BVs were used
to make soda crackers, differences in BV persisted (Table 13.9), as
measured using the hemoglobin depletion-repletion technique in rats.
Also, iron in crackers made without soda or with soda or iron added to
the ground baked product showed the same BV.

Table 13.9. Biological Value (BV) of Iron in Soda Crackers

Iron source

Ferrous sulfate .* Reduced iron

Crackers

Soda
- Iron
Added added
Not after after
Bread Crackers Bread Crackers added baking baking

Hemoglobin gain 206 214 99 94 90 96 86

(mg/mg iron ± 26 ± 28 ± 26 ± 15 ± 18 ± 9 ± 24
consumed)
Relative BV of
iron0 100 104 48 46 44 47 42

Source: Ranhotra et al. (1973).

a Relative (diet in first column = 100%) BV of iron in baked products.
 13. Baking 363

FATS AND CARBOHYDRATES

The effect of baking on fats and carbohydrates is generally related to

their hydrolysis. For example, baking that gelatinizes starch increases
its digestibility. Participation>of simple and hydrolyzed complex carbo¬
hydrates in the Maillard reaction, on the other hand, adversely affects
the available carbohydrate content of baked products. At extremes of
baking conditions, linoleic acid and possibly other fatty acids may be
converted (due to lipoxygenase activity) to unstable hydroperoxides
which may affect both the lipid and vitamin (oxidation of fat-soluble
vitamins) nutriture of the product.

CONCLUSIONS

Baking, while it may cause destruction of some nutrients, especially

the basic amino acids and water-soluble vitamins, may also improve the
absorption/utilization of other nutrients through inactivation/destruction
of antinutrients and undesirable microorganisms and complexes.

REFERENCES

Anonymous 1978. Nutritional implications of the Maillard reaction. Nutr. Rev.

36, 28-30.
Bednarcyk, N. E. 1978. Nutritional value of biscuits and crackers. 53rd Ann.
Tech. Conf. Biscuit and Crackers Manuf. Assoc., San Francisco. Feb. 5-9.
Carter, E. G. A., and Carpenter, K. J. 1982. The bioavailability for humans of
bound niacin from wheat bran. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 36, 855—861.
Dworschak, E., and Carpenter, K. J. 1980. Nonenzyme browning and its effect
on protein nutrition. CRC Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 15, 1—33.
Faridi, H. A., Ranhotra, G. S., Finney, P. L., and Rubenthaler, G. L. 1982. Protein
quality characteristics of Iranian flat breads. J. Food Sci. 47, 676-679.
Hallberg, L., Rossander, L., Persson, H., and Svahn, E. 1982. Deleterious effects of
prolonged warming of meals on ascorbic acid content and iron absorption. Am.
J. Clin. Nutr. 36, 846-850.
Harland, B. F., and Harland, J. 1980. Fermentative reduction of phytate in rye,
white and wholewheat breads. Cereal Chem. 57, 226-229.
Hepburn, F. N. 1971. Nutrient composition of selected wheats and wheat products.
VII. Total and free niacin. Cereal Chem. 48, 369-372.
Jokinen, J. E., and Reineccius, G. A. 1976. Losses in available lysine during ther¬
mal processing of soy protein model systems. J. Food Sci. 41, 816-819.
Keagy, P. M., and Stokstad, E. L. R. 1973. Folacin stability during flour storage
and bread processing. 58th Ann. Meeting, AACC, St. Louis, Nov. 4-8.
Maleki, M. and Daghir, S. 1967. Effect of baking on retention of thiamine, ribo¬
flavin, and niacin in Arabic bread. Cereal Chem. 44, 483-487.
O’Brien, B. C. and Reiser, R. 1982. Cholesterolemic responses of rats to human-
type diet ingredients. J. Nutr. 112, 1490-1497.
364 G. S. Ranhotra and M. A. Bock

Ranhotra, G. S., Hepburn, F. N., and Bradley, W. B. 1971. Supplemental effect of

wheat protein concentrate on the protein quality of white wheat flour. Cereal
Chem. 48, 699-706.
Ranhotra, G. S., Loewe, R. J., and Puyat, L. V. 1973. Availability of iron in en¬
riched soda crackers. Cereal Chem. 50, 745-749.
Ranhotra, G. S., Loewe, R. J., and Puyat, L. V. 1974. Phytic acid in soy and its
hydrolysis during breadmaking. J. Food Sci. 39, 1023-1025.
Ranhotra, G. S., Lee, C., and Gelroth, J. A. 1978. Bioavailability of zinc in soy-
fortified wheat breads. Nutr. Rep. Int. 18, 487-494.
Ranhotra, G. S., Lee, C., and Gelroth, J. A. 1979. Bioavailability of zinc in cookies
fortified with soy and zinc. Cereal Chem. 56, 552-554.
Ranhotra, G. S., Lee, C., and Gelroth, J. A. 1980. Nutritional characteristics of
high-protein cookies. J. Agric. Food Chem. 28, 507-509.
 14
Effects of
Extrusion Processing
on Nutrients
Judson M. Harper

INTRODUCTION

The use of food extrusion as a commercial technology dates back to

the mid-1980s. Since that time, the range of extrusion equipment has
expanded considerably along with the types of products manufactured.
Today, extrusion-processed foods consist of a variety of snack foods,
ready-to-eat (RTE) breakfast cereals, textured vegetable proteins used
as meat analogs or extenders, infant food formulations, beverage and
soup bases, and precooked starches. Details of the development of ex¬
truded food products have been given by Harper (1981A,B). To manu¬
facture this array of products, extruders must process a wide range of
food ingredients. The most common ingredients are cereal flours or
grits, used as a source of carbohydrate and the base of most products,
defatted oilseed meals, which are high in protein and, to a much lesser
degree, lipids, starches, and mono- and disaccharides.

EXTRUSION PROCESSING

Complete descriptions of the extrusion process have been given by

Harper (1979) and Linko et al. (1981). In brief, an extruder consists
of a shallow flighted screw which turns within a tightly fitting stationary
barrel as shown in Fig. 14.1. The feed ingredients enter the initial
flights of the screw through a feed hopper. Here, they are conveyed
forward by the action of the flights into the constricted channels between
the flights, which become completely filled with the food material
being processed. In the process, the food is worked and heated by a
combination of heat sources, including fluid friction dissipating the
mechanical energy required to turn the screw, direct steam injection
through the barrel wall into the product, and heat transfer from steam
or water in jackets surrounding the extruder barrel. The temperature

365
366 J. M. Harper

DRIVE,GEAR FEED

INCREASING
ROOT DIAMETER

Fig. 14.1. Cross section showing principal parts of a food extruder. Source: Harper
(1978).

of the product can rise far above normal boiling temperature in the
later turns of the screw, but flashing of moisture does not occur because
of the elevated pressure which exists there.
During the passage of the food ingredients down the length of the
extrusion screw, they are transformed from a raw granular state into a
continuous mass having viscous properties, called a dough. This trans¬
formation, described as cooking, involves the disruption and melting
of starch granules, the denaturation and reorientation of protein mole¬
cules, and a number of other reactions which can change the nutri¬
tional, textural, and organoleptic properties of the finished product.
These transformations occur at relatively low water contents in the
range of 15-35% on a wet basis.
At the discharge of the extruder, the high-temperature pressurized
cooked dough mass is forced through a small restrictive opening called a
die. The die maintains the elevated pressure within the extruder and
shapes the manufactured product as it emerges from the machine.
Pieces of varying length are cut with a rotating knife at the face of the die.
Puffing of pieces emerging from the die, to form a rigid open cellular
structure, often occurs because of the expansion of the superheated
moisture within the extruded product once the pressure is released.
Immediate cooling occurs upon puffing, since the heat necessary to
convert about 5% of the product’s water into steam comes from the
sensible heat content of the product. The cooling process occurs nearly
instantaneously at the die face, bringing the product temperature to
approximately 100°C.
In addition to the single-screw extruder shown, there are now twin-
screw extruders which are becoming increasingly popular. The two
 14. Extrusion Processing 367

types of machines look quite similar but the twin-screw extruder has
intermeshing screws which lie side by side. Their normal corotating
action conveys and works the product in a manner that can increase
the uniformity and controllability of the finished product, as compared
to the single-screw extruder. *

PROCESSING CONDITIONS

The processing environment controlled within the extruder can vary

widely, depending upon the type of product being produced. For ex¬
ample, many expanded crisp snacks are extruded at low moisture con¬
ditions (i.e., less than 18%) and high temperatures (140°-190°C), with
high elevated discharge pressures (60-80 bar). The total residence time
for the cereal grit ingredients varies between 15 and 60 sec. Smith
(1976) termed this type of process HTST (high temperature-short
time). Much of the heat energy necessary to raise the product tempera¬
ture in this short time cbmes from the conversion of the mechanical
shaft energy, used to turn the screw, into heat, through fluid friction
arising within the high shear environment that exists within the flow
channels of the screw.
The severe thermal and mechanical shear environment within the ex¬
truder can cause both beneficial and detrimental effects on the nutri¬
tional value of the extruded food (Bjorck and Asp 1983). The short
exposure of the food ingredients to temperatures above 150°C in the
absence of oxygen at relatively low moistures prevents extensive de¬
struction of vitamins while promoting desirable cooking reactions, such
as the disorganization of starch granules and denaturation of protein,
thus aiding in their digestibility. The inactivation of enzymes and anti-
nutritional agents, such as trypsin inhibitors in soy, can be achieved
with the short residence times at the high temperatures within the ex¬
truder because of the kinetics of these reactions.
At the other extreme of the extrusion processing spectrum is the
forming extruder, which is used for shaping macaroni or making pellets
as part of an RTE process. These extruders can take a moistened cereal
flour and work and force it through a die to give the precise macaroni
shape. Forming extruders are also used to form cooled precooked cereal
doughs into precise shapes under conditions where high-temperature
puffing is not desired. In forming extruders, temperatures are kept
below 60°C and residence times may exceed 120 sec. With these types
of processing conditions, relatively little change in the food’s nutri¬
tional quality occurs.
This description of extrusion shows it to be a process that can be ap¬
plied over a wide range of conditions. Unfortunately, this essential
point has not been grasped by all researchers in the field, so that much
368 J. M. Harper

of the literature on the effects of extrusion on product characteristics

or the nutritional value of foods does not contain sufficient informa¬
tion about the exact extrusion conditions used to make specific com¬
parisons between the various pieces of work possible. Instead, the re¬
sulting body of literature allows only relatively vague generalization and
in some cases contains unexplainable differences in findings.
Given the above background on the extrusion process, the remainder
of the chapter focuses on its impact on the nutritional quality of ex¬
truded foods. Since the extruder is capable of accomplishing HTST
processing of low-moisture food systems under conditions of flow-
induced shear, a number of unique observations have been made by
researchers in the field.

STARCH DIGESTIBILITY

HTST extrusion processes are known to alter the organized physical

structure of raw starch granules, making them less crystalline, more
water soluble, and susceptible to hydrolysis by saccharifing enzymes.
This process has been termed cooking or gelatinization. Because of low
moisture conditions found in the extruder, traditional gelatinization in¬
volving swelling and hydration of the starch granule and the loss of
birefringence in polarized light does not occur. Rather, the combina¬
tion of high-temperature hydration in a shear environment within the
extruder leads to the disruption and melting of the starch granule and,
to some extent, the breaking of the starch biopolymeric chain. These
extrusion-induced transformations also lead to a loss in birefringence.
The extent of physical changes in starch have been related to changes
in the viscosity of hydrated samples, iodine binding, X-ray defraction
and water solubility. New techniques to measure the extent to which
the extrusion process affects the starchy components of cereals have
been proposed. For example, Paton and Spratt (1981) used the area
between the heating and cooling curves produced on the Ottawa Starch
Viscometer as a measure of degree of cook. Chiang and Johnson
(1977A) and Shetty et al. (1974) related the susceptibility of extruded
starch to glucoamylose as a measure of starch gelatinized by extrusion.
However, the specific correlation between the values measured by these
tests and starch digestibility has not been made.
The effects of extrusion on cereals and pure starches containing
varying amounts of amylose and amylopectin were studied by Mercier
and Feillet (1975). Data on corn starch extruded on a Creusot-Loire
BC45 twin-screw extruder at 22% initial moisture are shown in Fig. 14.2.
As extrusion temperature increased, the puffing or expansion also in¬
creased to a maximum at about 170°C discharge temperature. Water-
soluble carbohydrate, which is a high-molecular-weight polysaccharide
 14. Extrusion Processing 369

Fig. 14.2. Effect of temperature on corn starch extruded at 22% moisture. Source:
Mercier and Feillet (1975).

similar to swollen starch, rather than an oligosaccharide such as mal-

todextrin, also increased with increasing temperature. The initial rate
of a-amylolysis (V;) increased along with the fraction (F) of starch
easily degradable by amylases as extrusion temperature increased.
These latter factors also showed increases with highly expanded samples
indicating the importance of product form on digestibility.
The effects of moisture content, temperature, screw speed, and die
size on the gelatinization of wheat flour were studied by Chiang and
Johnson (1977B). Increasing moistures of feed ingredients from 18 to
27% along with elevated extrusion discharge temperatures increased
the extent of starch disorganization following extrusion as measured by
its susceptibility to hydrolysis by glucoamylose. Higher extrusion
temperatures were required when lower moisture samples were ex¬
truded to achieve the same amount of enzyme susceptibility in the final
sample. Increased screw speeds cause higher shear within the screw
370 J. M. Harper

channel, which should enhance disruption of the native starch granule.

The opposite was found in the study indicating that the reduced resi¬
dence time within the extruder, also caused by the increased screw
speed, can overcome the effect of the higher shear environment. Smaller
die sizes did cause increased susceptibility of the extruded starch to
glucoamylose hydrolysis, because of the increased shear exposure it
causes within the extruder.
Bjorck et al. (1984) extruded wheat flour and starch and measured
hydrolysis in vitro with salivary ce-amylase and in vivo as plasma levels
of glucose and insulin in rats. They concluded extrusion rendered the
starch more susceptible to a-amylase than boiling. Severe extrusion
conditions increased the plasma levels of glucose and insulin response
more quickly than boiled samples, indicating extrusion can affect both
the glycaemic and cariogenic properties of extruded starch.
Both Chiang and Johnson (1977B) and Mercier (1977) reported that
some hydrolysis of starches occurs during the extrusion process. The
presence of mono- and oligosaccharides, such as glucose, fructose,
melibiose, maltose, and maltotriose, suggested that polysaccharides
were degraded during extrusion to give a more digestible product.
Similarly, Davidson et al. (1984) reported the size reduction of the
amylopectin fraction of wheat starch, which they attributed to mechani¬
cal rupture.
The effects of extrusion on the amylose and amylopectin fractions of
wheat (Colonna et al. 1984) and manioc (Colonna and Mercier 1983)
were determined. Their results showed random macromolecular chain
splitting of both molecules, as indicated by intrinsic viscosity, gel-
permeation chromatography, and average molecular weight determina¬
tions. The effect of these changes on digestibility was not specifically
measured, but it is expected that both starch fractions would become
more digestible. ^
The formation of amylose-lipid complexes during extrusion has been
demonstrated by Mercier et al. (1980). Manioc starch was extruded in
a twin-screw extruder with varying amounts and types of fatty acids
(C2 through C]8), monoglycerides, an emulsifier (calcium stearyl
lactylate), and purified fats. Initial moisture contents of ingredients
were 22%, and extrusion temperatures were varied between 200° and
225°C. Samples extruded with 2% of C12 or longer fatty acids, mono¬
glycerides, and emulsifiers, formed a complex between the amylose
fraction of the starch and these materials. The resulting water solu¬
bility of the complexed starch decreased with the increased chain
length of the fatty material to which it was complexed. The complexed
amylose fraction is resistant to a-amylolysis, which could lower in vitro
digestibility of starch samples high in amylose; similar impacts on the
digestibility of normal or waxy starches which have higher amylopectin
contents would not be expected (Mercier 1980).
 14. Extrusion Processing 371

A unique effect of twin-screw extrusion on potato starch was observed

by Mercier (1977). Unlike extruded cereal starch, the 80% aqueous
ethanol-soluble fraction of extruded potato starch increased indicating
oligosaccharides of molecular weight less than 2000 were greatly in¬
creased at elevated extrusion temperatures. It was suggested that this
technology would have particular application potential to infant foods
where the child may be deficient in debranching enzymes.

BLENDED FOODS

The extrusion cooker has been applied to the production of pre¬

cooked blended foods which are specifically designed to meet the
nutritional needs of pregnant and lactating mothers and the weaning-
aged child 6 months of age or older. Such foods often are blends of
precooked cereal, a vegetable protein source, such as soy, and fat,
supplemented with a vi tain in and mineral mixture. Their production
dates back to 1966, when the USD A developed Title II foods (Senti
1974) described as WSB (wheat-soy blend), ICSM (instant corn-soy-
milk), and so forth, for distribution internationally in addition to milk
powder. In these initial products, the extruder was used to precook the
cereal flour portion which was blended with the defatted soy flour,
the principal remaining ingredient, which was already precooked.
Recent work in the area of blended foods has focused on their
production in developing countries, using locally grown ingredients
(Jansen and Harper 1980A,B). Special emphasis has been placed on
the use of low-cost extruder cookers (LEC) such as the Brady® or
Insta-Pro® extruders, which are capable of heating blends of ground
cereal grains and whole dehulled soybeans to temperatures in excess of
150°C. These machines process the ingredients under low moisture
conditions (less than 18% moisture), so that normal moisture loss dur¬
ing the cooling process will bring the finished product down to a safe
storage moisture. A process flow chart is shown in Fig. 14.3 that
adequately describes the simplicity of the process and accounts for its
ready acceptance as an appropriate food process in the developing
country setting.

Protein Quality
Of significant importance to the production of blended foods, con¬
sisting of mixtures of cereal grains and vegetable protein sources, is the
requirement that the finished product contain sufficient food energy
and generous amounts of protein of high quality to support the needs
of the pregnant or lactating mother and child (Jansen 1980). A com-
372 J. M. Harper

Raw Raw
Soybeans Corn

CLEANING
AND
DEHULLING

PROCESSING
AND
MILLING

BLENDING
AND
Packages PACKAGING

Fig. 14.3. Equipment used in low-cost extrusion cooking (LEC) of nutritious

food blends. Source: Jansen and Harper (1980B).

monly used measure of protein quality has been the PER (protein
efficiency ratio), with casein being the standard at 2.5.
Numerous studies have shown that an extrusion-cooked mixture of
about 70 parts grain and 30 parts whole soy will lead to a product having
a PER approximately equal to that of casein. Work by Jansen et al.
 14. Extrusion Processing 373

(1978) and Jansen (1976) showed that extrusion cooking a blend of

soy and com at 172°C produced products having PERs at least as high
as when the two ingredients were extruded separately (Table 14.1). It
was concluded that no major loss in the availability of the essential
amino acid lysine occurred vtrhen the soybean protein, rich in lysine,
was heated in the extruder with lysine-deficient corn, which can supply
small amounts of reducing sugars necessary for Maillard browning
reactions, either through a partial hydrolysis of the starch or as a minor
constituent in the raw materials.
Bressani (1976) and Bressani et al. (1978) reported that improved
PERs were measured in extruded products made using LECs when the
raw corn and soy ingredients were ground to a particle size essentially
less than 45 mesh and water was added to achieve 21.4% moisture con¬
tent in the mixture prior to extrusion. In an HTST process, the extent
of heat penetration into the particles, necessary for their cooking and
melting, is inversely proportional to their diameter squared. Molina
et al. (1978) found that trypsin inhibitor inactivation was enhanced
under conditions of lowes't feed rate and greatest restriction of the die
opening of the LEC tested. Both of these conditions would lead to in¬
creased product temperature, enhancing the thermal inactivation of
trypsin and other inhibitors with correspondingly improved protein
quality.
An infant formula produced from a combination of oats-soy, 1:1.25
extruded at 160°C, was described by Del Valle et al. (1981). The
finished product required the addition of 0.2% DL-methionine to
achieve a PER of 2.4, compared to casein at 2.5, because the relatively
low level of cereal in the formulation supplied insufficient methionine
to compensate for the deficiency of the soy. These extruded products
also had net protein utilization (NPU) values of around 52, compared
to 59 for casein. Molina et al. (1977) also showed that extruded snacks
made from mistures of corn or cassava in combination with black-eyed
peas required 0.3% addition of DL-methionine to reach optimum PER.
Similar results were supported by Joao et al. (1980) for combinations
of cowpea-corn and cowpea-cassava.
In addition to the use of soy as the high-protein source for the pro¬
duction of blended foods, other products have been used. Aguilera and
Kosikowski (1978) used a partially demineralized, delactosed whey
product to supplement corn meal and soy flour which were roll-cooked
or extruded at 90°C to make a precooked food blend. Using a variety
of formulations, they concluded that the PER of all mixes was essen¬
tially equivalent to casein and that roll-cooking was less deleterious
than extrusion.
Potato protein powder enrichment of extrusion-cooked corn grits
was evaluated by Meuser et al. (1980). They found the potato protein
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 14. Extrusion Processing 375

powder to contain higher levels of essential amino acids, so less was re¬
quired to correct the deficiencies in the corn used in the blend. Protein
digestibility and NPU for potato- and soy-enriched extruded products
were essentially identical.
The extrusion of food blends where rice was the cereal constituent
has been conducted by Cilindro (1980). A product consisted of rice
and dry milk powder extruded together. It was found that extrusion
slightly reduced the PER, while the digestibility and NPU remained
constant. Since the milk was already a dry powder, there appeared to
be no benefit in its being part of the mixture prior to extrusion.

Protein Utilization in Humans

The ultimate value in extruded, nutritious blended foods requires
that they be highly digestible and contain protein which can be utilized
by human populations, especially children. The evaluation of many
samples has depended heavily on animal studies. Actual clinical evalua¬
tions have been relatively few, but point to the potential for the extru¬
sion production of nutritious foods from vegetable sources.
Title II blended food samples containing extrusion-processed corn-
meal along with soy and 5% nonfat dry milk have been clinically
evaluated. In comparing the results for samples containing partially
gelatinized cornmeal (Graham et al. 1971) with another containing
fully gelatinized cornmeal (Graham et al. 1973), it appears that both
the nitrogen absorbed and retained as a percentage of the casein control
was higher for the sample containing fully gelatinized cornmeal, indicat¬
ing a benefit for increased extrusion processing of the cereal component
of these products.
In another evaluation of protein utilization, corn-soy blends (CSB)
(70:30) containing 17 to 18.6% protein were precooked in a Brady
extruder and evaluated by Graham and MacLean (1979) using previous¬
ly malnourished infants aged 5-20 months. The results are summarized
in Table 14.2. In one evaluation, apparent nitrogen absorption and re¬
tention of extruded products were compared with diets containing
casein. The nitrogen absorption for infants fed the CSB diet was signifi¬
cantly lower than those fed the casein diet; however, the percentage of
nitrogen intake retained was not significantly lower. These findings
are similar to feeding trial results performed on comparable Title II foods.
Protein utilization studies were made by Del Valle et al. (1981) on
an extruded oats-soy blend (OSB), with similar results. In a nitrogen
balance determination with six children between the ages of 3 and 28
months, their oats-soy formula showed that 31% of the nitrogen ab¬
sorbed was retained and digestibility was 71%. These values were re¬
ported to be essentially equivalent to a commercial cow’s milk formula.
376 J. M. Harper

Table 14.2. Nitrogen Utilization of Infants Fed CSB Compared with Casein*

CSB (70/30)
Casein Degermed corn/dehulled soy

N intake, mg/day 1991 ±356 1982 ± 376

N absorption, % of intake 84.1 ± 4.0 76.6 ± 9.0
N retention, % of intake 34.5 ± 7.3 28.9 ± 12.5
Weight gain, g/kg/day 4.9 ± 2.9 5.0 ± 2.0

Source: Graham and McLean (1979).

* Study carried out with nine infants, ages 5—20 months. Protein fed at 6.4% of
calories. Mean ± S.D.

Fatty Acids
It is known that hydrogenation of fats results in some isomerization
of the naturally occurring cis form of linoleic to the trans form of
linoleic and oleic acids to the extent of 8% of the double bonds. Maga
(1978) evaluated the impact of extrusion on the cis to trans isomeriza¬
tion of the unsaturated fats in blends of whole com and whole soy
(70:30). All extrusion was done at 155° or 171°C at approximately
15% moisture. A relatively small 1-1.5% conversion of double bonds
from cis to trans occurred, with the higher values associated with the
highest extrusion temperatures.

Inactivation of Gossypol
Cottonseed flour represents a vegetable protein source which has
been used in the production of blended foods such as Incaparina® in
Guatemala. For glanded cottonseed to be suitable for this purpose,
it is essential that proper heat treatment be applied to inactivate the
pigment gossypol occurring within the cottonseed. Thermal inactiva¬
tion involves the binding of gossypol to the free amino group of lysine.
For heat-treated cottonseed flours, the Protein Advisory Group (1975)
of the United Nations recommends free gossypol levels of less than
0.06%. Jansen et al. (1978) reported LEC processing of the whole
cottonseed kernel reduced gossypol only to 0.21%, and the products
produced rat growth and PERs which were only fair.
The LEC processing of cottonseed-cereal blends performed by
Jansen et al. (1978) is described in Table 14.3. These data show the
extrusion process reduced the free gossypol significantly at the expense
of the availability of lysine in the finished product. To correct this
deficiency, samples supplemented with 0.5% L-lysine monohydro¬
chloride resulted in a product with a corrected PER of 2.2, which
showed the potential importance of lysine supplementation of products
containing heat-treated glanded cottonseed.
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378 J. M. Harper

Calorie Density
The volume of food a young infant can consume limits food intake,
suggesting that weaning foods should have a high calorie and nutrient
density. The concentration of ingredients in a prepared gruel is a func¬
tion of the consistency or viscosity of the product that can be fed,
which, in turn, is related to the functionality of the product ingredients,
particularly starch. Products having their starch gelatinized and intact
will produce thick gruels at relatively low solids concentrations and,
as a consequence, have low calorie density.
The effects of LEC processing on the calorie densities of blended
foods were investigated by Jansen et al. (1981). An LEC was used to
cook blends of corn-soy (70:30) at varying temperatures. These
samples, along with Food for Peace Title II foods, were prepared at
different total solids concentrations and the resulting viscosity of the
gruel was measured. Some results, shown in Fig. 14.4, indicate that the
LEC-CSB had a similar calorie density to Title II ICSM. The addition
of 15% nonfat dry milk gave the LEC-CSM a further increase in calorie
density. Title II CSM contains only partially gelatinized starch, thus
requiring a higher concentration of solids to yield a gruel that has the
same consistency as one made with more thoroughly cooked starch
ingredients if no further cooking is applied.
The extrusion temperature of LEC-CSB samples also affected their
calorie density when made up as gruels. Extrusion discharge temperatures

Fig. 14.4. Viscosity of

different concentrations
of gruels made from
various blended foods.
Source: Jansen et al.
(1981).
 14. Extrusion Processing 379

of 171°C produced more starch damage in the products than extrusion

at 149°C and their resulting calorie density was correspondingly about
10% higher. These data suggest that the dry extrusion processes, which
subjects the product to a combination of high temperature and shear,
disrupts the ordered structure of the starch granules and cleaves the
starch chains to give a readily hydratable product whose degree of func¬
tionality is reduced by these severe conditions. The addition of a very
small amount of an amylase to the LEC-CSB, as allowed by the Codex
Alimentarius Commission (1976), had the effect of further increasing
calorie density, since the partially hydrolyzed starch molecule is unable
to produce viscous gels at low concentrations. Similar results occurred
through the addition of sugar, oil, or dry milk.

DIETARY FIBER

There has been renewed interest in dietary fiber as a constituent in

the human diet (Heaton 1979; Owen and Cotton 1982). It is known
that fiber binds large amounts of water to increase stool volume and re¬
duce transit time through the intestine. In addition, fiber binds essen¬
tial minerals such as calcium, iron, and zinc, and specific lipids, while
also reducing vitamin availability. High-fiber diets help prevent con¬
stipation and diverticulosis along with increased glucose tolerance.
There- is also evidence that high intakes of some fibers may lower
plasma cholesterol and decrease the incidence of colon cancer.
Dietary fiber is a complex material consisting of hemicellulose, cellu¬
lose, lignin, pectin, and a number of gums and mucilages (Baker et al.
1979). A variety of tests are used to measure fiber, including the classi¬
cal crude fiber determination, which grossly underestimates the quan¬
tity of enzyme-undigestible material in the human gut. The neutral
detergent fiber (NDF) method and Southgate procedure use enzymes as
a pretreatment to remove starches from food samples in order to give a
better indication of indigestible carbohydrate in food products.
Cereals and their bran are considered good sources of fiber and, since
many of these are extruded, it is appropriate to consider the effects of
extrusion on these components. In actuality, relatively little has been
published on the subject.
The effect of extrusion on the levels of fiber in products measured
by the crude and NDF analyses was undertaken by Al-Hooti (1979).
Three samples of a CSB (corn-soy, 70:30) were extruded with the
Brady extruder at a discharge temperature of 163° using ingredients
with approximately 15% moisture. Each sample differed in the degree
to which the raw ingredients were dehulled by an impact mill, which
cracked the grain, followed by air aspiration to remove the hulls. Their
crude fiber levels varied from 1.4 to 2.0%. Crude fiber and NDF were
380 J. M. Harper

measured on all samples before and after extrusion, and it was found
that the extrusion process made very little difference in the quantities
measured.
To evaluate the role of fiber levels on the nutritional value of ex¬
truded blended foods, Jansen (1981) first reviewed the data on allowable
fiber levels in weaning foods. His summary of nitrogen-balance studies
on infants fed extruded foods with varying fiber levels is given in
Table 14.4. The data for Title II CSB and ICSM were done on single
samples tested with relatively few subjects, making it difficult to draw
any conclusions about the effects of the extrusion process. The LEC—
CSB samples containing the highest fiber levels showed significantly
lower N absorption and retention. Apparently the extrusion processing
did nothing to ameliorate the effect of the higher fiber in these foods.
Consequently, Jansen (1980) recommended that all soy used to manu¬
facture blended foods should be dehulled prior to extrusion.
The effects of extrusion of a high-fiber crispbread product were
studied by Andersson et al. (1981). The product had formulations of
varying quantities of wheat bran up to 50%, 10% gluten, with the re¬
mainder wheat starch. Extrusion was done on the Creusot-Loire
BC45 twin-screw extruder using feed moistures of 11-17% and dis¬
charge temperatures from 142° to 150°C. The higher fiber products
were denser and harder, as is typical of these types of products. The
levels of phytate, which is partially responsible for the mineral binding
properties of bran, showed reductions of 15-35% as the result of extru¬
sion. From this study, it was not clear whether the loss of phytate was
due to the heat treatment provided by the extruder or the denaturation
of protein components reducing the extractability of phytate following
extrusion. Regardless, these authors concluded that extrusion was not
suitable as a phytate-reducing process.
Similar observations were made about high-fiber products extruded
by Seiler and Seibel (1978) using wheat bran and a wheat starch mix¬
ture at 20-28% moisture.

EXTRUDED WHOLE BEAN FLOUR

Interest has continued in the use of the extruder to heat treat a variety
of legume grains to produce a nutritious food source with relatively
high protein content. The initial work on the extrusion processing of
whole soybeans to produce stable full-fat soy flour (FFSF) was done
by Mustakas et al. (1964, 1970). The principal focus of that work was
on the destruction of antitrypsin agents, lipoxydase enzymes, and
urease, which occur in the raw beans, and the impact of extrusion
processing on product characteristics and nutritional value. They con¬
cluded that extrusion processes, carried out on Wenger equipment at
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Summary of Nitrogen-Balance Studies in Infants

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382 J. M. Harper

moistures of approximately 25%, could yield useful products for the

fortification of bread, beverages, and the like.
The more recent interest in using LECs to process nutritious foods in
developing countries has led to work to determine if low-moisture ex¬
trusion would be an effective process for the production of FFSF.
Rackis (1974) provides a complete summary of the biological and
physiological factors in soybeans which affect their use as a nitrogen
source for animals and man and concludes that more knowledge is
needed on the conditions associated with new technologies to inactivate
antinutritional factors.
The suitability of LEC-processed FFSF for the fortification of bread
was studied by Tsen et al. (1975). These researchers found that in¬
creasing extrusion temperature from 115° to 140 C increased trypsin
inhibitor destruction from 50 to 100% while reducing urease activity
10-fold and reduced the nitrogen solubility of the samples from 59 to
15%. These products were found suitable for fortification of baked
goods, such as bread, if the surface-active agent sodium stearoyl-2-
lactylate (SSL) was added at the 0.5% level.
Lorenz et al. (1980) extended the work on LEC-produced FFSF.
Increasing extrusion temperature caused increased destruction of the
trypsin inhibitor and urease along with reductions in nitrogen solubility,
as shown in Table 14.5. When these samples were fed to rats, the opti¬
mum PER occurred with product extruded at 143°C, which had only
57% of its trypsin inhibitor destroyed. Since increased protein func¬
tionality is desirable for the use of these products as cereal food fortifi-
cants, it is interesting to note that optimal PER came at an intermediate
extrusion temperature where trypsin inhibitor activity was not com¬
pletely absent. The addition of 3% water to the ground beans prior to

Table 14.5. Effects of Temperature on Soybeans Processed with a Brady Extruder

Trypsin inhibitor
Nitrogen
Temperature solubility Urease Destroyed Corrected
(°C) index pH units TIU/mg (%) PER/2

Unextruded 55.6 2.07 64.5 —

1.01 ± 0.08
121 41.9 1.96 64.8 0.0 1.35 ± 0.04
127 56.1 1.82 57.2 11.2 1.42 ± 0.05
132 44.3 1.46 45.5 29.5 1.41 ± 0.04
138 47.1 0.34 47.2 26.7 1.55 ± 0.04
143 21.6 0.02 28.0 56.7 1.94 ± 0.05
149 16.6 0.01 16.8 74.0 1.78 ± 0.08

Source: Lorenz et at (1980).

a Protein efficiency ratios corrected relative to casein at 2.50. Composition of de-
hulled soybeans: 39.2 ± 0.03 protein, 21.0 ± 0.02 fat, 5.9 ± 0.1 ash, 2.4 ± 0.1
fiber, and 5.9 ± 0.5 carbohydrates.
 14. Extrusion Processing 383

extrusion also increased trypsin inhibitor inactivation by about 20% at

a constant extrusion temperature.
These studies all point to the potentially important role extrusion
can play in the heat processing of oilseeds, legumes, and possibly lentils
to make them suitable for human food. Since more conventional cook¬
ing techniques require long times and high moistures to heat-inactivate
enzyme systems and antinutritional factors in beans, the relatively dry
short-time processing in extrusion serves as an ideal technique to bring
the nutritional benefits of these products to larger population segments.

VITAMIN STABILITY

Cereals have been a traditional source of B vitamins. Many are lost

during milling, but are added back to the milled products as part of a
fortification step. Moreover, it is becoming increasingly popular to
fortify cereal-based products with a wide spectrum of vitamins to en¬
hance their nutritional value, such as in RTE breakfast cereals.
The impact of high-temperature extrusion of cereal-based food
products on vitamin retention has been studied to a limited degree.
Beetner et al. (1974) evaluated the effect of extrusion discharge tempera¬
ture and screw speed on the retention of thiamin (Bj) and riboflavin
(B2) added to corn grit ingredients moistened to 13 and 16% moisture.
They found that thiamin was lost in the extrusion process to a much
greater extent than riboflavin, as would be expected because of the
known thermal lability of thiamin. Specifically, thiamin retention was
21% lower for each 22°C increase in extrusion discharge temperature
between 150° and 190°C, and 15% lower for each 25 rpm increase in
screw speed. Riboflavin retention was not affected specifically by
temperature, but showed reductions with increases in moisture and
screw speed. These data would imply that higher shear rates in the ex¬
truder, resulting from increased screw speeds, were detrimental to
vitamin retention. Higher screw speeds would also shorten product
residence time in the extruder, which would normally be associated
with greater retention of the vitamins, but in this particular case the ef¬
fect of shear seemed to predominate.
In the extrusion process, the temperature, pressure, and shear increase
as the product moves down the barrel. To separate these effects,
Beetner (1978) studied the effects of temperature and static pressure
on thiamin and riboflavin loss and concluded that elevated pressure had
little impact on vitamin loss. In these tests, temperature-time regions
tested were similar to those in the extrusion tests.
In another study, Beetner et al. (1976) again examined the retention
of thiamin and riboflavin added to the raw flour during the extrusion of
384 J. M. Harper

triticale. Over the range of conditions studied, increased extrusion

temperatures reduced thiamin retention, while riboflavin retention
showed a slight increase. It is hard to explain the increase in riboflavin
retention, and the result is likely to be an artifact of the microbiological
assay used in its determination. The thiamin degradation was of the
same magnitude found in the Beetner et al. (1974) study. Also, these
authors found that reducing the size of the die opening caused a reduc¬
tion in thiamin, which is consistent with the increased residence times
resulting from this change.
Lorenz et al. (1980) reported that added thiamin, riboflavin, vitamin
B6, and folic acid were quite stable during the extrusion of CBS (corn-
soy, 70:30) at 171°C discharge temperature. However, there was an
indication that vitamins A and C were the least stable through the ex¬
trusion process. In addition to adding the vitamins before extrusion,
the study also added vitamins to unfortified samples after their ex¬
trusion and compared the vitamin retention during storage at -18 ,
31°, and 49°C to determine the impact of extrusion on their stability.
They found that thiamin retention was not affected by whether it was
added before or after extrusion, but vitamin C activity was nearly com¬
pletely lost after 1 month of storage in samples where it was added before
extrusion, while that which was added afterward to the product surface
was lost at a much slower pace. The accelerated loss of the extruded
vitamin C during storage was attributed to the loss of antioxidants.
Because of vitamin loss occurring during RTE cereal processing,
Anderson et al. (1976) recommended that vitamins A, D, and C added
as vitamin A palmitate, calciferol, and ascorbic acid be added to these
products as a surface coating following processing. The other alterna¬
tive is adding an excess to account for processing losses (Williams 1977).
The shelf life of added vitamins in RTE cereals was quite good as long as
the moisture content of these products remained below 6%. In addition,
the shelf life of vitamins A and C, which are subject to loss through oxida¬
tion, appeared to be enhanced when both were present in the product.
The stability of vitamin A and provitamin A (carotenoids) during ex¬
trusion was reported by Lee et al. (1978). The carotenoids added be¬
fore extrusion were found to be relatively unstable and were deemed
unsuitable as a vitamin A source or coloring agent. Vitamin A alcohol
(retinol) and vitamin A acetate were found to be retained better during
extrusion of a white corn flour than was vitamin A palmitate, suggest¬
ing these as better forms for addition prior to extrusion.
The retention of thiamin and ascorbic acid during the extrusion of
potato flakes was studied by Maga and Sizer (1978). The loss of each
was greatest at the highest extrusion temperature of 160°C, with ascor¬
bic acid generally being the most labile. Thiamin, however, showed
losses of 50-80% under low-moisture (22%)-high-temperature (160°C)
extrusion, which was attributed to a reaction with sulfite present in the
potato flakes.
 14. Extrusion Processing 385

The heat-stable B vitamins and pantothenic acid appear to be rela¬

tively resistant to loss during the extrusion process as measured by re¬
coveries following extrusion. Vitamins subject to oxidative loss, such
as ascorbic acid and vitamin A, may be lost to a limited degree during
extrusion, but lose activity rapidly during storage because of an exten¬
sive exposure to oxygen due to their expanded surface area once puffed.

AMINO ACID LOSS

The loss of essential amino acids such as lysine and methionine dur¬
ing extrusion processes is of interest because of potential impact on
protein quality. Nonenzymatic browning of the Maillard type involves
the reaction of free amino groups, a good example being the reaction of
the e-amino group of lysine with reducing sugars. The Strecker degrada¬
tion of methionine can lead to methional, an important flavor compound.
The loss of available lysine in model systems containing ingredients
and water activities typical of extrusion processes has been studied. In
these types of studies, Warmbier et al. (1976) and Warren and Labuza
(1977) have shown that extensive lysine loss occurs before much visual
brown color is noticed. Thompson et al. (1976) modeled the initial
available lysine loss in these unstirred systems by zero-order kinetics.
The reaction rates determined were temperature dependent and fol¬
lowed the Arrhenius equation.
Jokinen (1976) found the fraction of available lysine retained in
heated samples to be increased by higher pHs and diminished by in¬
creased glucose concentrations, extrusion temperatures, and heating
times. The effect of water activity was quadratic, so that maximum
loss of available lysine occurred at water activities between 0.65 and 0.7.
Browning of the samples occurred at water activities above 0.2 or that
associated with the monolayer of bound water. At water activities
above 0.7, browning was also reduced because of a dilution of reactants.
Tsao et al. (1978) did not find a similar relationship between lysine
loss and moisture, probably because they used a relatively narrow range
of moistures which would translate to a small change in water activity.
A study of Maillard reactions on the loss of reactive lysine during ex¬
trusion was conducted by Cheftel et al. (1981) and Noguchi et al.
(1982), using a soy protein enriched wheat flour as a model product.
All samples were extruded on the Creusot-Loire BC45 twin-screw ex¬
truder at temperatures from 170° to 210°C and moisture contents from
13 to 18%. These authors found lysine loss increasing rapidly with in¬
creasing temperatures, similar to the findings with the static studies re¬
ported previously. They also reported that increased moisture reduced
lysine availability to a lesser extent because of less product heating
from the mechanical work used to turn the screws, which can bring the
dough above the barrel temperature.
386 J. M. Harper

Similar effects have been reported by Beaufrand et al. (1978). The

addition of reducing sugars to the extrusion blend was five times more
detrimental to the loss of lysine than was the same amount of sucrose.
Sucrose hydrolyzes slowly in the extruder, with the reaction rate vary¬
ing with the water content and pH of the extrusion mixture. Andersson
et al. (1981) also found a reduction in sucrose and reducing sugars dur¬
ing extrusion, but felt that the level of reduction was more than could
be accounted for by hydrolysis and reaction with amino acids and was,
therefore, probably due to some carmelization. The loss of lysine avail¬
ability in extruded wheat flour studied by Bjorck et al. (1984) was related
to the formation of reducing carbohydrates through the hydrolysis of
starch. They found that biological value reduction was directly related
to loss of lysine. Lysine unavailability, however, was not related to
total digestibility.
Extrusion cooking was found by Bjorck et al. (1983) to affect the
loss in available lysine in a manner similar to baking for a protein-
enriched biscuit. As the temperature of extrusion increased and/or the
moisture content decreased, a biological assay for lysine showed in¬
creasing unavailability, while chemical methods were less sensitive. In
addition to lysine loss, they also found a decrease in sulfur-containing
amino acids, arginine, and tryptophane with increasing severity of ex¬
trusion conditions. The loss of available lysine in fortified cereal foods
was also studied by Li Sui Fong (1980). A low-calorie high-protein
food and a protein-enriched product were extruded on a twin-screw
extruder at 190° to 230°C. They also concluded that elevated extru¬
sion temperatures caused increasing losses in available lysine, with
values ranging from 4 to 12%.
Free amino acid loss has also been reported in the extrusion of dried
potato flakes (Maga and Sizer 1979). The potato flakes were moistened
to 48% moisture and extruded at temperatures ranging from 70° to
160°C in a Brabender laboratory extruder. At 160°C, all amino acids
measured were reduced extensively, with the average destruction rate
being 89%. At extrusion temperatures le,ss than 130°C, isoleucine,
leucine, phenylalanine, tyrosine, and serine were lost to a surprisingly
high degree. Since free amino acids in these products exist at less than
5% of total amino acid content, this loss has little nutritional significance.
Clearly, the elevated temperatures, processing conditions, water
activities, and combination of reactive ingredients in extruded foods
lead to a substantial loss of availability of amino acids during the ex¬
trusion process. Extrusion under conditions of reduced temperature
and shear that will tend to provide reactive reducing sugars will minimize
these losses. The complexity of the extrusion environment and the in¬
fluence of many ingredients, such as protein, salt, moisture, and oil, on
the loss of free amino acids has made it difficult to develop predictive
equations which adequately explain all the effects.
 14. Extrusion Processing 387

TEXTURED PROTEIN
Textured Soy Protein
The extrusion texturization of soy protein is accomplished by mois¬
tening defatted soy flour to ^ moisture content between 20 and 40%,
followed by cooking and heating to temperatures in excess of 150°C
within the extruder before expansion through a die and cooling. In the
extruder, the protein molecules denature and form new cross-links to
create a layered and fibrous structure that, when rehydrated with
water, provides a meat-like structure. The process has been thoroughly
described by Harper (1981B), Kinsella (1978), and Horan (1974). The
products have become increasingly important as meat replacers or ex¬
tenders for a variety of convenience foods.
The heating of moistened soy flour can produce several effects. These
include loss of essential amino acids such as lysine, denaturation of the
protein, which improves its digestibility, and the destruction of antinutri-
tional factors, such as trypsin inhibitors, phytohemagglutinins, phytic
acid, goitrogens, saponins, and phenolic compounds (Kinsella 1978).
Most of the literature on textured soy proteins reports the effects
of the extrusion process on the physical and functional properties of
the product rather than their nutritional value. A number of studies
have been reported which indicate textured soy protein consumed,
either separately or as a meat product extender, results in products hav¬
ing very satisfactory PER values. Kies and Fox (1973A) performed
nitrogen-balance studies on adult humans under conditions of con¬
trolled protein intake and observed no difference between a meat or a
textured soy diet when sufficient quantities of protein were fed. Near¬
ly identical results were reported by Korslund et al. (1973) on a study
with 12- to 16-year-old boys, with the added fact that supplementation
with methionine improves the nutritional value of textured soy under
conditions of insufficient nitrogen intake. The importance of niacin in
improving nitrogen retention of textured soy has also been reported
(Kies and Fox 1973B). Wilding (1974) specifically evaluated the nutri¬
tional value of mixtures of ground beef and textured soy and concluded
that blends containing up to 30% rehydrated textured soy had an
amino acid balance comparable to beef, although supplementation with
1% methionine will improve it. Further, PERs on these same blends
showed values exceeding those for ANRC casein.
PERs for textured soy are about 95% of the values for casein (Wilding
1974), indicating low residual values of trypsin inhibitor activity in
these products. Aguilera and Kosikowski (1976) showed that increas¬
ing discharge temperature and extrusion screw speed decreased trypsin
inhibitor activity, while increasing moisture content increased these
values. In well-textured samples, 80-90% of the trypsin inhibitor was
inactivated.
388 J. M. Harper

Other Textured Proteins

The effects of extrusion texturization of defatted peanut flour were
reported by Alid et al. (1981). Extrusion at 140°C and 25.1% moisture
in a Wenger X-25 extruder had no significant effect on the amino acid
pattern or the PER of the texturized product compared to the defatted
flour. Supplementation of the textured products with 0.3% DL-threonine,
0.2% L-lysine, and 0.2% DL-methionine improved the PER by 40%,
to 2.2.

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 y

'

‘
 r

15

Effects of
Moisture Removal
on Nutrients
Peter M. Bluestein
Theodore P. Labuza

Dehydrated foods and concentrated foods, both as ingredients for

further processing and-as consumer products, are major industrial
products. Milk, eggs, fruits, fruit juices, vegetables, meat, and other
items of nutritional importance can be found in the dehydrated form.
Fruit juices and milk are the major products of nutritional significance
that can be found in concentrated form. Products produced by both of
these processing operations have a wide variety of preliminary processes,
such as washing, peeling, blanching, and cooking, which can affect
nutritional value, these have been reviewed by Bender (1966). De¬
hydrated foods, if stored under proper conditions, will not spoil from
microbial attack. Concentrated products are usually not stable to
microbial attack and, therefore, concentration is often used with a
further preservative process.
Evaporation and most drying processes involve the addition of heat
to the food and the removal of moisture as water vapor. In many cases,
the temperature of processing is above room temperature, but below
the temperatures used for sterilization. There are a wide variety of
processes available for producing dried and concentrated products.
Each process has its own advantages when compared to other methods
of production. For any single process, there is a range of processing
conditions that will affect the nutrient retention of the processed
product. It would simplify this discussion greatly if a simple rule
could be devised for all drying operations to predict the best process¬
ing conditions for drying and concentration. This is not possible be¬
cause of the complexity of the changes in foods which occur during
these processes. Some of these changes will be considered here. How¬
ever, for more detailed discussions, reference works on drying and
concentration should be consulted (Van Arsdel 1963; Van Arsdel and
Copley 1964).

393
394 P. M. Bluestein and T. P. Labuza

CHEMICAL KINETICS AND MOISTURE REMOVAL

Chemical Kinetics
It is worthwhile to review some aspects of chemical kinetics, with
emphasis on the phenomena that occur during processing and storage of
dried and concentrated foods. Since the loss of nutritive value is
usually the destruction of a single chemical compound, this loss can be
described by a simple monomolecular reaction, as in Eq. 1:

k
A--B (1)

where compound A reacts to form compound B with a reaction rate

constant, k. If Eq. 1 applies to the loss of nutrient A, then the rate of
that loss can be described by Eq. 2:

~(d[A]/dt) = k[A] (2)

where d[A\/dt is the rate of loss of nutrient A, k is the reaction rate

constant, and [A] is the concentration of A. The reaction rate con¬
stant is related to temperature by Eq. 3:

k - k0e[Ea./RT] (3)

where k0 is a constant, Ea is the activation energy of the reaction, R

is the gas constant and equal to 1.986 cal/g-mol K, and T is the absolute
temperature, K.
If the reaction rate constant is a true constant and the only change in
the concentration of A is due to chemical reaction, the extent of the
loss of A can be found by integrating Eq. 2 and substituting the appro¬
priate boundary conditions to obtain E$. 4:

-ln([A]/[A ]0) = kt (4)

where [A]0 = [A] initially. Many food reactions can be described by

Eq. 4 when the limitations above are observed. This may be the case
during storage when the temperature and moisture content of the
product are held constant. However, during drying and most concen¬
tration processes neither temperature nor moisture content are held
constant. To include the effects of variation in moisture content and
temperature rigorously would complicate the discussion in this section
and limit the usefulness of the equations derived.

Temperature

The temperature of a food during drying or concentrating varies over

a wide range during the process and with different processing techniques.
 15. Moisture Removal 395

Temperatures usually found can range from -30° to above 100°C, de¬
pending on the process and product. This range is much smaller when
considering the processing alternatives for a single product. In consider¬
ing a product dried or concentrated by one process, it is clear that
higher temperatures experiehced by the food result in increased rates of
chemical reactions. This effect is a result of the change in the reaction
rate constant with a change in temperature. Since nonenzymatic chem¬
ical reactions have activation energies between 10 and 40 kcal/g-mol,
the reaction rate constant can be expected to increase from 2-fold to
15-fold for a 10°C increase (Labuza 1972). The activation energy for
moisture removal is approximately 10 kcal/g/mol (King 1970). Because
of this difference to activation energies for chemical deterioration
and moisture removal, low-temperature processing should produce
products with the least amount of chemical deterioration. However,
low-temperature processing is usually more expensive because of the
longer processing time. In addition, there is also the possibility of
microbial growth during processing, at least between 4° and 40°C.
Therefore, methods which reduce the processing time without going
much above the upper temperature for microbial growth in the food
will result in maximum nutrient retention. These methods would in¬
clude better airflow patterns and increased surface:volume ratio.

Water
Water is distributed throughout dried and concentrated foods in many
forms. Water may be found as a liquid containing solutes when the
food is “wet” and associated with other constituents. The thermo¬
dynamic parameter that describes the state of water is the water activity,
which, as a working definition, can be defined as the relative humidity
in equilibrium with a food divided by 100. Water activity is related to
the moisture content of a product by the moisture sorption isotherm,

Fig. 15.1. A typical water sorp¬

tion isotherm. MOISTURE CONTENT (g H20/g SOLIDS)
396 P. M. Bluestein and T. P. Labuza

as shown in Fig. 15.1. As the water activity of a product decreases, as

it does during drying and concentration, the state of water changes.
Over most of the range of the water activity scale, water behaves as a
solvent even though some literature classifies it as bound. In con¬
centrated products, this aqueous solution is a liquid, but in dried and
“semimoist” foods this solution may be found in capillaries or held by
swollen protein or polysaccharide gels. As the water activity decreases,
the predominating form of water shifts to water-hydrating hydrophilic
constituents. However, water in this region still acts as an aqueous
phase down to the BET (Brunauer-Emmett-Tetler) monolayer (Brunauer
et al. 1938). Above this point water acts to dissolve solutes, mobilizes
them, and allows them to react within the aqueous environment. The
BET monolayer thus describes the moisture content below which most
reactions cease (Labuza 1970). Below this point (see Fig. 15.1), water
is thought to be nonliquid and to be tightly bound or absorbed to
specific sites on various constituents in foods. Additional discussions of
the states of water can be found in the literature on water activity and
sorption (Bone 1969; Karel 1973; Labuza 1968; Rockland 1969).
The state of water has a significant effect on the loss of nutrients. As
noted, above the monolayer value, the water acts as a solvent for reac¬
tants and catalysts. Water may also be a product of some reversible
reactions and, therefore, could slow the forward rate of reaction (Eichner
and Karel 1972). Some of the reactants, such as water-soluble vitamins
are present in low concentrations. As the moisture content and water
activity decrease from the natural value, as would happen in drying,
several important effects occur. The aqueous solutions become more
concentrated. Some components of the food may form supersaturated
solutions and ultimately precipitate. According to Eq. 2, as the concen¬
tration in solution increases, the reaction rate increases. This leads to
increased rates of losses of the nutrient as the moisture content or
water activity is lowered. Some metal catalysts may lose part of the
water of hydration. This can increase their catalytic effect toward un¬
saturated lipids. Diffusion of components in the aqueous phase may
become more difficult since the observed viscosity increases. This
would also decrease reaction rates. Finally, when all liquid water has
been removed, reactions which proceed in water cease. This usually
occurs at the BET monolayer.
It is important to distinguish between reaction of water-soluble nu¬
trients and reactions of oil-soluble nutrients when discussing the effects
of water on chemical reactions. Some of the water-soluble vitamins are
highly soluble. It is unlikely that these highly soluble vitamins become
supersaturated until the moisture content is greatly reduced. For ex¬
ample, ascorbic acid, which is easily oxidized to dehydroascorbic acid,
is present at approximately 0.05 wt% in orange juice. Since the solu¬
bility of ascorbic acid is approximately 25 wt%, ascorbic acid will not
 r

15. Moisture Removal 397

become supersaturated until the moisture content has decreased from the
natural >50% to 1.3% db (dry basis) (data from Watt and Merrill 1963).
Until this low moisture content is reached, ascorbic acid becomes more
concentrated as water is removed. This increase in concentration causes
an increased reaction rate ak shown in Eq. 1. However, although the
reaction rate is greater, the percentage lost during processing is inde¬
pendent of the concentration as shown by Eq. 4. This conclusion holds
when the nutrient degrades by a first-order chemical reaction. Non-
enzymatic unimolecular reactions are likely to be first order. Bimolecu-
lar reactions are not likely to be first order. The Maillard reaction
between reducing sugars and amines, which make lysine unavailable,
and the degradation of unsaturated lipids are not first-order kinetics
and the loss of these nutrients during processing should be dependent
on the concentration. Unfortunately, kinetic data are not available to
predict the effect of concentration on the loss of most water-soluble
nutrients.
Some “water-soluble” nutrients, such as riboflavin, are not very
soluble in water. These^ompounds would form saturated and super¬
saturated solutions during drying and concentration. Should these
nutrients actually precipitate, the losses would be reduced.
The concentration of oil-soluble nutrients, such as the essential fatty
acids and vitamins A, D, E, and K, is extremely low in the aqueous
phase of foods. Since a large part of these nutrients is found in the dis¬
persed phase, their concentration does not change as water is removed.
Other phenomena that occur during water removal are more important.
Water is the solvent for heavy metals, which catalyze the free-radical
oxidation of some unsaturated nutrients. As the moisture is decreased,
catalyst mobility is decreased. At very low moisture contents in dried
food, diffusion of catalysts decreases (Duckworth 1962); however, they
are no longer hydrated and their effectiveness may increase (Labuza
1971). Finally, water may act as a free-radical quencher to reduce the
rate of reaction (Labuza 1971). These effects are not the result of direct
water-nutrient interaction and remain complicated in terms of reaction
rate predictions.
The overall effects of water on chemical and enzymatic reactions are
shown in Fig. 15.2. The reaction rate for destruction of water-soluble
nutrients may go through a maximum at a water activity of approxi¬
mately 0.7. The maximum is due to dilution of the reactant concentra¬
tion and possible product (water) inhibition. Below a water activity of
0.7, the reaction rate decreases because solutes which are reactants
either precipitate out or the viscosity of the aqueous phase becomes high
enough to slow diffusion. As seen, these reactions all cease at the BET
monolayer, which is the point where an aqueous phase ceases to exist.
For the lipid-soluble nutrients there is a minimum in the reaction
rate at = 0.3-0.4. This minimum is caused by the balance between
398 P. M. Bluestein and T. P. Labuza

uj
H
<
o:

H-
O
<
UJ
q:
UJ
>
<
UJ
cc

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0

Fig. 15.2. General scheme of reaction rates as a function of water activity.

catalyst hydration, mobility of catalysts, hydration of intermediates in

the sequence, and free radical quenching. Considering the general pic¬
ture of reactions during concentration and dehydration, the conditions
to be avoided are high temperature at intermediate-moisture contents.
This brief theoretical discussion of some of the factors which con¬
tribute to nutrient retention during drying and concentration provides
some insight into the mechanisms of changes. These mechanisms are
not completely understood at this time and the relative importance of
one mechanism versus another cannot be predicted. Further research
is needed to establish the important mechanisms which lead to signifi¬
cant loss of nutrients. Once the mechanisms are understood, process
development work can proceed on a rational basis.

CONCENTRATION

Fruit juices, purees, jams, soups, condensed milk, and dried dairy
product ingredients are among the products that are concentrated as
part of production. Evaporation of water is by far the most commonly
used method of reducing moisture content. Membrane processes and
freeze concentration are relatively new processes, which are likely to
find increasing use in the future. The obvious advantage of concentrated
products is the reduction of weight and volume by processing. In
 15. Moisture Removal 399

addition, if the product is to be dried after concentration, the total

cost of processing will be substantially lower when part of the mois¬
ture has been removed by concentration before drying. Recent work
has shown that concentration before drying can lead to better volatile
flavor retention during the dfying operation (Thijssen 1971). Few con¬
centrated products are produced without some additional processing.

Evaporation
Evaporation is by far the most common method of concentrating
liquid food products. This process can be viewed as the simple boiling
off of water at temperatures that vary depending on the product and
process. Because water requires approximately 540 kcal/kg for vaporiza¬
tion from the liquid, heat must be supplied to the liquid during the
evaporation. The equipment used to transfer heat into the food is
varied and has undergone considerable technical development, with the
objective of producing products with minimal amounts of change due
to processing. Single evaporators are rarely used in industry for econo¬
mic reasons. The important aspects of evaporators and processing
schemes will be considered here, with the purpose of understanding the
cause of the nutritional changes occurring during evaporation. Additional
processing technology can be found in several other texts (Armerding
1966; Brennan et al. 1969; Charm 1971; Perry et al. 1964).
It'is useful to consider a simple batch evaporation in a steam-jacketed
kettle to illustrate the principles of evaporation. The steam-jacketed
kettle is a simple piece of equipment which finds uses in the production
of candy, jam, jelly, and some condensed milk products, but is not
widely used for other products. Once the original liquid has filled the
kettle, the steam is fed into the jacket surrounding the bottom. The
steam transfers heat into the liquid and boiling begins. If the kettle is
open to the atmosphere, then the boiling temperature at the beginning
of evaporation is near 100°C. After boiling begins, heat is continuously
fed to the kettle to supply the heat required to evaporate water. As the
water boils off and the solution becomes more concentrated, several
important changes occur which affect the ease of evaporation and,
therefore, the nutrient retention. First, reactive solutes are more con¬
centrated and the rate of chemical deterioration can increase. Second,
the boiling point of the liquid rises slightly as predicted by Raoult’s
law. The boiling point of a 60 wt% solution of sucrose is 3°C above the
boiling point of water at atmospheric pressure. Third, the viscosity of
the solution can increase dramatically. The viscosity of a 50 wt% solution
of grape juice is 40 cp (centipose), 40 times more viscous than water (Sara-
vacos 1970). The viscosity is important because it affects the ease of heat
transfer to the boiling liquid. As the viscosity increases, it is more difficult
to heat the liquid. This difficulty results in a nonuniform temperature
400 P. M. Bluestein and T. P. Labuza

distribution in the liquid food. Hot spots and burning on the wall of
the kettle can result. This has a large effect on the nutrient retention,
resulting in large decreases in quality.
The steam-jacketed kettle can be used to perform an evaporation
under vacuum. When a liquid is boiled under a partial vacuum, the
boiling point is lowered considerably. Water boils at 65°C when the
vacuum is 187 mm Hg. This has the effect of lowering the tempera¬
ture of processing but does not affect the rate of evaporation greatly.
Lower temperatures in evaporation result in higher nutrient retentions.
Other reasons for performing the evaporation under a partial vacuum
will be considered later.
The steam-jacketed kettle is the simplest piece of equipment to be
used to perform an evaporation. Other types of evaporators are con¬
sidered by Brennan et al. (1969) and Perry et al. (1964). For the pur¬
pose of this discussion, it is useful to separate all evaporators into two
classes: (1) evaporators with a considerable amount of liquid holdup
and (2) evaporators with minimal holdup. The holdup of an evaporator
refers to the amount of liquid in the piece of equipment. If the holdup
of an evaporator is large, relative to the net liquid flow rate through the
evaporator, the boiling liquid is in contact with the hot heat-transfer
surface of the equipment for a long period of time. Evaporators with
long residence times are the short-tube evaporators, the Wurling®
evaporator (Carlson et al. 1967), and evaporators with recirculating
fluid. The ideal type of evaporator for maximum nutrient retention has
a minimum retention time of the liquid in the equipment. Such evapora¬
tors, like the plate, rising film, and falling film evaporators, pass the
liquid through the equipment only once with little or no recirculation.
The design of these evaporators ensures that heat transfer is efficient
and the evaporation rate is high. High evaporation rates are required
for single-pass processing. Evaporation with single-pass equipment can
result in a reduction by a factor of 10 in the time of processing at
elevated temperatures (Moore and Hesler 1963).
Evaporations are usually not performed‘in a single evaporator. The
economics of steam usage requires that the steam produced in one
evaporator be used in another evaporator to boil off more water from the
product of the first evaporator. The second evaporator is operated at a
lower pressure, which results in boiling at a lower temperature. This usage
of the steam from one evaporator to heat the liquid in another evaporator
is called “multieffect evaporation.” Chemical processing generally uses
large numbers of effects. However, the food industry, because of its con¬
cern for the quality of the final concentrate, uses no more than three or
four effects. Wiegrand (1971) reports on a triple-effect evaporation of
milk with boiling temperatures of 70°, 60°, and 42°C in the three effects.
A larger number of effects in this case would require a longer residence
time in the equipment and a higher temperature of evaporation.
 15. Moisture Removal 401

Evaporation provides a rapid, cheap method of producing concen¬

trated products. Reverse osmosis and freeze-concentration are more ex¬
pensive (Bomben et al. 1973). The temperature is high but the time of
processing can be very short. The short time of processing can result in
products with close to 100%'nutrient retention.

Freeze Concentration
Although useful reports on the nutrient retention of freeze¬
concentrated products have not appeared in the literature, it is appro¬
priate to consider this process here as a competitor of evaporation. The
process involves the freezing of liquids, with carefully controlled con¬
ditions, to produce large ice crystals and the separation of the ice from
the remaining concentrate. Thijssen (1970) has reviewed the equip¬
ment available. This process is performed at low temperatures, below
the freezing point of feed liquid. As a low-temperature process, it is
expected that the nutrient retention of freeze-concentrated products
would be close to 100The only loss would be in any solute loss that
remained with the ice or fluid adhering to the ice.

Membrane Processes
The membrane processes of reverse osmosis and ultrafiltration are
finding increasing uses for final product production and ingredient
manufacture. Reverse osmosis is a concentration process with the ob¬
jective of removing only the water (Leightell 1972). Ultrafiltration is a
concentration and purification process. Applications of ultrafiltration
have been reviewed by Porter and Michaels (1970). Both processes
pass the liquid to be concentrated (and purified) through equipment
holding a membrane. The membrane allows the selective passage of
water and perhaps other compounds. In reverse osmosis, compounds
which are soluble in the membrane can be lost. Most nutrients would
not be soluble in a reverse-osmosis membrane. In most applications of
ultrafiltration, all low-molecular-weight material is allowed to pass
through the membrane.

DEHYDRATION

A large number of techniques are available for the production of de¬

hydrated foods. Only the concepts of drying and a limited number of
the processes used can be discussed here. Further discussions are avail¬
able in the literature (Van Arsdel 1963; Van Arsdel and Copley 1964;
Charm 1971; Holdsworth 1971; Masters 1972; Williams-Gardner 1971).
Before considering the individual properties of different drying pro¬
cedures, a short discussion of the concepts of dehydration is required.
402 P. M. Bluestein and T. P. Labuza

In most types of drying, heat is supplied to the food and moisture in

the vapor state is removed. The methods of supplying heat and trans¬
porting the moisture and the product are the basic variations between
the different techniques of drying. As heat is supplied to a food,
either the temperature of the food is raised or water is evaporated.
During the initial stages of most drying operations the rates of heat
transfer to the food and moisture transfer from the food are balanced
and the temperature of the drying food remains at the wet-bulb tempera¬
ture of the air. The wet-bulb temperature of the air does not vary over
a wide range in relation to the normally measured or dry-bulb tempera¬
tures for fairly dry air. The temperature of the food during the first
period of drying is relatively independent of air dry-bulb temperature
and is much lower than the air temperature. During this first period,
which is usually called the constant rate period, the moisture content
of the piece of food decreases uniformly to a level which is still above
the maximum in the chemical reaction rate curve (Fig. 15.2). The abso¬
lute moisture is still high enough that it does not affect the rate. The
rate of drying remains at this constant and high level until the surface
of the food begins to lose water at a high water activity. It would be
desirable to increase the length of time a food dries in the constant rate
period if nutrient retention is critically important. During this period,
the temperature is low. However, the constant rate period is also the
time when the greatest amount of shrinkage and other undesirable
changes occur, and for these quality reasons this period should be short
for most products.
Once the constant rate period is over, the drying rate decreases. This
occurs because the surface of the piece is not completely saturated with
water. The interface between water and air recedes into the piece and
moisture content and water activity vary with the location in the piece.
The temperature of the piece rises from the wet-bulb temperature and
ultimately approaches the dry-bulb temperature of the air. It is during
this time that the conditions of moderate-moisture content and high
temperature are present and these conditions promote chemical reac¬
tions. Actual drier designs recognize this and the effects of chemical
reactions on product organoleptic quality. Most driers designed to pro¬
duce high-quality products should also produce products with reason¬
ably high nutrient retention.
The conditions during all drying operations are changing. The time,
temperature, and moisture content of the food during drying have the
greatest effects on the rate of reactions. The presence of dissolved
oxygen and sulfur compounds, which can have an effect on nutrient reten¬
tion, is controlled by the operations preceding drying. It would be useful
to have a sufficiently accurate description (model) of the phenomena
that occur during drying and the influence of the dynamic conditions
on the rates of nutrient degradation. Unfortunately, these descriptions
 15. Moisture Removal 403

do not exist at this time, and further research is needed in this area to
be able to predict and explain the effects of processing variables on the
nutritional quality of dehydrated foods (Labuza 1972).

Sun Drying ,-
Sun drying is still of importance throughout the world. Fruit, fish,
meat, and grain are spread out in the sun. The radiant energy of the
sun provides the heat to evaporate the water. Drying proceeds well in
warm and dry weather. At night and during the rainy seasons drying
will not take place. The temperatures of the food during sun drying are
usually 5°-15°C above ambient temperature. The time of drying is
3-4 days or longer, depending on the product and conditions.

Tunnel Drying
Tunnel driers of various types are an extremely important class of
driers. Fruits and vegetables can be dried by this method. There are
several types of tunnel driers. All types follow the same basic opera¬
tions. The food is spread onto trays or a conveyor and passed into a
high-velocity air stream. The basic discussion of drying presented earlier
can be applied to tunnel drying. The rate of drying is related to the air
velocity, the loading of the product, the wet-bulb and dry-bulb tempera¬
tures of the air, and the thickness and other properties of the food.
During the constant rate period, the properties of the air are most im¬
portant in determining the rate of drying. The properties of the food
materials are more important during the other periods of drying. Tun¬
nel dryers are usually designed to take advantage of these characteristics.
Tunnel driers are classified based on the food moving mechanisms
and the direction of airflow. Trays or conveyors are used to move the
food through the tunnel. The directions of airflow are either parallel
to the food movement, countercurrent to the food movement, through,
or across the food bed. If air is-introduced parallel to the food move¬
ment, the initial conditions for drying are optimal but, as the air picks
up moisture from the drying food, the ability of the air for further dry¬
ing is decreased. If counterflow drying is used exclusively, the condi¬
tions for drying are optimal near the product end of the drier, but not
at the feed end. Usually, these two methods of air flow are combined
into a two-stage drier. Parallel flow is used in the first stage and counter-
current flow in the second stage of the drier. This provides the best
compromise for efficient drying and good product quality. The tempera¬
tures of the air used depend on the product and are in the range of 70°-
90°C in the first stage and 55°-70°C in the second stage, which results
in a drying time of 8-16 hr. In many cases, the product is removed
from the tunnel before drying is completed, and the final moisture
content is lowered in bins operated at 40°-55°C for 7 hr or more (Van
Arsdel and Copley 1964).
404 P. M. Bluestein and T. P. Labuza

Flow of air through a bed of food provides better contact between

the heated air and the product. Higher drying rates are obtained and
the times of drying are decreased to a few hours. The temperatures of
drying are in the range of two-stage drying. Fluid-bed drying is con¬
ceptually similar to flow-through drying. In the fluid bed, high-velocity
air is forced upward through the food and suspends the particles in
warm air. Drying is usually faster. Fluid-bed drying, foam-mat drying,
and drying of puffed foods have been reviewed by Holdsworth (1971).

Spray Drying
Spray drying is an important process for milk, other dairy products,
coffee, eggs, and juices. In spray drying, a liquid feed is sprayed into a
stream of hot air. The small size of the drops, which average approxi¬
mately 100 pm in diameter, results in a very large surface which dries
quickly. Although the air dry-bulb temperature is approximately
200°C, the air wet-bulb temperature rarely exceeds 55°C and the time
in the drier is very short. Drying takes place over the first few seconds
and the dried particles are removed from the drier, usually within 30
sec. The temperatures of the particles during drying can range from the
wet-bulb temperature of the inlet air to above 100°C as they exit in
the dry state. Particles are usually at a temperature of 60°-80°C when
removed from the drier. Although these temperatures are high in com¬
parison to tunnel-drying operations, the moisture near the end is
usually near the BET monolayer and the time of exposure is very
short. Thus, deterioration during processing is minimal. It is extremely
difficult to predict the time-temperature-moisture content history of a
particle and to use this to predict the nutrient retention during spray
drying.
Masters (1972) has discussed many* modifications of spray driers
which are likely to result in better nutrient retentions. Cooling the
walls of the drier and injecting dehumidified cool air into the drier to
lower the temperature of the product offers advantages for certain
products. Multiple zones of air temperatures will allow the engineer to
obtain optimum drying and a product of maximum nutrient retention.
The combination of spray drying with other methods of drying, such as
flow-through bed drying, offers new opportunities for the future
(Meade 1973).

Drum Drying
Viscous slurries, such as mashed potatoes and sweet potatoes, are
dried by drum driers. The slurry is fed into the trough between two
steel drums heated from the inside with steam. The drums are rotating
and spread a thin film of the slurry over the surface. As the drums turn,
the product dries. Drum temperatures are in the range of 120°-170°C
 15. Moisture Removal 405

and drying time is 20 sec to 3 min. Although drum drying is one of the
cheapest methods of drying (Greig 1971), the product is in contact
with the hot drums and ultimately leaves the drums at a high tempera¬
ture. This should result in deterioration greater than that resulting
from spray drying or tunhel drying. Usually, drum-dried products
cannot be dried by spray driers and tunnel driers.

Freeze Drying
Freeze drying should result in the highest nutritional quality of all
the drying processes (Calloway 1962). The food, which has been pre¬
viously frozen, is placed into a chamber which is evacuated. When the
pressure has been reduced to below the triple point pressure of water
(4.6 mm Hg), heat is supplied to the frozen food. Because of the low
pressure, ice does not melt and the water vapor sublimes without going
through the liquid phase. The heating-plate temperature varies during
processing from above 100° to about 55°C. The heating-plate tempera¬
ture is highest when thek food is at the lowest temperature. As drying
proceeds, the temperatures of the food and the plate approach each
other at an intermediate temperature The warmest parts of the food,
the outside surfaces, have already achieved a low moisture content.
Therefore, the problem of nutritional deterioration is minimized. The
time, temperature, and moisture content relationships during freeze
drying have received considerable attention and are reviewed by King
(1971). Because freeze drying results in minimal damage, these rela¬
tionships are of little interest here.

Other Drying Processes

New drying processes and important modifications of current techni¬
ques are continually being developed. One interesting new technique is
the use of a solvent to extract all or part of the moisture in foods. The
use of a concentrated sugar solution to extract water from fruits has
been called osmotic dehydration. Peaches produced by the method are
soaked in 75° Brix for 4-6 hr to remove part of the water and then
dried further (Farkas and Lazar 1969; Anonymous 1973). Fish protein
concentrate is produced by the extraction of water with isopropyl
alcohol (Finch 1970). Hieu and Schwartzberg (1973) have proposed
the use of various water-soluble solvents for the dehydration of shrimp.
Most of these processes do not decrease the moisture content to a suit¬
able level for storage and require further processing to remove the
solvent and the remaining water.
Many other drying processes are used in the food industry. Many of
these are reviewed by Williams-Gardner (1971) and others. Foam-
spray drying (Brennan and Priestly 1972), foam-mat drying (Hertzendorf
and Moshy 1970), pneumatic drying, and other processes could be
406 P. M. Bluestein and T. P. Labuza

considered, but are not used to any degree by the food industry because
of cost and their special nature. Many new drying processes are likely
to be developed in the future. If nutrient retention data is lacking, as it
usually is, the only possible statement is that nutrient retention is likely
to be higher in a high-quality produci than in a low-quality product.

NUTRIENT LOSSES

Although there has been some new work, little of it can be used to
predict the effects of processing variables on nutrient retention. Work
that has been performed has been concerned with the retention of nu¬
trients in an established product and process and not with the effects
of a wide range of conditions available for the process. It would be use¬
ful to examine the approach required to provide this information.
This approach integrates the kinetics of deterioration with the time-
temperature-moisture content history of the sample. This has been
applied successfully to packaging studies by Mizrahi et al. (1970A)
and Quast and Karel (1972). First, the reaction rate is determined as a
function of temperature and moisture content using constant condi¬
tions. Some ingenuity will have to be used to overcome some of the
problems of holding foods at high temperatures or high humidities for
extended periods of time. Once those data have been collected, a suit¬
able model of drying behavior that is sensitive to the variables of air
wet- and dry-bulb temperature, air velocity, food properties, and drier
characteristics can be integrated with the deterioration data. The dry¬
ing model must be suitably refined to be able to account for the varia¬
tion in moisture content and temperature throughout a single piece of
food. The model required for the nutrient retention of concentrated
products is simpler because the liquid Is well mixed and the moisture
and temperature gradients are small.
Hendel et al. (1955) and Kluge and Heiss (1967) applied data on the
browning reaction obtained during storage‘to the drying of potato to
predict the extent of browning after drying. The reaction rate as a
function of moisture content and temperature is shown in Fig. 15.3.
The reaction rate of browning shows the typical response to tempera¬
ture and moisture content (Labuza 1970; Lonein et al. 1968; Mizrahi
et al. 1970B). There is a peak in the reaction rate at a moisture content
near a^ = 0.7 and the rate increases as temperature increases. The rate
is zero order, which means the rate of brown pigment production is
linear with time. This indicates that pigment may be formed without
significant decreases in the concentrations of reducing sugar and lysine
in the potato. Hendel et al. (1955) used the average moisture content
and temperature measured at a point to represent the conditions in a
piece of potato. Because the reaction rate does not vary linearly with
 15. Moisture Removal 407

>

Fig. 15.3. Browning rate of potato

dice as a function of moisture con¬
tent (dry basis) and temperature. PERCENT MOISTURE

respect to moisture content, and the center temperature of a piece

underestimates the temperature elsewhere in the piece, the predicted
values for the extent of browning deviate from the measured values.
The moisutre distribution and temperature gradients depend on the air,
food, and drier properties. If these properties had been measured and
a suitable model of moisture and temperature distributions had been
used, the calculated results would have been in better agreement with
the experimental results. This approach can be applied to predict nu¬
trient retention. The results of this work would contribute to knowledge
in the areas of drying behavior and chemical deteriorations during dry¬
ing. Similar work on browning of applesauce was done by Escher and
Neukom (1970,1971).
As will be shown, the losses of nutritive values during most drying
and concentration processes are small in relation to losses during cook¬
ing. Many factors preceding the drying or concentration operation have
an influence on the nutrient retention measured. For example, the
presence of sulfur dioxide is known to protect ascorbic acid but de¬
creases thiamin retention. The presence of copper or iron affects
ascorbic acid retention. Heavy metals are likely to catalyze the oxida¬
tion of carotenes. Each of these factors will be considered in the
appropriate sections.
408 P. M. Bluestein and T. P. Labuza

Proteins

Damage to proteins in the processing of foods has been reviewed by

Bender (1972). He suggests that many diets are limited by the sulfur-
containing amino acids and that reactions of lysine, which is in surplus,
is not critical. However, the reaction of lysine, more particularly the
e-amino group, with reducing sugars is one of the most studied reac¬
tions in foods and is heat sensitive. This provides a ready index for the
extent of other deteriorations. Woodham (1973), in addition, has re¬
viewed the area of vegetable protein concentrates and notes that destruc¬
tion of naturally present antinutritional factors is just as important.
The reaction of lysine and reducing sugars is also important because
it is involved in the reaction mechanism for one scheme of nonenzymatic
browning. Browning reactions can be desirable, as in the case of bread
crust, syrups, and coffee, but are considered undesirable in products
not expected to have a brown color such as dried milk products.
Work in the area of protein deterioration during drying can be divided
into two broad areas: (1) work on animal feeds and protein sources at
temperatures not usually encountered in drying operations, and (2)
work with foods under normal processing conditions. Not very many
studies exist which relate the deterioration taking place to changes in
processing conditions over a wide range of variables and which can be
used as a model.
Studies with soy-product drying must consider the inactivation of
naturally occurring toxicants, such as the trypsin inhibitor. It would be
useful to design a process which accomplishes this destruction with
minimal heat damage to other proteins. Drying after inactivation of the
trypsin inhibitor is required because of the usual addition of water to
the dry meal to increase heat transfer and effect the rate of inhibitor
destruction. The data of Taira et al. (f966) for lysine loss indicate that
the reaction rate constant, assuming a first order reaction is 0.166 hr'1
with an activation energy of 30 kcal/g-mol in the wet state. The de¬
struction of trypsin inhibitor occurs at a Tate approximately 100 times
faster with an activation energy of 18.5 kcal/g-mol (Hackler et al. 1965).
Because lysine is more sensitive to the ultimate temperature reached
(higher activation energy), trypsin inhibitor destruction should be per¬
formed at the lowest temperature possible. Hackler etal. (1965) present
data to substantiate this and this is shown in Table 15.1. The protein
efficiency ratio (PER) measured reflects the destruction of sulfur-
containing amino acids, which are limiting but it can be used as an
index for lysine loss in dried soy milk. During spray-drying experi¬
ments, trypsin inhibitor destruction increases as the air inlet tempera¬
ture increases. The PER shows only small changes until the tempera¬
ture of 277°C and decreases dramatically as the temperature is increased.
In this case, the air inlet temperature of 277°C is optimum when
 r
15. Moisture Removal 409

Table 15.1. Effect of Drying on Soy Mealfl

Trypsin inhibitor retained

(%) PER

Spray drying with air inlet at (°C) »

166 10 2.22
182 8 2,10
227 4 1.99
277 5 1.63
316 3 0.16
Drum drying
Air drum, 150 C 5 2.19
Vacuum drum, 29 in. Hg, 108°C 10 2.22
Freeze drying, 1000 /J Hg 10 2.14

Source: Hackler et al. (1965).

a Initial value 14% inhibitor retention after cooking.

considering the balance between trypsin inhibitor destruction and PER

decrease. It is difficult to explain the quantitative change in PER with¬
out further engineering data on the spray-drying technique used. It
appears that when the air inlet temperature is increased to 277°C, the
drops are drying very fast. These drying conditions lead to an increase
in droplet temperature before the inner portions of the drop is dry.
These are the conditions which favor reactions of the water-soluble
nutrients.
The data of Hackler et al. (1965) can also be used to compare spray
drying to drum drying and freeze drying. Drum drying in air with a
drum temperature of 150°C results in a significant reduction in trypsin
inhibitor without affecting the PER. Drying in this case occurs at a
lower temperature during the intermediate water-activity range than in
the high-temperature spray-drying runs. The time of drying would be
longer. A high-temperature-short-time (HTST) drying process favors
the lowering of PER over trypsin inhibitor destruction. Drum drying in
410 P. M. Bluestein and T. P. Labuza

Table 15.2. Effect of Heat and Moisture on Fish Meal

Freeze-dried control (%)

Conditions of treatment
NPU
Temp Moisture Time Available Pepsin
(°C) (%) (min) lysine digestibility Rats Chicks

96 7.7 80 94 88 — 98.6
8.8 60 96 84 — 102.0
10.8 120 87 76 — 98.1
36.0 60 87 71 97.7 98.6
116 6.4 120 94 78.1 95.3 96.8
7.5 60 100 78.2 97.0 98.8
8.4 30 96.0 80.0 97.4 99.7
132 2.5 120 97 58.4 91.8 97.1

Source: Myklestad et al. (1972).

a vacuum of 29 mm Hg and freeze drying are low-temperature processes

which do not show marked changes in PER or trypsin inhibitor.
Livingston et al. (1971) dried alfalfa in a rotary drier at temperatures
above the normal range for drying foods. These results are shown in
Fig. 15.4 and are useful to establish the upper limits of loss in this
product. Again, sufficient data are not available for a complete quan¬
titative description of the losses of amino acids. However, a simplified
analysis is possible. Air dry-bulb temperatures to the drier ranged from
650° to 950°C and outlet temperatures were 100°-170°C. These con¬
ditions are typical of high-efficiency drying without concern for product
quality. Estimated air wet-bulb temperatures are in the range from
70° to 120°C. Drying begins at the wet-bulb temperature and the
temperature of the pieces quickly increases. As the air temperature at
the inlet is increased, the temperature of the piece throughout drying is
increased, the outlet temperature is increased, and the final moisture
content is decreased. Because the heat treatment is more severe as the
final moisture content is lowered, the destruction of amino acids is in¬
creased as the final moisture content is lowered. The data are shown in
Fig. 15.4.
Myklestad et al. (1972) heated fish meal prepared from herring at
different temperatures, times, and moisture contents. Table 15.2 shows
the available lysine loss, protein digestibility by an in vitro test, and two
in vivo tests on the processed fish meal. As noted, there seems to be
substantial decreases in available lysine and chemical digestibility with
pepsin when moisture content of the meal during heating was high or
heating time was long. However, because of the scattered conditions
used, no real pattern can be established. What is more interesting is
that the in vivo studies show only a 4-5% nutritional loss of the meal.
This makes suspect many of the considerations presented in the literature
 15. Moisture Removal 411

based solely on chemical tests. It also indicates that even high-

temperature, high-moisture contents during drying do not affect pro¬
tein nutritional values significantly, although available lysine decreases.
Aitken et al. (1967) also showed that, based on rat NPU (net protein
utilization) studies, there wa£ no significant difference between freeze-
dried cod meal versus that which was rapidly dried at either 110°, 115°,
or by slow drying with salt and pressing, at 27°C.
The biological quality of the protein in 12 different foods, both
before and after drying, was measured by de Groot (1963). The effects
of the drying methods were small and in most cases insignificant. The
products used were meats, egg, legumes, leafy vegetables, and sweet
corn. The drying methods included hot-air drying, vacuum drying,
spray drying, and freeze drying. The vegetables were sulfited and the
conditions were in the range of commercial practice. A slightly larger
decrease in NPU was found for green beans dried at 71°C for 0.5 hr
compared to 60°C for 1.0 hr or 49°C for 20 hr when compared to the
undehydrated sample. However, when the experiment was repeated,
the results were not significant and the NPU difference between the
experiments was 8%, approximately five times the standard error. This
indicates the importance of good controls and use of the same lot of
sample. For the above reasons, experiments which just report the
chemical protein quality or vitamin content after a certain process do
not always represent the true effect of processing.
Milk is particularly susceptible to the loss of lysine by reaction with
lactose. This is especially true in whey processing (Rolls and Porter
1973). Considerable work has been done in this area because of the
industrial importance of dried milk. MacDonald (1966) took samples
of milk from commercial spray-drying and drum-drying installations.
Spray drying resulted in losses of lysine of 0-4.1%. Drum-drying losses
of lysine from five drum-drying installations ranged from 3 to 16%.
The larger losses due to drum drying can be explained based on the
time-temperature-moisture content relationships for the two drying
methods. Drum drying creates a sheet of material in contact with the
hot drum during the time when the milk is in the intermediate moisture-
content range and has the greatest reaction rate. Spray drying has
much faster drying rates, which indicates that the milk passes through
this maximum in the reaction rate curve (Figs. 15.2 and 15.3) while still
at a low temperature. What is also interesting about the work is the
variability in available lysine from different production plants, although
this may be due to analytical technique. Rolls and Porter (1973)
report that in efficient spray drying, available lysine only decreases by
3-10% whereas with roller-dried milk the loss was 5-40%. Methionine
loss in severely heated samples was about 10%. The biological value
(animal tests) was higher for the spray-dried product.
412 P. M. Bluestein and T. P. Labuza

If milk is to be used as the sole source of food, which would only be

the case for a limited number of infants, the losses in the limiting sulfur
amino acids are of greater concern than lysine loss, since lysine is at
high concentration. Bickel and Mauron (1959) showed that severely
roller-dried milk was satisfactory for infant feeding. However, when
the dry milk was incorporated into a diet, which makes lysine limiting,
as was shown by Van den Beuel et al. (1972), the NPU for rats was de¬
creased. They fed them gluten with diets in which the available lysine
of the milk was 64 and 86%. This shows the problem with man versus
animal studies.
Mauron (1960) reported data on the availability of lysine for spray-
dried and three grades of drum-dried milk. The tests were conducted
by chemical methods and rat feeding studies with a diet supplemented
with methionine, the limiting amino acid in milk. The addition of
methionine makes lysine the limiting amino acid. Spray-dried powder
showed negligible reduction in the availability of lysine. Commercial
drum-dried milk showed a reduction of available lysine of approximately
30%. A slightly scorched sample had reductions in available lysine of
approximately 75%. Tryptophan and tyrosine were not affected by
any of the drying methods used. Methionine was inactivated to the ex¬
tent of 20% in the most severely heat-processed drum-dried sample.
The dried milk available to the consumer has been processed further by
rewetting and drying, to produce an instant powder. Posati et al. (1974)
reported reductions in lysine, methionine, and cystine, due to instantiz-
ing, for commercial samples of instantized dried milk in the range of 0
to 4%. Since spray drying with instantizing is the major industrial
production method today, nonfat dry milk can be expected to have
amino acid retentions of over 90%.
Milk and dairy products are the major products concentrated with
significant protein contents. Because of the presence of reducing sugar,
the major deterioration of any consequence is the reduction in lysine
availability. Mauron (1960) reports that approximately 80% of the
lysine is available in evaporated milk that has been retorted at 113°C
for 15 min. The lysine availability of sweetened condensed milk that
is not retorted is 97%. The evaporations were performed at 50°-55°C.
At this low temperature the loss of lysine is minimal. Further process¬
ing, such as retorting, results in additional losses. The temperatures
that can be used for evaporation cover a wide range; depending on the
design of the evaporators. The process described by Wiegrand (1971)
uses temperatures above those used by Mauron (1960). Nutritional
data and retention times were not given by Wiegrand. It is not possible
to predict the lysine availability of evaporated milk from this multi¬
effect installation; however, Shields (1973) reports that the work of
Mitchell at the University of Illinois in the 1930s and 1940s showed no
loss of biological value or vitamins during proper evaporation or com¬
mercial drying operations.
 15. Moisture Removal 413

Water-Soluble Vitamins
Water-soluble vitamins are considered separately from the oil-soluble
vitamins because of the difference in deteriorative mechanisms. The
most unstable water-soluble vitamin is ascorbic acid. Retention of
ascorbic acid is very sensitive'to the presence and type of heavy metals,
such as copper and iron, light, and dissolved oxygen. Because of the
high sensitivity to variables which are not well controlled, the losses of
ascorbic acid vary widely. In the early work reviewed in Harris and von
Loesecke (1960), the losses of ascorbic acid on drying ranged from 10
to 50%. Washing, blanching, and other pretreatments covered else¬
where account for part of these losses. Although sulfite protects ascor¬
bic acid, it reacts with and reduces the availability of thiamin. Since
dried products which are sulfited are not major sources of thiamin,
the overall nutritional effect is positive since sulfite prevents browning
reactions and, thus, protein loss.
Considerable data have been collected on the loss of ascorbic acid in
dried foods. These data can be used to explain the losses during drying.
The loss of ascorbic acid is very sensitive to water activity. The reac¬
tion rate constant varies over three orders of magnitude for the whole
water activity range. This relationship is shown in Fig. 15.5 for several

Fig. 15.5. Ascorbic acid destruc¬

tion rate as a function of water
activity. WATER ACTIVITY
414 P. M. Bluestein and T. P. Labuza

works. At low water activity, ascorbic acid is relatively stable. At high

water activity it is rapidly destroyed. The differences in the reaction
rate constant between different foods and model systems is consider¬
able; however, at intermediate the half-life is less than 2 months
even in foods. It is interesting to note that the systems that contain
high soluble sugar or glycol concentrations [such as the orange juice
crystals used by Karel and Nickerson (1964), the glycerol model sys¬
tem of Lee and Labuza (1975), and the sucrose solutions of Kyziink
and Curda (1970)] have higher destruction rate constants than cereals
or cereal-soy mixes [such as used by Vojnovich and Pfeifer (1970) or
the dehydrated cabbage of Gooding (1962)]. The difference may be
explained by water sorption phenomena. Sorption of water with high-
sugar foods is likely to contain more liquid water at lower water activ¬
ities, since the BET monolayer is very low (aw < 0.1). If more liquid
water is present, the volume available for reaction is greater and the
aqueous phase has a lower viscosity. In studies with a model system,
Lee and Labuza (1975) have shown that by using the sorption hysteresis
phenomena and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) data, the viscosity
of the aqueous environment is, indeed, one of the most important fac¬
tors in controlling the destruction of vitamin C. The higher the vis¬
cosity, the lower is the rate. If this is the mechanism responsible for
the difference, the addition of soluble proteins or some other viscosity
agent before drying high-sugar products (Mizrahi et al. 1967; Brennan
et al. 1971) may have a nutritional as well as a process aid justification.
The additive should, however, not be a glycol, such as glycerol, which
has a high water retention.
The reaction is also very sensitive to the temperature of processing.
The activation energy depends on the product and the moisture content.
Data for other products have been reported by Labuza (1972). In gen¬
eral, the activation energy is greatest at high water activities. The activa¬
tion energy may change from 10 to 30 kcal/g-mol over the water
activity range although it is usually about 20 kcal/g-mol. This high
sensitivity to temperature at high water aotivity suggests that ascorbic
acid retention is very dependent on the wet-bulb temperature at the
beginning of drying and the temperature of evaporation.
Fruits are major sources of ascorbic acid. The drying of fruits, which
are high in sugar, is a difficult problem. The temperature of the product
must be kept low. However, the losses in drying are usually a small
part of the total loss occurring. Escher and Neukom (1970) showed
that for apple flakes there was 8% loss of vitamin C in slicing, 62%
loss in blanching, 10% loss during puree preparation and only 5% loss in
drum drying. Many new drying methods have been reported for the
drying of fruits and purees, but ascorbic acid retention data are not
usually included, probably because, as shown, the other steps are the
major problems. Low-temperature drying processes, such as the vacuum
drying method of Kaufman et al. (1955), report no loss of ascorbic acid
 15. Moisture Removal 415

for tomato concentrates. The ultimate temperatures of 65° and 89°C

were reached when the product was dried and ascorbic acid was most
stable. More attention should be given to rapid blanching processes.
The evaporation of fruit juices can result in ascorbic acid losses if
not performed properly. Usually, the pressed juice is deaerated and
evaporated at low temperatures. Henshall (1973) reports that concen¬
trated products after freezing have ascorbic acid retentions of 92-97%.
The same range should apply to freeze-concentration processes.
Of all the B vitamins, the one most studied and probably most sensi¬
tive to temperature is thiamin, vitamin Bi. Farrer (1955) analyzed the
data available up to that time. Labuza (1972) corrected the activation
energies reported by Farrer. The activation energies for the destruction
of thiamin are approximately 20 kcal/g-mol. Rice et al. (1944) report
data that can be used to calculate the rate of thiamin degradation. At
63°C, the highest temperature reported, 20 hr are required for a 50%
loss of thiamin in dried pork. For samples held at 49°C at moisture
contents of 0, 2, 4, 6, and 9%, the losses of thiamin were 9, 40, 80, 90,
and 89% respectively. These losses are on the order for losses of ascor¬
bic acid. However, the activation energies for thiamin loss are slightly
less than those for ascorbic acid loss at high moisture contents and the
losses of thiamin in drying are less than the losses of ascorbic acid.
Most data in the literature report low loss levels of thiamin. Many of
the reports are summarized in Table 15.3. Hein and Hutchings (1971)
report average losses of thiamin after blanching for air-dried vegetables.
These values range from a low of approximately 5% for snap beans,
beets, corn, peas, and rutabagas to high values of 29% for carrots and
25% for potato. Thiamin losses are sensitive to the presence of sulfite,
which may account for some of the high losses found.
Data for the other water-soluble vitamins are sparse. Schroeder
(1971) lists losses that vary over a wide range. Vitamin B6 losses of

Table 15.3. Thiamin Loss in Drying

Loss
Product Conditions (%) Reference

Freeze-dried pork ? 30 Karmas et al. (1962)

Freeze-dried chicken ? 5-6 Rowe et al. (1963)
Freeze-dried pork -40°C 5 Thomas and Calloway (1961)
Freeze-dried chicken 1000 pHg 5 Thomas and Calloway (1961)
Freeze-dried beef 5 Thomas and Calloway (1961)
Vegetables0
Beans Air-dried 5 Harris and von Loesecke (1960)
Cabbage ? 9 Harris and von Loesecke (1960)
Corn 4 Harris and von Loesecke (1960)
Peas 3 Harris and von Loesecke (1960)
Air-dried pork ? 50-70 Calloway (1962)

a Does not include blanching losses.

416 P. M. Bluestein and T. P. Labuza

0-30% and pantothenic acid losses of 20-30% were reported for freeze-
dried fish. These losses seem somewhat high when compared to other
data and are suspect. Hein and Hutchings (1971) reported loss of ribo¬
flavin, niacin, and pantothenic acid for nine vegetables; in only two
cases did the losses of any of thes6 vitamins exceed 10% when the
blanched product is considered as 100%. Including blanching losses,
the average losses for the three vitamins were approximately 10%.
Rowe et al. (1963) report losses of riboflavin in freeze-dried chicken of
4-8%. In general, the losses of thiamin and other water-soluble vitamins,
excluding ascorbic acid, are less than 10% in conventional drying.
However, Miller et al. (1973) reported on vitamin losses in drum dry¬
ing of bean powders (double drum 127°C for 30 sec) and found about a
20% loss for thiamin, pyridoxine, niacin, and folacin. This suggests that
the other B vitamins have a stability similar to that of thiamin, at least
during drying. It is interesting to note that when the beans were acid
treated to pH 3.5, niacin loss was only 1%, thiamin loss increased to
35%, folacin loss to 60%, and pyridoxine remained at 20%.
Mossman et al. (1973) reported on the loss of thiamin during the
hot-air toasting of wheat for rolled wheat flakes. Various initial mois¬
ture contents and toasting times from 10 to 40 sec were used with an
air temperature of 325°C. Because of the low air humidity, the product
dried as it was toasted. The results are shown in Fig. 15.6. It is obvious
that less thiamin is lost at higher initial moisture contents. This is

Fig. 15.6. Effect of toasting, moisture content, and time on thiamin loss in wheat.
 15. Moisture Removal 417

opposite to the effect expected from chemical kinetics because the rate
of thiamin loss should increase with moisture content. However, as the
moisture content of the feed increases, two changes occur that modify
the prediction based on chemical kinetic considerations. First, more
drying occurs at the lower, wet-bulb temperature. Second, as more
moisture is evaporated into the air, the air dry-bulb temperature de¬
creases further and the product temperature during and after drying is
lower. This is confirmed by the exit temperature shown in Fig. 15.6.
In fact, higher moisture contents of the feed in these experiments re¬
sult in a lower temperature toasting or drying operation. The lower
temperatures of processing result in better thiamin retentions. The
same concepts and reasoning apply to protein quality losses during
toasting. However, the changes in quality as measured biologically are
nonlinear with respect to chemical changes. This accounts for the fact
that only the sample toasted at the most detrimental conditions, 40 sec
and 10% initial moisture content, showed a significant drop in PER
from 1.25 for the original to 0.88 for the toasted product.
Loss of water-soluble > vitamins during concentration processes has
not received much attention. Most of the B vitamins in milk are not af¬
fected by evaporation (Harris and von Loesecke 1960). Thiamin is the
single exception, and these losses range from 14 to 27%. Glover (1971)
reports the losses of ascorbic acid, pantothenic acid, nicotinic acid,
riboflavin, biotin, B12, B6, thiamin, and folic acid after the ultrafiltra¬
tion and reverse-osmosis processing of skim milk, whole milk, and
whey. Ultrafiltration was performed with a membrane with a nominal-
molecular-weight cutoff of 12,000. Ascorbic acid retention was only
13%, probably due to oxidation. Folic acid and B12, which are associated
with proteins, were retained 100%. Oil-soluble vitamins in whole milk
were not measured, but losses would be small. All other vitamins were
lost to a significant extent. The losses appear to vary with the amount
of concentration. The average of all vitamins lost, excluding ascorbic
acid, are shown in Table 15.4. The results indicate that the low-
molecular-weight vitamins pass through the membrane in proportion

Table 15.4. Retention of Vitamins in Ultrafiltration

Average water-soluble
Solution retained vitamins retained^
Product (%) (%)

Whole milk 50 63
Skim milk 64 77
Whey 34 39

a Pantothenic acid, nicotinic acid, riboflavin, biotin, thiamin, and

B6 (Glover 1971).
418 P. M. Bluestein and T. P. Labuza

to the amount of water recorded. Reverse osmosis, which is performed

at moderate temperatures, appears to be a good process for vitamin
retention.

Fat-Soluble Vitamins
The fat-soluble vitamins have been separated from the water-soluble
vitamins because of a difference between the deteriorative mechanisms.
The fat-soluble vitamins would be expected to degrade by a free-radical
oxidation mechanism. The free-radical oxidation of lipids has been re¬
viewed by Labuza (1971). The reaction is characterized by a low
activation energy (10-15 kcal/mol) and a long induction time.
Della Monica and McDowell (1965) dried carrots by the procedures
shown in Table 15.5. They measured total /3-carotene and the trans¬
isomer, which is the form with 100% provitamin A activity. The losses
of total (3-carotene are higher than would be expected if the loss rate
was due solely to a free-radical oxidation mechanism. Thus, some
direct thermal reaction must be taking place, as evidenced by the loss in
freeze drying. Sweeney and Marsh (1971) report a loss of 13% for
freeze-dried carrots. Foda et al. (1970) report losses of (3-carotene of
approximately 4% for freeze-dried orange juice of various concentrations.
Reports of other oil-soluble vitamin retentions are limited to milk.
There is little or no loss of vitamin A or D during the spray drying,
drum drying, or evaporation of milk (Hartman and Dry den 1965;
Harris and von Loesecke 1960).
There are also no reports in the literature of vitamin E loss during
drying. Considering that it is also involved in the lipid oxidation scheme
it would be expected to be low. In oilseed processing, for example,
where very high temperatures are used, it is assumed that only 5% of
the vitamin is lost.

Table 15.5. Retention of Carotene in Drying Carrots to 3% H2O

* Average retention (%)

Temperature, time,
Drying process conditions Total (3-carotene trans-fi-carotene

Tray air drying42 93°C,2 hr 74 60

66°C,6 hr
Explosion puff42 93°C, 2 hr in tray; 81 60
exploded at 1800 mm Hg;
finished at 66°C;
total time 5.5 hr.
Freeze dried42 71°C, 1 mm Hg, 85 80
4-5 hr
Freeze dried^2 7
90 80

42Della Monica and McDowell (1965).

^ Sweeney and Marsh (1971).
 15. Moisture Removal 419

CONCLUSION

Drying processes appear to offer good nutrient retentions with the

exceptions of ascorbic acid and (3-carotene losses. Of the concentration
procedures, ultrafiltration shows the highest losses. Protein, quality
deteriorations due to drying or evaporation Eire minimal in products
currently in production (Mauron 1960; de Groot 1963). The losses of
water-soluble vitamins other than ascorbic acid during drying average
approximately 5% (Hein and Hutchings 1971). Oil-soluble vitamins in
milk are not lost in either drying or evaporation (Hartman and Dryden
1965; Harris and von Loesecke 1960). Losses of (3-carotene in dried
carrots are significant (Della Monica and McDowell 1965), but small in
freeze-dried orange juice (Foda et al. 1970). Ultrafiltration results in
highly significant losses of most water-soluble vitamins (Glover 1971).
Ascorbic acid losses are high in drying, but concentration offers minimal
losses (Henshall 1973). No experimental reports of nutrient retentions
after freeze concentration could be found but this process should offer
excellent nutrition retention.
The real problem with the current literature is that little work has
been done on the kinetics of nutrient losses at constant temperatures
and humidities. With this knowledge and the time-temperature-
moisture content distribution in the product during drying, process
optimization procedures could be calculated where necessary.

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422 P. M. Bluestein and T. P. Labuza

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 16
Effects of
Fermentation on
the Nutritional Properties
of Food1
Roger F. McFeeters

Fermented foods, such as breads, cheeses, various soybean products,

cassava, vegetables, and sausages, have made important contributions to
human diets for thousands of years and continue to do so. Certainly
the most significant role of fermentation in human nutrition has been
to help make the nutrients naturally present in the starting food ma¬
terials more palatable and more widely available than would be possible
without fermentation. Thus, even if fermentations had no direct effect
upon the nutrient content and quality of foods, these processes would
be very important to the food supply. However, it is clear that fermenta¬
tion processes can have significant direct effects on the nutritive qualities
of foods. It is the purpose of this chapter to review these direct nutri¬
tional consequences of fermentation and to consider some of the un¬
certainties and limitations of current data.

CHARACTERIZATION OF NUTRIENT CHANGES

IN FERMENTED FOODS

Food fermentations are very complex processes because they nor¬

mally involve the interaction of plant or animal tissues with a group of
microorganisms. This means that changes depend upon the available
nutrients and nutrient precursors in the starting materials, the meta¬
bolic capabilities of the starting materials, the metabolic abilities of

1 Paper 9729 of the Journal Series of the North Carolina Agricultural Research
Service, Raleigh, NC 27695-7601. Mention of a trademark or proprietary product
does not constitute a guarantee or warranty of the product by the U.S. Department
of Agriculture or North Carolina Agricultural Research Service, nor does it imply
approval to the exclusion of other products that may be suitable.

423
424 R. F. McFeeters

the fermentative microorganisms, and possible interactions among all

of these elements. To complicate matters further, many fermentations
occur in solid or semisolid states so that particle sizes, diffusion rates
of oxygen and nutrients, and distribution of fermentative organisms
may be important factors in both the organoleptic quality and nu¬
trient content of the product. Considering these complexities and the
many types of food fermentations that are employed around the world,
it is not surprising that our understanding of nutrient changes in most
fermented foods is very incomplete. Particularly notable is the fact
that examples are lacking in which the biochemical mechanisms under¬
lying nutrient changes in fermented foods are understood well enough
to allow control of final nutrient concentrations.
Since many groups of microorganisms participate in food fermenta¬
tions, there should be opportunities to use advances in genetic modifica¬
tion and biochemical engineering techniques to increase critical nutrients
in fermented foods. One example might be the increased production of
a limiting amino acid, such as lysine, by fermentative organisms (Sands
and Hankin 1974, 1976; Haidaris and Bhattacharjee 1978). However,
the mechanisms by which nutrients are formed or degraded during food
fermentations must be better defined before we can expect to produce
consistent, useful changes in fermented foods.
Table 16.1 is a list of important questions that can be asked about
almost any nutrient change in any food fermentation. With limited
and scattered research efforts to characterize nutrient changes in fer¬
mented foods, undoubtedly it will be a number of years before all of
the questions can be answered for any particular fermentation. Con¬
sidering the variety and complexity of fermentation processes, it is
not reasonable to expect research workers to address all of these ques¬
tions, except in cases that are judged to be of special importance.

EFFECT OF FERMENTATION ON THE

ENERGY CONTENT OF FOOD

Data have not been published on changes in the caloric content of

food as a result of fermentation processes. Generally only small changes
would be expected. In processes such as tempeh production, which are
aerobic, the fermentation period is too short to allow large decreases in
the total lipids, carbohydrate, or protein components of the food. Dur¬
ing alcoholic or lactic acid fermentations, a large proportion of the
sugars are metabolized. However, the energy produced by fermentation
of sugars to either ethanol or lactic acid is only 2 mol ATP/mol hexose.
This compares with the potential production of 38 mol ATP/mol of
hexose when the sugar is completely oxidized. Therefore, approximately
95% of the energy available in the sugars remains after the fermentation.
 16. Fermentation 425

Table 16.1. Questions for Characterization of Nutrient Changes in Fermented Foods

1. What are the most important nutrients in the fermented food?

2. What is the initial concentration and variability of a nutrient in the starting ma¬
terials used in a fermentation?^
3. What is the final concentration of a nutrient at the end of a defined process
that results in a fermented product with acceptable chemical and organoleptic
characteristics?
4. What is the final concentration of a nutrient after storage of a fermented
product under a defined set of conditions of time, temperature, pH, humidity,
microbiological flora, etc.?
5. If an increase in a nutrient occurs during a fermentation, is the increase a result
of:
(a) moisture loss or other physical concentration effects during processing?
(b) synthesis of the nutrient by a fermentative microorganism?
(c) synthesis of the nutrient by the material which is undergoing fermentation?
(d) release of the nutrient from some bound, unavailable condition?
6. Which microorganism is responsible for synthesis of a nutrient?
7. What are the precursors used for the synthesis of a nutrient during fermen¬
tation?
8. What is the pathway used for synthesis of a nutrient during fermentation?
9. If a nutrient declines during fermentation, is the decrease a result of:
(a) removal of a nutrient due to washing, draining, or addition of water to
the fermentation?
(b) degradation due to enzymes in the material being fermented?
(c) exposure of the nutrient to oxygen or light?
(d) change in pH, which results in decreased stability of the nutrient?
(e) metabolism of the nutrient by a microorganism in the fermentation?
(f) binding of the nutrient into a nonavailable form?
(g) uptake of the nutrient by microbial cells, which are removed after fermen¬
tation?
10. Which microorganism is responsible for degradation of a nutrient?
11. What is the pathway of nutrient degradation?
12. If a nutrient does not change during fermentation, is this a result of:
(a) stabilization of the nutrient due to a favorable pH change, exclusion of
oxygen, exclusion of light, or another environmental factor?
(b) a balance between synthesis and degradation of the nutrient?
(c) a lack of any enzymatic or nonenzymatic mechanisms to cause a change?

Zimmer (1980) has estimated that the unavoidable energy loss due to
microbial fermentation of silage is only 2-4%.
Fermentation processes will not be discussed in detail in this chapter.
Descriptions for most of the fermentations considered in this review
can be found in the literature references and in several recent books
(Pederson 1979; Rose 1982; Steinkraus 1983). Unless otherwise indi¬
cated in the text, changes in nutrient content are stated relative to the
nonfermented ingredients which were used in the experiments.
426 R. F. McFeeters

LACTIC ACID ISOMERS IN FOOD FERMENTATIONS

Lactic acid is the major product formed from sugars in vegetable,

dairy and meat fermentations. Lactic acid bacteria produce two
stereoisomers of lactic acid (Stetter and Kandler 1973), which have
been designated D(-) and L(+). Since animals, including human beings,
normally produce only the L(+) isomer of lactic acid when muscles
are in oxygen deficit, the question of the fate of the D(-) isomer, when
it is consumed, has been investigated.
Cori and Cori (1929) were the first to observe that the D(-) form of
lactic acid is metabolized more slowly than the L(+) isomer. This basic
observation has been confirmed in rabbits (Drury and Wick 1965),
ducks (Brin 1964), cattle (Dunlop etal. 1964; Giesecke and Stangassinger
1980), and sheep (Giesecke and Stangassinger 1980). Even though the
D(-) isomer is not produced in muscle tissue, it has been found that
animals, whether ruminant or monogastric, normally absorb this isomer
because it is formed by bacteria in the rumen or intestinal tract (Giesecke
et al. 1980; Giesecke and Stangassinger 1980). Recent research has
emphasized that mammals have normal mechanisms to metabolize the
D(-) isomer. Giesecke et al. (1981) found that both the rabbit and the
rat excreted only about 6% of an injected sample of the D(-) isomer,
even though these animals metabolize the isomer differently. Thus,
present data indicate that the energy yield from lactic acid will be
similar regardless of the isomer consumed.
The differences between the rates of metabolism of lactic acid iso¬
mers and indications that infants have difficulty metabolizing DL-lactic
acid (Droese and Stolley 1962,1965) resulted in a recommendation by
the Food and Agriculture Organization/World Health Organization
Expert Committee on Food Additives that infants not be given foods
containing D(-) lactic acid and that'adults limit their intake of the
D(-) isomer to not more than 100 mg/kg/day (World Health Organiza¬
tion 1966). Subsequently, the recommendation regarding limits on
adult intake was dropped (World Health Organization 1974).
There are only limited data on the distribution of lactic acid isomers
in foods. Kunath and Kandler (1980) found a mixture of isomers in
both commercial and laboratory prepared yogurts. The proportions of
the isomers varied with the fermentation and storage temperatures and
the lactic acid bacteria present. Though an excess of L(+)-lactic acid
was common, it usually did not exceed 70% of the total lactic acid.
Aim (1982B) found 42% D(-)-lactic acid in yogurt which contained
1.2% total lactic acid. The D(-) isomer was not found in kefir, ropy
milk fermented with Streptococcus lactis var. longi and Leuconostoc
cremoris, low-fat acidophilus milk, and bifidus milk. Lactic acid
isomers have not been analyzed in fermented cucumbers or sauerkraut.
However, Lactobacillus plantarum, Pediococcus pentosaceus, and
 16. Fermentation 427

Lactobacillus brevis are known to produce DL-lactic acid and Leuco-

nostoc mesenteroid.es D(-)-lactic acid (Garvie 1967; Stetter and Kandler
1973), so it would be expected that fermented vegetables would con¬
tain both isomers.

EFFECTS OF FERMENTATION ON PROTEIN CONTENT,

QUALITY, AND AVAILABILITY

Many fermentations are done on foods such as cereals, legumes, dairy

products, and meats, which are important protein sources. Changes
in the nutritive value of proteins as a result of fermentation are particu¬
larly important for cereals and legumes. These sources of protein often
are of lower nutritional quality than animal products, and they tend to
be major dietary sources of protein for people with marginal or sub¬
marginal protein intake. Therefore, fermentation processes that con¬
sistently improve protein* quality or availability of cereals or legumes
could have a positive impact on the diets of many people. Conversely,
any fermentation that resulted in unnecessary loss of protein content
or quality could have a particularly negative impact.

Protein Content
The primary objectives for most fermentations of high-protein foods
are to modify the flavor or texture characteristics of the starting-food
ingredients. These changes generally are produced by fermentations
that are limited both in the time and extent to which microorganisms
are allowed to grow. Therefore; large changes in total protein content
would not normally be expected. Available data tend to support this
expectation. Fermentations have not been found to significantly affect
the protein content of idli (Reddy et al. 1981; van Veen et al. 1967;
Rajalakshmi and Vanaja 1967) or khaman (Rajalakshmi and Vanaja
1967). Small increases in protein were found after fermentation in
the production of tempeh (Murata et al. 1967; Wang et al. 1968).
Wang et al. (1968) attributed the increase in protein to the loss of
other components during fermentation. Aim (1982C) observed an in¬
crease in protein content during the fermentation of several types of
fermented milk, while Rao et al. (1982) found small, but statistically
significant decreases. In both instances, the changes were attributed
to the loss of volatile components from the samples. One exception to
the general result that fermentations will not cause large changes in the
amount of protein is the growth of Candida tropicalis on cassava flour
to produce yeast biomass (Azoulay et al. 1980). The protein content
of the flour increased from 3.1 to 18% as a result of the fermentation.
428 R. F. McFeeters

Table 16.2. Changes in PER of Proteins as a Result of Food Fermentations

PER

Product Before After APER Reference

Chickpea tempeh 1.95 2.11 0.16 Kao and Robinson (1978)

Horsebean tempeh 0.89 1.51 0.62 Kao and Robinson (1978)
Horse bean tempeh + met + try 2.22 2.60 0.32 Kao and Robinson (1978)
Soybean tempeh 1.77 2.03 0.26 Kao and Robinson (1978)
Oncom 1.51 1.41 -0.10 Fardiaz and Markakis
(1981B)
Idli
4:1 black gram/rice 2.28 2.55 0.27 Rao (1961)
1:1 black gram/rice 1.99 1.84 -0.15 van Veen et al. (1967)
1:2 black gram/rice 1.50 2.00 0.50 Rajalakshmi and Vanaja
(1967)
Wheat tempeh 1.28 1.71 0.43 Wang et al. (1968)
Soybean tempeh 2.17 2.27 0.10 Wang et al. (1968)
1:1 Wheat/soybean tempeh 2.49 2.79 0.30 Wang et al. (1968)
Wheat tempeh
0 hr 1.25 — — Wang et al. (1968)
12 hr — 1.28 0.03 Wang et al. (1968)
24 hr — 1.78 0.50 Wang et al. (1968)
48 hr — 1.84 0.56 Wang et al. (1968)
72 hr 1.73 0.45 Wang et al. (1968)
Soybean tempeh
0 hr 2.63 — — Hackler et al. (1964)
12 hr 2.47 — -0.16 Hackler et al. (1964)
24 hr 2.56 — -0.07 Hackler et al. (1964)
36 hr 2.49 — -0.14 Hackler et al. (1964)
72 hr 2.44 — -0.19 Hackler et al. (1964)
Ontjom 2.17 2.17 0.00 van Veen and Steinkraus,
(1970)
Ecuadorian rice 1.90 1.63 -0.27 van Veen and Steinkraus,
■v. (1970)
Fish paste 3.12 2.96 -0.16 van Veen and Steinkraus,
(1970)
Dry sausage 3.24 3.92 0.68 Eskeland and Nordal
A
(1980)

Nutritional Quality of Proteins in Fermented Foods

Even though changes in the quantity of protein as a result of food
fermentation appear to be small or nonexistent, considerable effort has
been made to investigate changes in the nutritional quality of the pro¬
tein. Table 16.2 is a compilation of reported changes in the protein
efficiency ratio (PER) of various foods as a result of fermentation. The
results of these studies suggest that protein quality can be improved by
fermentation in some instances. A number of studies showed no signifi¬
cant change in protein quality. None of the PER evaluations showed a
significant decline in protein quality as a result of fermentation. The
 16. Fermentation 429

data in Table 16.2 may be somewhat complicated by the fact that dur¬
ing fermentation other nutrients may change so that variations in
growth response of rats may not be exclusively a result of changes in
amino acids or proteins (Kao and Robinson 1978).
Evaluations of protein Quality changes also have been made by
techniques other than PER measurements. Hargrove and Alford (1978)
found that the growth rate and feed efficiency of yogurt prepared with
Lactobacillus bulgaricus and Saccharomyces thermophilus were im¬
proved, compared to nonfermented milk, when fed to rats. There was
no improvement when other fermented milks were tested, including
cultured buttermilk, acidophilus milk, kefir, and Bulgarian buttermilk.
The effect of natural fermentations on the protein quality of corn,
chickpea, and cowpea flours has been investigated by Fields and co¬
workers (Hamad and Fields 1979; Zamora and Fields 1979), using the
growth response of Tetrahymena pyriformis relative to casein. They
found significant increases in nutritive value as a result of fermenting
each type of flour.
The results of protein quality studies suggest that fermentations can
improve protein quality, but also that there is no improvement in many
instances. Therefore, if fermentation is to be used for this purpose, the
ingredients, conditions, and fermentative organisms that can give im¬
provement need to be defined for each case.

Amount and Availability of Limiting Amino Acids

The nutritive value of proteins will depend primarily upon the
amount and availability of the limiting essential amino acid in a food.
There is the possibility that during fermentation the total amount of
any particular amino acid may increase or decrease or that the avail¬
ability may change significantly. For most foods, including those that
are fermented, the limiting amino acids are lysine or the sulfur amino
acids.
In an investigation of several types of fermented milks, Rao et al.
(1982) found that both lysine and the sulfur amino acids tended to de¬
cline as a result of fermentation. Lysine decreased by nearly 40% when
skim milk was fermented by Lactobacillus acidophilus. Buttermilk
was the only product to show an increase in lysine during fermentation.
The largest methionine loss, 30%, occurred when whole milk was fer¬
mented by L. acidophilus. Several studies of tempeh fermentations
generally showed little change in either lysine or methionine (Wang
et al. 1968; Stillings and Hackler 1965; Kao and Robinson 1978;
Murata et al. 1967). Lactic acid fermentation of dry sausages also
showed no change in these amino acids.
An instance in which fermentation increased the level of the most
limiting amino acid was a 60% increase in methionine during the
preparation of idli from black gram (Padhye and Salunkhe 1978).
430 R. F. McFeeters

Table 16.3. Modified Essential Amino Acid (MEAA) Indexes

and Percentage Digestible Crude Protein of Single-Cell
Protein (SCP) from Certain Lactobacilli

V Digestible
SCP Source MEAA index crude protein (%)

Casein 91 98.5 ± 0.2

L. acidophilus 3532 73 79.3 ± 0.5
L. acidophilus 3205 86 83.7 ± 0.5
L. bulgaricus 2217 76 89.2 ± 0.1
L. bulgaricus 3533 69 81.3 ± 0.4
L. casei 14435 80 82.3 ± 0.2
L. delbrueckii B-443 80 82.5 ± 0.2
L. fermenti 3954 85 86.5 ± 0.5
L. fermenti 3957 69 81.6 ± 0.5
L. plantarum 14431 59 79.9 ± 0.8
L. plantarum 8014 62 80.6 ± 0.3
L. thermophilus 3863 69 88.0 ± 0.3

Source: Erdman et al. (1977).

However, van Veen et al. (1967) did not find any change in methionine
when idli was fermented to give optimum product quality. Padhye
and Salunkhe (1978) attributed the differences between the results of
the two studies to variations in preparation techniques and different
microflora in a natural fermentation. This points up the need to con¬
trol the organisms and conditions of fermentation if a positive nutri¬
tional effect is to be consistently attained.
There are limited data on the amino acid profiles and content of the
organisms that carry out fermentations. Stillings and Hackler (1965)
reported that a strain of Rhizopus oligosporus was low in most essen¬
tial amino acids. Saccharomyces cerevisiae has an excellent amino acid
profile with the exception of a low methionine content (Kihlberg 1972).
Erdman et al. (1977) found that lactobacilli have good amino acid
profiles and good digestibilities (Table 16.3). They are relatively high
in lysine and low in methionine, though the methionine content is gen¬
erally higher than S. cerevisiae cells, soy protein, or wheat flour. There
were quite large differences in amino acids, both among species and
among strains within a single species, indicating a potential for selecting
favorable organisms from the standpoint of amino acid profile. Un¬
fortunately, the strains of L. plantarum evaluated had both the lowest
essential amino acid index and lowest digestibility. This species dominates
the later stages of most natural lactic acid fermentations (Pederson 1979).
Information is needed on the amount of protein that is provided by
microbial cells in food fermentations and the quality of protein in other
organisms to determine whether there may be opportunities to improve
overall protein quality of fermented foods with the proteins from the
cells of the fermentation microorganisms.
 16. Fermentation 431

In addition to the amino acid content, the nutritional quality of a

food may be improved if, in the process of fermentation, the amino
acids become more available. This can occur as a result of proteolytic
activity by the fermentation microorganisms. Molds used in food
fermentations have active proteolytic enzymes (Ko 1982). Most lactic
acid bacteria used in dairy fermentations have limited proteolytic
activity, though the species that participate in other lactic acid fermen¬
tations appear to have almost no proteolytic activity (Law and Kolstad
1983).
Increases in soluble amino acids during fermentation have been ob¬
served in milk products (Aim 1982A; Rao et al. 1982), peanuts (Cherry
and Beuchat 1976), tempeh (Murata et al. 1967; Robinson and Kao
1977), and natural fermentations of corn (Tongnual et al. 1982),
chickpeas, and cowpeas (Zamora and Fields 1979). Whether increases
in free amino acids contribute to the improvement of protein quality
remains to be clarified.

EFFECTS OF FERMENTATION ON
CHANGES IN VITAMINS
As indicated from the questions in Table 16.1, fermentations may re¬
sult in changes in vitamin content by several mechanisms, including
(1) synthesis of vitamins by the fermentation organisms, (2) loss of
vitamins by metabolism of the fermentation organism or the food
which undergoes fermentation, (3) loss of vitamins by chemical reac¬
tions not directly related to fermentation, (4) increase or decrease in
the stability of vitamins as a result of pH changes, and (5) soaking or
cooking losses associated with preparation of a product before or after
fermentation. We will review the limited information available for the
vitamins that have been investigated in fermented foods. Shahani and
Chandan (1979) have previously reviewed vitamin changes in cultured
dairy products. Smith and Palumbo (1981) have reviewed vitamin
changes in a variety of fermented foods.

Riboflavin
Riboflavin changes have been investigated primarily in cereal and
legume fermentations. No increase was found in a natural fermentation
of chickpeas (Zamora and Fields 1979), in the fermentation of coconut
press cake to produce oncom (Reddy et al. 1982), and in one study of
idli fermentation (van Veen et al. 1967). Riboflavin concentration was
also unchanged after fermentation of milk with several lactic acid bac¬
teria (Aim 1982B). However, increases in riboflavin have been the most
often observed result of fermentation. Products in which increases have
been observed are (1) tempeh prepared from soybean (Roelofsen and
Talens 1964; Murata et al. 1967; van Veen and Steinkraus 1970;
432 R. F. McFeeters

Robinson and Kao 1977), chickpea, and horsebean (Robinson and Kao
1977), (2) miso prepared from soybeans, chickpeas, or horsebeans
(Robinson and Kao 1977), (3) idli (Rajalakshmi and Vanja 1967;
Ramakrishnan et al. 1976), (4) khaman (Rajalakshmi and Vanaja
1967), (5) ogi (Akinrele 1970), (6) dhokla (Aliya and Geervani 1981),
and (7) ambali (Aliya and Geervani 1981). Aliya and Geervani (1981)
observed decreases in riboflavin when products were steamed after
fermentation.
There have been few data which indicate the specific organisms or
reactions leading to increases in riboflavin concentration. Akinrele
(1970) sterilized ogi batter and inoculated it with either Aerobacter
cloacae or L. plantarum and compared the vitamin content with a
natural fermentation and a nonfermented control. Aerobacter cloacae
caused a doubling of riboflavin compared to the controls, while the
vitamin concentration decreased in the L. plantarum-inoculated sample.
This result suggested that A. cloacae was the microorganism responsible
for the fact that, after a natural fermentation, the riboflavin content
was slightly higher than the nonfermented batter.
Extensive studies have been carried out to investigate the characteris¬
tics of idli prepared with soybeans replacing the traditional blackgram
(Ramakrishnan et al. 1976). Changes in thiamin, niacin, and riboflavin
were measured after pure culture fermentations of idli batter with
microorganisms isolated from natural fermentations, including lacto-
bacilli, Streptococcus faecalis, and Aerobacter aerogenes. A 2.5-fold in¬
crease in riboflavin occurred during natural fermentation. Fermenta¬
tion with Lactobacillus delbrueckii resulted in a riboflavin concentra¬
tion equal to the natural fermentation. Fermentations with other
lactobacilli resulted in riboflavin levels intermediate between the
sterilized batter and the idli made with L. delbrueckii.

Niacin
Niacin, like riboflavin, generally has been found to increase as a re¬
sult of fermentation, increases up to fivefold have been observed in
soy tempeh (Roelofsen and Talens 1964; van Veen and Steinkraus
1970; Robinson and Kao 1977). A time course study by Murata et al.
(1967) indicated that nicotinic acid concentration continued to in¬
crease throughout a 72-hr fermentation (Fig. 16.1). Organoleptically, a
24-hr fermentation tends to give the best quality product.
Increases in niacin have also been observed in natural idli and khaman
fermentations (Rajalakshmi and Vanaja 1967; Ramakrishnan et al.
1976). Ramakrishnan et al. (1976) measured niacin changes in batters
fermented with several lactobacilli, A. aerogenes, and S. faecalis. The
niacin content increased significantly above the sterilized control in
every case. An unidentified lactobacillus and a Lactobacillus fermenti
 16. Fermentation 433

Fig. 16.1. Changes in

nicotinic acid content of
tempeh during fermenta¬
tion. Source: Murata et
al. (1967).

strain caused increases which were similar to the 40% increase found in
a natural fermentation.
In ogi fermentations, Akinrele (1970) obtained a 25% increase in
niacin concentration with a traditional fermentation. Inoculation of a
sterile batter with L. plantarum isolated from ogi caused no change,
but inoculation with A cloacae, which is also found in the natural
fermentation, resulted in an 84% increase in niacin.
Shahani and co-workers have studied changes in several B vitamins
during the manufacture of cottage cheese (Reif et al. 1976) and Cheddar
cheese (Nilson et al. 1965). In both studies, the vitamin retention in
the cheese relative to the starting milk was evaluated. The effect of
draining and washing cheese curd on the retention of niacin in the curd
was evaluated. Only 22% of the total niacin in the milk was retained in
Cheddar curd. However, the niacin concentration in the curd was
doubled relative to the concentration in the milk due to the loss of whey.
In cottage cheese, 63% of the niacin from the skim milk was retained
in the curd, and the concentration of the niacin in the curd was 3.6-
fold greater than in the milk.
During fermentation and aging of Cheddar cheese (Nilson et al.
1965), niacin increased about 25% in the first month, remained nearly
constant from 1 to 6 months, and then increased slowly from 6 to 12
months if the storage temperature was 10°C or higher (Fig. 16.2).
More than a doubling of niacin in the cheese could be induced if lactose
was added early in the ripening period (Fig. 16.3). Vitamin B6 also in¬
creased after lactose addition. This was attributed to increased microbial
activity as a result of extra substrate availability. Only a slight increase
in niacin content was observed as a result of the activity of the cottage
cheese starter culture. However, almost a doubling of the niacin con¬
tent of the curd was obtained by the addition of rennet. No explana¬
tion of this effect was given.
434 R. F. McFeeters

Fig. 16.2. Effect of tem¬

perature and length of
ripening upon niacin con¬
tent of Cheddar cheese.
Source: Nilson et al.
(1965).

LENGTH OF RIPENING (DAYS)

Fig. 16.3. Relationship between lactose metabolism and the biosynthesis of niacin
in Cheddar cheese. Source: Nilson et al. (1965).

Aim (1982A) found almost no change in the niacin content of fer¬

mented milks prepared with the usual cultures of lactic acid bacteria.
Costilow and Fabian (1953) found no substantial changes in the niacin
content of cucumber brine after pure culture fermentations with L.
plantarum and four yeasts, which had been isolated from cucumber
fermentations. Zamora and Fields (1979) observed an unusual case in
which a significant decrease of niacin occurred during a natural fer¬
mentation of cowpeas and chickpeas.
 16. Fermentation 435

Folic Acid
Studies of folic acid changes have been limited, probably due to the
difficulties in the assay of the different forms of this vitamin. Rao
(1961) reported a 59% increase of folate in fermented steamed idli
compared to the nonfermented starting material. Akinrele (1970) ob¬
served no change in folic acid in ogi fermentations.
In their studies of cheese fermentations, Shahani and co-workers
found an increase in folic acid from 1 to 14 pg/100 g during a 16-hr
fermentation of cottage cheese (Reif et al. 1976; Fig. 16.4). As a re¬
sult of this synthesis, there was over 10 times more folic acid in the
cottage cheese than in the skim milk used in the manufacture of the
cheese. Folic acid concentration also tripled during the first week of
Cheddar cheese ripening (Nilson et al. 1965; Fig. 16.5). However, after
the initial increase, it decreased until after 2 months of aging, the folate
level was the same as at the beginning of aging. Aim (1982A) found
large increases in folic acid in all of the fermented milks she prepared,

Fig. 16.4. Biosynthesis of folic acid by cottage

cheese starter culture. Source: Reif etal. (1976).

Fig. 16.5. Effect of tem¬

perature and length of
ripening upon folic acid of
Cheddar cheese. Source:
Nilson et al. (1965).
436 R. F. McFeeters

except acidophilus milk, which showed over a 30% decline. It appears

that folic acid can be synthesized by a number of the organisms used in
the fermentation of dairy products.

Thiamin
Increases of thiamin from 30 to 150% were observed in dhokla and
ambali fermentations (Aliya and Geervani 1981). Thiamin decreased
when the fermented batter was steamed, but fermentation after steam¬
ing resulted in the thiamin content returning to levels equal to or
greater than before steaming. Rajalakshmi and Vanja (1967) found a
176% increase of thiamin in the fermentation of idli and a 49% increase
in khaman. Thiamin content also increased in soy idli with either a
natural fermentation or fermentation of sterilized batters inoculated
with lactobacilli or S. faecalis. Lactobacillus delbrueckii caused the
largest increase, just as it did for riboflavin. Aerobacter aerogenes
caused a decrease of thiamin. Akinrele (1970) found a doubling of
thiamin in a natural ogi fermentation. However, he was unable to show
an increase in inoculated fermentations. Thiamin decreased when
sterilized batters were inoculated with L. plantarum, A. cloacae, or a
combination of these organisms.
Consistent decreases of thiamin have been found as a result of
fermentation of soybeans to tempeh (Roelofsen and Talens 1964;
Murata et al. 1967; van Veen and Steinkraus 1970; Robinson and Kao
1977). No change in thiamin concentration was found as a result of
fermentation of chickpeas and horsebeans to tempeh (Robinson and
Kao 1977). Zamora and Fields (1979) saw no change in thiamin dur¬
ing a natural fermentation of cowpeas and a 25% decrease during chick¬
pea fermentation. Little or no change in the thiamin occurred as a re¬
sult of fermentation of milk with different lactobacilli (Aim 1982A).

Vitamin B12
Vitamin B12 is absent or present in extremely low concentrations in
foods from plant sources. For people on a Vegetarian diet, formation of
B12 in a fermented food can be very important. Robinson and Kao
(1977) found small increases in Bn in tempeh prepared from soybeans,
chickpeas, and horsebeans. Van Veen and Steinkraus (1970) reported
an increase of over 30-fold from 0.15 to 5 jug/kg in the B12 concentra¬
tion of tempeh compared to the starting soybeans. Liem et al. (1977)
found that tempeh prepared with a pure culture of R. oligosporus had
very low levels of B12 compared to tempeh prepared by a traditional
method. They concluded that the B12 was formed by contaminating
bacteria normally present in the traditional procedure. Subsequently,
Ro et al. (1979) increased the B12 content of kimchi by addition of
Propionibacterium freudenreichii subsp. shermanii to the natural
fermentation (Fig. 16.6).
 16. Fermentation 437

Fig. 16.6. Content of vitamin Bj2 in control and Propionibacterium freudenreichii

subsp. shermanii-inoculated (P. s.) kimchi, with or without soy flour or beef extract,
fermented at 4°C. Source: Ro et al. (1979).

Milk contains substantial amounts of B12. Aim (1982A) found de¬

creases of up to 50% in yogurt and other fermented milk products
inoculated with lactic acid bacteria. In Cheddar cheese, there was little
change in the B12 content during 9 months of aging (Nilson et al. 1965).
However, from 9 to 12 months the vitamin concentration increased.
Vitamin B12 increased approximately fourfold during the production
of cottage cheese with starter culture.

Vitamin B6
Murata et al. (1967) observed increases in vitamin B6 concentrations
of 4.4- and 14-fold in two batches of soybean tempeh. Figure 16.9
shows the time course of vitamin B6 changes. Increases of pyridoxine
were also found in tempeh and miso prepared from chickpeas, horse-
peas, and soybeans (Robinson and Kao 1977).
In dairy fermentations, Aim (1982A) found only slight changes in
pyridoxine in milks fermented with lactic acid bacteria. Almost no
change occurred in the preparation of cottage cheese (Reif et al. 1976).
In Cheddar cheese ripening (Fig. 16.7), B6 concentration increased
initially and then declined until, after 2 months, the vitamin level was
the same as in the initial curd (Nilson et al. 1965). Over the next 10
months, the B6 concentration gradually increased until the final con¬
centration was two to three times the initial level. When lactose was
438 R. F. McFeeters

of Cheddar cheese. Source:

LENGTH OF RIPENING (MONTHS) Nilson et al. (1965).

added to the cheese during ripening, B6 increased rapidly and then de¬
clined until it was similar to the concentration in the nonsupplemented
cheese.

Biotin
Very limited data concerning changes in biotin in food fermentations
are available. Only small changes were observed in fermented milks
(Aim 1982A). Generally, the biotin concentration declined by less
than 20%. During Cheddar cheese ripening (Fig. 16.8), the biotin level
increased during the first 2 months by 60%, but then declined such
that after 6 months the concentration was less than the initial concen¬
tration (Nilson et al. 1965).

Fig. 16.8. Effect of tem¬

perature and length of
ripening upon biotin con¬
tent of Cheddar cheese.
Source: Nilson et al.
(1965).
 16. Fermentation 439

mg %

Fig. 16.9. Changes in panto¬

thenic acid and vitamin B6
content of tempeh dur¬
ing fermentation. Source:
Murataefa/. (1967).

Fermentation of cucumber brine with L. plantarum resulted in a

25% decline in biotin, while fermentation with four salt-tolerant yeasts
caused decreases of 10-25% (Costilow and Fabian 1953).

Pantothenic Acid *
Pantothenic acid did not change in fermented milks, except for a
20-30% decline during the fermentation of yogurt (Aim 1982A).
During Cheddar cheese aging, there was a decline for the first 2 months,
then a gradual increase. Storage at 15.6°C resulted in almost no net
change in the pantothenate content, but there was an overall decline
at lower temperatures (Nilson et al. 1965).
Van Veen and Steinkraus (1970) found a 28% decrease in panto¬
thenic acid during tempeh fermentation, but Murata et al. (1967;
Fig. 16.9) and Robinson and Kao (1977) observed substantial increases
in tempeh compared to the starting materials. Increases in pantothenate
were also found for the production of miso from chickpeas, horsebeans,
and soybeans (Robinson and Kao 1977). Pantothenate declined dur¬
ing ogi fermentation whether a traditional fermentation or fermenta¬
tions with inoculated A. cloacae or L. plantarum were tried (Akinrele
1970).
Cucumber brine fermented with L. plantarum showed a 26% decline
in pantothenic acid concentration, while yeast fermentations resulted
in 3-17% increases (Costilow and Fabian 1953).

Ascorbic Acid
Ascorbic acid is stabilized by acid conditions and the exclusion of
oxygen (Kahn and Martell 1967; Kurata and Sakurai 1967; Huelin
et al. 1971). Since it is desirable to ferment and store vegetables under
these conditions, good retention of ascorbic acid might be expected.
However, little is known about the ability of either fermenting vege¬
table tissue or lactic acid bacteria to metabolize ascorbic acid. Vegetable
440 R. F. McFeeters

materials are often exposed to oxygen during preparation for fermen¬

tation and during tank-emptying operations. Also, vegetables may be
drained or desalted after fermentation (Jones and Etchells 1944),
which may result in large losses of the water-soluble vitamins.
Jones (1975) reported nearly complete loss of ascorbic acid when
salt-stock cucumbers were desalted from 8-16% NaCl to 2-4% NaCl for
use in finished products. Fellers (1960) found an 86% loss of vitamin C
in desalted cucumbers. A range of 1-35 mg ascorbic acid/100 g of
sauerkraut was found in commercially canned sauerkraut in the 1950s
(Pederson et al. 1956). This wide range of concentrations was attri¬
buted to variations in handling and processing procedures and to varia¬
tions in the fresh product. Kimchi, which consists of a fermented mix¬
ture of Chinese cabbage, radishes, onions, spices, and sometimes shrimp,
decreased 50% in ascorbic acid concentration during the first 5 weeks
of fermentation, then remained constant for the next 5 weeks (Ro et al.
1979; Fig. 16.10). Lee et al. (1960) observed a transient increase of

Fig. 16.10. Ascorbic acid content of control and Propionibacterium freudenreichii

subsp. shermanii-inoculated (P. s.) kimchi, with or without soy flour or beef extract
and fermented at 4°C. Source: Ro et al. (1979).
 16. Fermentation 441

ascorbic acid in kimchi during the second week of fermentation. Kimchi

held at 0°C increased in vitamin C over a 60-day period by about 150%
and then gradually declined (Rhie and Chun 1982). Lee and Lee (1981)
studied vitamin C changes in radish kimchi fermented at 22°-23°C in a
nitrogen atmosphere. Vitamin C initially decreased, then increased and
reached a maximum when the kimchi was most acceptable organolepti¬
cally, and declined. The increase in vitamin C was attributed to synthesis
by the radish enzymes. Addition of galacturonic acid to either kimchi
or radish juice fermentation increased the amount of vitamin C formed.
Large percentage increases of ascorbic acid were observed in both tempeh
and miso prepared from chickpeas, horsebeans, and soybeans (Robinson
and Kao 1977).

REMOVAL OF PHYTIC ACID BY FERMENTATION

The presence of high concentrations of phytic acid in cereals and

legumes is of nutritional concern because of its apparent ability to re¬
duce the bioavailability of minerals, particularly divalent cations in¬
cluding calcium, zinc, iron, and magnesium (Reddy et al. 1982). It has
been found in a number of cases that phytates are significantly reduced

Table 16.4. Losses of Phytic Acid Phosphorus during Fermentation and Cooking
of Foods

Phytic acid Amount of

phosphorus phytic Phytic
present acid acid
originally phosphorus phosphorus
Nature of flour Nature of in flour hydrolyzed hydrolyzed
used product (mg/100 g) (mg/100 g) (%)

White flour (70% Bread made with 51 43.4 85.0

extraction) yeast
National wheat Bread made with 127 87.6 69.0
meal (85% yeast
extraction)
Wheat meal (92% Bread made with 214 66.3 31.0
extraction) yeast
Baking powder 214 10.7 5.0
bread
Steamed pudding 214 34.2 16.0
Pastry 214 0.0 0.0
White flour with Baking powder 214 32.1 15.0
added sodium bread
phytate Steamed pudding 214 128.4 60.0
Pastry 214 32.1 15.0

Source: Calculated from the data of Widdowson (1941). From Reddy et al. (1982).
442 R. F. McFeeters

during fermentation processes, as a result of the presence of phytase in

the grain itself or production of the enzyme by the fermentation
organisms. Thus, in wheat bread, phytic acid was hydrolyzed to a
greater extent when yeast rather than baking powder was used to raise
the dough (Table 16.4; Widdowson 1941, as calculated by Reddy et al.
1982). Ranhotra et al. (1974) found complete hydrolysis of phytic
acid in wheat bread and over 75% removal in bread prepared from soy-
fortified wheat flour. Addition of yeast to Iranian whole wheat meal
(Reinhold 1975) or to traditionally unleavened Indian chapaties pre¬
pared from whole wheat meal (Swaranjeet et al. 1982) also resulted in
larger decreases in phytic acid concentration than occurred without
yeast addition.
Fermentation of rice-black gram blends to make idli has been found
to reduce the phytate content by 30% (Rajalakshmi and Vanaja 1967)
and 41% (Reddy and Salunkhe 1980). A 45% decrease in phytate was
observed by Ramakrishnan et al. (1976) in soy idli in which black gram
dal was replaced by soy dal. They fermented sterilized idli batter with
a number of bacteria found in natural idli fermentations. Only those
bacteria which produced measurable levels of phytase activity caused
significant reductions in phytate. Lactobacillus buchneri, an uniden¬
tified Bacillus, and Microbacterium flavum reduced the phytate by 16,
39, and 57%, respectively, during a 14-hr fermentation. Aerobacter
aerogenes and several lactic acid bacteria produced no measurable
phytase.
Markakis and co-workers have analyzed phytic acid changes during
fermentation of tempeh (Sudarmadji and Markakis 1977) and oncom
(Fardiaz and Markakis 1981A). In both studies reduction of phytic
acid was attirbuted to phytase production by the inoculated mold,
since the soybeans and peanut press cake were boiled prior to fermenta¬
tion. A 33% reduction of phytic acid occurred in the tempeh fermenta¬
tion. Rhizopus oligosporus caused almost complete destruction of
phytic acid, while fermentation with Neurospora sitophila resulted in
about a 50% decline.

OUTLOOK

Given the many examples cited in which substantial increases in nu¬

trients have been observed, it seems that there must exist many oppor¬
tunities to improve the nutritional consequences of food fermentations.
The development of genetic transfer and modification technologies for
microorganisms would appear to expand these opportunities. Newman
et al. (1984) have recently described efforts to introduce mutant cul¬
tures of L. plantarum, which produce high levels of lysine in tradi¬
tional cereal fermentations, in areas where protein availability is limited.
 16. Fermentation 443

Morishita et al. (1981) have shown that it is possible to mutate lacto-

bacilli to recover their ability to synthesize amino acids. These path¬
ways were apparently inactivated, but not completely lost, during the
course of evolution of this group of organisms.
Before the potential for consistent nutritional improvements can be
translated into practical manufacturing technologies, much more must
be done to establish mechanisms of nutrient synthesis and degradation
during fermentations. At its most basic, this must include identifica¬
tion of the microorganisms and substrates responsible for nutrient
improvements in important food fermentations.

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 17
Effects of
Treatment with
Food Additives on Nutrients
Winifred M. Cort

Food additives1 are substances other than basic foodstuffs which are
put into foods during production, processing, and packaging. Additives
are used in commercial processing not only to reduce microbial hazards,
but also to reduce chemical and physical spoilage and to aid processing.
Processing additives may be used as anticaking agents, chemical preserva¬
tives, emulsifiers, and stabilizers, to modify or improve flavor, texture,
or colors, and they also may include nutrients added to enhance nutri¬
tional value. The number of food additives greatly exceeds the number
of nutrients. Since the function of food additives is so varied, the total
effect on nutrients often is not known. If one makes a list of all the
food,additives (e.g., the list in Title 21, 121.101 U.S. Code of Federal
Regulations, published in 1973, CFR, and Sections 172,173,181,182,
184, and 186, published in 1981, CFR) and a list of all the nutrients, it
becomes evident that potential interactions have hardly been explored.
The effects of food additives will be divided into two sections, name¬
ly, additives which decrease the nutrient content of foods and additives
which are beneficial to nutrients. Unfortunately, as can be seen, at
times this type of division will be ambiguous, since some additives will
be deleterious to one nutrient and beneficial to another.

ADDITIVES DETRIMENTAL TO NUTRIENTS

Sulfites
The deleterious effect of sodium bisulfite and sulfur dioxide on
thiamin has been known for many years. In fact, sodium bisulfite is
not allowed in meats, or in foods recognized as a source of thiamin in
the CFR 121.101. Sulfites cause a nucleophilic displacement on the
methylene bridge of thiamin and it is cleaved into free thiazole and

1 This is a deviation from the broad definition used by the Food Protection Com¬
mittee, National Academy of Science, National Research Council (see Anonymous
1973).

447
448 W. M. Cort

pyrimidylmethane-sulfuric acid. The reaction occurs faster at a neutral

pH. One might expect sulfites to react with some of the other less
stable vitamins. In model systems, DeRitter (1969) reports that sulfur
dioxide and acid will cleave folic acid to pteridine andp-aminobenzoyl
glutamic moieties and the latter undergoes further destruction of the
free amino group. Other than the beneficial effect of sulfur dioxide on
ascorbic acid, which will be discussed later, reactions with other vita¬
mins in food systems have not been explored.

Alkalies
Thiamin also is destroyed in alkaline foods such as chocolate cake
containing sodium bicarbonate and carbonate and lime-treated corn
used for tortillas. In fact, aluminum sodium sulfate and the di- and tri¬
sodium potassium phosphates also aid in the destruction of thiamin.
Dwivedi and Arnold (1973) have identified a number of breakdown
products from alkaline oxidation of thiamin. These include thiamin
disulfide, which has thiamin activity, and thiochrome and thiothiazalone,
which do not have any thiamin bioactivity. In addition, thiamin is
cleaved to the pyrimidine and thiazole moieties and the thiazole may de¬
grade further to a number of compounds including 3-mercaptopropanol,
hydrogen sulfide, 2-methylfuran, 2-methylthiophene, 2-methyi-4,5-
dihydrothiophene, and 2-methylthio-5-methylfuran. The thiophenes
are associated with the odor from the decomposition of thiamin.
In tortilla studies, Massieu et al. (1949) also noted 30% loss of
tryptophan, threonine, histidine, and arginine. Many of the basic
amino acids are prepared as the hydrochloride because the free bases
are alkali labile. The addition of alkali to lysine hydrochloride forms
the free base which decomposes and produces an odor. We would ex¬
pect lysine to decompose in chocolate cake and tortillas. Amino acids
also will racemize in alkaline solution and thus reduce their biological
activity.
Although it has not been demonstrated in alkaline foods, from in¬
formation in the pharmaceutical literature, one would expect losses of
pantothenic acid, vitamin , cysteine, cystine, and vitamin D by slow
degradation; riboflavin by conversion to lumiflavin; and the essential
fatty acids by isomerization. In a food publication, Sistrunk and Cash
(1970) showed a loss of ascorbic acid in squash as the pH was adjusted
from 5 to 7.5.

Acids
Citric, phosphoric, lactic, malic, tartaric, fumaric, adipic, acetic, hydro¬
chloric, and sulfuric acids have been added to foods. In liquid or semi¬
liquid foods adjusted to pH 4 or below, vitamin A will de-esterify and
isomerize to the less bioactive cis forms. Folic acid, pantothenic acid,
and threonine would be expected to decompose under acidic conditions.
 17. Treatment with Food Additives 449

Moore and Folkers (1968) showed that dilute acids cleaved vitamin B12
to the inactive corrin nucleus. Proteins with acid isoelectric points can
be denatured and thus are not available for enzymatic hydrolysis and
subsequent utilization. Miller et al. (1973) studied vitamin loss in bean
products and slurries adjusted with hydrochloric acid to pH 3.5. They
showed a loss of folacin although there was no loss of pyridoxine, and
thiamin or decrease in protein efficiency ratio (PER).

Curing and Smoking

The modern, mild curing methods employ small amounts of sodium
chloride, sugar, nitrite, ascorbates, phosphates, and liquid smoke con¬
centrates in processed meat, poultry, and fish products to improve their
flavor and color characteristics. Losses of specific nutrients due to cur¬
ing appear to be very small. Thiamin is the only vitamin lost, up to
about 20% as a result of heat treatment in curing processing, whereas
riboflavin and niacin are very stable (Schweigert and Lushbough 1960).
Light salting and phosphate addition significantly decrease the exuda¬
tion of meats and thus reduce the loss of water-soluble vitamins,
minerals, and proteins.
Nitrite can react with susceptible amines to form carcinogenic nitro-
samines. However, ascorbic acid can block this reaction by reacting di¬
rectly with nitrogen oxide to form nitric oxide gas and dehydroascorbic
acid. For this reason it is particularly important to add ascorbic acid or
ascorbates to bacon. Newmark et al. (1974) reported losses of 30%
ascorbic acid in bacon after processing and an additional 30% loss after
6 months of storage and frying.
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, especially benz[c] pyrene, a strong
carcinogen, are present in the smoke. Benz[a] pyrene can be found in
much lesser amounts in smoked foods than in barbecued meats. The
use of liquid smoke preparations in cured meat products nearly eliminates
the presence of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.

Copper and Iron

Copper is generally not added, but it is present in many foods. Only
within the broad definition of a food additive can the presence of cop¬
per be considered. On the other hand, iron is added to many foods.
Because their interactions are somewhat similar and more detrimental
to other nutrients than generally recognized, these reactions will be
discussed together.
Ascorbic acid is known to be destroyed by copper. The ascorbic acid
first is converted to dehydroascorbic acid, which has antiscorbutic
activity but is unstable and degrades to diketogulonic acid, which is
inactive. Simultaneously, the Cu2+ is converted by ascorbic acid to the
lower oxidation state(s) and Fe3+ to Fe2+ as shown by Laurence and
Ellis (1972).
450 W. M. Cort

Fe3+ and Cu2+ oxidation and destruction of organic free radicals

have been reviewed by Jukes (1974). The interactions of Fe3+ and Cu2+
with all the phenolic antioxidants were shown (Cort 1974; Cort et al.
1974).
Furthermore, Cu2+ reacts with tocopherol to form the p-tocopherol-
quinone, which has no vitamin E or antioxidant activity. Reduction
of Fe3+ to Fe2+ and the subsequent measurement of Fe2+ has been the
basis of the colorimetric assay for tocopherol for many years. The
tocopherol will go to the inactive p-tocopherolquinone under most
conditions. However, if EDTA is present, the dimeric keto-ether is
formed (Cort et al. 1974).
Less than 3% loss has been found when 95% tocopherol is kept in
thin layers for 4 years and alcoholic solutions have been stable for 1 year
when metals are not present. If Cu2+ or Fe3+ are added to the latter,
40-50% of the tocopherol is decomposed within 15 days. However,
the lower oxidation states, Fe2+ and Cu1+ and ground state copper, do
not react with tocopherol.
Destruction of the tocopherols and phenolic antioxidants would lead
to the loss of natural and added vitamin A. Furthermore, the Fe3+- and
Cu2+-caused breakdown of tocopherols in vegetable oils, especially
7-tocopherol, which is a better antioxidant than the a homologue,
decreases the oxidative stability of vegetable oils. The loss of anti¬
oxidants leads to oxidation of fatty acids in the naturally occurring
glycerides. The unsaturated fatty acids oxidize to peroxides which de¬
compose to acids, aldehydes, ketones, alkanes, and so forth, and repre¬
sent a loss of essential fatty acid. Also, oxidized fats have been shown
to react with essential amino acids and make them nonavailable. Aylward
and Haisman (1969) have shown that oxidized oils will oxidize vitamin
A and /3-carotene.
Thiamin is also destroyed by Cu2+ as shown by Dwivedi and Arnold
(1973). Borenstein (1971), in a review article, has reported that copper
catalyzes folic acid destruction. Methionine and linolenic acid, as well
as a number of other substrates, have been degraded to ethylene by
ascorbic acid and copper as shown by Lieberman and Kunishi (1967).

Other Detrimental Interactions

Feller and Macek (1955) have shown that thiazole produced by de¬
composed thiamin promotes the breakdown of vitamin B12. This is a
problem in pharmaceuticals; and, in fact, most of our information
(DeRitter 1969) on vitamin interactions is found in pharmaceutical
research and publications. Fortunately in most foods, the thiamin level
is sufficiently low that this is not a major pathway for vitamin B12 de¬
composition. Gambier and Rahn (1957) have shown that riboflavin
aids the oxidation of thiamin to thiochrome in concentrated solutions.
 17. Treatment with Food Additives 451

Niacinamide and ascorbic acid react to form a yellow nicotin-amide-

ascorbic acid complex listed as a source of niacin and vitamin C in CFR
121.1095. However, in some food systems, the bright yellow color is
not acceptable.
Amen (1973) reports that phosphates, phytates, and oxalates in
spinach complex iron and make it unavailable. He also claims that cal¬
cium acts as a zinc antagonist by competing for absorption sites when
phytates or phosphates are present. Furthermore, low-protein diets
result in decreased apoferritin production and ultimately cause iron
deficiency. Carbonyls present in flavor adjuncts can react with pyri-
doxamine to form inactive Schiff bases and pyridoxal could react with
amines similarly. Schroeder (1971) reports losses of natural pyridoxal
and pyridoxamine as well as pantothenic acid, biotin, folacin, choline,
and inositol in food processing, and some of the B6 losses may be due
to interactions.
Morrison and McLaughlin (1972) reviewed the availability of amino
acids in foods. Casein and glucose combination when heated together
markedly reduced the biological value of the casein; this could be cor¬
rected by the addition of supplemental lysine. Propanal formed from
oxidized lipids inactivated lysine. Bressani et al. (1972) reported that
amino acids react with proteins to form enzyme-resistant bonds, and
that proteins heated with carbohydrates resulted in loss not only of
lysine, but also methionine, arginine, histidine, and tryptophan. Hydro¬
gen peroxide used in milk for cheese manufacture causes a 30% loss in
bioavailable methionine. Cuq et al. (1973) demonstrated oxidation of
methionine to the sulfoxide in casein decreases the enzymatic diges¬
tion of casein, which further explains the previous workers’ results.
Studies on vitamin A fortification of rice in our laboratory revealed
a vitamin A and talc interaction which turned green and destroyed the
vitamin A. As a result, in rice premix containing talc, the vitamin A
had to be added separately and coated.

ADDITIVES BENEFICIAL TO NUTRIENTS

Sulfites
As stated in the introduction, compounds which are detrimental to
some nutrients can be beneficial to others. Sulfites react in solution to
scavenge oxygen. Ascorbic acid reacts by the same mechanism and de¬
composes in the process. Thus, sodium metabisulfite, sodium sulfite,
and cysteine increase the stability of ascorbic acid in solution. Very
recently Bolin and Stafford (1974) revealed sulfur dioxide protection
of ascorbic acid and /3-carotene. In addition, sodium metabisulfite is
used to extract and stabilize cobalamines present in nature.
452 W. M. Cort

Ascorbic Acid
Ascorbic acid converts Fe3+ to Fe2+ and Cu2+ to lower oxidation
state(s) and as a result protects against Fe3+- and Cu2+-promoted reac¬
tions (Cort et al. 1975). It will, therefore, protect essential fatty acids,
essential amino acids, vitamin A, vitamin E, thiamin, folic acid, and
make iron more available. In addition to its protective effect, Schudel
et al. (1972) have shown that it will convert the keto-ether dimer of
tocopherol to “bi-a-tocopheryl” and tocopheroxide to a-tocopherol.

Antioxidants
Vitamin A with 5 conjugated double bonds, /3-carotene with 11, and
apocarotenal with 9 are susceptible to oxidation. Apparently the
double bonds in the /3-ionone ring oxidize first to the epoxides in the
carotenoids and probably in vitamin A, and the epoxides have reduced
vitamin A activity. Classically BHT, BHA, and a-tocopherol are used to
stabilize food-grade vitamin A. In general, the antioxidants are added
to the vitamin A palmitate, which is homogenized into gelatin and
made into beadlets. The gelatin acts as an impermeable barrier to oxy¬
gen. Unstabilized vitamin A in thin films will lose potency in 1 day,
which fully explains the necessity of antioxidants. Vitamins D2 and
D3 also contain oxidizable double bonds and should be protected
similarly.

Water-solubilizers and Mechanisms to Solubilize

The vitamin manufacturers have made a number of water-soluble,
stabilized market forms of the water-insoluble vitamins. Homogeni¬
zation into thick matrixes such as acacia, dextrins, and gelatin results
in reduction of the particle size of the vitamin A to 1-3 pm. The
emulsions are made into beadlets or used as is. In addition to vitamin A
and antioxidants, these emulsions also contain preservatives such as the
parabens or sodium benzoate and sorbic acid.
More recently, acacia emulsions have been spray dried in order to
have a particle size below 100 pm to facilitate adding to flour because
it will not rebolt out. Spray-dried vitamin A is useful also in premixes
made with other fine particulate vitamins. The dried forms contain
other additives such as sucrose and lactose to increase stability, and
sometimes coconut oil to increase flavor stability. Often “slip” agents
such as silicic acid are added to increase flow and prevent caking of
dried products.
Water-dispersible solutions of water-insoluble vitamins are made in
Polysorb 80. Other additives, such as ethanol, and propylene glycol are
added to make the Polysorb soluble in cold water. Antifoam agents
sometimes are added. These dispersible solutions also are stabilized
with antioxidants and are used to fortify foods. A description of the
 17. Treatment with Food Additives 453

commercial vitamin A application forms available and related stability

have been published (Bauernfeind and Cort 1973).
Tocopheryl acetate, on the other hand, does not require additives to pre¬
vent oxidation, since it is an extremely stable, water-insoluble, viscous
liquid. In order to make it intq dry products, it has been homogenized to
1- to 3-pm particle size into gelatin or dextrins, and made into beadlets
or spray dried for water-soluble applications. Free tocopherol is not as
stable as the acetate. On standing in air it will form tocored, which is
the quinone on the 5- and 6-position. However, as has been shown, this
never exceeds 0.7% tocored and is not a major breakdown product. As
previously described, it is susceptible to Cu2+- and Fe3+-caused break¬
down and protected by ascorbic acid and chelating agents.
In skimmed milk, the fat-soluble vitamins are removed with the
cream. Stabilized water-soluble vitamin A is added to nonfat milk
products, but not tocopherol. Experimentally, water-soluble forms of
vitamin E have been added to skim milk, nonfat dry skim milk, filled
milk, the imitation milk at 1.5, 15, and 150 IU per quart, with 100%
stability for 4 weeks in the liquid products and 1 year in the dry products.

Special Additives for B Vitamins

Since thiamin breakdown products cause off-odors and riboflavin
and niacin can be bitter, special coatings have been applied. These
usually are mixtures of mono- and diglycerides and, in fact, are water
insoluble. The vitamins are usually 33% concentration. They are use¬
ful in dry products; although in some foods, Borenstein (1968) reports
that the coated thiamin still causes off-flavor. Coated B vitamins are
used in chewable vitamin tablets.

Other Additives
Ascorbic acid has been lightly coated with ethocel (97% ascorbic acid)
and fat coated (30% ascorbic) to increase stability, since at 3% moisture
and above ascorbic acid becomes tan. The speculation has been that free
radicals on the 2- and 3-positions are formed. Levandoski et al. (1971)
isolated monodehydroascorbic acid-ascorbic acid complex, which is
yellow and may also be involved in color formation by ascorbic acid.
Cysteine has also been proposed as a protectant to thiamin, although
levels which protect have caused an off-odor from cysteine in the
Hoffmann-LaRoche laboratories.
In pharmaceuticals, iron salts and chelating agents (disodium EDTA
or citrates) are used to stabilize vitamin B12 in solution (Newmark 1958;
Federal Register 1962). Natural materials such as liver contain sufficient
iron to stabilize vitamin B12 as shown by Shenoy and Ramasarma (1955).
The stability of B12 in foods during processing will depend on the con¬
tent of iron and chelates.
454 W. M. Cort

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456 W. M. Cort

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•v.
 18
Use of
Ionizing Radiation
to Preserve Food
Miriam H. Thomas

INTRODUCTION

The chief methods used for food preservation have been canning,
salting, pickling, dehydration, and refrigeration. However, during the
past 35 years, there has been widespread interest throughout the world
in using ionizing radiation for this purpose, and as early as 1921, the
use of ionizing radiation was studied to preserve food using X rays to
kill Trichinella spiralis in meat (Schwartz 1921).
According to Goresline (1981), in the early 1950s no significant sup¬
port had been given by the U.S. Government to food irradiation research.
However, the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) negotiated and super¬
vised research contracts with the Massachusetts Institute of Technology
(MIT), the University of Michigan, Columbia University, the Food
Research Institute, the American Meat Institute Foundation, the Stan¬
ford Research Institute, the National Canner Association, the Brook-
haven National Laboratory, and the Vitro Corporation. These contracts
were followed by the U.S. Navy and the Quartermaster Food and Con¬
tainer Institute (QMF&CI) awarding contracts to MIT. Since the
Army Quartermaster Corps had the responsibility for subsistence re¬
search and development for the Department of Defense, it was tasked
to enlarge its program on food irradiation.
Prior to 1959, most of the radiation experiments were performed
with spent-fuel rods from nuclear reactors. Indeed, the QMF&CI did
not have a cobalt-60 (60Co) source, and therefore, most samples were
irradiated at the Argonne National Laboratory, Lemont, Illinois in their
spent fuel rod source. Finally, a Quartermaster Radiation Facility was
constructed at the Quartermaster Research and Engineering Center, now
named U.S. Army Natick Research and Development Center (now the
U.S. Army Natick Res., Develop. Eng. Ctr.) located at Natick, Massachu¬
setts. An excellent review of the Army’s contribution to the national
food irradiation program has been presented by Brynjolfsson (1976).

457
458 M. H. Thomas

Numerous studies have shown that the effects of ionizing irradiation

on the nutrient content of food are not particularly different from
those of other methods of preservation. It has been shown that proce¬
dures can be employed during the radiation process to protect the nu¬
tritional value of the food; for example, by holding the food at low
temperature during irradiation (Thomas and Josephson 1970) and by
reducing or excluding free oxygen from the environment (Metlitskii
et al. 1968; Kharlamov and Shubnyakova 1964; Southern and Rhodes
1967), nutrients can be protected.
The radiation process has many advantages. It can be used to insect
deinfest cereals, flour, fresh and dried fruit, and other foods which
have not been fumigated chemically. Irradiation can inhibit sprouting
of tubers and bulbs and thereby extend their storage life. Since no
refrigeration is required, irradiated products can be stored like their
thermally processed counterparts. Intensive worldwide studies have
shown that this technique is effective, has no detrimental effects on
human health, and can be applied safely to the preservation of food.

TYPES OF RADIATION

In food processing, there are three basic types of ionizing radiation:

electrons,1 X rays produced by electrons in an X-ray target, and 7 rays
from 60 Co and 137Cs. All three types cause ionization in food by
either the primary electrons or by the secondary electrons resulting
from 7- or X-ray interactions in the food. The ionized and activated
molecules form unstable secondary products, notably free radicals and
peroxides. The focus of this chapter will be on the effects of ionizing
radiation on nutrients in the foods themselves, rather than the same
constituents irradiated in pure form ot in artificial solutions and mix¬
tures, because it is difficult to extrapolate findings from test model
systems to explain effects in food where protective mechanisms may be
present. '
Electrons and 7 rays having energies between 100 kV and 10 MeV
may affect all food components, in contrast to ultraviolet radiation,
which affects only those compounds that absorb energy at the particu¬
lar wavelength of that radiation.

HAZARDS

In the United States, radiation is defined as a food additive and there¬

fore, it is necessary to provide scientific evidence of the wholesomeness

1
See Glossary following the text for definitions of terms used in this chapter.
 18. Use of Ionizing Radiation 459

of food so treated. A wholesome food has satisfactory nutritional

quality and is safe for human consumption from a microbiological and
toxicological point of view. Of major concern are carcinogenicity,
toxicity, teratogenicity, mutagenicity, hepatic microsomal enzyme
function, induced radioactivity, viable pathogens, nutrition, and pack¬
aging (Urbain 1978). These considerations are the basis for the elab¬
orate protocols developed for safety evaluation from animal feeding
studies. The studies must utilize large numbers of test animals (multi¬
generation and multispecies) to provide sufficient data for meaningful
statistical analyses. Food consumption and food utilization efficiency,
growth measurements, reproduction, longevity, gross and microscopic
pathology, urology, hematology, and enzyme function are some of the
parameters utilized to measure animal health and performance.
Subsequent to the development of elaborate protocols for animal
studies, a human feeding study was undertaken with nine men. Their
diet consisted of up to 100% irradiated foods for periods of 15 days.
The foods, 54 in total, were either frozen or at room temperature after
irradiation and were stored. No evidence of toxic effects from eating
irradiated foods was observed in any of the men. Digestibilities of the
macronutrients and metabolizable energy were similar in the irradiated
and control diets. There were no significant differences in urinary ex¬
cretion of total glucuronides, total ketones, or total organic acids
between subjects consuming irradiated versus control diets (Plough etal.
1960).
Tests used to determine teratologic and mutagenic effects have been
questioned because either the responses in experimental animals are not
necessarily the same as in humans (Chauhan 1974), or the results in¬
volve extrapolation from comparatively simple organisms to man.
Carcinogenic studies are customarily made with rats and mice because
they have a tendency toward cancer development. Since it is not possi¬
ble to conduct comparable studies with humans, there is no choice but
to undertake extrapolation.
Irradiation of foods results in radiolytic products. Most radiolytic
products detected in irradiated foods can also be found in unirradiated
foods, and many have been produced in foods by other processing
techniques. Merritt et al. (1975) reported that the response of various
food components to radiation is quite similar, regardless of the food in
which they occur, and knowledge of the food composition permits
prediction of the radiolytic products that result when it is irradiated.
A Select Committee on Health Aspects of Irradiated Beef (U.S. Army
Medical Research and Development Command 1977, 1979) reviewed
the possible toxicity to man of the volatile compounds detected in ir¬
radiated beef and concluded that, of the 65 compounds identified in
irradiated beef, there were no grounds to suspect the conclusion that
the radiolytic compounds evaluated would create any hazard to the
460 M. H. Thomas

health of persons consuming reasonable quantities of irradiated beef.

The later report (U.S. Army Medical Research and Development Com¬
mand 1979) by the Committee stated that the possible presence of
undetected substances cannot be excluded and, therefore, coupling
chemical studies with suitable animal feeding studies would provide
complementary approaches to ensure the wholesomeness and safety of
irradiated foods.
Microbiological hazards have been eliminated by employing mini¬
mum radiation doses sufficient to kill the most radiation-resistant
strains of Clostridium botulinum. The increased incidence of mutants
due to exposure to radiation and the alteration of the outgrowth pat¬
tern to favor pathogenic organisms have caused much concern. Idziak
(1973) and Ingram (1975) reported that pathogenic organisms of pub¬
lic health significance, subjected to single or multiple irradiations, pro¬
duced no evidence of a microbiological health hazard associated with
food irradiation. In foods containing C. botulinum type E (possibly
other types as well), the change in the outgrowth pattern by raduriza-
tion appears to lead to a potential health hazard. However, no com¬
parable hazard has been identified with the radurization of meat
(Urbain 1978).

PACKAGING

Since ionizing radiation passes through the packaging material as it

travels to the food inside the container, that material must not be af¬
fected by the treatment or affect the food being treated. Furthermore,
it must be strong enough to withstand damage during commercial pro¬
duction, shipment, and storage (Killoran 1983). A number of food
packaging materials have been approved by the Food and Drug Admin¬
istration (FDA) under the Code of Federal Regulation 21, Food and
Drugs: (1) Part 199: Irradiation in the Production, Processing, and
Handling of Food, Subpart C, Packaging Materials for Irradiated Foods,
Regulation 179.45. Tables 18.1 and 18.2 list polymeric films and
multilayered flexible materials approved by the FDA. Additionally, the
properties of tinplate enamels, end-sealing compounds, and solder were
examined to determine the quantity and type of extractives obtained due
to irradiation by comparison with the nonirradiated control. From these
results and others, it can be concluded that both rigid and flexible mate¬
rials used for foods to be irradiated pose no safety hazard (Killoran 1983).
Nutritional considerations, which will be discussed elsewhere in this
chapter, can be assessed by chemical analyses. However, to measure all
nutritional constituents at the same time, the best approach is through
animal feeding studies to measure growth, reproduction, food con¬
sumption and efficiency, and the occurrence of gross abnormalities.
 18. Use of Ionizing Radiation 461

Table 18.1. FDA-Approved Polymeric Films: CFR 179.45

Description of Maximum radiation

Material approved material dose (kGy)12

Nitrocellulose, or vinylidene-chloricle- 176.1200 10

coated cellophane
Wax-coated paperboard 176.170 10
Glassine paper 176.170 10
Polyolefin 175.1520 10
Kraft paper 176.170 5
Polystyrene 176.1630 10
Rubber hydrochloride 175.300 10
Nylon hydrochloride 177.1500 10
Polyethylene 177.1530 60
Polyethylene terephthalate 177.1630 60
Polyiminocaproyl (nylon 6) 177.1500 60
Vinylidene chloride-vinyl chloride 175.320 60
Vinyl chloride-vinyl acetate 179.320 60
Vegetable parchment 179.45 60
Ethylene-vinyl acetate 177.1350 80^

Source: Killoran (1983).

aIncidental to use of y radiation.
^ Incidental to use of y or electron radiation.

Table 18.2. FDA-Approved Multilayered Flexible Materials: CFR 179.45

Combination Material Thickness (jUm)

1 Polyethylene terephthalate 13
Aluminum foil 9
Polyethylene terephthalate 13
Polyethylene, 0.960 g/ml 80
2 Polyethylene terephthalate 13
Aluminum foil 9
Ethylene-butene-1 copolymer 80
polyisobutylene blend (70-30)
3 Polyiminocaproyl 25
Aluminum foil 9
Polyiminocaproyl 25
Ethylene-butene-1 copolymer, 0.950 g/ml 80
4 Polyethylene terephthalate 13
Aluminum foil 9
Polypropylene-ethylene vinyl acetate 80
copolymer (94-6)
Polyiminocaproyl 25
5
Aluminum foil 9
Polyethylene terephthalate 13
Polypropylene 80

Source: Killoran (1983).

462 M. H. Thomas

Many of the practical applications of food irradiation require radia¬

tion doses lower than 500 krad. In July, 1980, the Food and Agricul¬
ture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)/the International
Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)/World Health Organization (WHO) Ex¬
pert Committee resolved, after evaluating the available data, that no
toxicological hazard is caused by irradiating any food up to a dose
of 1 Mrad, and therefore, foods so treated need not be tested for toxi¬
city (World Health Organization 1981). Table 18.3 lists the irradiated
foods cleared for human consumption to different countries.

CARBOHYDRATES

The use of irradiation to inhibit microbial damage in foodstuffs has

numerous advantages compared with heat treatment since structural
changes are small. Changes that can occur in carbohydrates result
from the influence of air and water and the reactions associated with
radiolysis (McManus 1982; Raffi et al. 1981; Diehl et al. 1978). In
dilute aqueous solution, simple sugars, such as glucose, respond to
radiation through the indirect effect. Glucose produces glucuronic,
gluconic acids, and saccharic acids as well as glyoxal, arabinose, erythrose,
formaldehyde, and dehydroxy acetone. Oligosaccharides form mono¬
saccharides and products similar to those obtained with the irradiation
of simple sugars. Irradiation of starch and cellulose (polysaccharides)
causes degradation into glucose, maltose, dextrins, and the products of
irradiation of these substances. Glycogen is also broken into smaller
units by radiation.
Postirradiation effects have been reported in pectins, cellulose, and
dextrins and continued in storage. These changes are dependent upon the
presence of water and temperature also and are explained as connected
with long-lived free radicals (Kertesz et al. 1956). The constituents of
the cell wall of plant tissues become softened, which can result in prac¬
tical difficulties in the application of radiation to fruit and vegetables.
For example, pectin substances lose jelling powers and some brown¬
ing occurs, which is accentuated in the presence of protein (Kraybill
1982). The browning reaction occurs, but it occurs likewise in heat-
processed foods. Although irradiation causes changes in texture and
reactions that might give rise to reductones or change sweetness and
color, thus affecting the acceptance of food, these changes have not
been shown to be of any nutritional consequence.
The high-dose radiolysis of sugars in solution produces many com¬
pounds, some of which have been found to be toxic in model systems.
On the other hand, in vivo experiments have failed to confirm the
toxicity of irradiated carbohydrates. When potatoes were irradiated
to either 10 or 100 krad, dried, and incorporated into the diet as 72%
 18. Use of Ionizing Radiation 463

Table 18.3. Irradiated Foods Cleared for Human Consumption in Different Countries*

Country Product Date

Australia Frozen shrimp 1978

Belgium Potatoes** 1980
Strawberries** 1980
Onions 1980
Garlic 1980
Shallots 1980
Paprika 1980
Black pepper 1980
Bulgaria Potatoes* 1971
Potatoes* 1972
Onions* 1972
Garlic* 1972
Grain* 1972
Dry food concentrates* 1972
Dried fruits* 1972
Fresh fruits* 1972
Canada Potatoes 1960
* Onions 1965
Wheat, flour 1965
Whole wheat flour 1969
Poultry**** 1973
Cod/haddock**** 1973
Chile Potatoes* **** 1974
Czechoslovakia Potatoes* 1976
Onions* 1976
Mushrooms* 1976
Denmark Potatoes 1970
France Potatoes** 1972
Onions** 1977
Garlic** 1977
Shallots** 1977
Federal Republic of Deep-frozen meals* *** 1972
Germany Potatoes* 1974
Hungary Potatoes**** 1969
Potatoes**** 1972
Potatoes**** 1973
Onions**** 1973
Onions**** 1975
Onions* 1976
Strawberries* * * * 1973
Mixed spices* 1974
Israel Potatoes 1967
Onions 1968
Italy Potatoes 1973
Onions 1973
Garlic 1973
Japan Potatoes 1972
Netherlands Asparagus* 1969
Cocoa beans* 1969

(continued)
464 M. H. Thomas

Table 18.3. (Continued)

Country Product Date

Netherlands (continued) Strawberries**** 1969

Mushrooms 1969
Deep frozen meals*** 1969
Potatoes 1970
Peeled potatoes**** 1976
Shrimps* 1970
Shrimps**** 1976
Onions* 1971
Onions 1975
Poultry, in bags 1971
Chicken 1976
Fresh, tinned and liquid foodstuffs*** 1972
Spices* 1971
Spices** 1974
Spices** 1975
Spices** 1978
Vegetable filling* **** 1974
Powdered batter mix**** 1974
Endive**** 1975
Fresh vegetables**** 1977
Haddock, whiting coal-fish**** 1976
Cod/plaice**** 1976
Fried frog legs** 1978
Rice and ground rice products** 1979
Rye bread 1980
Spices** 1980
Philippines Potatoes** 1972
South Africa Potatoes 1977
Onions 1978
Garlic 1978
Chicken 1978
Papaya 1978
Mango 1978
Strawberries 1978
Dried banana 1977
Avocados 1977
Spain Potatoes 1969
Onions 1971
Thailand Onions 1973
USSR Potatoes 1958
Potatoes 1973
Grain 1959
Fresh fruits and vegetables* 1964
Raw beef, pork, rabbit products in bags* 1964
Dried fruits 1966
Dry food concentrates 1966
Poultry, in bags* 1966
Culinary meats in bags* 1967
Onions* 1967
Onions 1973
 18. Use of Ionizing Radiation 465

Table 18.3. (Continued)

Country Product Date

United Kingdom Foods for patients requiring sterile diet 1969

United States Wheat and wheat flour 1963
White potatoes 1964
Uruguay Potatoes 1970
World Health Organization Potatoes** 1969
Potatoes 1976
Onions 1976
Papaya 1976
Strawberries 1976
Wheat and ground wheat products** 1969
Wheat and ground wheat products 1976
Rice 1976
Chicken 1976
Cod and redfish 1976
Foods in general 1980

Source: Goresline (1982).

a Key: *, experimental batches; **, temporary acceptance; ***, hospital patients;
****, test marketing; underlined, unlimited clearance.

of the total weight, no differences were found between animals receiv¬

ing either the irradiated or control product over a 4- or 8-week period
(Lang and Bassler 1966A). Saint-Lebe et al. (1973) fed to rats both
raw and cooked dry maize starch irradiated with 60Co to either 300 or
600 rad as 62% of the diet for 1 year. With respect to growth or re¬
production, no significant differences between groups receiving either
irradiated or nonirradiated starch were found. Although enzymatic
digestibility was raised with an increase of dose of irradiation in raw
potato starch, no difference was obtained in the feed efficiency between
rats fed nonirradiated or irradiated starch treated with up to 10 Mrad.
Further experiments with rats showed that the absorption ratio of ir¬
radiated: nonirradiated starch was increased with irradiation dose and
that both feed efficiency and weight gain increased with increasing
dose of irradiation.
Nine foods, nonirradiated or irradiated at 15°C with 5.58 Mrad from
spent fuel rods, were fed to rats (Read et al. 1961). In fact, the radia¬
tion treatment had no effect on the availability of carbohydrate, fat, or
protein, as shown in Table 18.4. There are many substances which pro¬
tect carbohydrates against radiation degradation (Phillips 1972), and
among these are amino acids and proteins (Diehl et al. 1978). This
demonstrates the potential effect that compounds associated with
carbohydrates in a food can exert on the end product. Therefore,
extrapolations of findings with pure substances to those of complex
systems that exist in foods must be performed with care.
466 M. H. Thomas
' ^
Table 18.4. Availability of Macronutrients (%) in
Irradiated Diet Fed to Rats*

Carbohydrate Fat Protein

Control* 90.6' 93.6 87.7

Irradiated* 90.4 94.1 88.5

Source: Raica et al. (1972).

a Rats fed a nine-component irradiated diet through
four generations.
* Stored frozen.
c Stored at room temperature, 5.58 Mrad.

LIPIDS

Many investigators have used low-dose irradiation of less than 1 Mrad,

while others have employed high-dose irradiation of 7 Mrad and above
to preserve food. However, the nature of radiolysis of lipids is basically
the same and the products formed are similar, regardless of the dose or
source of energy (Hammer and Wills 1979; Delincee and Paul 1981;
Takyi and Amuh 1979). With electron-spin resonance (ESR) spectro¬
scopy, free radicals are detected in fats after either high or low radia¬
tion doses. The concentration of radicals is appreciably lower in fats
irradiated with low than high doses of radiation. Free radicals are
detectable in fats after irradiation at high doses and low temperatures,
which is expected, since radicals are more stable at very low tempera¬
tures. The course of radiolysis in fats is significantly influenced by the
phase state and temperature (Nawar 1978).
The irradiation of vegetable and animal fats at dose levels anticipated
for food irradiation results in only minor changes in the usual para¬
meters for measuring fat quality, that^is, peroxide value, iodine value,
Kreis test, viscosity, and acid value (Jaddou 1979; Lyaskovskaya and
Piul’Skaya 1975). The major reactions which take place during the
irradiation of lipid material include hydrogen abstraction, addition H*
and OH- to double bonds, isomerization, hydrolysis, polymerization,
dehydration, and decarboxylation. Irradiation can also cause cross-
linking, dimerization, and aggregation along with degradation. The
literature reports that these alterations are not unlike those occurring
due to heat and/or oxidative processes (Mitchell 1957; Partman 1962;
Chipault 1962; Nawar 1972). Sensitivity to radiation damage of food
lipids can be controlled by such factors as rate, amount, and tempera¬
ture of irradiation; absence of oxygen and light during irradiation; and
length and temperature of storage (Coleby 1959). Lipids as a constituent
of food are protected, as evidenced by greater destruction in separated
lipids for the same irradiation does. This protective effect has been
attributed to antioxidants such as cysteine (Read 1960). The presence
 18. Use of Ionizing Radiation 467

of anitoxidants in natural lipids not only can influence the reactions

and the physical state of the lipid, but, regulated by temperature, can
play an important role during both irradiation and subsequent storage.
Peroxides are known to form to a greater extent in animal than in
vegetable fats with similar treatment (Mead et al. 1956; Morgan 1958)
and could lead to oxidative rancidity (Goldblith 1955; Sedlacek 1958).
However, in the absence of oxygen, the production of peroxides is
prevented (Morgan 1958; Lundberg 1960).
Gel’fand (1970) reported that fewer oxidative products were formed
in steaks packaged in polyethylene-foil-cellophane (to exclude light)
and irradiated to 0.8 Mrad than similar samples packaged in transparent
polyethylene cellophane.1 During storage, this difference increased.
On the other hand, 60Co irradiation of a chicken-based wet pet food
product to 4.5 Mrad did not change the relative composition of the
total lipid extract or of the triglyceride fraction from the nonirradiated
control (Rao and Novak 1973).
Monty (1960), Moore (1961), and Nassett (1957) have reported that
irradiated fat is digested and absorbed at a slower rate than nonirradiated
fat, but that there is no alteration in its nutritive value to the consumer.
It is believed that in those cases where digestion and absorption was de¬
layed, the product fed may have been packaged in material through
which oxygen could permeate during the irradiation process, causing
the experienced delayed reported above. Studies with dogs, reported
by Schreiber and Nassett (1959), indicate that the rate of absorption of
lard irradiated to 5.58 Mrad by an electron source was reduced due to
delayed emptying of the stomach contents. Since the overall digesti¬
bility was unaffected, they concluded that ly poly sis and absorption of
end products were not seriously disturbed by feeding irradiated lard.
Corn oil irradiated to either 2.79 or 5.58 Mrad was fed to rats with no
adverse affect on its digestibility (Moore 1961). The availability in rats
of fats obtained from major food components that had been irradiated
with spent fuel rods to 5.58 Mrad was 95.8% compared to 94.8% for
unirradiated control (Read et al. 1961). When Lang and Bassler (1966B)
compared the digestibility in rats of soybean oil electron irradiation to
100 Mrad in air at room temperature with an unirradiated control,
digestibility of the irradiated product was diminished. It should be
pointed out that the dose administered was 20-30 times the level re¬
quired for sterilization of foods and that these authors found that
soybean oil irradiated to 2.5 Mrad was not unfavorably affected.
Plough and associates (1957) fed human volunteers pork irradiated to
2.7 Mrad and stored 1 year at room temperature and found the digesti¬
bility of the fat (in pork) to be no different from that of unirradiated fat.

1 A broad spectrum of research on packaging irradiated foods has been reported by

Killoran (1983).
468 M. H. Thomas

Extensive studies and reports have been made on the mechanisms in¬
volved in the radiolysis of fats (Nawar 1972, 1978; Schaich 1980).
However, the observations above lead one to conclude that when lipids
are irradiated under conditions anticipated for commercial food process¬
ing, which is not expected to excefed 7 Mrad, irradiation does not re¬
sult in significant loss of nutritional value.

PROTEINS

Many studies have been undertaken on the effects of radiations on

isolated amino acids, retention of amino acids in irradiated foods, ef¬
fects of radiation on the biological value of proteins, and the effects
of radiation on the physicochemical properties of proteins irradiated
in vitro. The chemistry of irradiated proteins and related compounds
has been reviewed by Garrison (1972), Urbain (1977), Simic (1978),
and more recently by Simic (1983). As stated earlier for other food
constituents, the radiation chemistry of amino acids cannot be extrapo¬
lated directly to peptides and proteins, but model studies of amino
acids and peptides do yield valuable information.
Very high levels of irradiation have marked effects on protein and
amino acids. Radiolytic compounds of protein, when irradiated at 50
Mrad, originate from cleavage of side chains of peptide or end groups
(Merritt et al. 1966, Taub et al. 1976). However, levels intended for
use in food processing show only minimum adverse effects. Studies by
Ley et al. (1969) reported that radappertized protein supplied in a rat
diet in the form of soya, meat and bone, and fish meals showed that
irradiation at doses up to 7.0 Mrad has no significant effect on digesti¬
bility, biological value, and net protein utilization (Table 18.5), or on
amino acid composition (Table 18.6). **
No significant changes were found in protein, fat, and mineral contents
of wheat, gamma irradiated to 20 and 200 krad for insect disinfestation

Table 18.5. Effect of Irradiation on the Protein Quality of

Rat Diet

Dose True Biological Net protein

(Mrad) digestibility value utilization

0 85.6 80.5 68.9

0.5 83.6 75.8 63.5
1.0 86.5 81.7 70.6
2.5 87.0 78.1 68.0
3.5 84.8 77.3 65.4
7.0 85.3 76.4 65.2

Source: Ley et al. (1969).

 18. Use of Ionizing Radiation 469

Table 18.6. Effect of a Radiation Dose of 7.0 Mrad on

the Amino Acid Composition of the Protein in Rat Diet

Diet (g/16 gN)

Amino acid Unirradiated Irradiated

Asparagine 8.85 8.38

Threonine 3.80 3.73
Serine 4.17 4.16
Glutamic acid 15.70 15.61
Glycine 5.82 5.79
Alanine 5.61 5.54
Valine 4.78 4.68
Isoleucine 3.99 3.99
Leucine 7.44 7.47
Tyrosine 3.28 3.38
Phenylalanine 4.12 4.28
Lysine 5.72 5.82
Histidine 2.29 2.37
Arginine 6.04 6.05
Methionine 2.33 2.11
Cystine 1.34 1.44
Tryptophan 1.16 1.32

Source: Ley et al. (1969).

by Vakil et al. (1973). Total amino acid profiles and available lysine
content of irradiated wheat revealed no change, but there was an 8%
increase in free amino acid levels on irradiation up to 1 Mrad. They
concluded that the changes in physicochemical properties of the starch
and protein in wheat were not nutritionally significant. These findings
are in agreement with those of Pape (1973), Doguchi (1969), Nair and
Brownell (1965) and Metlitskii et al. (1968). Comparable results have
been reported by Leonova and Sosedov (1972) for maize and kidney
beans, and by Metta and Johnson.(1959) for wheat and corn.
The nutritive value of radiation-pasteurized chicken has been studied
by De Groot et al. (1972). No significant difference was found in the
amino acid content of chicken, nonirradiated or irradiated with either
300 or 600 krad, stored at refrigerated temperature for 6 days, and sub¬
sequently cooked and homogenized. The protein efficiency ratio of

Table 18.7. Nutritive Value of Protein in Chicken

Stored at 5°C for 4-7 Days and Cooked

Dose (krad) PER

0 2.18
300 2.34
600 2.21

Source: Derived from De Groot et al. (1972).

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 18. Use of Ionizing Radiation 471

of these treatments is given in Table 18.7. It was concluded by Frumkin

et al. (1973) that radiation doses of 0.6 Mrad applied to raw beef and
0.8 Mrad to cooked beef for arresting spoilage do not lower protein
nutritional value (Tables 18.8 and 18.9).
No significant effect on the digestibility or biological value of potato
protein was found by Jaarma and Henricson (1964), Varela and Urbano
(1971), Lang and Bassler (1966B), or Fujimaki et al. (1968).
When beef was heated to an F0 value of 5.8 and the volatile com¬
pounds formed were compared to those produced by irradiation treat¬
ment of 5.6 Mrads, the two treatments gave equivalent lethality to
microorganisms. Further, irradiation caused no more degradation com¬
pounds than steam heat sterilization (U.S. Army Medical Research and
Development Command 1977).
In summary, the evidence indicates that by carefully controlling
conditions of radiation processing and the added stress of storage
(Frumkin et al. 1973, Brooke et al. 1966), there should be no signifi¬
cant impairment in the nutritional quality of the protein constituents
of food for consumption by humans.

Table 18.9. Amino Acid Content0 of Stored, Culinary-Treated (Ready to Eat)

Beef Preserved by Exposure to Ionizing Radiation (0.8 Mrad)

After 6 months’ storage

Control After Control

Amino acid (deep frozen) irradiation (deep frozen) Irradiated

Lysine 8.98 8.95 8.12 8.81

Histidine 2.46 2.76 2.17 2.62
Arginine 5.41 5.20 4.97 5.36
Aspartic acid 7.99 7.44 8.00 7.26
Threonine 3.70 3.82 4.38 3.60
Serine 3.19 3.34 3.67 3.10
Glutamic acid 13.17 11.77 13.31 11.86
Proline 3.30 3.42 3.47 3.27
Glycine 3.57 3.94 3.65 3.72
Alanine 4.89 4.66 5.00 4.56
Valine 2.93 2.77 2.53 2.42
Methionine 2.10 1.88 3.01 1.30
Isoleucine 3.49 3.38 3.74 3.36
Leucine 6.30 6.12 6.87 5.33
Tyrosine 2.73 2.61 2.35 2.53
Phenylalanine 3.11 2.96 2.91 2.88
Tryptophan 1.37 1.47 1.32 1.35

Source: Derived from Frumkin et al. (1973).

a Expressed as percentage of protein.
472 M. H. Thomas

VITAMINS

Vitamins, micronutrients in food, are divided into two subdivisions:

water- and fat-soluble vitamins. Some vitamins are sensitive to ionizing
radiation, although the effect is influenced by the nature and composi¬
tion of the food.

Water-Soluble Vitamins
As early as 1949, it was reported by Proctor and Goldblith that nia¬
cin was the most and ascorbic acid the least resistant of the water-
soluble vitamins to irradiation injury. Because of the instability of as¬
corbic acid, the change in its content in a food is often used to indicate
the extent to which essential nutrients are destroyed by processing.
Tests on three varieties of potato radiated at doses up to 60 krad to
inhibit sprouting showed that reduced ascorbic acid decreased as the
dosage increased (Dallyn and Sawyer 1959). Highlands (1958) reported
after 4 months of storage an initial loss in ascorbic acid content that
was greater in the irradiated than the unirradiated potatoes. At this
point, the loss was arrested, and an apparent conversion of ascorbic
acid to the hydrated form took place in both treated and untreated
samples until the eighth or ninth month of storage. Synthesis was then
followed by another decrease which was much greater for the control
than the irradiated samples (Mikaelsen and Roer 1956). Doses from 5
to 15 krad, which are approved for commercial processing of white
potatoes to prevent sprouting during storage, result in minimal losses of
ascorbic acid. However, McKinney (1971) reported no loss of ascorbic
acid in potatoes subjected to radiation treatment.
Onions are also irradiated to inhibit sprouting during storage. The
usual dose is between 8 and 10 krad, although doses up to 12 krad had
little or no effect on the ascorbic acid content of onions. Frozen green
beans, carrots, and corn irradiated at room temperature with 4.8 Mrad
from 60 Co retained approximately 75% of their original vitamin C con¬
tent (Thomas and Calloway 1961). On the'other hand, Nickerson et al.
(1956) report that treatment of asparagus, broccoli, green beans, and
spinach with high-voltage cathode rays (1.86 Mrad) results in 28,14, 8,
and 35% retention of ascorbic acid, respectively.
The ascorbic acid content in fruit decreases during irradiation, but
the degree of diminution has been known to be dependent upon both
the species and the variety of fruit. Orange juice treated with 0.093,
0.279, 0.372, and 0.93 Mrad from high-voltage cathode rays retained
96, 78, 74, and 41%, respectively, of the initial ascorbic acid content,
demonstrating that destruction increases with increasing dosage (Proctor
and O’Meara 1951). Ascorbic acid retention in oranges, tangerines,
tomatoes, and papayas varies from 100 to 72% with radiation doses
from 40 to 300 krad as shown in Table 18.10.
 18. Use of Ionizing Radiation 473

Table 18.10. Effect of Radurization on Ascorbic

Acid Retention in Fruit

Dose Retention
Product (krad) (%)

Orange, temple > 100 97

200 72
Tangerines 40 104
80 94
160 94
Tomatoes 100 86
200 86
300 91
Papayas 125 110

Source: Calculated from Dennison and Ahmed

(1971-1972), Wenkam and Moy (1968).

The length of storage and the storage conditions after irradiation

treatment also have an effect on the ascorbic acid concentration. In
lemons, losses at a 400-krad dose were slight 24 hr after irradiation, but
as high as 95% after 40 days of storage at 10°C (Frumkin et al. 1973).
Formation of mold in strawberries can be retarded using a dose of up
to 500 krad without affecting either the flavor or the ascorbic acid
content of the berries (Zeeuw 1961). On the other hand, investigations
by Wells et al. (1963) indicated that 2 days after irradiation, treated
berries were significantly lower in ascorbic acid than were untreated
berries. Strawberries receiving 0.8 Mrad had significantly less ascorbic
acid than those receiving 0.3 Mrad; however, after 95 days at 2°C,
differences between irradiated and unirradiated berries were slight.
Intermediate in sensitivity to irradiation is vitamin B12 and p-amino-
benzoic acid. Pyridoxine is also radiosensitive and thiamin under some
conditions is more sensitive to damage than is ascorbic acid. The ex¬
tent of destruction is usually a function of radiation dose and tempera¬
ture of the medium during irradiation. Thomas and Josephson (1970)
have reported that thiamin destruction in food can be minimized by
keeping the product frozen during irradiation. These investigators have
shown that thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, and pyridoxine in pork and ham
are less susceptible to destruction by sterilization at 4.5-5.6 Mrad at
-80°C than by the conventional thermal treatment (Table 18.11).
Later studies by Thomas et al. (1975) with ground pork, enzyme
inactivated and irradiated by exposure to a 60 Co or 10-MeV linear-
accelerator (linac) source at 2.0, 4.0, 6.0, or 8.0 Mrad at temperatures
from +5 to -80° C showed that thiamin retention is decreased as the
irradiation dose is increased, but that retention is increased as the
temperature of irradiation is decreased. In this study, the linac, as a
source of radiation, was more favorable to thiamin retention in pork.
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 18. Use of Ionizing Radiation 475

Table 18.12. Effect of Processing on Thiamin in Pork

Temperature Dose Retention

Treatment (°C) (Mrad) (%)

Thermal, F0 - 6.0 ' 116 12

121 9
7 rays (137Cs) -45 1.5 72
3.0 50
4.5 40
6.0 35
7.5 27
Electrons -20 1.2 82
(linac) 2.4 68
3.6 57
-45 1.5 83
3.0 75
4.5 66
6.0 58
7.5 52
9.0 50

Source: Thomas et al. (1981 A).

These results were confirmed by Thomas et al. (1981A). Additionally,

the study addressed the phenomenon that pork irradiated with elec¬
trons retains more thiamin than when irradiated with 7 rays under the
same conditions. Table 18.12 illustrates these results; the fraction of
thiamin retained in the sample irradiated in the frozen state is plotted
semilogarithmically against dose in Fig. 18.1. Figure 18.2 shows that
the loss in the 7 ray-irradiated unfrozen sample is well above the others
and that the losses in 7 ray- and electron-irradiated samples in the
frozen state follow a quasi-Arrhenius temperature dependence, the lines
for both being practically parallel. Differences in thiamin loss between
7 ray and electron beam irradiation shown in Fig. 18.1 and 18.2 are
consequences of a dose-rate effect. To illustrate further, ground pork
was irradiated at a fixed temperature to a fixed dose using three different
dose rates by varying the peak current of the linac. These results are
given in Table 18.13 and shown graphically in Fig. 18.3. Thiamin loss
after 6 Mrad of irradiation is shown as a function of dose rate, which is
proportional to beam current. The dotted line (drawn freehand) is
assumed to correspond with the increased loss that would be encountered
at dose rates lower than those actually used. The dose-rate effect and
related considerations have been discussed previously by Taub et al.
(1979).
476 M. H. Thomas
FRACTION RETAINED

DOSE, MRAD
Fig. 18.1. Fraction of thiamin retained as a function of dose. Each point is an
average of two samples. Initial temperatures are given; temperatures throughout
irradiation rose less than 5°C. All samples had an initial concentration of thiamin
of about 0.9 mg/100 g pork.

Table 18.13. Effect of Dose Rate on Thiamin in Pork

Temperature Dose Current Retention

(°C) (Mrad) (mA) (%)

-45 6.0 600 60

-45 6.0 150 63
-45 6.0 24 52

Source: Thomas et al. (1981A).

 18. Use of Ionizing Radiation 477

Fig. 18.2. Fraction of thiamin lost per megarad of absorbed dose as a function of
reciprocal temperature. Vertical dotted line corresponds to the transition point
of 271 K (-2°C).

Interestingly enough, these results for irradiated pork under controlled

conditions are consistent with results for thiamin loss in beef and
chicken irradiated on a production basis for animal feeding studies.
Samples of this beef and chicken were used by the Letterman Army
Institute for Research to investigate and ultimately demonstrate the ab¬
sence of any antithiamin properties. Results of their analyses of the
irradiated and thermally processed samples are shown in Table 18.14.
It should be pointed out that the electron-irradiated products retained
2-2.5 times as much thiamin as the 7 ray-irradiated products.
In a study to further investigate the effects of low and high dose-
rate irradiation on thiamin retention, Thomas et al. (1981B) exposed
fortified and unfortified ground pork to irradiation at a fixed tempera¬
ture and dose using electrons and X rays from a linac (pulsed source).
The fortified product was employed to investigate the effect of thiamin
concentration on its retention during irradiation under various conditions.
FRACTION lOST:6 MRAD, -45 *C 478 M. H. Thomas

Fig. 18.3. Fraction of thiamin lost at -45°C for a 6-Mrad dose as a function of
dose rate. The abscissa is given in milliamperes (mA) of peak electron beam current
during the ~5 jUsec pulses from the linac. Dose rate is proportional to beam current.
The solid line is drawn through the points corresponding to the indicated peak cur¬
rents. Each point represents the average of two samples. The dashed line represents
the results for y ray irradiation, which corresponds to a low dose-rate limit. The
dotted line is drawn hypothetically to connect the lower and upper dose-rate limits.

Table 18.14. Thiamin Retention (%) in Beef

and Chicken after Processing

Process Beef Chicken

Thermal 21 22
7 Irradiation 23 ' 27
Electron irradiation 44 66

Source: Data adapted from the Letterman Army

Institute for Research, McGown etal. (1979A.B).

X rays were used so as to attain a wide range of doses per pulse in the
product. The results not only verified previous conclusions reported
above, but also demonstrated that the effects are independent of
thiamin concentration (Tables 18.15, 18.16,18.17).
On the basis of these observations, it appears that the indirect effect
is due to the attack of radicals on thiamin and is responsible for much
of the loss. The higher the instantaneous concentration of radicals
 18. Use of Ionizing Radiation 479

Table 18.15. Thiamin Retention (%) in Ground

Pork Irradiation with 60 Co at Various Tempera¬
tures

Temperature Dose
(°C) (Mrad) Unfortified Fortified

-15 1.5 57 57
3.0 35 36
4.5 25 21
6.0 16 17
-45 1.5 79 76
3.0 63 63
4.5 53 53
6.0 46 44
-80 2.0 86 79
4.0 82 75
6.0 75 67
8.0 70 67

Source: Thomas et al. (1981B).

<

Table 18.16. Thiamin Retention (%) in Ground

Pork Irradiated with Electrons at Various
Temperatures

Temperature Dose
(°C) (Mrad) Unfortified Fortified

-20 1.2 88 85
2.4 78 71
3.6 67 65
-45 2.5 88 78
5.0 72 69
7.5 65 63
-80 3.0 89
6.0 76
9.0 68

Source: Thomas et al. (1981B).

Table 18.17. Comparison of Thiamin Retention (%) in

Ground Pork Irradiated at -45°C and 3 Mrad with Either
Electrons or X rays

Current Duration
Source (mA) (/usee) Unfortified Fortified

Electrons 300 5.0 82 77

300 2.5 86 77
300 0.5 76 70
30 5.0 70
X rays 300 5.0 55 54
300 2.5 39

Source: Thomas et al. (1981B).

480 M. H. Thomas

following the pulse irradiation, the more likely that radical-radical reac¬
tions predominate and the less likely are radical-thiamin reactions. If
the thiamin concentration is increased, then more radical-thiamin reac¬
tions occur at the expense of radical-radical reactions. Consequently,
the loss is greater at low dose rates, but increases at a fixed dose rate at
the higher thiamin concentrations. Some of the loss is due to direct
absorption of energy by the thiamin. The loss observed at the plateau
in the high dose-rate region presumably corresponds to the direct effect;
it increases with increased thiamin concentrations.
The change in thiamin retention due to temperature is also consis¬
tent with indirect effects. Since the yields and/or diffusion of radicals
increase with increasing temperature, the extent to which radical-
thiamin reactions would occur should also increase. Irrespective of the
mechanism involved, the temperature and dose-rate effects observed
have significant implication for the nutritional quality of irradiated
pork products. Highest retention of thiamin would be attained by ir¬
radiating with high dose rates at or near -50°C. The retention for elec¬
tron irradiation sterilizing doses of 4 Mrad at -50°C would be approxi¬
mately 60%, which is significantly higher than in conventional thermo¬
processing.
Wheat irradiated at either 20 or 200 krad retained approximately
90% of its thiamin, riboflavin, and niacin (Vakil et al. 1973) (Table
18.18). Irradiation of bleached, enriched, hard wheat flour in the range
of 30-50 krad had no detrimental effect on the thiamin, riboflavin,
niacin, or pyridoxine content. Furthermore, the nutritive quality of
bread made from this flour was unaffected (Heiligman et al. 1973).
Much less is known concerning the effects of irradiation upon vita¬
min Bj2, pantothenic acid, folacin, biotin, para-aminobenzoic acid, and
choline. Most are radiosensitive in aqueous solution but not in food
(Bregvadze and Bokeriya 1971; Metlitskii et al. 1968). Sheffner and
Spector (1957) reported that considerable reduction in the radiosensi¬
tivity of vitamin B12 was obtained in raw whole milk. Irradiation of

Table 18.18. Effect of Irradiation on Vitamin Retention (%) of Wheat and Wheat
Products

krad Thiamin Riboflavin Niacin Pyridoxine

20* 88 91 88 _
200* 88 87 91 —

30-50* 100 100 89 100

30-50c 100 100 117 100

Source: Calculated from Vakil et at (1973), Heiligman et at (1973).

* Wheat.
b Flour.
c Bread.
 18. Use of Ionizing Radiation 481

Table 18.19. Effect of Irradiation on Vitamin Retention (%) of Seafoods

Clamsfl Haddock^

Air packed, Vacuum packed, Air packed, Vacuum packed,

Vitamin 450 krad t 350 krad 250 krad 150 krad

Thiamin 80 67 37 78
Riboflavin 99 111 105 100
Niacin 84 97 106 100
Pyridoxine 63 93 125 115
Pantothenic acid 115 115 164 178
Vitamin B12 92 91 110 90

Source: Calculated from Brooke et al. (1964, 1966).

a Stored 30 days at 0°C postirradiation.
* Stored 30 days in ice.

ground pork with 7 rays from spent fuel rods produced less than 10%
destruction of pantothenic acid and no destruction of folacin with
doses up to 5.58 Mrad. Moreover, Richardson (1955) found no signifi¬
cant decrease in folacin activity in irradiated diets fed to chicks. On the
other hand, Thomas and Calloway (1961) and Thomas and Josephson
(1970) determined that 68% of the pantothenic acid was lost in pork
after irradiation at ambient temperature at a dose of 4.8 Mrad. A study
by Liuzzo et al. (1966) reported no appreciable losses for riboflavin,
niacin, pantothenic acid, biotin, folacin, or vitamin B12 in oysters
radurized by 0.2 Mrad. However, losses were extensive for thiamin
and pyridoxine. Similar changes took place in air-packed clams irradiated
at 450 krad at 0°C or vacuum-packed clams irradiated at 350 krad
(Brooke et al. 1964) after 30 days of storage in ice. Further studies by
Brooke et al. (1966) show the same pattern of vitamin retention after
irradiation at these doses and storage conditions (Table 18.19).

Fat-Soluble Vitamins
Fewer data are available on the effects of irradiation on fat-soluble
vitamins than on water-soluble vitamins. Early reports by Goldblith
and Proctor (1949) indicated that carotene was radiosensitive to
cathode rays. Other studies by Rung et al. (1953) showed that irradia¬
tion of whole milk with 440 krad resulted in the destruction of 40% of
the carotenoids, 70% of the vitamin A, and 60% of the tocopherols.
Further studies with dairy products indicate 31-68% losses of vitamin
A. Carotene destruction can be minimized during radiation treatment
by the addition of ascorbic acid.
Vitamin A sensitivity is influenced by the media in which it is ex¬
posed. For example, it is more stable to margarine than in butter be¬
cause the vitamin A esters used to supplement margarine are more
resistant to irradiation than the natural vitamin A in butter (Sheffner
482 M. H. Thomas

and Spector 1957). Diehl (1979A) reported that vitamin A losses

caused by 10 MeV electrons in cream cheese, calf liver sausage, pig
liver, whole egg powder, and margarine continued to increase during
storage for 4-8 weeks in the presence of air. Vitamin A loss in sausage
irradiated with 5 Mrad was 22% on the day after irradiation and 61%
after 4 weeks. Irradiation and storage at 0°C, instead of ambient tem¬
perature, reduced these losses considerably. Exclusion of air by vacuum
or nitrogen, or irradiation with solid carbon dioxide (approximately
-80°C), was even more effective in preventing destruction of vitamin A.
After 4 weeks of storage, cream cheese irradiated at 5 Mrad had lost
60% of its original vitamin A when irradiated and stored in air at
ambient temperature, 20% in a nitrogen atmosphere, 5% in a vacuum
package, and 5% when irradiated on solid carbon dioxide and stored
at ambient temperature.
Although vitamin D is obtained by the ultraviolet irradiation of
ergosterol, irradiation of ergosterol with 7 photons results in only
traces of vitamin D. Additionally, biological evidence indicates that the
vitamin D activity for chicks is decreased by 7 irradiation of the total
diet with 2.79 Mrad at ambient temperature (Sheffner and Spector
1957). Knapp and Tappel (1961) reported that vitamin D is apparently
unaffected by ionizing radiation, as determined by the absence of change
in vitamin D content in salmon oil when irradiated. It is quite possible
that the vitamin E in salmon oil could have provided some protection.
Thomas and Calloway (1961) studied five foods of animal origin
(chicken, beef, pork, shrimp, and bacon). Nutrient content was deter¬
mined before and after dehydration, irradiation, and the usual thermal
process. The tocopherol content of dehydrated samples was greater
than that of their thermally sterilized counterparts. In all instances,
the irradiated products were equal or superior to the canned product.
The protective effect of low temperature during irradiation on vitamin
E levels in foods is not diminished by subsequent storage or heating.
Sunflower oil irradiated at 20°C with 3 Mrad in the presence of air and
subsequently heated for 1 hour at 180°C lost 98% of its a-tocopherol
content, but only 65% when irradiated at -30°C. Radiation-induced
losses of a-tocopherol in sunflower seed oil or in an emulsion of oil-
water were independent of the type of radiation or dose rate (Diehl
1979B).
The loss of vitamin E in rolled oats irradiated with 0.1 Mrad was re¬
duced from 56 to 5% by packaging under nitrogen. Vacuum packaging
was equally effective during the first 3 months of storage but less so
during the following 5 months. No advantage was gained by packaging
under carbon dioxide (Diehl 1979C).
Under identical experimental conditions, vitamin K3 is about twice
as stable as vitamin A acetate and about 20 times as stable as vitamin
E. Vitamin K3 is even more stable under aerobic than under anaerobic
 18. Use of Ionizing Radiation 483

conditions. Differences in radiation sensitivity among the K vitamins

have been reported, but vitamin K3 seems to possess the lowest stability.
The small amount of vitamin K in beef is destroyed or unavailable
after irradiation with Mrad doses. Richardson et al. (1956) reported
no loss of vitamin K content in alfalfa leaf meal irradiated to a dose of
2.79 Mrad at ambient temperature. In spinach and broccoli irradiated
with 2.79-5.58 Mrad, the vitamin K levels were found to be as high as
in frozen samples of the same products. No destruction of Kj, K3, or Ks
in irradiated semisynthetic diets was apparent when they were fed to
chicks. Due to the findings reported above and the fact that bacterial
synthesis of the vitamin takes place in the intestine, no one receiving
irradiated diets of natural foods is likely to develop a hemorrhagic
condition because of a vitamin K deficiency in the diet.

CONCLUSIONS

Even though food preserved by ionizing radiation under processing

conditions proposed for commercial production is nutritionally com¬
parable to food preserved by conventional means, very few foods have
been approved by the United States, and they are not offered com¬
mercially on the U.S. civilian market. This procedure is not intended
to replace other processing methods, but to offer an alternative, particu¬
larly when the end product results in a more desirable product than
that resulting from dehydration or canning. The main obstacles have
been the costly and time-consuming procedures required to obtain
government food and drug clearances. By law, it must be proved that
food preserved by irradiation is wholesome. Therefore, officials place
far more rigorous safety requirements on foods so treated than on more
conventional processes for pasteurization or sterilization of foods. In
addition to government approval to produce and market irradiated
foods, industry must feel the end justifies the means and that the cost
to the consumer will be competitive with the cost of foods produced by
alternative processing technologies.

GLOSSARY OF SOME BASIC TERMS AND CONCEPTS

absorbed dose: The amount of energy absorbed per unit mass of ir¬
radiated matter. The unit of absorbed dose is the gray (Gy). 1 rad =
100 erg; 1000 rad = 1 kilorad (krad); 1 million rad = 1 Megarad (Mrad).
Becquerel (Bq): The unit of activity being one radioactive disintegra¬
tion per second of time. 1 Bq = 2.7027 X 10“u Ci.
j3 particle: A high-speed electron ejected from an atomic nucleus in
certain types of radioactive disintegration. Electrons and (3 particles
are identical in nature.
 484 M. H. Thomas

Curie (Ci): The unit of activity which is being superseded by the

becquerel (Bq). 1 Ci = 3.7 X 1010 disintegrations per second = 3.7 X
1010 Bq.
electron: A particle that is negatively charged, a common constituent
of all atoms, having a mass (m) = £) X 1CT28 g.
electron volt (eV): The amount of energy gained by an electron when
accelerated by a potential of 1 volt. 1 eV = 1.6 X 1012 erg; 1 million
eV = 1 MeV.
7 rays: Electromagnetic radiation of very short wavelength, emitted
by the nuclei of radioactive substances during decay.
Gray (Gy): The unit of energy absorbed from ionizing radiation by
the matter through which the radiation passes. 1 Gy = 100 rad.
ionizing radiation: Radiation, either corpuscular (a//3 rays, or neutrons)
or electromagnetic (7 rays), which is capable of producing ions in
the matter through which it passes.
isotope: Nuclide having the same atomic number and the same chemi¬
cal element but having a different mass number.
nuclide: Any given atomic species characterized by the number of
protons, Z, in the nucleus; the number of neutrons, N, in the nucleus;
and, the energy state of the nucleus.
rad: The unit of energy absorbed from ionizing radiation by the mat¬
ter through which the radiation passes. 1 million rad = 1 Mrad =
10 kGy.
radappertization: Sterilization of food by exposure to ionizing radia¬
tion at doses greater than 1 Mrad and considered equivalent to
canning.
radicidation: Pasteurization of food by exposure to ionizing radia¬
tion at doses lower than 1 Mrad to kill all non-spore-forming pathogens.
radurization: Pasteurization of food by exposure to ionizing radiation
at doses lower than 1 Mrad to delay onset of spoilage by reducing the
population of organisms.
X rays: Electromagnetic radiation of short wavelength, produced
when a beam of fast electrons in a high vacuum bombards a metallic
target.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

I wish to take this occasion to thank Mrs. Sharon Jarboe, whose

assistance made this contribution possible.

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 19
Stability of Nutrients
during Storage
of Processed Foods
Seymour G. Gilbert

HISTORICAL BASIS OF STABILIZATION OF

FOODS BY PACKAGING

Packaging originated functionally as containerization enabling more

effective movement of foods from initial source to ultimate point of
consumption. With the addition of the storage function, the stability
of the food during the total time period became an important design
requirement. This aspect increased in dominance as food storage became
an integral part of the development of civilization.
The present century has seen industrially developed nations become
totally dependent on packaged foods for the major part of their nutri¬
tional needs. Thus, the retention of nutritional quality of such foods is
second only to processing in determining the nutritional status of all
industrialized nations, with only about one-tenth of its population
engaged in primary food production.

SCIENTIFIC BASIS OF NUTRIENT RETENTION

IN PACKAGED FOODS

The initial quality of the food when enclosed in the package is the
overall determinant, particularly for processed food. Except for ripen¬
ing of fresh produce and a few fermented foods such as wine and
cheese, quality only deteriorates at a rate determined by the interaction
of three major factors: (1) initial composition, (2) environmental
hazards, and (3) the degree of resistance to those hazards afforded by
the package as a barrier to reduce their effective concentration inside
the package and, thus, affect a corresponding abatement of the rate of
change from initial quality.
In addition, the package may add or subtract chemical entities, which
can affect both hedonic and functional food quality by nutritional and
toxicological changes.

491
 492 S. G. Gilbert

The principal environmental hazards are oxygen and moisture changes

by differential transport, depending on the relative free energy of these
molecules within and external to the package wall. Since many biological
and chemical oxidations produce carbon dioxide, the rate of accumula¬
tion of C02 within the package also tan affect reactivity of the contents.
Light, particularly in ultraviolet (UV) region, can act as a catalyst
or promoter of oxidative change. If the package wall is not hermetic,
that is, if significantly large discontinuities such as unsealed or broken
wall areas are at least microscopically visible, transport of gas phase
components will take place exponentially proportional to the radii of
such discontinuities in the package wall. Metals and glass as integral
container walls are impervious to gas transport at all temperatures
capable of storing food. These materials were the first used and remain
important in food preservation for prolonged storage. Their weight,
cost, and limitations in design capabilities have led to an accelerating
change to organic polymers as alternate packaging materials, even
when their barrier properties are inferior.
Since these organic materials have measurable permeation of gas-
phase migrants, the need for quantifying adequate barrier properties
is a paramount consideration in package design.
Discontinuities of even a few microns in diameter can allow for
ingress of microbiological contaminants, particularly of spore-forming
molds and bacteria. Thus, the twin problems of seal integrity and
mechanical damage resistance are the primary concerns in design of
packages for effective long-term storage.
Physical abuse tests include ASTM F2 using Gelbo flex tester,
shock, and a protocol proposed by the U.S. Department of Agriculture
(USDA) requiring a regimen of drop tests, inclined plane stress, and so
forth under conditions simulating damages produced on packages in
assembled shipping containers by truck^or rail transport.
In the past 30 years (1955-1985), the body of both empirical and
scientifically based tests for functional quality of packaging materials
and packages has become sufficiently extensive to predict accurately
the degree to which the package will provide a functional physical and
chemical protection of the product from the diverse hazards of normal
environments in the distribution chain.
The major need for effective design of packages for food stability is
the reactivity of the food itself. In part, this need is a reflection of the
rapid proliferation of food products and processes.
When the principal shelf-stored foods were dried grains and other
dehydrated foods, the storage problems were minimal to restrict access
to moisture. Canned foods introduced additional problems of metallic
corrosion (Mannheim and Passy 1984).
 19. Storage of Processed Foods 493

The advent of films and laminations, based on organic material,

produced problems of gas and light permeation and increased the
need for physical resistance.
Food processing changes and new types of processing further com¬
plicated the storage stability problem. The shift from relatively slow
120°C retort sterilization to high-temperature-short-time (HTST)
processing changed the inherent reactivity of food products to a chemi¬
cal system as yet incompletely characterized. To this change has been
added the aseptic packaging process, with further complications in¬
volving new material properties and modes of sterilization.
Thus, older literature on food packaging and retention of nutrients
requires extensive reevaluation in terms of materials and processes as
well as of food products themselves.

PACKAGING MATERIALS
Glass
Glass containers or similar ceramics are the oldest package forms
still in wide use. They provide the most inert storage and highest
protections against external hazards, including light, if needed. The
two major detractions are weight and brittleness, which are inversely
proportional, so that lightweight, one-way glass containers are the most
susceptible to mechanical damage. Despite many attempts to overcome
this dilemma, glass containers have declined in relative importance in
recent years even though they remain unexcelled where maximum
inertness is required, as in packaging of reactive chemicals and drugs.

Metal
The second oldest and still most widely used food containers are
fabricated from metals. The relative ease of fabrication, abundance of
raw materials, and physical resistance to mechanical stress and heat
contributed to the close identification of the “tin can” to the develop¬
ment of food packaging in the past century.
An important part of that development is the adaptation of the
tinker’s art to automated high-speed machine-age technology that began
in the 1800s.
The major contributions of modern technology are the change from
the early use of molten tin as a dip coating for steel can bodies to tinless
steel constructions. These include various inorganic coatings and alloys,
such as chromium oxides and other passivators, and, particularly in
recent years, organic coatings ranging from those of natural origin, such
as shellac and polymerizable vegetable oils, to epoxies, vinyls, and other
relatively inert synthetic resin-based lacquers.
494 S. G. Gilbert

In recent years, major attention has been focused on the contamina¬

tion of foods with lead from soldered seams. Cemented and welded
seams have been developed to avoid the need for lead-based solder.
Most recently, the two-piece or unseamed body has achieved commer¬
cial production to eliminate the problem.
Despite the wide array of coatings, passivators, and lacquers, can
corrosion is still a recurring problem and limitation on shelf stability
of ferrous metal-based packages. A recent review of the subject has
been made by Mannheim and Passy (1984).
Aluminum has replaced steel and extended the use of metal contain¬
ers in increasing areas of food packaging. Fabrication of two-piece
containers is facilitated by the superior ductility of aluminum. Light
weight, greater inertness by coatings, and more feasible recycling have
also contributed to the rising use of aluminum which, in common with
glass and ferrous containers, offers complete isolation from environ¬
mental factors other than heat.
Most recently, nitrogen and carbon dioxide gas-pressurized con¬
tainers have permitted further reduction in wall thickness so that the
barrier function has been retained at considerable cost reduction in
fabrication and transport.

Metal Foils
The only important metallic foils or very thin integral sheets are
nearly pure aluminum alloys. While a monatomic layer of aluminum
atoms is impervious to water and other gases, self-supported foils of
aluminum require at least 10 pm thickness, with 25 pm being the min¬
imum for stress resistance. Since mechanical strength can be obtained at
less cost by other less impermeable materials, many flexible food packages
use laminations of very thin aluminum foils. The unavoidable presence
of pinholes in thinner foils required laminations or coatings to avoid
pneumatic transfer of gases through such discontinuities, restricting
transport of gases to permeation of the_ negligible exposed area of
properly adhered caulking or supporting polymeric layers.
Aluminum containers have also found increasing use as trays and
similar shallow containers because of the high ductility of aluminum
alloys. The advent of microwave ovens, however, has created an
obstacle to the use of such construction for convenience foods of the
heat and serve type. The resolution of this problem is still under
development, since aluminum offers superior barrier protection com¬
pared to the polymer-based trays offered as alternates for packaging
convenience foods.

Paper

Despite the increasing availability of synthetic polymers, the natural

polymer, cellulose, continues to dominate the food packaging market.
 19. Storage of Processed Foods 495

This highly versatile linear polymer offers the greatest amount of

mechanical protection per unit cost. Its worldwide availability, from
wood and other fibrous plant materials, its highly automated manu¬
facturing process, and its superior recyclability have contributed to
its predominate position in packaging.
The paper manufacturing process provides a hydrogen-bonded
network of cellulosic fibers which serves as a base for treatments, such
as calendering, and for inclusion of fillers and bonding agents, which
enhance its mechanical properties.
Physicochemical properties, such as water resistance and permeability
to various environmental hazards, can be modified or completely
changed by the addition of organic compounds, such as polyolefins,
as coatings and laminations. The further use of metals as foils or by
metallizing in extremely thin layers can convert such constructions
into impervious barriers for use in aseptic packaging or in pouches
for dehydrated foods.
Rigid paperboard containers can be made by a variety of techniques.
Creasing and folding, often* with glued flaps, is very common. Drums
now are made of heavy paperboard or laminates with a barrier of
adhesively mounted aluminum foil. Spirally wound paper foil cylinders
are used as replacements for metal cans to provide a high degree of
containment and barrier protection at low cost.
Rather than plastics replacing paper as a packaging material, such
synergistic uses have enhanced the scope of packaging in a variety of
forms and total usage.

Plastics
Plastics are macromolecules or repeating combinations of atomic
groupings (monomers) whose relatively large-sized, primary-bonded
backbone structures confer physicochemical properties characteristic
of the structure itself, in addition to those determined by the com¬
position of the monomers. Thus, widely diverse properties such as
ductility, brittleness, gas barrier, chemical inertness, and thermal
properties affecting sealability and heat resistance can be developed.
Inorganic polymers have also been developed into important com¬
mercial articles, silicones being the most evident.

Cellophane
Since this linear polymer of glucose is a natural and widely available
one, it was the first to become a major factor in the development of
packaging. While a close relative, glassine, preceded it as a packaging
film, commercialization of cellophane in place of paper by DuPont
and Sylvania in the early part of the twentieth century played an
integral role in the technical and economic development of the converter
496 S. G. Gilbert

industry. The basic technology of web transport, flexographic and ro¬

togravure printing, coating and lamination, extrusion for film casting
and coating, overwrap machine development, and heat sealing are
among the processes originating in or becoming high-speed industrial
processes.
While cellophane itself contributed greatly to the rise in food packag¬
ing since 1940, its share began to decline by 1960 and to nearly dis¬
appear in the subsequent two decades as new polymers, such as poly¬
propylene, arose with properties such as transparency, high tensile
strength, and heat resistance at lower cost without the problems of
moisture sensitivity.

Polyolefins
These polymers are based on the hydrocarbon groups of atoms of
differing C:H ratio, with the polymerization of ethylene (—CH2—CH2—)
as the first and still major representative. The linear form, or high-
density polyethylene, is the most flexible and sealable. The propylene
monomer

CH,

in stereospecific structures has greater stiffness and heat resistance to

provide the properties of a cellophane replacement.

Vinyl Derivatives
Replacement of one or more hydrogens in a hydrocarbon monomer
with a more polar atom or atomic group, —CH2X, permits a much
wider range of properties to be incorporated in the polymer. Copoly¬
mers also can be constructed to further increase the scope of applica¬
tions. Thus, the substitution of highly polar electron-dense atoms,
like chlorine or oxygen, enhance the stiffness, barrier properties, and
chemical resistance, while large atomic groups have the opposite effect.
Other useful polymers are the homopolymers (PC), polyethylene,
polypropylene (PP), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polyvinylidine chloride
(PVDC), polystyrene (PS), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), poly¬
amides (nylons), polyvinyl alcohol (PVOH). Copolymers are often
designated by trade names, such as Saran®, Mylar®, Capran®, Teflon®
Eval®, and Surlyn®.
 19. Storage of Processed Foods 497

EFFECTS OF STORAGE CONDITIONS

ON NUTRIENT CONTENT

Kramer (1977) has pointed out that, contrary to popular belief, there is
only relatively minor damage tp nutrient levels in commercial processing.
In most aspects, these losses are related to the total energy input from the
integration of the temperature and time of exposure. While processing in¬
volves relatively high temperature, times are kept short and both factors
closely controlled in good manufacturing processes by instrumental and
analytical checks. Low- or moderate-temperature storage is common,
with attention needed for the specific requirements of the product,
especially when long-term storage is needed. Distribution controls are
less stringent, except for very perishable products, with unrefrigerated
truck or rail transport being the worst offenders. Thus, the major prob¬
lems in nutrient losses in packaged foods concern those food nutrients
most sensitive to storage temperature.
Kramer (1977) considers that ascorbic acid or vitamin C is the most
temperature-sensitive nutripnt, particularly when oxygen is available
(Table 19.1). The nonacid foods, such as vegetables, are most sensitive.
The work of Kristbergsson and Gilbert (1985) has shown a further
close relationship between ascorbic acid loss and thermodynamic
availability or state of water in foods. Water availability involves a com¬
plex relationship between the composition and water content of foods.
Contrary to the widely held view that water activity or equilibrium rela¬
tive humidity is the critical parameter, it is the distribution as well as
the average thermodynamic state of the water in the food that governs
the chemical reactivity of water-mediated changes in food stability.
Vojnovich and Pfeifer (1970) presented data on the stability of
ascorbic acid in cereal products that have been extensively used by
other investigators to relate water activity and temperature to the
kinetics of ascorbic acid loss (Lee and Labuza 1975; Wanninger 1979).

Table 19.1. Maximum Storage Temperatures (°C) for 90% Retention of Vitamins
in Fruit and Vegetable Juices (12-24 Months)

Carotene
Ascorbic acid Thiamin (vitamin A
(vitamin C) (vitamin Bi) precursor) Niacin
Canned - —- - -
juice 12 18 24 12 18 24 12 18 24 12 18 24

Carrot — — — — — — 27+ 27+ 27+ — — —

Grapefruit 18 11 7
Orange 20 14 8
Pineapple 28 25 21 27 27 27 — — _ _ _ _

Tomato 24 22 20 23 19 16 27+ 27+ 27+ xxx

Source: Kramer (1977).

x = 10% loss in 24 months, no temperature effect.
Table 19.2. Maximum Storage Temperatures (°C) for Canned Foods to Assure Not More Than 10% Loss of Vitamins
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 19. Storage of Processed Foods 499

Our data support the conclusion of Wanninger (1979) that water is a

reactant in this study and contradict the speculations that the effects
are related to viscosity or dilution effects.
Kramer (1977) notes that while a number of vitamins are heat sen¬
sitive, such as vitamin C (Table 19.2), the need for refrigerated storage
of heat-sterilized foods goes beyond the potential of these losses,
since fortification of the food and/or diet can replace such losses. He
considers the most important temperature-dependent loss of nutritional
quality that of protein (Table 19.3). These losses in protein availability
or nutritional quality are accelerated by access to oxygen and water
vapor. Thus, a major function of packaging with effective barriers is
the retention of bioavailability of proteins. Here again, the role of
water in the denaturation process is obscured by the concept that the
mechanism is related to the water activity of the food rather than to
the kinetics of activation energy of specific reaction mechanisms involv¬
ing water molecules as reactants.
The general principles governing changes in quality of foods during
storage (shelf life) are well understood for many foods. Three broad
classifications of effects can be distinguished: (1) sensory properties
involving color, flavor (odor and taste), and texture; (2) nutritional
value, such as vitamins and protein availability; and (3) toxicological
state, primarily of microbiological origin, but also involving contami¬
nants having both acute and chronic effects. When microbial contam¬
ination is present, the effect is particularly important above 0°C where
the formation of ice changes the physical state of water. Most stored
foods are stable if kept frozen below -18°C or where the rates of
deterioration are sufficiently low for prolonged storage.
Moreover, since most foods consist of macromolecules such as
starch and proteins, the ratio and amount of crystalline:amorphous
structures can drastically affect the ability of water to act as a reaction

Table 19.3. Effect of Storage Temperature on Bioavailability of Protein (PER) in

Some Protein Concentrates^

PER after 6 months’ storage at

Product Initial 22°C 0°C -20°C

TVP6 2.27 2.12 2.21 2.25

SCPc 2.23 1.79 2.12 2.23
Milkd 2.37 1.75 2.35 2.36

a Reference casein adjusted to 2.7.

b Textured vegetable protein packed in carton with inner liner.
c Single-cell protein, produced from alcohol-yeast fermentation, packed in carton
with inner liner.
d Defatted milk solids packed in 4-ply paper bag with one 2-mil polyethylene ply.
500 S. G. Gilbert

Table 19.4. Maximum Storage Temperatures (°C) for Limiting

Losses of Thiamin and Vitamin A in Dehydrated Eggs

Months in storage

% 1 3 2 12

Thiamin 10 — 33 6 -18
25 — 37 31 0
50 — — 37 31
Vitamin A f 10 * 27 -15 -18 -24
25 34 -12 -16 -19
50 — 18 2 -12

Source: Kramer (1977).

catalyst at low and intermediate moisture contents. The water activity

of saturated salt solutions often shows only slight change with tempera¬
ture. Foods, on the other hand, may show strong temperature-dependent
shifts in water activity at lower moisture contents, particularly in
freeze-thaw cycles.
Storage temperature as the major factor in deterioration must be
considered in terms of heat sensitivity. Water is perhaps the most
important reactant governing termperature sensitivity.
Much evidence has accumulated since the pioneering concept of Scott
(1953) to show that total water is not the critical determinant for reac¬
tivity. Fugacity, or the excess free energy of water in the gas phase in
equilibrium with food at any one water content, is his determinant.
Reactivity, however, is determined by the energy to transfer water
molecules in the food matrix. These energy states vary from strongly
chemisorptive bonds of food proteins to weak water—water bonds of
“active” water.
Dehydrated foods, when properly packaged to avoid moisture gain
and oxygen access, can be quite stable even at higher temperatures for
short periods. Table 19.4, from Kramer (1977), illustrates this prin¬
ciple that water molecules are reactants in vitamin C loss by oxidation.
Food technology progress, by the development of processes and
products with enhanced nutritional quality as well as by more sales,
related hedonic appeal. Packaging is an important factor in the reten¬
tion of the enhanced quality, with the packaging design an optimization
of the desired marketing and intrinsic nutritional attributes. The
current rapid proliferation of materials and forms for food packaging
requires a corresponding enhanced knowledge of how more effective
as well as safe designs can be provided. This review has as its objective
the update of the general knowledge of packaging of foods.
 19. Storage of Processed Foods 501
REFERENCES

Kramer, A. 1977. Effect of storage on nutritive value of food. J. Food Qual. 1,

23-55.
Kristbergsson, K., and Seymour, S.»G. 1985. Effect of the State of Water in Foods
on Ascorbic Acid Degradation. Ph.D. thesis. Rutgers Univ., New Brunswick,
NJ.
Lee, S. H., and Labuza, T. P. 1975. Destruction of ascorbic acid as a function of
water activity. J. Food Sci. 40, 370.
Mannheim, C. H., and Passy, N. 1984. Internal corrosion and shelf-life of food
cans and methods of evaluation, CRC Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 17, 371-407.
Scott, W. J. 1953. Water relations of Staphylococcus aureus at 30°C. Aust. J.
Biol. Sci. 6, 549.
Vojnovich, C., and Pfeifer, V. F. 1970. Stability of ascorbic acid in blends with
wheat flour, CSM and infant cereals. Cereal Sci. Today 19, 317.
Wanninger, L. A., Jr. 1979. Mathematical model predicts stability of ascorbic acid
in food products. Food Technol. 33(6), 42-44.
 V

■' • _

■*
Effects of
Preparation and Service
of Food on Nutrients
\

\
 20

Effects of
Food Preparation Procedures
in Nutrient Retention
with Emphasis
on Foodservice Practices
Paul A. Lachance
Michele C. Fisher

INTRODUCTION

Foodservice is a misnomer. In the classic sense, away-from-home

eating provided by public eating establishments and institutions, such
as at medical facilities, schools, and colleges, are understood to com¬
prise the foodservice market. However, the food industry has evolved
preprepared single-serve food items to meet individual foodservice
needs, be it at home or away from home, and has continued to provide
preprepared bulk food items for foodservice use. More people than
ever before are now dependent upon the nutritive quality of foods
preprepared at the manufacturing level. Both the foodservice operator
and the consumer obtain their food variety needs to various degrees
via the preprepared frozen entrees and other single-serving food items.
Meals prepared from “scratch,” utilizing fresh (and sometimes frozen)
foods and other ingredients (milk, flour, and spices), are available at
select restaurants and occasionally at home. However, the life-style
of the burgeoning single-member and small-family household has
created markets for ready foods from preprepared infant formulas
(wherein assuring nutritive value has been extensively researched and
applied), to nursery school and other preschool, especially day-care,
snacks and meals, to elementary and secondary school U.S. Department
of Agriculture (USDA)-prescribed and a la carte meals, vending machine
foods, and fast-food snacks and meals, to entrees, such as pizza or
stromboli, delivered to the college dormitory room, to the home, or
eaten on site.

505
 506 P. A. Lachance and M. C. Fisher

Any and all food that is preprepared by the food industry, irres¬
pective of whether it is used in the home or in catering or other food-
service establishments, is subject to the question of responsibility for
nutritive value, and this includes a responsibility for the effects of
preparation on the nutritive quality the consumer can expect to realize.
The food industry, for the most part, has reluctantly accepted only
the responsibility for nutritive composition value data for the nutrition
information panel of retail foods where regulation and competition
have forced the issue. The acquisition of these data for labeling pur¬
poses does not assure the delivery of responsible nutritive value. The
increasing use of partitioned ingredients, especially proteins, carbohy¬
drates, and fats/oils in the manufacture of formulated and fabricated
foods, is diluting the dietary value the consumer receives. As the
consumer moves from drinking and using fluid milk in the home and
in cooking from scratch to dependence on products such as cheese
in which the milk has been partitioned in the process of cheese making
(whey is removed), the consumer realizes considerably fewer micro¬
nutrients than the starting ingredient portends. Tomato sauces used for
retail pizza making can be extended up to 25% by starch-based tomato
extender, again diluting the nutritive value of the pizza and/or related
Italian food preparations. Low-calorie frozen entrees are in demand
for weight control, yet the sauces for these foods are not nutrified, and
the nutrient delivery of the product is not balanced and does not assure
one-fourth or one-third of the recommended dietary allowance of
micronutrients implied by label designations such as “entree,” “dinner,”
or “restaurant classic.” The foodservice industry, particularly mass
feeding operations providing meals “in flight” and “in school,” are
passively unaware of the nutritive balance and value of the foods served.
The problem of the dilution of nutrients becomes blatant in the case
of doughnuts, cream filled or coateck with icings, yet an entire food-
service approach frequented by millions of Americans never questions
the nutritive values of these products and combinations sold, not only
as between-meal snacks, but as meal substitutes.
The marketing advantage of “natural” has further served to dilute
American diets by conveying the image of naturally occurring nutrients
likely occurring. In an effort to decrease waste in fruit processing,
techniques have emerged to process fruit components into rollups and
other novelties. The fruit image justifies purchase for use by children,
but the fruit product is devoid of micronutrients because of the parti¬
tioning and processing involved. Responsible product development
would have included a profile of the equivalent fruit micronutrients.
Fruit replacement drinks have a similar problem, but are irresponsibly
fortified with one nutrient, ascorbic acid, which the consumer happens
to know is associated with fruit, but the product is not fortified with
the several other vitamins and minerals delivered by fruit per se.
 20. Foodservice Practices 507

This chapter provides data on the effect on nutritive values of

conventional foodservice practices, utilizing commodity foods. The
data are not comprehensive, but sufficient to provide indications of the
type and duration of foodservice practice requiring care in operations
in order to conserve nutrients! To facilitate the presentation of the
facts, the data have been organized into major sections which follow
the flow in classical foodservice operations: purchasing and storage
prior to use; preparation of animal and plant products; cooking, includ¬
ing reheating, holding hot, chilled, or frozen; and serving.
In all issues of nutrient retention, four physicochemical variables
need to be considered. These are the extent and duration (time) of
exposure to temperature, oxygen, light, and changes in pH. At the
onset, it must be understood that no comprehensive model that inte¬
grates all of the variables (dependent as well as independent) over
time exists, nor, for that matter, does all the data exist that would be
needed to arrive at a model that could be applied in the immediate
future. In other words, there are many blind spots and gaps in the data
currently available. As we discuss each foodservice operation, we will
summarize the current knowledge and attempt to identify the gaps.
We will point to some preliminary models, but they are indeed primitive
and limited. However, we predict that with computer-assisted modeling,
very sophisticated predictive decision-making techniques will become
available.

GARDEN FRESH VERSUS MARKET FRESH

Both the consumer and foodservice operator, particularly the res-
tauranteur, desire fresh fruits and vegetables; however, “fresh” (mean¬
ing not preserved or processed) is a relative term. Lachance (1978)
proposed a differentiation between the designation “garden fresh”
and the designation “market fresh.” Fresh vegetables and some fruit
picked in the garden or purchased freshly picked at a farmer’s roadside
stand approximate the sensory and nutritive value of garden freshness,
whereas fresh produce purchased at a supermarket or even at a whole¬
sale market out of season (or in season, if it has passed through one or
more redistributions after picking) is more accurately defined as market
fresh. Produce, although fresh, but which originated in fields in Cal¬
ifornia, Florida, or elsewhere, and over a period of days has been
expedited to the market, cannot be expected to meet the same sensory
and nutritive values as freshly picked produce. The combined supplies
of garden- and market-fresh produce assures access to an almost year-
round supply. Some examples are self-evident: “new” potatoes versus
“old” potatoes; “hothouse” tomatoes versus “native” tomatoes;
Florida carrots or corn purchased in New Jersey in April in contrast to
native equivalents in late July.
508 P. A. Lachance and M. C. Fisher

The consumer often fails to appreciate that thermally processed and

frozen fruits and vegetables are garden-fresh produce, scheduled for
processing within hours of picking in order to capture the garden-
fresh attributes. This means that the nutritive values of such processed
foods can, and often do, exceed those of market-fresh produce, but
not that of the equivalent garden-fresh products. The seasonal nature
of certain high-volume produce requires that large volumes be processed
into concentrates (e.g., tomato paste) which can be shipped in bulk
and processed into other formulated products (e.g., tomato sauce or
ketchup) during the off-season. Data relevant to the nutritive com¬
position and the changes in nutritive composition occurring in the
transition between garden fresh and market fresh and at the time of use
(usually after some further holding) are limited, but sufficient to make
the point. Other food categories, such as dairy foods and eggs, could be
included in this concept if the precise starting point of freshness can be
established and the effects of holding studied. Several studies emanat¬
ing from the USDA/Rutgers Urban Food Marketing Research Center
have attempted to study facets of this problem.
The highest concentration of ascorbic acid in broccoli florets is found
at the wholesale level and diminishes at the retail level and with a 3-day
consumer holding (Hudson et al. 1985A). Total ascorbic acid in the
retail and consumer-stored florets was 17 and 27% less, respectively,
than in the florets at the wholesale level. The stems of broccoli retain
ascorbic acid better than the florets. The increased surface area of the
florets permits a greater susceptibility to water loss and oxidation, a
phenomenon reported by Spiers et al. (1951) for turnip greens.
Fresh spinach is a vegetable now available throughout the year.
Market-fresh spinach is 4 to 13 days postharvest before it reaches the
consumer. Field samples (i.e., garden fresh) of spinach show a sub¬
stantial variation between varieties, crop year, and so forth. It has
been estimated that there is a 30% coefficient of variability for ascorbic
acid in fresh foodstuffs. Transportation/storage losses of field-grown
spinach was reported by Russell et al. (1§83) for periods up to 10 days
after harvest to have resulted in as high as 90% loss in ascorbic acid.
Russell et al. (1983) state that tabulated (i.e., USDA Food Composition
Data) values tend to overestimate actual ascorbic values and that approxi¬
mately 50% of the field value at picking (i.e., garden-fresh value) is
normally lost before consumption (i.e., market-fresh values are lower).
Market-fresh strawberries are available almost year-round. In the New
York area, 98% of fresh strawberries come from California and Florida.
The strawberry is ranked as 11th in ascorbic acid, 17th in riboflavin,
and 36th in thiamin content among 42 fruits and vegetables (Salunkhe
1976). Total ascorbic acid in individual strawberry samples (16-19
replicates in 1981 and 1982) ranged from 28 to 82 mg/100 g fresh
weight (FW). Average values for New Jersey berries (49 mg/100 g FW)
 20. Foodservice Practices 509

were less than those of California and Florida berries (65 mg/100 gFW).
New Jersey berries lost significant amounts of ascorbic acid during 0,
4, and 7 days of storage, from 62 to 53 to 33 mg/100 g, respectively.
No such losses were detected in berries from California and Florida
sampled at the wholesale and retail market levels. There is no explana¬
tion for such findings. The varieties were different, but the maturity
level was judged to be about the same. The same investigation (Hudson
et al. 1985B) revealed that the thiamin content in the strawberry
samples ranged from 29 to 130 jug/100 g FW, respectively. Although
total values were higher (more sunlight) the market-fresh level of
nutrients may have already reached a plateau in California varieties.
Some vegetables are very stable in nutrient content during distribu¬
tion and storage for reasons that are not understood. For example,
sweet peppers are available throughout the year and are ranked 4th in
ascorbic acid and 16th in riboflavin and thiamin among 42 fruits and
vegetables (Salunkhe 1976). Under optimum conditions, fresh peppers
can be in the distribution channel and/or stored for 2-3 weeks. The
total ascorbic acid, thiamin, and riboflavin content of sweet peppers
varies less during this period than does the variation attributable to
variety, crop year, and so forth. The consumer cannot assume that
standard handbook values apply to a specific horticultural sample
(Hudson et al. 1985C).

LOSSES DURING COOKING

Meats and Poultry
Broiling
In the Toepfer et al. (1955) study, steaks broiled on a griddle with¬
out added fat retained most of their protein, 96.6%, and fat, 95.8%
(Table 20.1). The finding on protein was similar to that in oven roasts.
The retention of fat during broiling was higher, no doubt because of
the shorter cooking time. According to Noble (1964), Tucker et al.
(1946) reported thiamin retention of 77 and 70% respectively, and
riboflavin retention of 92% in beef loin steaks broiled to interior tem¬
peratures of 58° and 70°C, while Causey et al. (1950A) reported
retentions of slightly over 80% for both thiamin and riboflavin in frozen
ground beef that had been broiled to 74°C. Mclntire et al. (1943)
found retentions of 70 and 79% of thiamin and riboflavin, respectively,
in broiled sirloin of lamb, and Causey et al. (1950B) in the neighborhood
of 85 and 55%, respectively, in frozen ground lamb broiled to 85°C.
Noble (1964) demonstrated that pan- and oven-broiled cuts were not
significantly different in percentages of thiamin or riboflavin retained.
Comparisons based on averages for individual cuts within each type of
meat showed that thiamin retention was significantly higher in broiled
510 P. A. Lachance and M. C. Fisher

Table 20.1. Summary of Retention (%) of Protein and Fat in Thaw Juices, Drip¬
pings, and Cooked Meat from Various Cuts and Forms of Beef

Protein Fata

V Cooked Cooked
Thaw Drip¬ beef or Drip¬ beef or
Cut or form of beef juices pings recipe pings recipe

Beef cuts
Oven roasts 2.6 1.8 95.6 20.6 79.4
Pot roasts 2.5 7.6 89.9 31.1 68.9
Griddle-broiled steaks 3.0 0.4 96.6 4.2 95.8
Swiss steaks 1.6 14.7 83.7 39.2 60.8
Diced beef, stew 3.1 — 96.9 — 100.0
Ground beef
Hamburger 2.4 0.4 97.2 18.2 81.8
Meat loaf 1.4 0 98.6 12.6 87.4

Source: Toepfer et al (1955).

a No fat was reported in thaw juice.

beef loin steaks and 1-serving patties (78%) than in rib steaks and
3-serving patties (average 62%); likewise, in lamb chops and 1-serving
lamb patties (average 66%) than in 3-serving lamb patties (55%); and
in Canadian-style bacon (79%) than in ham slices (65%). Riboflavin
retentions overlapped considerably, with that for broiled rib and loin
steaks (90%) not significantly different from that for either 1- or 3-
serving patties, and that for Canadian-style bacon (82%) not signifi¬
cantly different from that for ham slices. Riboflavin retention in lamb
chops (96%) was significantly higher, however, than in lamb patties
(average 75%).
Comparisons based on averages for each of the three types of meat
showed that thiamin retentions in beef and pork were not significantly
different (average 70%), but were higher than in lamb (62%), while
riboflavin retentions in beef (92%) were significantly higher than in
pork and lamb, which were not significantly different (average 82%).
The data are presented in Table 20.2; although retail cuts were used,
it is presented here because of its uniqueness in the field.
In a sophisticated study, Meyer et al. (1963) studied the effect of
broiling in an oven (5 min/side at a distance of 3 in. from the broiler
unit) on the content of niacin, thiamin, and riboflavin of pork gluteus
medius (loin) muscle. Pale, soft, watery (PSW) and dark, firm, dry
(DFD) muscles were subjectively classified, and the classification
objectively substantiated with Hunter color values and expressible
juice ratios. PSW pork had about twice as much niacin {p < .005) as
DFD, both fresh and cooked (see Table 20.3). Fresh DFD muscle
had slightly higher riboflavin and thiamin contents and in the cooked
form contained a higher thiamin level. PSW muscle showed greater
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512 P. A. Lachance and M. C. Fisher

Table 20.3. Vitamin Content of Four Pale, Soft, Watery and Four Dark, Firm,
Dry Gluteus Medius Muscles

Loss in Loss in
Pale, soft, watery Dark, firm, dry
Cook- Cook-
Vitamin0 Fresh Cooked W>(%) Fresh Cooked ing*(%)

Niacin X 87.2 74.7 41.2 32.4 35.2 20.7

2.9 8.2 6.2 2.2 8.9 7.3
sx
Riboflavin X 2.27 3.14 8.5 2.38 2.50 22.8
0.06 0.44 7.1 0.06 0.21 3.9
sx
Thiamin x 13.0 13.8 29.72 14.2 16.5 16.6
sx 0.50 0.40 5.4 1.4 2.1 2.0

Source: Meyer et al. (1963).

a Expressed as jUg/g fresh tissue. (Mg/g raw — jLtg/g cooked X % cooked weight)
* Vitamin loss calculated to dry weight:
Mg/g raw.

exudate formation, more expressible juice, and consequently, sig¬

nificantly higher cooking weight loss (30-45% versus 25-32.5%).
This higher cooking loss contributed to a significantly higher nutrient
loss on a fresh-weight basis. When equal amounts of the vitamins were
present in the fresh form, the PSW muscle lost a greater quantity of
vitamins during cooking, either by destruction or due to “drip.” The
PSW muscle had a higher niacin level in the cooked form, even though
these muscles had a considerably higher cooking loss.

Frying
Kotschevar et al. (1955), who cooked liver slices in margarine melted
in a pan over a low gas flame, reported a loss in fresh liver of 15% of the
thiamin, 6% of the riboflavin, and 13% of the niacin. Amounts of liver
cooked in one pan were not given. He found greater cooking losses of
thiamin from frozen liver slices, but an increase in riboflavin. Results
with niacin were variable, ranging from a cooking loss of 15% to a gain
of 30%.
Overfrying hamburgers to a temperature of 98° C has been found to
reduce their linoleic acid content by 15% (Jonsson and Karlstrom 1981).
This could be explained by the rate of fat oxidation which increases
with temperature.

Braising
Toepfer et al. (1955) reported (Table 20.4) that retentions in Swiss
steaks were very similar to those in pot roasts and showed the effect of
addition of water on losses. Swiss steak retained 83.7% of the protein
and 60.8% of the fat; pot roasts retained 89.9% of the protein and
68.9% of the fat. On the other hand, over 95% of the protein was
retained during methods of cooking in which no water was added.
 20. Foodservice Practices 513

Table 20.4. Retention of Food Energy, Protein, Fat, and Ash in Boneless Beef
after Thawing and Cooking

Weight^ Retention^

Raw Drained Food

Type of beef and frozen cooked energy Protein Fat Ash
type of cooking (kg) (kg) (cal) (%) (%) (%)

Oven roasts
Blade roll 1.670 1.148 85.4 90.4 83.4 111.7
Inside of round 7.385 4.568 82.9 91.9 77.4 86.6
Knuckle of round 4.086 2.463 88.1 92.5 83.2 72.3
Loin strip 4.652 3.132 85.0 91.3 82.9 84.2
Sirloin butt 6.162 3.874 81.5 87.1 79.5 94.3
Spencer roll 4.306 2.794 76.7 95.0 72.8 74.2
Tenderloin 2.411 1.574 72.5 95.1 65.8 97.9
Pot roasts
Clod 7.156 5.132 92.3 95.9 91.1 107.6
Chuck roll 5.086 3.098 79.8 92.5 73.3 76.1
Chuck tender 1.074 0.631 91.6 101.4 82.4 88.1
Outside of round |.777 3.716 76.8 92.8 69.4 80.4
Rump butt 2.367 1.520 82.8 86.1 81.5 64.2
Griddle-broiled steaks
Blade roll 1.538 1.060 99.0 87.2 103.8 77.5
Inside of round 7.386 4.710 89.9 81.4 90.9 77.9
Knuckle of round 4.147 2.558 89.1 89.4 87.7 82.2
Loin strip 5.074 3.495 90.8 88.4 91.1 68.9
Spencer roll 4.735 3.381 88.2 85.9 88.6 95.2
Tenderloin 2.825 1.952 85.6 97.9 82.2 69.1
Swiss steaks
Clod 7.202 5.842 93.7 87.4 89.7 71.0
Chuck roll 4.776 3.064 71.8 80.3 63.7 64.2
Chuck tender 1.144 0.747 92.2 91.4 86.5 52.2
Outside of round 5.474 4.104 87.9 93.4 80.6 45.0
Rump butt 2.188 1.747 90.1 94.3 85.4 79.8

Source: Toepfer et al. (1955).

a Weight average values. The inside of round represents more than four times that
of blade roll.
^ Calculated from data given in Toepfer et al. (1955).

Schlosser et al. (1957) reported that braised turkey meat contained

as much lysine as did that steamed under 5- or 10-lb pressure. The only
meaningful studies of vitamin retentions in braised meats are those of
Noble (1965, 1970), who studied several cuts of beef, veal, and pork
(Table 20.5).
For the beef cuts, thiamin retention was significantly higher in the
round pot roasts and braised steaks (40% of the amount present in the
raw samples) than in the braised chuck and short ribs (average of 24%).
 a Any two means not side-scored by the same line may be considered significantly different at the 5% level. The interrupted line
beside the riboflavin retention figures is interpreted as follows: the retentions for short ribs and round steaks are not significantly
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 20. Foodservice Practices 515

It was intermediate in the flank steaks, which retained neither a sig¬

nificantly higher percentage than the round cuts, on the one hand, nor
a significantly higher percentage than the chuck and short ribs, on the
other. Riboflavin retention showed a pattern different from that of
thiamin. It was highest in chivck, flank steaks, and round roasts, which
were not significantly different and averaged 73%, and lowest in short
ribs and round steaks, which were not significantly different and
averaged 62%.
For the veal cuts, thaimin retention in the round steaks (48%) was
significantly higher than in chops (38%), but riboflavin retention was
not significantly different and averaged 74%.
For the pork cuts, thiamin retention was significantly different
among the different cuts, tenderloin retaining the highest (57%),
spareribs the lowest (26%), and chops the intermediate percentage
(44%). Riboflavin retention was also highest in tenderloin, but lowest
in chops and intermediate in spareribs; the retention in spareribs was
not significantly different from that in either tenderloin or chops.
Thiamin and riboflavin retentions were very similar from one type
of animal to another when all cuts were considered. Thus, the mean
thiamin value for all beef cuts (32%) was significantly lower than those
for either veal or pork, but the values for the last two and all the
riboflavin means were not significantly different (averages of 42 and
72%, respectively).
The cooking liquids from the beef cuts contained approximately
25% thiamin, those from the veal chops and round, 17 and 33% respec¬
tively, and those from the pork tenderloin, spareribs, and chops 5, 1,
and 13%, respectively, of the thiamin originally present in the raw
samples. Liquids from the beef and pork cuts also contained approx¬
imately 20% and those from the veal chops and round 17 and 24%,
respectively, of the riboflavin originally present.
The thiamin and riboflavin contents and retentions of braised or sim¬
mered sweetbreads, beef kidney, lamb heart, and pork heart are given in
Table 20.6. For the meats as a group, braising as compared to simmering
was found to cause a significantly higher retention of thiamin (46% versus
39%), but not riboflavin (retention of 70% for both cooking methods).
The kind of meat made a significant difference in the average amount
of thiamin and riboflavin retained in the combined braised and simmer¬
ed samples. Thus, sweetbreads retained the largest percentage of
thiamin (60% was the average retention in braised and simmered) and
beef, veal, and pork heart the lowest (average, 29%). Veal, beef, lamb,
and pork hearts, on the other hand, retained the highest percentage of
riboflavin (average, 75%) and beef kidney the lowest (55%).
The cooking liquids contained from 12 to 25% (average, 19%) of the
thiamin and from 13 to 22% (average, 16%) of the riboflavin originally
present in the raw sample.
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 20. Foodservice Practices 517

The loss in weight of the various meats during braising ranged from
42 to 50% (average, 46%) and during simmering from 34 to 47%
(average, 40%).

Roasting
In a study of boneless beef cut to Army specifications, Toepfer
et al. (1955) showed the effect of several factors on losses of calories,
protein, fat, and ash during oven roasting and pot roasting.
Weights of the cuts varied (Table 20.4) and, as a result, probably
also cooking time. Protein suffered little loss in oven roasting: 95.6%
was retained in the drained roast. Since 2.6% of the protein had been
lost to thaw juice and 1.8% to pan drippings, all of the protein was
accounted for.
The effect of the addition of water was evident in the smaller reten¬
tion of protein, 89.9%, in the pot roast and the larger loss to the
drippings, 7.6%. The retention of fat was also slightly lower in the
drained pot roast.
Cover et al. (1949) reported the effect of high oven temperature on
the retention of B vitamins-*after large-scale roasting of beef and pork.
One-muscle roasts were used: longissimus dorsi (eye of rib), semimem¬
branosus (inside of top round), and biceps femoris (outside of bottom
round) of both beef and pork. These isolated muscles vary both in
shape (Tucker et al. 1952) and weight (Wellington 1954).
Beef roasted at 150°C (302°F) to an internal temperature of 80°C
(176°E) retained 61% of the thiamin; that roasted at 205°C (450°F)
and cooked to an internal temperature of 98°C (209°F) retained
only 47%. Pork roasted at 150°C (302°F) to an internal temperature
of 84°C (183°F) retained 64% of the thiamin; that roasted at 205°C
(459°F) to an internal temperature of 98°C (209°F) retained 54%
(Table 20.7).
The lower temperatures resulted in practically complete retention
of the riboflavin, niacin, and pantothenic acid in the drained meat plus
the drippings; about 75% of each vitamin was in the drained meat. At
the higher temperature, pantothenic acid retention in the meat was
13% less than at the lower temperature, but the retention of the heat-
stable vitamins, riboflavin and niacin, was only slightly less. Pan
drippings at the higher temperature were unusable.
Statistical analysis showed that beef roasts cooked at 150°C (302°F)
to an internal temperature of 80°C retained significantly more thiamin,
pantothenic acid, and riboflavin than did those roasted at 204°C
(450°F) to a temperature of 98°C. In the pork, however, thiamin
was the only vitamin retained in statistically significantly greater
quantities at the lower temperature.
Roasting times required by the above muscles at the two temper¬
atures were not reported. However, the destructive effect of increased
cooking on thiamin is well known (Farrer 1955).
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In 1960, Noble and Gomez clarified the work of Cover et al. (1949)
by roasting beef to a constant internal temperature. Standing-rib
pairs of choice beef were roasted at 149° and 177°C, and rolled and
standing-rib pairs were roasted to the same interior temperature at
177°C, to determine if the lower heating period required by the first treat¬
ment would affect thiamin retention. The other cuts roasted were top
round, rump, tenderloin, and beef loaf, the meat for which came from
the chuck arm. All roasts were heated to an interior temperature of
71°C; the loaves were heated to 75°C (Table 20.8).
Longer heating did not affect the thiamin retention in the cooked
meat. Roasted beef loaf retained an average of 70% of the amount of
thiamin in the raw ingredients. This retention was significantly higher
than that of cooked top round and rib roasts, which averaged 54%.
It was not significantly different, however, from the retention in rump
and tenderloin roasts, both of which showed intermediate values.
Roasted beef loaf and top round retained the lowest proportion,
about 80%, of the riboflavin originally present in the raw samples,
while rib and rump roasts retained the highest proportion, an average
of 87%. Tenderloin roasts were intermediate in riboflavin retention
and not significantly different in this respect from any of the other
roasts.
The raw meat findings are in agreement with the values for raw meat
as reported by others (Watt and Merrill 1963; Schweigert and Payne
1956; Cover et al. 1949). The cooked values are in agreement with the
values reported by Watt and Merrill (1963), and Leverton and Odell
(1958) provided results for roast lamb that are given in Table 20.9.
The results were subsequently verified by Noble and Gomez (1958)
in a study comparing the electronic cooking of lamb and bacon with
conventional roasting.
Mahon et al. (1956) roasted approximately 40-lb lots of smoked
ham, consisting of 4 hams, at 300°F to an internal temperature of
170°F. The mean cooking times of the 40-lb lots was 4 and 9 min.
Before roasting, the lean ham had a mean thiamin content of 0.527
mg/100 g on the moist, fat, salt basis, and 2.14 mg/100 g on the mois¬
ture-, fat-, chloride-free basis. After roasting, the mean thiamin content
was 0.476 mg/100 g and on the moisture-, fat-, chloride-free basis, it
was 1.71 mg/100 g (Leeking et al. 1956).

Broasting
This is a foodservice process involving pressure frying which requires
specialized equipment. The system, because of pressure, is more
rapid than regular deep-fat frying and results in less absorption of fat
into the product. There are no known data on nutrient retention
advantages and disadvantages.
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522 P. A. Lachance and M. C. Fisher

Pressure Cooking
Only one report was found on nutrient losses in large-scale pressure
cooking of foods of animal origin. This was by Schlosser et al. (1957)
and was on one nutrient, lysine, Kin older turkeys. These workers
found that cooking cut-up, older, fresh-killed tom turkeys by steaming
at 5- or 15-lb pressure in a self-contained high-compression steamer or
covered with aluminum foil and braised in an oven at 325°F made no
appreciable difference in the lysine content of the cooked meat. Per¬
centage retention of lysine during cooking was not obtained. Steaming
under pressure required one-fifth the time of braising.

Infrared and Convective Heating

Infrared and convective heating of pork roast, turkey breast, and
corned beef were evaluated for nutrient losses by Unklesbay et al.
(1983A). Few significant differences between the heat-processed
samples were found for vitamins and minerals (see Table 20.10).
Corned beef that was cooked in a convection oven had a significantly
higher content of riboflavin compared to corned beef prepared by
infrared heating. Convective heating also produced a higher yield of
turkey breast and corned beef. In another study by Unklesbay et al.
(1983B), convective-heated hamburger patties had signficantly greater
product yield compared to infrared heating. In addition, riboflavin
and vitamin A levels in hamburgers were significantly greater after
infrared heating, as were the total amino acid contents in both ham¬
burgers and cod fillets.

Microwave
In conventional cooking, heat is applied to the outside of food by
convection (baking), radiation (broiling), or by conduction (frying)
and the heat is then conducted to the interior of the food. Heat
generated from within the food by a series of molecular vibrations is
the basis for microwave cooking. Advantages of microwave cookery
include higher energy efficiencies, greatef time savings, convenience,
and easy cleanup (Cross and Fung 1982). Its disadvantages include
greater cooking losses, inability to brown foods, and less palatability
(Korschgen et al. 1976).
The use of microwave cookery in foodservice has been on the rise
and it is estimated that by the year 2000, microwave ranges will be
commonplace in foodservice units (Korschgen et al. 1976). Early use
of microwave energy in the food industry was primarily for frozen
food defrosting. Microwave thawing of precooked frozen meals, an
adaption from the cook-chill or “ready foods” system, has provided
a breakthrough in traditional hospital foodservice which results in
higher quality meals with lower food and labor costs (Cross and Funs
1982). g
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524 P. A. Lachance and M. C. Fisher

Ziprin and Carlin (1976) evaluated the effect of microwave cookery

versus conventional roasting of beef and beef—soy loaves made with
either 0, 15% soy flour, or 15% soy concentrate. Cooking losses, fat
and moisture contents, and thiamin retention were examined. Micro-
wave-cooked loaves (960 g) reached 74°C in 19 min and had con¬
sistently higher cooking losses compared to those cooked conventionally
for 78 min. The use of 15% soy reduced cooking losses more in con¬
ventional electric than microwave ovens. The addition of soy had no
effect on the fat content, although the cooking method significantly
affected fat content; 11.5% fat in microwave-cooked loaves versus
9.6% in conventional ovens. Thiamin content was unaffected by soy
substitution and cooking method.
Baldwin et al. (1976) cooked beef, pork, and lamb roasts using two
2450 MHz microwave ranges (one operated at 1054 W cooking power,
the other at 492 W cooking power) and one conventional gas oven.
Meat cooked by microwave (492 W) had lower levels of thiamin,
riboflavin, and niacin compared to the two other methods. There was
a trend toward less retention of sodium, chloride, phosphorus, and iron
in microwave-cooked versus conventionally cooked meats. While total
proteins were not significantly different between the two methods,
microwave cookery formed less free amino acids compared to the gas
oven.
The effect of broiling, grill frying, and microwave cooking on lipid
and cholesterol contents of ground beef patties was studied by Janicki
and Appledorf (1974). Microwave cooking had the greatest reduction
in crude fat. Crude fat values for broiling, grill frying, and broiling and
microwave reheating yielded similar values (Table 20.11). This was
believed to result from the formation of a brown crust from the brown¬
ing reaction in the broiled, grill fried, and broiled/reheated beef. The
crust did not form in the microwave-heated patties. All cooking
methodologies resulted in lowered cholesterol levels compared to the
raw patty except for the microwave-cooked patties.
Top round beef roasts cooked in a microwave oven (77.6 min to an
internal temperature of 68.3°C) and an electric oven (134.8 min to
an internal temperature of 149°C) were evaluated by Voris and Van
Duyne (1979) for thiamin content and palatability. Total cooking
losses, moisture, fat, and thiamin contents of the cooked meats were
not significantly different with respect to cooking method. Microwave-
cooked roasts were rated lower in aroma, flavor, and exterior color
compared to conventionally cooked roasts, but no difference was found
when compared for tenderness, juiciness, or interior color.
Boneless rib eye, top round, and bone-in blade chuck roasts cooked
in microwave ovens and in conventional gas ovens were compared for
cooking time, yield, and palatability by Fulton and Davis (1983).
Cooking time was shorter in microwave ovens, an average of 82 min
 20. Foodservice Practices 525

Table 20.11. Effect of Cooking Method on Lipid Constituents

in Ground Beef Patties0

Cooking method Crude fat (g) Cholesterol (mg)

Raw * 18.1 ± 3.0a 77 ± 11a

Broiled 10.0 ± l.Obc 63 ± 12b
Grilled-fried 10.5 ± 1.2b 62 ± 14b
Microwave 8.0 ± l.Od 70 ±17ab
Broiled-frozen-microwave 8.9 ± 1.2c 61 ± lib

Source: Janicki and Appledorf (1974).

a Mean ± S.D. for 12 patties per treatment. Values in each column
followed by same letter are not significantly different (p < .05).

versus 160 min for conventional ovens. The yield of cooked lean meat
was the same for round and chuck roasts cooked by either type of
oven, while the yield was lower for rib eye roasts cooked in a microwave
versus a conventional oven. Palatability/acceptability rating for tender¬
ness (by a flavor panel arid shear-force measurement), softness, and
natural flavor were found to be similar between cooking methods. Rib
eye roasts were found to be browner and less juicy when cooked by
microwaves.
Moore et al. (1980) evaluated top round steaks cooked by dry or
moist heat in conventional or microwave ovens with rotary hearths.
Cooking time, volatile cooking losses, total moisture, and sensory
juiciness and tenderness scores were less, while total and drip-cooking
losses were more for steaks cooked by microwaves than be conventional
methods. Cooking time was longer but total and drip-cooking losses
were less for steaks cooked by dry heat than for those cooked by moist
heat.
Pork muscles cooked by microwaves had greater drip loss, volatile
loss, and total cooking loss compared to those cooked in an electric
oven (Bowers et al. 1974B). Vitamin B6 levels in the pork were similar
between cooking methods.
Microwave cookery has been widely used on poultry products.
Chicken breasts cooked by microwaves were found to have significantly
greater retention of vitamin B6 compared to meat cooked by roasting
in a conventional oven (Wing and Alexander 1972). Prusaef al. (1981)
found that moisture, fat, and thiamin levels in hens were not signifi¬
cantly affected by microwave heating compared to those conventionally
baked. Thiamin content was found to be greater in broilers cooked in
a microwave oven compared to an electric oven (see Table 20.12)
(Hall and Lin 1981). No difference in the thiamin content of broilers
cooked in an 800 W versus a 1600 W microwave oven was found.
Cooking chicken at a higher temperature (204°C) in an electric oven for
a shorter time of 45 min significantly increased thiamin retention.
526 P. A. Lachance and M. C. Fisher

Table 20.12. Thiamin Retention in Broilers Cooked by Microwaves and in Elec¬

tric Ovens

Temperature Time Thiamin

Sample Cooking method v (°C) (min) (% retention)

Light meat Electric oven 121 120 75.5

Dark meat 121 120 68.1
Light meat 204 45 83.2
Dark meat 204 45 70.0
Light meat Microwave, 800 W — 10 85.1
Dark meat — 10 70.1

Source: Hall and Lin (1981).

Turkey breast muscle heated to an internal temperature of either 75°

or 85°C in microwave and conventional electric ovens were found to
have similar vitamin B6 levels based on a dry weight basis (Bowers
et al. 1974A). Microwave-cooked samples had higher vitamin B6
contents on a cooked weight basis, but this was a result of having greater
total cooking losses and lowered moisture contents compared to those
prepared in the electric ovens.

Soy Products
Soy products have become an economical way of extending meat
without substantially lowering the nutritive quality. In addition to
these meat extending properties, they also have been recommended to
prevent shrinkage in meat products, thus reducing cooking losses.
Nielsen and Carlin (1974) found that soy-substituted beef loaves
(0, 10, 20, and 30% soy) cooked at 163°C to a temperature of 74°C
had cooking losses of 14.3, 12.5, 9.7, and 7.6%, respectively. As soy
substitution was increased there was a* similar decrease in total cooking
losses seen. Yoon et al. (1974) also found that progressive decreases
in total cooking losses occurred with increasing soy substitutions.
Williams and Zabik (1975) reported total cooking losses of 13.3% and
9.8% for 0 and 30% soy-substituted beef loaves, respectively, that were
frozen, thawed, and cooked at 177° to 77°C.
The type of soy products used can have an effect on the functional
properties of the resultant soy-meat mixture. According to Ali et al.
(1982), the substitution of cooked ground soybeans or textured soy
protein for 30% of the ground beef in meat loaf mixtures was equally
effective in decreasing drip, evaporation, and total cooking losses in
freshly cooked; raw, frozen (3.5 and 7 months), and cooked; and
cooked, frozen and reheated meat loaves. All beef mixtures and loaves
and those with 30% replacements with ground soybeans or textured soy
protein contained similar amounts of protein and thiamin. Thiamin
retention increased slightly in substituted loaves, but only after 7
 20. Foodservice Practices 527

months of storage did the textured soy protein loaves have significantly
higher thiamin levels than the all-beef loaves. Palatability scores were
highest for all-beef loaves and higher for soybean than textured soy-
protein loaves.
Hamburger patties containing all beef or beef extended (20% recon¬
stituted soy product, 80% beef) with soy isolate, soy concentrate, or
textured soy flour, or beef extended with one of the three soy products
fortified with iron (60 mg/100 g soy protein) and zinc (25 mg/100 g
soy protein) were evaluated in both the raw and cooked states by Miles
et al. (1984) for moisture, protein, fat, calcium, phosphorus, mag¬
nesium, sodium, iron, copper, zinc, and manganese. They found no
significant differences in the retention of protein, fat, total ash, calcium,
or copper between the all-beef patties and beef patties extended with
any of the soy proteins tested. Moisture retention in the patties de¬
creased as the refinement of the soy added to the patties increased. In
general, the higher the mineral content of the raw patty, the higher its
nutrient retention.
>

Cooking and Protein Quality

Siedler (1961) reviewed the effects of standard cooking and process¬
ing methods on the nutritional value of meat protein, and, on the basis
of the reports of Lushbough et al. (1957), Schweigert and Guthneck
(1954), and Heller et al. (1961), concluded that little of the essential
amino acids, tryptophan, methionine, and lysine, are destroyed or lost
by heat treatment using standard cooking or processing procedures, and
that their biological availability is not impaired. In view of this and the
price of protein food of animal origin, it would appear wise to de-
emphasize meat as a source of vitamins.

Drippings during Cooking — Protein

Toepfer et al. (1955) showed the effect of the addition of water on
loss of protein to pan drippings. Beef cooked without added water
(oven roasts, griddle-broiled steaks and hamburgers, and meat loaf) lost
only from 0.4 to 1.8% of protein to the pan drippings, while that
cooked with added water (pot roasts and Swiss steak) lost 7.6 to 14.7%
(Table 20.4). All of the beef was apparently cooked at low or moderate
temperatures. The authors concluded that trimming of fat did not
influence the protein loss to pan drippings.

Drippings during Cooking — Vitamins

Cover et al. (1949) showed the damaging effect of high oven tem¬
peratures, 205°C, and cooking to a high internal temperature, 98°C;
the pan drippings of both pork and beef were so burned that they were
not usable. On the other hand, pan drippings of beef roasted at 150°C
to an internal temperature of 80°C contained 6% of the thiamin, 20%
of the pantothenic acid, and 16% of the niacin and riboflavin; those of
528 P. A. Lachance and M. C. Fisher

pork roasted at the same temperature but to a higher internal tempera¬

ture (84°C) contained a higher percentage of the vitamins, 17% of the
thiamin, 25% of the pantothenic acid, 26% of the niacin, and 19% of
the riboflavin (Table 20.7). v
Thomas et al. (1949) reported appreciable amounts of thiamin (19%),
riboflavin (17%), and niacin (20%) in the juice from beef patties cooked
in an electronic oven. Causey et al. (1950B) found from 1 to 4% of
the thiamin and from 3 to 12% of the riboflavin in the cooking drip of
frozen beef patties.
Wing and Alexander (1972) recovered 5.4% vitamin B6 in the drip
from roasting chicken breast in conventional ovens for 45 min, as com¬
pared to a 1.5% loss when the breasts were cooked in an electronic
oven for 1.5 min.
These and other studies show that appreciable vitamin B6, in addi¬
tion to moisture and fat, may be lost to pan drippings. Pan drippings
are sometimes used in soups and casserole dishes to give flavor, and are an
integral part of meat dishes such as Swiss steak and stews. The practice
of making gravies from drippings and serving gravies with meals is much
less common, and the various dry gravy mixes marketed for their con¬
venience in preparation have not been analyzed for vitamin content.
The ingredient listing would indicate no appreciable source of vitamins.
Carving Juice
In the carving of beef, pork, lamb, and veal roasts, and of roasted
poultry, appreciable cutting juice may be lost if carving is done while
the roasts are very hot. No studies on nutritive loss to carving juices
were found.

Foods of Plant Origin

Boiling (Proportion of Water to Solid H/Iaterial)
Great variations occur in the proportion of water to solid material
commonly used; the ratio of water to solids usually varies from 1:2 to
2:1. Krehl and Winters (1950) measured the effect of cooking approxi¬
mately 1-lb amounts of 12 vegetables to the same state of doneness, in
varying amounts of water, on losses of both minerals and vitamins. In
the pressure saucepan, 1/2 cup of water was added; in “waterless”
cooking none was added. These methods were compared with boiling
in water to cover and in 1/2 cup of added water. In all cases the pan
was kept covered. Results of ascorbic acid and carotene losses are
given in Table 20.13.
These results show clearly that the greatest retention of both vitamins
is obtained when vegetables are cooked without water, and that least
retention is associated with cooking in the largest amount of water,
that is, water to cover. Losses when a pressure saucepan or a small
amount of water were used were intermediate. Other studies show that
 20. Foodservice Practices 529

Table 20.13. Effect of Cooking Vegetables in . Varying Amounts of Water on

Retention of Ascorbic Acid and Carotene*2

Pressure-cooked Water to cover Vi Cup water Waterless

Ascor¬ Ascor¬ Ascor¬ Ascor¬

bic Caro¬ bic Caro¬ bic Caro¬ bic Caro¬
Vegetable acid tene acid tene acid tene acid tene

Asparagus 67.6 78.5 45.2 64.6 66.4 92.3 69.4 101.5

Beets 93.8 81.4 74.0 72.4 87.3 82.8 81.1 96.2
Broccoli 68.0 88.6 50.6 76.0 68.7 84.3 70.2 97.7
Cabbage 75.5 96.8 44.3 73.3 57.4 89.7 68.4 95.6
Carrots 79.1 88.4 63.1 84.5 75,1 86.3 72.5 98.9
Cauliflower 75.5 89.8 47.3 80.7 54.0 83.7 70.7 97.4
Corn 74.9 88.2 60.2 86 4 65.1 87.3 69.6 93.1
Green beans 76.1 94.4 58.5 85.6 64.0 90.3 74.8 96.3
Peas 73.7 89.7 51.3 83 2 70.0 89.4 78.8 91.2
Potatoes 57.3 86.3 41.0 78.9 48.4 80.5 79.4 85.8
Squash 65.3 92.3 50.5 82.4 66.5 84.2 74.8 91.9
Spinach 61.7 74.8 49.1 80.7 51.7 87.2 70.0 91.3
j-
Source: Krehl and Winters (1950).
a Percentage of ascorbic acid and carotene retained.

cooking by steaming above water gives retentions similar to those for

cooking in a pressure saucepan or in a small amount of water. Krehl
and Winters (1950) also obtained data on the minerals calcium, iron,
and phosphorus; and the vitamins thiamin, riboflavin, and niacin.
Losses of these nutrients were in the same direction as those of ascorbic
acid and carotene so far as they were affected by the amount of water
added. Also, the percentage of other nutrients lost was usually more
than that for carotene and less than that for ascorbic acid. Thus,
retention of ascorbic acid is used as a measure of the relative desir¬
ability of a cooking procedure for foods, but it is unfortunate that so
much work has been done on vitamin C alone.
In waterless cooking, retentions of vitamin C in the 12 vegetables
ranged from about 70% to about 80% (Table 20.13). The results of
Gordon and Noble (1964), conducted on 4-serving portions, did not
show as good a retention for vitamin C as was found in the more ex¬
haustive Krehl and Winters study; however, the percentage retention
of ascorbic acid during cooking in the pressure saucepan was greater
than during cooking by either the waterless technique or the boiling
water to cover technique for 5 out of 6 vegetables tested. The water¬
less method was superior to boiling for 5 out of 6 vegetables (Table
20.14). These data and those from other studies demonstrate that it
is possible to retain to a high degree the original nutritive value of a
vegetable in cooking. On the other hand, an amount of water enough
to cover usually resulted in a retention of one-half or less of the original
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531
532 P. A. Lachance and M. C. Fisher

vitamin. In any case, since the lost nutrients are for the most part in
the cooking water, utilizing the cooking liquids is definitely worth the
effort, but it seems to be a lost art.
Legumes are most often cooked by simmering in an excess of water
until tender. Haytowitz and Matthews (1983) have found that factors
such as legume size, amount of water used in cooking, cooking time,
permeability of legume seed coat to leaching, and type of cookware can
all affect nutrient retentions. Table 20.15 lists the retained nutrients
found in legumes following simmering. Leaching accounted for most
losses of nutrients, such as protein and potassium, and many of the
water-soluble vitamins, such as thiamin, niacin, and vitamin B6.
Augustin et al. (1981) found that cooked Phaseolus vulgaris had
average retentions of water-soluble vitamins (thiamin, riboflavin,
niacin, vitamin B6, and folacin) between 70 and 75%. Retention of
minerals ranged from a low of 38.5% for sodium to total retention of
calcium, with phosphorus, potassium, magnesium, zinc, manganese,
copper, and iron being retained at levels between 80 and 90% (see
Table 20.16).
Pasta
Cooked commercially produced pasta products have been found
to have modest losses (less than 20%) of the minerals iron, calcium,
phosphorus, zinc, manganese, and magnesium. Significant amounts,
up to 60% of potassium, were lost in the cooking water (see Table

Table 20.16. Nutrient Content and Cooking Retention Values

of Commercial Phaseolus vulgaris Classes0

Nutrient content (mg%)

Nutrient Before cooking After cooking % retention

^

Thiamin 0.99 ( 9.1) 0.72 ( 7.5) 73.1 ( 6.4)

Riboflavin 0.20 (27.5) 0.15 (24.5) 75.9 (:LI.4)
Niacin 1.79 (25.6) 1.22 (29.6) 70.4 (:LI.6)
Vitamin B6 0.49 (16.7) 0.35 (24.6) 70.9 ( 9.1)
Folacin 0.30 (46.6) 0.22 (46.0) 73.0 (12-5)
Phosphorus 0.46 ( 6.3) 0.43 ( 6.0) 94.9 ( 3.5)
Sodium 10.3 (37.4) 3.4 (31.4) 38.5 (23.5)
Potassium 1.54 ( 6.4) 1.29 ( 8.4) 81.6 ( 9.0)
Calcium 0.15 (25.1) 0.15 (24.4) 103.2 ( 5.9)
Magnesium 0.20 ( 7-6) 0.17 ( 9.9) 86.6 ( 7.1)
Zinc 3.2 (21.7) 3.0 (18.7) 94.0 (10.0)
Manganese 1.4 (19.3) 1.5 (21.6) 102.1 ( 4.8)
Copper 0.95 (17.1) 0.71 (16.8) 78.9 ( 9.9)
Iron 5.84 (18.9) 5.84 (21.0) 96.1 ( 4.3)
Source: Augustin et al. (1981).
a Mean value, dry-weight basis; numbers in parentheses are the co¬
efficient of variation in %. P, K, Ca, and Mg values are on a
gram % basis.
 20. Foodservice Practices 533

Table 20.17. Retention of Minerals in Cooked Pasta Products^

Mean ± S.D. (mg/100 g)

Mineral Product Cooked Uncooked Retention^ (%)

Sodium Spaghetti 1.3 ± 0.4 1.4 ± 0.8 Inconsequential

Noodles 3.4 ± 1.8 13.2 ± 6.8
Macaroni 0.9 ± 0.3 2.2 ± 1.5
Potassium Spaghetti 79 ± 18 198 ± 29 39.7 ± 3.9(37.4)
Noodles 58 ± 17 219 ± 29 26.3 ± 6.0(24.8)
Macaroni 76 ± 16 181 ± 15 42.6 ± 12.6 (40.2)
Iron Spaghetti 3.98 ± 0.88 3.83 ± 0.72 103.5 ± 7.7 ( 97.6)
Noodles 5.44 ± 1.05 4.78 ± 1.24 115.0 ± 10.0 (108.4)
Macaroni 3.74 ± 0.22 3.54 ± 0.41 106 6 ± 11.2 (100.5)
Copper Spaghetti 0.298 ± 0.099 0.313 ± 0.038 94.5 ± 18.2 ( 89.1)
Noodles 0.326 ± 0.028 0.324 ± 0.019 101.0 ± 10.4 ( 95.2)
Macaroni 0.308 ± 0.036 0.281 ± 0.019 109.9 ± 13.6 (103.6)
Phosphorus Spaghetti 144 ± 40 157 ± 43 91.7 ± 1.1 (86.5)
Noodles 203 ± 21 207 ± 18 97.6 ± 3.4 (92.0)
Macaroni 137 ± 14 143 ± 18 96.2 ± 6.4 (90.7)
Zinc Spaghetti J.37 ± 0.38 1.32 ± 0.37 104.5 1 4.8 ( 98.5)
Noodles 1.73 ± 0.15 1.61 ± 0.17 108.2 1 5.7 (102.0)
Macaroni 1.30 ± 0.09 1.11 ± 0.18 119.1 1 16.2 (112.3)
Manganese Spaghetti 0.72 ± 0.24 0.68 ± 0.22 105.1 1 5.5 (99.1)
Noodles 0.70 ± 0.12 0.69 ± 0.11 101.5 1 5.7(95,7)
Macaroni 0.67 ± 0.12 0.68 ± 0.16 100.7 1 10.1 (95.0)
Calcium Spaghetti 20 ± 2 18 ± 2 108.7 1 4.2 (102.5)
Noodles 33 ± 4 30 ± 3 108.9 1 3.6 (102.7)
Macaroni 19 ± 4 18 ± 3 102.3 1 8.9 ( 96.5)
Magnesium Spaghetti 41 ± 14 47 ± 13 86.5+ 5.8(81.6)
Noodles 47 ± 11 47 ± 11 101.2 1 8.7(95.4)
Macaroni 38 ± 6 39 ± 6 98.0 1 12.9 (92.4)

Source: Ranhotra et al. (1982).

a On moisture-free basis.
^ In cooked products; values in parentheses are values corrected for dry-matter
losses (average loss, 5.7%) in cooking.

20.17) (Ranhotra et al, 1982). Enriched spaghetti readily lost thiamin,

riboflavin, and niacin, having retentions of 39, 30, and 48%, respectively
(Dexter et al. 1982; Ranhotra et al. 1983). Losses of thiamin and ribo¬
flavin were due to a combined effect of leaching into the cooking water
and thermal degradation, while all of the niacin lost during cooking was
recovered in the cooking water.

Cooking without Paring or in Large Pieces

As might be expected, there is evidence that solution losses in
cooking are affected by the amount of surface, especially cut surface,
exposed to the water. The skins of potatoes are such an effective
barrier that boiled or steamed whole potatoes show little loss of vitamin
C. When peeled, losses may amount to about 13% (Van Duyne et al.
 534 P. A. Lachance and M. C. Fisher

Table 20.18. Vitamin Retention (%) During Boiling, Large-scale Cooking

Cooking Caro¬ Ribo¬ Ascorbic

time (min) tene Thiamin flavin Niacin acid

Cereals V
Corn (canned) 30 78 95 32
Rice, white 20 46 52 59
Rice, white, enriched 20 46 62 59
Vegetables
General 100 70-75 25-60
46-100 50-97 36-98 8-100
Student meals 90 90 100 87 60
Earth vegetables
Carrot 96 50 66 53 27
30 96 99
Carrot (dehyd.) 25-45 81-99 52-75 55-89 58
Carrot (canned) 30 95 38
Carrot 45 48 29 55 77
96 50 66 53 27
23 100
Onion 15 89
Parsnips 30 30
15 91
10 97
64
Potato 10 87-92
20 69
15-20 79
Potato (dehyd. sulfited) 35-45 56-97 56-84
Potato 36 80
Done 83 97 83 89
26 48
15 89-92
70-80 85 75 25-60
25 •v 96 97 100 98
Pumpkin 15 100
Swede 45 54
Sweet potato 92 100 100
90 100
Squash 10 89
Turnip 15-20 60
Taro 35 89
Fruit vegetables
Tomatoes (canned) 40 89-110 94-106 88-102
Tomatoes 30 95
Tomatoes (canned) 30 71-94 99
Herbage vegetables
Asparagus 97 71 78 81
Asparagus (canned) 30 87 99 93
Beans, snap 45 74 91
Beans(canned) 30 92 100 53
Beans 11 55-85 56-79 44-55
18-140 59-77 48-83 8-98
30-59
 20. Foodservice Practices 535

Table 20.18. (Continued)

Cooking Caro¬ Ribo¬ Ascorbic

time (min) tene Thiamin flavin Niacin acid

Beans (frozen) 2§-45 45-85 64-96 68 26-34

Beans 40-85 41-100
17-19 62-66
57-71 25-84
Broccoli 5-6 53-82
Broccoli (frozen) 7-7 80
8-20 44-61 48-71 46-61
Broccoli 13 80 95 74
30 100 95 73 88 67
Brussels sprouts 2 77
5-20 39-62
15 53
30-40 44
Cabbage (dehyd.) 67
Cabbage 50 59 50
120 84-87 33-43 39-50 18-30
4-8 64-85 66-90 57-74
20 73
Cabbage, red 60 18 5
Cabbage 13 46 58 51
12-20 30
18 38
30-40 60
7 57
Cauliflower 30-40 73
3 81
15 52
12 87
Chard, Swiss 10 42
Corn, cob 80 97 87 63
Kale 6 65 50
25 23
180-241) 3-53
30 100
Lima beans (frozen) 14-81 56-82 59-89 52-76
25-50 37-65 67 78-55 23-73
Lima beans 17 62
Lima beans (canned) 30 88 86-95 45
Okra 20 55-75
Peas 2 70
9 93 89 63
9 97 100 86
30 90 94 93 97 86
40-80
8 96 80 69 87 50
12 91
Peas (canned) 65 61-66 66 63 35
Peas 8 80 65 45-60
Peas (frozen) 20-27 50-75 62 59 32
Peas 35-135 45

(continued)
536 P. A. Lachance and M. C. Fisher

Table 20.18. (Continued)

Cooking Caro¬ Ribo¬ Ascorbic

time (min) tene Thiamin flavin Niacin acid

Peas 15-129 y 66-94 69-98 38-92

20 70
Spinach 5 65 23
30-40 38
7 78
3 70
Spinach (frozen) 23-45 36-78 78 20-35
Spinach 6 97 50 52 24
5 100
10-15 85-88 13-34 19-24 17-42 4-14
7 50 53 33
Spinach (canned) 30 92-99 95 75-78
Soya sprouts 13-21 63-72 27-38
Turnips 40
Turnip greens 16-53
Legumes
Legumes 8
Beans 35-135 45
225 84-95

Source: Harris (1960).

1945). “Frenched” green beans (cut in lengthwise strips) retain only

28% of the original vitamin C as compared with 54% retention in those
cooked whole and 52% retention in those cut in 1-in. lengths (Noble
and Worthington 1948).
Vitamin Retention during Boiling
Harris (1960) prepared a summary of the many studies on the ef¬
fects of large-scale boiling upon nutrient content. Table 20.18 is an
abbreviated version of the original table. More recent studies of the ef¬
fect of boiling consider ascorbic acid retention only and were not added
to the table.

Vitamin Retention during Pressure Cooking and Steam Cooking

Invariably, the loss of nutrients is considerably less during pressure
cooking or steam cooking of vegetables as compared to boiling at
atmospheric pressures. This is readily evident from Tables 20.19 and
20.20 on vitamin retention during pressure cooking and steaming,
respectively. What is startling is that no new studies of any consequence
have been published in the open literature since the 1950s.
Meanwhile, the use of steamers has augmented foodservice appli¬
cations, whereas the routine use of pressure cookers in the home is
now nil. Less cooking is being done from fresh foods at both home
and institutional levels. More frozen raw foods and precooked frozen
 20. Foodservice Practices 537

Table 20.19. Vitamin Retention (%) during Pressure Cooking

Cooking
time Pressure Ascorbic
(min) (lb) Thiamin Riboflavin acid
>
Earth vegetables
Carrots 10 7 75 49
Potato 96 89
20 6 95 100
Fruit vegetables
Chili 10 71-93
Bitter gourds 10 71-93
Herbage vegetables
Broccoli (frozen) 6 15 72
Broccoli 5-7 5-15 76-95 84-100 77-83
Broccoli (frozen) 5-6 5-15 75-81
Brussels sprouts 0.33 15 97
Cabbage 10 15 60
Cauliflower 0.5 15 92
Lima beans 10 64
Okra (115°C) > 2 82
Peas 1 15 88
9-10 5-15 98 86-92 68-72
Squash 45 6 52 42
Spinach 0.75 15 80
Turnips 30 6 55 100

Source: Harris (1960).

foods are now in use. The foodservice steamer is used as much, if not
more, for conditioning convenience foods as it is for cooking in the
classical sense. Since nutrient retention is generally better in frozen
products and the duration of cooking and the amount of water neces¬
sary in steaming is less, all indications are that nutrient retention is
probably improved, but there are no systematic studies to confirm or
deny such a hypothesis as it- applies to the foods, equipment, and
practices in use today.
Vitamin Losses into Cooking Water
Even the very unstable vitamin, ascorbic acid, can be found in cook¬
ing water. Although only three vitamins have ever been repeatedly
studied, it appears probable that other vitamins could also be expected
in cooking water. Table 20.21 is a condensation of the information
tabulated by Harris (1960). Other investigations show that time of
cooking is evidently a critical variable; for example, broccoli boiled for
2, 5 1/2, and 11 min lost 25, 32, and 33%, respectively, of the ascorbic
acid content into the cooking water (Barnes et al. 1943). These losses
can be reduced considerably by limiting the volume of the cooking
water. For instance, Barnes et al. (1943) observed ascorbic acid reten¬
tions of 82, 57, and 53% when broccoli was cooked in 100, 500, and
538 P. A. Lachance and M. C. Fisher

Table 20.20. Vitamin Retention (%) during Steam Cooking

Cooking
time Caro¬ Ascorbic
(min) tene Thiamin Riboflavin Niacin acid

Cereals
Corn 85 100 100 64
Rice 32 95
Earth vegetables
Carrots 70-83
20 86
93 82 92 84 62
Carrots (dehyd.) 15 91 49-57 63-67 21-57
Parsnips 25 86
Potato 60 86
53 84 72 78 88
60 46
50 95
Sweet potato 98
25-64 70-93 71-100 87-100
Herbage vegetables
Asparagus 83
Beans, snap 73
36 81-95 78-93 37-46
Broccoli 16 80
8-9 56-83 70-86 59-87
Brussels sprouts 7 89-94
20 60-64
73
Cabbage 30 52
89 95 68
20 88 100 67
9 85 82 84
Cauliflower 10 71-83
76
Kale 30-50 40-67
Lima beans 65
Peas 12 68
74
Peas (frozen) 89 91 53
Spinach 90 85 76
Spinach (frozen) 10 71-73
Spinach 90 98 61 74 72 14
82 78 30
5-6 79-81 80-89 50-67
Legumes and oilseeds
Beans 79 83 28
Soybeans 81
Source: Harris (1960).
 20. Foodservice Practices 539

Table 20.21. Vitamin Losses (%) into Cooking Water

Cooking Ascorbic
time (min) Thiamin Riboflavin Niacin acid

Cereals P ‘
Corn 15 12 14 30
Corn (canned) 30 22 27
Earth vegetables
Carrots (dehyd ) 25-45 52-93 55-89 42-58
Carrots (canned) 30 19 12
Potato 2-19
48-82
2-45 2-48 8-38
25 5
Sweet potato 15-19
3-4
Herbage vegetables
Asparagus (canned) 30 22 22 23
Beans, snap 8-41
*30 7
Beans(canned) 30 31 30 23
Broccoli 6-13
5-8 13-15
5-13 17-22 11-14 10-12
9-16 40-46 41-54 16-35
Brussels sprouts 30-64
49-53
Cabbage 20-120 46-72 53-78 26-33
6-40 6-41 3-35
4-8 24-35 20-53 14-38
8 37
Cauliflower 57-65
14-18
Lima beans 5-13
Lima beans (canned) 30 22 19 16
Okra 20 13
-
Peas 1 15-33
8-62 1-69 4-44
9 9-14
Spinach 5 14-43 10-39 18-43
5-26 7-47 7-30
Spinach (canned) 30 26-32 23 21-28

Source: Harris (1960).

1000 cc of water, respectively. McIntosh et al. (1942) observed reten¬

tions of 84, 63, and 65% ascorbic acid when cauliflower was cooked
in 120, 250, and 480 cc of water. When 400 g of cabbage was cooked in
200 and 800 cc water, the ascorbic acid retention was 74 and 47%,
respectively (Van Duyne et al. 1948). Gilpin et al. (1959) reported
similar ascorbic acid changes in broccoli. Leaching into the cooking
liquid rather than destruction by heat is therefore to be expected.
540 P. A. Lachance and M. C. Fisher

Table 20.22. Nutrient Losses (%): Steam versus Boiling'2'

Cooking Dry Magne¬ Phos¬

Vegetable method matter Protein Calcium sium phorus Iron

Asparagus Boiled 14.0 ' 20.0 16 5 8.8 25.8 34.4

Steamed 7.9 13.3 15.3 1.4 10.4 20.0
Beans, string Boiled 24.6 29.1 29.3 31.4 27.6 38.1
Steamed 14 2 16.6 16.3 21.4 18.8 24.5
Beetgreens Boiled 29.7 22.2 15.9 41.6 44.9 43.1
Steamed 15.7 6.9 3.8 14.1 14.0 24.5
Cabbage Boiled 60.7 61.5 72.3 76.1 59.9 66.6
Steamed 26.4 31.5 40.2 43.4 22.0 34.6
Cauliflower Boiled 37.6 44.4 24.6 25.0 49.8 36.2
Steamed 2.1 7.6 3.1 1.7 19.2 8.3
Celery Boiled 45.4 52.6 36.1 57.1 48.7 —
Steamed 22.3 22.3 11.6 32.4 15.7 —
Celery cabbage Boiled 63.2 67.1 49.7 61.6 66.1 67.6
Steamed 38.3 33.5 16.3 32.6 30.2 44.1
Spinach Boiled 33.9 29.0 5.5 59.1 48.8 57.1
Steamed 8.4 5.6 0.0 17.8 10.2 25.7
Beets Boiled 30.9 22.0 18.7 30.9 33.6 —
Steamed 21.5 5.4 1.5 29.4 20.1 —
Carrots Boiled 20.1 26.4 8.9 22.8 19.0 34.1
Steamed 5.1 14.5 5.1 5.6 1.1 20.7
Kohlrabi Boiled 33.6 23.2 27.8 40.4 27.7 51.7
Steamed 7.6 1.0 1.0 14.3 7.7 21.3
Onions Boiled 21.3 50.2 15.6 27.8 40.2 36.1
Steamed 11.0 30.7 7.1 15.7 31.5 15.9
Parsnips Boiled 21.9 13.3 11.4 46.8 23.7 27.6
Steamed 4.6 20.0 4.2 8.2 5.7 8.1
Potatoes Boiled 9.4 — 16.8 18.8 18.3 —

Steamed 4 0 — 9.6 14.0 11.7 —

Sweet potatoes Boiled 29.0 71.5 38.3 45.3 44.4 31.5

Steamed 21.1 15.0 22.1 31.5 24.5 25.1
Rutabagas Boiled 45.8 48T6 37.1 42.7 57.2 50.0
Steamed 13.2 15.7 13.4 3.4 24.6 14.3
Average for all Boiled 39.4 43.0 31.9 44.7 46.4 48.0
vegetables Steamed 14.0 16.0 10.7 18.6 16.7 21.3

Source: Anonymous (1965).

a This chart shows the dramatic savings of nutrients when steam is used in preference
to boiling.

Mineral Losses with Boiling and Steaming

McCance et al. (1936) investigated the effect of food preparation
upon calcium content. Baking, frying, roasting, and steaming had no
important effect upon calcium content. During boiling, measurable
amounts of calcium are extracted from vegetables. When scarlet runner
beans were boiled for 40 min and carrots for 120 min, between 12 and
20% of the calcium passed into the cooking water. At the same time,
over 60% of the chlorine and potassium were extracted from the beans.
The addition of alkali to the water had no effect.
 20. Foodservice Practices 541

Krehl and Winters (1950) reported that over 20% of the calcium was
extracted from cabbage during boiling, and only 9% during pressure
cooking. The average results with 11 vegetables showed nearly 25% of
the calcium was leached when the vegetables were covered with water
during cooking, and less Was lost when less water was added. Table
20.22 provides a comparison of boiling and steaming losses for calcium,
magnesium, phosphorus, and iron from several vegetables (Anonymous
1965). Some of the cooking losses can be associated with the dry-
matter and protein losses, but in several instances mineral losses,
especially for magnesium and iron, are substantial. The very bene¬
ficial effects of steaming as compared to boiling on mineral retention
are self-evident.

Frying
Okra fried with fat for 15 min retained 55% of its original ascorbic
acid content (Walker and Arvidsson 1952). Levy (1937) noted only
20-45% retention of ascorbic acid when potatoes were fried and
55-80% retention whefi baked. Fenton (1940) and Richardson et al.
(1937) observed ascorbic acid retentions of 67% in fried and 60% in
baked potatoes. Domah et al. (1974) studied the effect of frying
potatoes at 140°C for 10, 20 or 30 min and at 180°C for 5 min. The
results are given in Table 20.23. The retention of total vitamin C was
good and, in fact, better than that in boiled potatoes (see Table 20.24).
However, ascorbic acid (AA) is oxidized to dehydroascorbic acid
(DAA) more rapidly with frying, but the hydrolysis of DAA is slowed
by the dehydration of the product during frying and, therefore, DAA
accumulates in the fried potato. During boiling, DAA is hydrolyzed to
2,3-diketogluconic acid.

Table 20.23. Influence of Frying on Stability of Ascorbic Acid (AA) and De¬
hydroascorbic Acid (DAA) in Potatoes0

Total content
DAA AA of vitamin C
(mg/100 g (mg/100 g (mg/100 g
Sample Dry matter dry matter) dry matter) dry matter)

Raw, peeled potatoes

before frying 26.20 7.4 44.6 52.0
Fried potatoes
140 C/10 min 83.01 29.7 20.6 50.3
140° C/20 min 84.00 33.7 7.3 41.0
140° C/30 min 88.00 42.7 0.0 42.7
180° C/5 min 89.10 42.8 0.0 42.8

Source: Domah et at (1974).

a Results are average values of eight experiments.
542 P. A. Lachance and M. C. Fisher

Table 20.24. Influence of Sodium Chloride on Stability of Ascorbic Acid (AA) and
Dehydroascorbic Acid (DAA) of Potatoes0

Total content
DAA AA of vitamin C
(mg/100 g (mg/100 g (mg/100 g
Sample dry matter) dry matter) dry matter)

Raw, peeled potatoes 7.4 43.1 50.5

Cooked, peeled potatoes
in water 9.0 17.1 26.1
Infusion 4.9 5.4 10.3
Cooked, peeled potatoes
in 1% NaCl 9.1 13.1 22.2
Infusion 5.7 5.0 10.7
Cooked, peeled potatoes
in 5% NaCl 7.1 11.2 18.3
Infusion 7.6 4.1 11.7
Cooked, peeled potatoes
in 10% NaCl 5.8 8.9 14.7
Infusion 7.0 6.6 13.6

Source: Domah et al. (1974).

a Cooking time, 25 min; results are average values of four experiments.

No retention data exist on other foods, in particular fast-foods such

as chicken, fish, and onion, which are commonly deep-fried on a large
scale.
Vitamin Losses in Baking Vegetables
Baking destroys significant amounts of unstable nutrients in some
foods. Spiers et al. (1945) reported that baked potatoes retained 76%
carotene and 96% ascorbic acid, while parallel samples of boiled pota¬
toes retained 90% carotene and 110% ascorbic acid. Similarly, Pearson
and Luecke (1945) compared baked and boiled sweet potatoes, and
reported respective retentions of 76 and 92% thiamin, 89 and 103%
riboflavin, 86 and 101% niacin, and 77 and 100% pantothenic acid.
Kahn and Halliday (1944) compared baked (in skin), pare-baked,
pared-cut baked, and French-fried potatoes and observed ascorbic acid
retentions of 80, 80, 42 and 77%, respectively. After standing approxi¬
mately 1 hr, the retentions were 41, 52, 11, and 71%, respectively.
Page and Hanning (1963) studied 58 samples of boiled and baked
potatoes for vitamin B6 and niacin retention. The results are given in
Table 20.25. Baking losses (9% for B6 and 4% for niacin) were less
than for boiling (20 and 18%, respectively). The difference was essen¬
tially found in the cooking liquid.
A study by Pelletier et al. (1977) found that the cooking method
used on potatoes has a significant effect on the retention of vitamin
C (Table 20.26), with boiled potatoes retaining about 80% compared
 20. Foodservice Practices 543

Table 20.25. Niacin and Vitamin I$6 Retention (%) in Boiled and Baked Potatoes0

Number Retention Loss Retention

of in boiled in cooking in baked
Location and cultivar samples potatoes liquid potatoes

Niacin
Wisconsin
‘Cobbler’ 7 80.7 ± 2.73 17.1 ± 1.47 91.2 ± 6.25
‘Triumph’ 14 82.4 ± 4.45 15.5 ± 2.32 99.1 ± 4.60
Minnesota, ‘Cobbler’ 12 82.6 ± 6.76 16.1 ± 6.11 93.6 ± 3.05
Kentucky, ‘Cobbler’ 9 82.6 ± 3.14 17.6 ± 2.04 91.1 ± 4.66
Indiana, ‘Chippewa’ 10 79.0 ± 2.36 17.3 ± 1.15 94.1 ± 4.93
Colorado, ‘McClure’ 3 84.8 ± 5.01 16.8 ± 1.91 105.4 ± 5.36
Idaho, ‘Russet Burbank’ 3 84.7 ± 2.92 16.2 ± 3.57 90.6 ± 0.85
Overall mean 81.9 16.6 95.8
Vitamin B6
Wisconsin
‘Cobbler’ 7 81.0 ± 3.03 15.9 ± 1.32 90.9 ± 9.17
‘Triumph’ 14 78.5 ± 6.24 14.5 ± 2.14 92.8 ± 9.44
Minnesota, ‘Cobbler’ 12 81.8 ± 8.03 15.8 ± 5.67 93.2 ± 8.52
Kentucky, ‘Cobbler’ 9 78.2 ± 10.70 15.2 ± 1.84 88.6 ± 12.10
Indiana, ‘Chippewa’ 10 79.8+ 8.10 14.0 ± 1.11 88.8 ± 5.32
Colorado, ‘McClure’ 3 79.0 ± 4.31 15.4 ± 1.35 91.8 ± 8.06
Idaho, ‘Russet Burbank’ 3 84.7 ± 8.26 18.4 ± 5.40 91.3 ± 2.85
Overall mean 80.0 15.2 91.2

Source: Page and Hanning (1963).

a Mean ± S.D.

to only about 30% being retained in hash browns. During the baking
of potatoes, the movement of minerals such as potassium, phosphorus,
and iron toward the interior tissues has been demonstrated by Mondy
and Ponnampalm (1983). Baking increased the content of potassium
(14-23%), phosphorus (2-9%), and iron (2-8%) in the interior pith
tissue. Frying decreased significantly the mineral content in both the
cortical (outer) and pith (interior) areas, with most of the loss occurring
in the cortical area (10-45%).
Baking sweet potatoes causes less amino acid destruction than does
canning (Purcell and Walter 1982). The less severe heat treatment of
baking, in which the internal temperature of the root probably does
not exceed 100°C, results in less lysine destruction, which can be
significant during canning.
Microwave
Limited data are available on the effects of microwaves on the
nutrients in foods of plant origin.
Microwave heating and boiling caused tissue structural changes in
fresh asparagus, as detected using scanning electron microscopy by
Harbers and Harbers (1983). Boiling distorted parenchymal tissues,
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 20. Foodservice Practices 545

Table 20.27. Comparison of Microwave versus Conventional Cooking Effects on

Vitamin Retention of Vegetables

Cooking Temperature Time Retention

Food method (°C) (min) Nutrient (%)

Fresh spinach0 Conventional 100 7 Ascorbic acid 51

Folacin 77
Microwave — 6.5 Ascorbic acid 47
Folacin 101
Frozen peas^ Conventional 100 8 Ascorbic acid 71
Microwave — 5-10 Ascorbic acid 72-100
Frozen
Leaf spinach0 Conventional 100 10 Folacin 81
Microwave — 8 Folacin 85
Frozen peas0 Conventional 100 6 Folacin 84
Microwave — 7 Folacin 78
Frozen
Green beans0 Conventional 100 9 Folacin 101
Microwave — 8.5 Folacin 103
Frozen
Broccoli spears0 Conventional 100 5 Folacin 51
Microwave — 8 Folacin 53

a Klein et al. (1981).

^ Mabesa and Baldwin (1979).
c Klein et al. (1979).

while microwaves produced cracks and distorted adjacent tissues.

Neither treatment affected the digestibility of the tissue by rats.
Fresh spinach cooked by microwaves had comparable losses of both
ascorbic acid and folacin compared to conventionally prepared (boiled)
spinach (Klein et al. 1981). Microwave-cooked frozen peas tended to
have greater retention of total ascorbic acid than those cooked via con¬
ventional methods (Mabesa and Baldwin 1979). Folacin retention in
frozen leaf spinach, green peas, green beans, and broccoli spears was
about the same for each vegetable, regardless of cooking method, either
microwave or conventional, and ranged from 78 to 105%, except for
broccoli (Klein et al. 1979). Low retention of folacin in broccoli was
attributed to the presence of heat-labile forms of folacin. Table 20.27
summarizes the results of these studies.
The internal structure of a food may have an effect on nutrient
retentions when subjected to microwaves. A comparison between con¬
ventional and microwave baking of potatoes was studied by Klein and
Mondy (1981). Results of their work are presented in Table 20.28.
Overall, they found that constituents and minerals of potatoes depend¬
ed upon the heat transfer and the particular tissue under investigation.
Conventional cooking primarily resulted in the migration of some
nutrients from the cortex to the pith, whereas microwave cooking
546 P. A. Lachance and M. C. Fisher

Table 20.28. Changes in Nutrient Composition of Potatoes Baked by Microwaves

and Conventional Means

Retention (%)

v Conventional Microwave
Nutrient Tissue (60 min/400°F) (3 min)

Protein Cortex 87 94
Pith 87 84
Total amino acids Cortex 97 102
Pith 109 96
Free amino acids Cortex 85 108
Pith 108 83
Potassium Cortex 85 101
Pith 122 113
Phosphorus Cortex 88 98
Pith 110 100
Calcium Cortex 98 102
Pith 104 117
Magnesium Cortex 90 104
Pith 104 99
Manganese Cortex 89 91
Pith 104 109
Iron Cortex 88 98
Pith 122 90
Copper Cortex 93 96
Pith 93 105
Zinc Cortex 91 100
Pith 136 100

Source: Klein and Mondy (1981).

resulted mainly in the loss of volatiles from the interior pith tissue.
It appears that baking potatoes conventionally is less nutritious with
respect to nitrogenous and mineral constituents, especially when the
skin and adhering cortical tissue is not consumed.
Sweet potatoes had similar total solid, tptal sugar, and pectin con¬
tents when either baked or microwaved, and these were higher than
those for boiled or steamed sweet potatoes (Reddy and Sistrunk 1980).
Those prepared by microwaves had higher cellulose and hemicellulose
levels compared to ones that were baked, steamed, or boiled. Sweet
potatoes that were cooked by microwaves were firm and somewhat
coarse in texture, which indicated that the carbohydrates were more
firmly bound after cooking. Baked sweet potatoes produced the
highest quality cooked product compared to other methods.
The use of microwaves to cook legumes has been shown to affect
their nutritive value. Microwave cooking of whole soybeans was found
to improve the protein quality, as determined by the protein efficiency
 20. Foodservice Practices 547

ratio (PER) values (Sanchez et al. 1981). There was an increased des¬
truction of the trypsin inhibitor as the cooking temperature was in¬
creased to 137°C. The high-temperature-short-time of the process did
not thermally inactivate lysine, as is common with other conventional
processing methods. t
Chung et al. (1981) studied the nutrient retention in Colossus peas
(Vigna uniguiculata), an experimental variety of the brown chowder
pea, subjected to microwave and conventional cooking. Neither cooking
method caused significant changes in the fat, protein, (3-carotene, or
ascorbic acid content of the peas. Microwave cooking resulted in a
significant reduction in several amino acids, but thiamin and riboflavin
were significantly increased compared to conventional cooking. Iron
and copper were completely retained in peas cooked by either method.
Microwaves have been used in the drying of pasta products (Sale
1976), the production of baked goods, such as doughnuts (Schiffman
et al. 1971) and the most popular baked product, bread (Tsen 1980).
One of the biggest disadvantages of microwave baking of bread is its
inability to produce the desirable brown crust. Tsen et al. (1977)
have found that bread baked by microwaves or steamed had a higher
PER and feed conversion rates in rats compared to bread that was
baked in a conventional oven. Although lysine and other amino acids
varied little among three preparation methods, lysine did become less
available nutritionally with conventional baking than with either micro-
wave baking or steaming. It is ironic that the desired dark crust on the
bread is a result of the Maillard browning reaction that is known to
reduce the nutritional value of bread. The use of microwaves in the
production of dark breads, such as wheat or rye, may be more accept¬
able, since brown crust formation is less important (Tsen 1980).

Reheating
The cook-chill and cook-freeze foodservice systems are often used
by hospitals as a means of optimizing the economic and sensory attri¬
butes of hot entrees. The reheating method most commonly used is
microwave, but other methods, including convection, infrared, and
steam, have all been used. Limited data exist on the effect of the heat¬
ing method on the nutrient quality of foods.
Kahn and Livingston (1970) determined the retention of thiamin in
beef stew, chicken a la king, shrimp Newburg, and peas in cream sauce
which was freshly prepared, frozen at -23 C, and reheated to 90 C
using microwaves, infrared heating, and boiling water immersion.
Similar treatments had similar effects on thiamin retention in the various
products, with average thiamin retentions for the four products being
93.5% for the microwave reheated products, 90% for the infrared
reheated products, and 86% for the immersion-heated products.
 548 P. A. Lachance and M. C. Fisher

Dahl and Matthews (1980) found that microwave reheating of a beef

loaf did not significantly lower its thiamin content. There were no
statistically significant differences found between reheating method
(either conduction, convection, or microwave) of frozen beef loaf or
peas in a study by Dahl-Sawyer et ak (1982). Microwave reheating of
cooked, frozen turkey was not significantly different in the percentage
of retention of thiamin or riboflavin compared to turkey reheated in a
conventional gas oven (Bowers and Fryer 1972).
Beef-soy patties that were reheated by hot-air convection, high-
pressure steam, or microwave retained at least 80% of their riboflavin,
while infrared reheated patties retained only 80% (Ang et al. 1978).
The same study evaluated the same reheating procedures on frozen,
fried, breaded chicken parts and found that reheated chicken retained
87-93% of its riboflavin with no significant difference among treat¬
ments. The thiamin content of oven-baked, frozen chicken that was
reheated using conventional or microwave ovens was not significantly
different between treatments (Lee et al. 1981).
Bodwell and Womack (1978) found that the protein content of
instant mashed potatoes, peas with onions, beans with frankfurters,
beef pot roast with gravy, and breaded fish portions was not signifi¬
cantly affected by either microwave, high-pressure steam, infrared, or
hot-air convective reheating. The vitamin retention in the same food
items and same reheating methods were evaluated by Ang et al. (1975).
They found that microwave reheating, which required shorter heating
times, resulted in higher retentions of heat-labile nutrients, such as
ascorbic acid and thiamin. Infrared reheating had results similar to the
microwave reheating. Convective oven reheating, which had the longest
heating times, was lower in thiamin in the mashed potatoes and com¬
parable in the other food items to microwave and infrared reheat¬
ing. High-pressure steam reheating resulted in the lowest levels of
thiamin and riboflavin of all the methods evaluated.
Augustin et al. (1980) evaluated the retention of several water-
soluble vitamins in baked and rehydrated .potatoes during cooking,
chilling, and microwave reheating. With baked, chilled, and reheated
potatoes, overall retention values ranged from near 100% for thiamin,
riboflavin, and niacin to near 70% for ascorbic acid and folic acid’
Losses of ascorbic acid and folic acid occurred during the handling
steps. Rehydrated cooked, chilled, and reheated potato granules had
an overall vitamin retention ranging from over 90% for riboflavin,
niacin, and vitamin B6 to 86% for ascorbic acid and folic acid. Most
of the vitamin destruction occurred during the initial preparation of
the mashed potatoes from the dehydrated granules and, to a lesser
degree, during microwave reheating of the chilled product.
Italian spaghetti prepared in a university cafeteria foodservice was
frozen and reheated by microwave and conventional ovens (Khan
 20. Foodservice Practices 549

et al. 1982). No significant losses occurred in the thiamin content of

the Italian spaghetti after either the microwave or conventional reheat¬
ing procedures.
Hot Holding
Previous paragraphs of 'this chapter have provided some data that
apply to the effects of hot holding of food; however, a succinct over¬
view is deemed appropriate. Hot holding or warm holding of food
involves the use of stationary steam tables or a movable (usually in¬
sulated) cart. Holding is considered by some experts (Bengtsson and
Dagersbog 1978) to be a major cause of sensory quality deterioration:
30 min should be the maximum hot holding allowed. However, anyone
familiar with mass feeding in health care facilities realizes this duration
is substantially exceeded.
A cooperative experiment station project studied the effect on three
vitamins of reheating and/or holding a standardized formulation for
spaghetti and meat sauce (Table 20.29) (Klein et al. 1984). The results
demonstrate that riboflavin is relatively stable; thiamin loss with reheat¬
ing was greater than w&h holding, but not more than 35% loss occurs.
Ascorbic acid was substantially lost, exceeding 75% with reheating in
contrast to 40-27% retention with holding 90 min to 3 hr, respectively.
It appears that reheating after freezing is harsher than hot holding.
Ang et al. (1975) reported that freshly prepared mashed potatoes
retained 66% ascorbic acid after 30 min and 40% after 3 hr of holding.

Table 20.29. Vitamin Retention (%) in Spaghetti with Meat Sauce

Ascorbic
State and product acid Thiamin Riboflavin

Michigan
-Freshly prepared (all beef) 100“ 100“
Frozen, reheat stove 24 100
Frozen, reheat microwave 21 70
Freshly prepared (20% soy,
80% beef) 100 100
Frozen, reheat stove 16 65
Frozen, reheat microwave 19 95
Iowa , .
Freshly prepared (all beef) 100° 100°
Held 90 min at 79°C/174°F 59 77
Held 3% hr at 72°C/162°F 73 78
Illinois , ,
Freshly prepared (all beef) 100“’° 100“’ "
Held 90 min at 65°C/149°F 83“, Slb 99“, 1045

Source: Klein et al. (1984).

“ Retention on dry-weight basis.
b Retention on wet-weight basis.
550 P. A. Lachance and M. C. Fisher

Reheating with steam holding for 30 min resulted in 40% retention.

Reheating with microwave and holding for 30 min gave a 24% reten¬
tion. Again, it appears that reheating is harsher than holding per se.
For a comprehensive review of the effect of hot holding on nutritive
value changes in foodservice systems, the recent review of Snyder and
Matthews (1984) is recommended. Of the 44 studies reviewed span¬
ning 40 years of research, holding times and temperatures of holding
equipment ranged from 10 to 300 min and 113° to 210 F (45 to
99°C), respectively. Ascorbic acid was the most unstable nutrient
studied. Entree items show better retention of nutrients than do
vegetable items. In general, the higher the holding temperature and/or
the longer the holding time, the greater the nutrient loss.

SUMMARY

Nutrient retention in foodservice systems is dependent upon many

variables. A number of questions need to be asked in order to select
and to optimize nutrient retention:

1. Is the food garden fresh or market fresh?

2. If not fresh, is the food formulated or fabricated? Does the ingre¬
dient listing reveal known valuable sources of nutrients or added
nutrients?
3. What storage and/or transportation conditions did the product
undergo, or does the product have a use-by or expiration date?
4. What types and extent of preparation steps were involved, par¬
ticularly steps that increase the surface area and/or increase
exposure to light and air (oxygen)?
5. What type of container (configuration) was used? What was the
quantity of food? Was the container covered? Was water mini¬
mized?
6. What method of cooking was used? What was the rate of heating?
7. Was the product handled during heating, exposing it to light and
air (oxygen)?
8. Was the product chilled or frozen for subsequent reheating? How
rapidly? How adequate was the holding facility?
9. Was the product reheated? By what method?
10. How long was the product held hot prior to being served? By
what method?

The relatively stable nutrients are protein, minerals, and niacin. The
nutrients appearing to decay as the sensory qualities of the product also
decay are riboflavin, thiamin, and possibly vitamin B6. The nutrient
most susceptible to light is vitamin A (both the natural and fortificant
 20. Foodservice Practices 551

form). The nutrients appearing to decay faster than the sensory qual¬
ities of the food are ascorbic acid, the folacins, and possibly pantothenic
acid.
Nearly 100 million customer transactions occur each day in com¬
mercial foodservices in the» United States. Many individuals, ranging
from school children to the aged in various institutions of learning and
health care are completely dependent on foodservice meals to ensure
nutrient needs. Research on the nutrient delivery profile of school
meals (Lachance et al. 1972) and of hospital meals (Koehler and Hard
1983) would indicate that selected foods in foodservice should be
nutrified or vitamin supplementation routinely provided. Since fast-
food meals also share in this deficit, Lachance (1981) has advocated
the nutrification of cereal grain products, because these foods invari¬
ably are common components of meals. Foodservice provides those
foods that are preferred or foods prescribed by some regulation (e.g.,
Type A lunch of USDA), but experience indicates selected foods are
consumed and the remainder become plate waste. It requires basic re¬
search to be able to predict nutrient retention changes with various
foodservice practices; but applied research is required to deliver nu¬
trient needs in spite of various foodservice practices and the varied
preferences of the consumer.

REFERENCES

Ali, F. S., Perry, A. K., and Van Duyne, F. O. 1982. Soybeans vs. textured soy
protein as mean extenders. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 81, 439.
Ang, C., Chang, C., Frey, A., and Livingston, G. 1975. Effects of heating methods
on vitamin retention in 6 fresh or frozen prepared food products. J. Food Sci.
40, 977.
Ang, C., Basillo, L., Cato, B., and Livingston, G. 1978. Riboflavin and thiamine
retention in frozen beef-soy patties and frozen fried chicken heated by methods
used in food service operations. J. Food Sci. 43, 1024.
Anonymous 1965. Cooking for Profit. August, p. 15.
Augustin, J., Marousek, G. I., Tholen, L. A., and Bertelli, B. 1980. Vitamin reten¬
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 20. Foodservice Practices 553

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554 P. A. Lachance and M. C. Fisher

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 20. Foodservice Practices 555

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 21

Effects of
Home Food Preparation
Practices on Nutrient Content
of Foods
Catherine E. Adams
John W. Erdman, Jr.

In the first edition,.* Agnes Fay Morgan (1960) stated that “it is
impossible to separate most effects of commercial from home process¬
ing because the physical and chemical changes involved are identical.”
Although new commercial technologies are in use today, Dr. Morgan’s
statement is still largely correct. This chapter will avoid repeating
much of the known information on the effects of various commercial
practices. These issues are discussed in detail in other chapters, and our
topic, as it pertains to food preparation procedures and foodservice in
particular, has been reviewed in the previous chapter. This current
work updates the equivalent chapter in the last edition (Lachance and
Erdman 1975).

CHANGING FOOD HABITS

In recent years, food consumption in the United States has shifted

from traditional to nonconventional patterns. Food habits have changed
dramatically from the turn of the century when almost all meals were
consumed at home and with the family unit. Since that time, our
society has become more affluent, more mobile, and more diffuse. Our
habits no longer center around a routine of three meals a day at home.
Results of nationwide food consumption surveys performed by the U.S.
Department of Agriculture (USDA) revealed that in 1965, 17% of our
total expenditure for food in the United States was spent on food con¬
sumed away from home. In 1977, that percentage had increased to
25%. Furthermore, households with relatively higher incomes spent
more money on food purchased away from home than did lower
income households (USDA 1980).

557
558 C. E. Adams and J. W. Erdman, Jr.

Changes in the socioeconomic and demographic composition of the

U.S. population have contributed to the observed differences in life¬
style in recent years. Changes have included more women in the work
force, more two-income households, more homemakers who have less
time for meal preparation, and easifer access to convenience and fast
foods. Gone are the days when a pattern of three meals a day was
considered the norm. It is estimated that 30—50% of U.S. families
have one or more members who regularly skip breakfast (Bauman 1971).
Results of the most recent nationwide household food survey also in¬
dicated that the types of foods purchased by households has changed.
Compared with 1965, households in 1977 spent more money for
poultry, fish, meat, fruit, soft drinks, punches, and prepared desserts.
The greatest increases appeared for soft drinks, punches, and prepared
desserts, poultry, and fish, in that order (USDA 1980). Less money
was spent for fats and oils, sugar, syrup, jelly and candy. Decline in
purchases of cooking fats and sugars may reflect a concern about these
foods in the diet as well as a decline in home preparation of items
requiring these food ingredients.
These changing life-styles have caused some groups of individuals to
voice concern about the nutritional quality of the “all-American” diet.
There is concern that today’s diet, which includes processed foods,
is less nutritious than when the diet consisted only of home-prepared
items. While some commercially processed foods suffer inevitable
nutrient losses relative to the fresh product, improper handling, storage,
or preparation of foods for meals cooked at home may lead to greater
losses of nutrients. Care must be taken at all stages of food preparation,
from field to table, in order to optimize nutrient retention. It may be
that some market-fresh vegetables have spent 10 days in transport
prior to delivery to a store, then 2-3 days on the shelf before purchase.
These foods may be stored for further time periods after purchase,
prior to their preparation for consumption. The nutrient quality of
these products may be less than the same vegetables taken directly
from the field to the processing plant, quick-cooled, and frozen, all
within hours of harvest. Similarly, poultry may be sold as market
fresh 3 days or more after slaughter, but if processed and frozen im¬
mediately after killing, may actually have greater nutrient retention
than the so-called market-fresh item. Daniels (1974) evaluated this
difference between harvest fresh and market fresh related to vitamin C
content. He expressed the results in terms of a percentage of the figure
quoted in the USDA food consumption tables (± standard deviation):
harvest-fresh peas, 121 ± 35; market-fresh peas, 65 ± 26; frozen peas,
98 ± 46; and canned peas, 102 ± 22. Processed peas were similar in
ascorbic acid content and retained more vitamin value than did market-
fresh peas.
 21. Home Food Preparation Practices 559

It is also noteworthy to mention the distinction that may exist

between “as purchased” and “as prepared” nutrient composition.
USD A handbooks contain extensive tables for nutritional value of
foods, both raw and prepared, using common cooking methods, for
example, broiled or boiled foods. The differences in nutrient retention,
using a variety of other preparation methods, is not indicated. The
commercial processor has been trained to know the method of food
handling and process that maximizes the nutrient retention for each
food item prepared. For this reason, processed foods are generally very
good sources of nutrients. Carelessness or lack of knowledge on the
part of a homemaker may lead to excessive loss of nutritional quality
that could easily have been avoided. These problems may be a matter
of education and we hope to impress the reader of the need for proper
food preparation practices to be more widely communicated. Tradi¬
tional nutrition education related to food has not focused on cooking
practices, but rather on the basic four food groups and servings of each
that should be consumed daily.

STORAGE

The effects of packaging and storage on commercially processed

foods are discussed in Chapters 3 and 4. Therefore, this chapter will
only address the storage and preparation of foods using various home
practices.
Nutritional attributes of foods are rarely enhanced by holding or by
storage. Nutrients in foods, whether of animal or plant origin, are
differentially susceptible to the effects of heat, light, air, metal catalysts,
and natural endogenous enzymes. Since food products are frequently
held for substantial periods of time in the home and/or improperly
handled or prepared, it is conceivable that the primary damage to nu¬
trient levels in foods occurs within the home (Lachance et al. 1973).

Foods of Animal Origin

Freezing
Foods of animal origin, including meats, fish, and poultry, are
frequently purchased and stored in a home freezer until used. There
are several factors that will influence the nutrient stability of frozen
foods. These include (1) the rate of freezing; (2) temperature of the
freezer unit; (3) range of temperature fluctuation; (4) length of storage;
(5) size of cut; (6) type of meat product; (7) method of thawing; and
(8) packaging.
560 C. E. Adams and J. W. Erdman, Jr.

The rate of freezing is contingent upon the temperature of the

freezing unit. The temperature of storage must be a compromise
between optimal and practical, and is suggested to be at least -18 C
(Anonymous 1972). At this temperature, there is a slow deterioration
of the food product, but the rate of nutrient loss is generally acceptable
(Bender 1978). The temperature of -18°C (0°F) is considered a break
point for quality retention in frozen foods. The actual freezer tempera¬
ture, if possible, should be below this point. Unfortunately, home
refrigerator freezer compartments rarely keep frozen food below the
break point.
Lee et al. (1950) found that the rate of freezing had no significant
effect on thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, pantothenic acid, or vitamin B6
value of beef steak. Results from studies investigating the B vitamin
content of pork chops are more variable but in general the stability
of B vitamins was not found to be dramatically affected by rate of
freezing (Lee et al. 1954). Freezing rate did seem to affect the evapora¬
tion loss from frozen meat products (Schweigert and Lushbough 1960).
Moisture losses were greater for meats frozen more slowly relative to
quick-frozen items. However, oxidative changes may occur more
rapidly for quick-frozen beef and pork (Lachance and Erdman 1975).
When storage temperature was considered, Lachance and Erdman (1975)
reported no significant differences for niacin, thiamin, or riboflavin
content for pork chops stored at -26° or -18°C. Storage temperature
did not appear to be a factor for pork chops; however Kramer et al.
(1976) showed that thiamin and ascorbic acid were better retained in
Salisbury steaks stored at -20°C and -30°C than at -10°C (Table 21.1).
Considerable variation in home freezer temperature can occur, and
temperature fluctuation can have a detrimental effect on both the
nutritional and sensory qualities of meat products. The effect of
freezer temperature fluctuation on nutrient retention in Salisbury
steaks was studied by Kramer et al. (1976). Of the vitamins tested,
thiamin and ascorbic acid retention was poor over time. Kramer and
his co-workers compared the effects of a constant temperature (1°C)
and fluctuating temperatures (5°C every 20 min) in beef stored for 3
and 6 months. There was a substantial reduction in vitamin C at 6
months, even at a constant temperature (Table 21.1). However, losses
were greater at 3 months for vitamin C in beef stored at fluctuating
temperatures than at a constant temperature. Thiamin content of beef
seemed primarily influenced by storage temperature and showed greater
reduction at 3 and 6 months when temperature of storage varied.
Other nutrients including vitamin A, carotene, riboflavin, calcium, and
iron appeared to be well maintained in all storage conditions.
Kramer’s study (1976) also demonstrated the effect of length of
storage on nutrient retention. Table 21.1 shows that ascorbic acid in
beef was more diminished by the longer storage period (6 months
 21. Home Food Preparation Practices 561

Table 21.1. Effect of Constant and Fluctuating Temperatures (°C) upon Ascorbic
Acid and Thiamin Contents of Salisbury Steak

Ascorbic acid*2 Thiamin*2

Storage
conditions Constant Fluctuating Constant Fluctuating

Initial 3.6 3.0

3 months
-10 1.8 1.0 2.8 1.8
-20 2.8 2.0 2.9 2.1
-30 2.8 2.5 3.2 2.6
6 months
-10 1.2 1.1 1.9 1.8
-20 1.6 1.1 2.7 1.7
-30 1.3 1.1 2.7 2.6

Source: Kramer et al. (1976).

a mg/100 g.

versus 3 months). However, it should be noted that meat, in general,

is not a significant source of vitamin C in the diet and, thus, data
revealing thiamin content of meat during storage are more relevant for
nutritional status. Morgan et al. (1949) determined the thiamin, ribo¬
flavin, and niacin contents of various chicken tissues before and after
cooking and after frozen storage for 4, 8, or 12 months. Samples
retained thiamin at 75-100% of original levels, except in one lot of
small broilers. Loss of riboflavin was generally small for up to 8 months
of storage, as was loss of niacin. After 12 months, losses of niacin in
leg and heart muscles and riboflavin in nearly all tissues were signifi¬
cant. Fennema (1977) reviewed the loss of B vitamins in a variety of
meats during storage. He reported that the greatest losses occur for
thiamin and riboflavin, and these losses tend to increase with greater
length of storage time. However, the variability between species and
particular cuts of meat was dramatic. Ang (1981) reported vitamin
B6 loss from broiler meat stored for various time periods, frozen as an
intact half-carcass, as a large portion (200 g) of ground meat, or as a
small portion (5 g) of ground meat. The results indicate that vitamin
B6 loss was most dramatic for small portions of meat with the greatest
surface area. Percentage of retention for vitamin B6 was 84% at 3
months, but only 72% at 5 months (-34°C). Larger portions of meat
had improved vitamin B6 retention, but retention again diminished
after longer storage periods. Retention was 99% at 4 months (-34°C).
for the intact carcass and 95% for the large portion (200 g) of ground
meat. At 12 months, the large portion of the ground meat sample had
91% vitamin B6 retention. Thus, it is clear that larger pieces of meat,
with less exposed surface area, are more resistant to nutrient loss in
frozen storage.
562 C. E. Adams and J. W. Erdman, Jr.

The amount and type of processing prior to storage may also affect
nutrient retention. Breading of meats seems to protect the product
during frozen storage (Jul 1969). Breaded meats have very satisfactory
storage lifetimes despite elevated freezer storage temperatures (greater
than -15°C). Products that were Trozen following precooking with
gravy demonstrated longer high-quality storage life than did prepared
foods not in a sauce or gravy. Bengtsson and co-workers (1972) found
that beef patties in gravy retained high sensory quality for at least
6 months if stored at -30°C or lower. Thiamin and ascorbic acid were
also retained well in products containing gravy.
Fish is another meat product that is often purchased in a frozen
form. Fish is more susceptible to nutritional and quality changes during
frozen storage, since it has a higher proportion of polyunsaturated
fatty acids than do red meats. Species of fish most resistant to storage
changes include haddock, cod, flounder, shrimp, crab, halibut, scallops,
and perch (storage life of 7-12 months at -32°C), while more suscep¬
tible species include the higher-fat fish such as mackerel, tuna, catfish,
herring, salmon, clams, and chub (storage life of 4-6 months at -32°C).
Slavin (1963) considered the suitability for frozen storage of a wide
variety of fish species. Slavin found that frozen storage stability
depended greatly upon the handling of the fish product prior to freez¬
ing. Extended periods spent on ice (7 days versus 2 days) considerably
reduced shelf life of the frozen product. Chemical reactions, including
oxidation and autolysis, as well as dehydration and bacterial action, all
reduce the textural and nutritional quality of fish.
In addition to the losses already discussed during freezer storage,
nutrient losses occur when a frozen product is thawed in preparation
for serving. In meats, the exudation of a bloodlike juice, called the
thaw drip, appears upon thawing. This fluid can contain considerable
quantities of B vitamins and protein. ■*
The method of thawing is an important consideration, since it affects
both the retention of nutrients and sensory quality of the meat. The
amount of thaw-drip loss may alter the eating quality of a meat, since
meats with excessive moisture loss may be less tender. Frozen ground
beef patties thawed in the original wrappings at room temperature or
cooked unthawed by four different cooking methods were found to
retain 84% of the thiamin, 79% of the riboflavin, and 89% of the lysine
of the original meat (Causey et al. 1950A). Similar results were found
with ground lamb patties (Causey et al. 1950B). Causey and co-workers
(1950C) also evaluated the thawing effect on pork and found no
appreciable losses of thiamin, riboflavin, or niacin.
♦ Westerman et al. (1949) evaluated round steaks thawed before
cooking in four different ways: (1) in the refrigerator, (2) at 73°C,
(3) at room temperature, and (4) in running tap water. All meats
were cooked by braising and compared to similar steaks analyzed in the
 21. Home Food Preparation Practices 563

raw state. Thawing in water reduced the acceptibility of the meat.

Retention of thiamin, riboflavin, and niacin were not significantly
altered by method of thawing, but pantothenic acid was better retain¬
ed after thawing in the refrigerator or at room temperature than by the
other two methods. WhenAhe vitamins in drip were added to those in
the cooked meat, it was noted that riboflavin and niacin were fully
recovered after thawing but that thiamin and pantothenic acid were
partially destroyed during thawing at 73°C, as well as in running water.
This is not surprising, since both of these vitamins are more heat
labile and more soluble than the others. Loss of pantothenic acid in
drip from frozen beef thawed 14-15 hr at 26°C was found by Pearson
et al. (1951) to be greater (33%) than losses of the other B vitamins.
Losses ranged from 8% for folic acid to 14.5% for niacin.
Thaw-drip loss appears to depend on factors including species of
meat and exposed surface area. Pearson et al. (1959) found weight loss
from pork chops to be between 6 and 12%. Thaw-drip losses from
frozen fish were reported by the U.S. Department of the Interior (1955)
to be even more variable1 than pork, ranging between 4.5 and 15.2%. Pro¬
tein loss in the drip from frozen and thawed beef is generally small, rang¬
ing from 1.4 to 3.1%; essentially no fat is lost in the drip portion (Toepfer
et al. 1955). Pieces of meat with greater exposed surface area per
volume tend to have higher drip losses. Kotschevar et al. (1955)
found protein losses from liver slices with a large exposed surface
ranged from 8 to 15%.
Since the use of microwave cooking in the home has increased
dramatically over recent years (Decareau 1979), considerable interest
has been vested in studying the effects of microwave thawing and
cooking on the nutritional value of foods. Bezanson et al. (1973)
compared the protein content of frozen shrimp thawed in water versus
microwave defrosting. Microwave thawing proved to be the better
method for retaining protein in shrimp.
Since it has been shown that a proportion of the B vitamins and a
small amount of protein is lost in the drip fluid, it is logical to suggest
the utilization of the drip juice in gravies or soups. However, the micro¬
bial growth in thaw juices is often high, and the question becomes less
one of nutrition and more one of safety. Thus, utilization of thaw
juices is not generally recommended.

Refrigeration
Some foods of animal origin do not hold up well to frozen storage,
but may be stored for extended periods of time in the home at refriger¬
ator temperatures.
Deuel and Greenberg (1953) reported 75% retention of vitamin A in
margarine held for 2 years at -10°C, 52-60 weeks at 5°C, 17 weeks at
18°C, and 15 weeks at 28°C. Retention of vitamin A in butter was
564 C. E. Adams and J. W. Erdman, Jr.

slightly less. Preformed vitamin A and carotene were stable in margar¬

ine to the extent of 97-98% during shelf life at 7°C.
Loss of nutrients from milk during refrigerated storage depend upon
exposure to light and oxygen and upon the severity of heat treatment.
Sunlight and fluorescent lighting pose' the greatest potential for nutrient
loss from milk. Milk was traditionally marketed in clear glass or plastic
containers, since this practice appeared to convey the message for a
sanitary product. While it is an accepted tradition, it also allows for
rapid destruction of light-sensitive riboflavin and the small amount of
vitamin C present. Milk exposed to bright sunlight in a clear container
loses as much as 50% of initial riboflavin in 2 hr, or 20% if exposed to
subdued or clouded light. Light-sensitive riboflavin is converted to
lumichrome and lumiflavin. Both of these chemical forms are catalytic
for vitamin C destruction. In addition, milk exposed to sunlight
develops a characteristic oxidized flavor, due to a reaction between
sulfur-containing amino acids and riboflavin (Aurand et al. 1966;
Hedrick and Glass 1975; Singh et al. 1975; Patton 1954; Gregory 1975).
Milk packaged in fiberboard cartons offers some protection from the
effects of sunlight and fluorescent lighting, but prolonged storage under
fluorescent lights, as in a supermarket dairy case, will lead to develop¬
ment of off-flavor and destruction of riboflavin (Demick 1973). The
characteristic light-flavor could be detected after only 20 min in clear
glass bottles, after 5 hr in amber glass, and after 1-15 hr in various
types of fiberboard containers (Dunkley et al. 1962).
Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) in milk is converted to the compound
bis-4-pyridoxyl disulfide upon storage (Bender 1978). This complex
of pyridoxamine and sulfur is a less biologically active form of vitamin
B6 than the original vitamin. The quantity of vitamin B6 in milk is
diminished by heat treatment but only at extreme temperatures (Srncova
and Davidek 1972). High temperatures involved in sterilization and
drying destroy vitamin B6, but these processes are not typical in home
preparation.
A study of the changes in vitamin content of shell eggs during cold
storage from 3-12 months has shown significant losses in niacin,
vitamin B6, riboflavin, folic acid, and vitamin B12. Table 21.2 is a
compilation of these results (Evans et al. 1951A, B, 1952 A, B, 1953,
1954, 1955). Apparently, shell eggs lose no biotin or choline, but up to
47% of vitamin B6, 6% of the pantothenic acid, 27% of folic acid, 23%
of vitamin B12, and 14-18% of riboflavin and niacin after 1 year. A 6%
composite loss of all the vitamins occurred after 3 months, 11% after
6-7 months, and 19% after 12 months.
Time and temperature of storage are also critical factors determining
shelf life for canned meat products. It is generally thought that the
canning process stabilizes a food product indefinitely, but cans improp¬
erly stored at either high temperatures (greater than room temperature)
 21. Home Food Preparation Practices 565

Table 21.2. Loss of Vitamins in Shell Eggs in Cold Storage at 0°C

Stored eggs

Fresh 3 Loss 6-7 Loss 12 Loss

Vitamin eggs > months (%) months (%) months (%)

Niacin, mg/g 0.66 0.60 9 0.54 18 — —

Choline, mg/g 14.9 14.4 0 15.4 0 14.9 0

Vitamin B6, jUg/g 2.52 2.06 18 1.78 29 1.34 47
Riboflavin, /Jg/g 3.49 3.32 5 2.93 16 3.07 14
Pantothenic acid, jUg/g 12.5 11.7 6 11.7 6 11.8 6
Folic acid, ng/g 94 93 0 80 16 74 27
Biotin, ng/g 225 244 0 220 0 228 0
Vitamin Bj2, ng/g 6.54 6.07 7 6.17 5 5.03 23

Source: Evans et al. (1951A,B, 1952A, B, 1953A, 1954, 1955).

or for prolonged periods of time (depending on the particular product)

will lose both nutritional value and quality characteristics.
Nutritional loss in canned meats has not been extensively studied,
but it appears that thiamin is the most susceptible nutrient to deteriora¬
tion. Other B vitamins, including riboflavin, niacin, and pantothenate,
are relatively stable. Rice and Robinson (1944) were unable to detect
losses of riboflavin, niacin, or pantothenate in canned pork or beef
stored at 37°C for a period of 31 weeks. However, these researchers
found that 48% of thiamin was destroyed after 43 weeks of storage at
27°C (room temperature). Thomas and Calloway (1961) found similar
results, with thiamin suffering the greatest loss due to the effect of
extended time or high temperature. Cecil and Woodroof (1962) found
that optimal storage temperatures for retention of thiamin are less than
13°C for 1 year of storage, less than 5°C for 2 years, and less than 0°C
if storage is 3 years.
Cured or dehydrated meats are also susceptible to thiamin loss.
Hoagland et al. (1947) studied the effect of storage in hams cured by
various methods. Hams stored at 20°C had a 21% thiamin loss for
artery cured, 26% for dry cured, and 32% for brine cured. Rice and
Robinson (1944) found greater losses of thiamin in dehydrated pork
and beef after 31 weeks of storage. Thiamin loss was 71% for meats
stored at room temperature (27°C), and thiamin was completely des¬
troyed at temperatures greater than room temperature. This research
team found little effect on riblflavin, niacin, and pantothenic acid in
meats stored at room temperatures (27°C), but observed a gradual loss
of riboflavin and pantothenic acid at a higher storage temperature
(44°C).
566 C. E. Adams and J. W. Erdman, Jr.
*>
Foods of Plant Origin
Foods of plant origin, including fruits, vegetables, and cereal grains,
are important sources of vitamins and minerals in the diet. Storage
parameters significantly affect the quality and nutrient retention of
these foodstuffs. Furthermore, the picutre is made complex by the
variety of products, each with their individual characteristics for opti¬
mal retention of vitamin and mineral quantity and quality.

Freezing
Freezing is considered an optimal method of nutrient retention in
stored fruits and vegetables from the standpoint of both nutritional and
quality characteristics. Kramer (1979) found that temperatures for
frozen storage that were required to retain 90% of vitamin C activity
corresponded closely with those required to maintain quality character¬
istics. For this reason, and the fact that fruits and vegetables are the
major source of vitamin C in most diets, vitamin C is often used as the
indicator of quality retention. Erdman and Klein (1982) have published
an extensive review of harvesting, processing, and cooking influences
on vitamin C in foods.
Vitamin loss during frozen storage of fruits and vegetables generally
occurs due to chemical degradation. The same factors that affect
freezer storage stability in meats affect the nutrient stability in fruits
and vegetables. However, in meats, the focus is on B vitamin retention.
In produce, the emphasis is on preservation of ascorbic acid. Factors
including (1) rate of freezing, (2) freezer temperatures, (3) range of
temperature fluctuation, (4) length of storage, (5) type of product, and
(6) type of package, collectively determine nutrient stability, particularly
for the vitamin C content of fruits and vegetables. Other nutrients are
considered relatively stable during frozen storage, yet Heinze (1973)
reported that vitamin A was rapidly destroyed in certain fruit and
vegetable products stored at temperatures above freezing.
The key for preservation of nutrients and quality in frozen fruits
and vegetables is rapid freezing (Anonymous 1972). Commercially
processed products may have greater vitamin retention than those that
are homegrown because of the rapid freezing of the commercial process.
Commercial operations emphasize speed in handling, from field to
packaged frozen product. It is then the consumer’s responsibility to
handle frozen food properly, which includes rapid transfer to frozen
storage after purchase (Erdman and Erdman 1982). Homegrown foods
should be treated with similar speed of processing in preparation for
freezing. A delay in freezing permits opportunity for enzymatic and
microbial action that can deteriorate appearance, flavor, and nutritional
quality (Salunkhe et al. 1973).
Although it is well known that the optimal and traditional tempera¬
ture for home freezers is -18°C (Anonymous 1972), it is also known
 21. Home Food Preparation Practices 567

that this is frequently not attained. Fennema (1975) points out that
freezing compartments of home refrigerators are more likely to be
about -5.5°C, which invariably leads to greater losses of vitamin C,
|3-carotene, folic acid, and pantothenic acid when compared to frozen
storage at -18°C. Other niltrients including niacin, riboflavin, thiamin,
vitamin B6 and minerals are only minimally affected at elevated storage
temperatures.
Freezer temperature is a critical concern for retention of product
quality. Frozen storage is used to arrest microbial growth and to
minimize chemical degradation processes. In short, the lower the
temperature, the greater the storage period without significant quality
and nutritive loss. Goldblith (1975) found that strawberries stored
below -18°C retained total and reduced ascorbic acid well for 12
months or longer. As temperature of storage increased (well within the
range of home freezers), there was a conversion of the native forms of
vitamin C to partially oxidized dehydroascorbic and the inactive
2,3-diketogulonic acid forms of ascorbic acid. Guadagni and Kelly (1958)
showed complete conversion of vitamin C in strawberries to the inactive
form in 8 months at -10°C and even more rapidly at -2°C for 2 months.
Guadagni (1961) summarized the effect of temperature on quality. As
freezer temperature increases every 2.8°C, the rate of quality loss in¬
creases 2- to 2 1/2-fold. Dietrich etal. (1962) found a 4-fold reduction in
quantity and ascorbic acid content of frozen cauliflower for every
5.6°C increase in storage temperature in the range from -40° to -23°C.
In some home freezers, location of the product within the freezing
unit will affect temperature of storage. The temperature may be
elevated for a product that is positioned closer to the freezer door,
especially if the unit is less than optimally insulated or the freezer
door is opened frequently. Ashby et al. (1977) and Moleeratanond
(1978) found that when peas, okra, and strawberries were compared,
peas were most affected by location within the freezer over a 12-month
storage period; yet, only sensory characteristics appear altered. Ascorbic
acid content was less affected by location.
Fluctuating temperatures in home freezers impact both sensory and
nutritional characteristics, although the effects upon nutritional para¬
meters are more severe for animal than for plant foods. Ashby et al.
(1977) and Moleeratanond (1978) showed that no nutritional deteriora¬
tion of plant products occurred when freezing temperatures fluctuated
± 5°C. This is in contrast to the results depicted in Table 21.1 for a
meat product.
Length of frozen storage is also a factor in determining quality
retention in fruits and vegetables. The International Institute of
Refrigeration in Paris (Anonymous 1972) reports that frozen foods
may be adequately stored in home freezers at -18 C for up to 3 months.
Commercial operations practice cycling of their frozen inventory with
 568 C. E. Adams and J. W. Erdman, Jr.

Fig. 21.1. The interrelationship of temperature of storage to the high quality shelf
life of various frozen foods (adapted from Kramer, 1979).

first in-first out as their operating procedure. A similar practice should

be used in the home so that foods do not get buried in home freezers,
to be left for several months, a year, or longer. Foods must be stored at
progressively lower storage temperatures if they are to be protected
from degradative changes for long periods of time.
Various fruit and vegetable products are affected differently by
frozen storage. Citrus juice is considerably more resistant to vitamin
C loss than are broccoli, cauliflower, spinach, and peaches (Kramer
1979). Freshly frozen asparagus and broccoli, both initially containing
30 mg% ascorbic acid, may be held in storage for 12-18 months at
—18 to —24 C. At the end of that time period, the asparagus may still
contain 90% of its ascorbic acid, yet broccoli may only have 75% of
the initial 30 mg%. Figure 21.1 illustrates the various rate of nutrient
and quality loss from several fruits and vegetables. Products with the
greater slope of change indicate those which are more sensitive to low
temperature storage.
Finally, the type of package can dramatically alter storage character¬
istics of frozen fruits and vegetables. The recommendation of the
International Institute of Refrigeration (Anonymous 1972) is that
food be sealed in a container with a minimum amount of surrounding
air or placed in moisture- and vapor-proof wrap that is an effective
barrier to air.
 21. Home Food Preparation Practices 569

Refrigeration
Consumption patterns of fresh and frozen fruits and vegetables in
U.S. households today include less fresh fruit and more processed
fruit products. However, consumers still purchase more fresh vege¬
tables than processed ones (Gallo and Blaylock 1982). Results of the
1977-1978 nationwide food consumption survey (USDA 1980) in¬
dicate that fresh vegetables were consumed by seven out of every
eight households, and light green vegetables were most frequently
purchased. Of households surveyed, 80% ate potatoes and most were
fresh, not processed products. The maximization of nutrients from
fresh products is therefore still paramount today.
Factors that affect the nutritional value of fresh foods include
storage temperature, humidity, length of storage, and light (Erdman
and Erdman 1982). Protection of fresh product and unprocessed
grains from the invasion of rodents, insects, and microbes is a major
problem and the cause of considerable losses from the food supply,
especially for developing countries.
Fresh vegetables, including lettuce, broccoli, and spinach, should be
stored in a refrigerated vegetable crisper or sealed in moisture-proof
bags in order to maintain their nutritional quality (Anonymous 1971A;
Curran and Erdman 1980). Zepplin and Elvehjem (1944) found that
broccoli stored at room temperature lost ascorbic acid rapidly, but
losses were slowed if the product was refrigerated.
The combination of cold temperature and appropriate humidity for
storage should retard wilting. Research has shown that wilted cabbage,
cauliflower, kale, collard greens, and turnip greens have diminished
ascorbic acid and carotene contents relative to their fresh condition
(Ezell and Wilcox 1959; 1962).
Some products are more sensitive than others to ascorbic acid loss
in refrigerator storage. Green beans lose their vitamin C more rapidly
at 2°C than does broccoli (Eheart and Odland 1972). Folic acid was
better retained in cold storage than at room temperature for green
leafy vegetables and for crucifers (Fager et al. 1949; Olson et al. 1947).
Freshly harvested cabbage did not lose vitamin C value when stored in
closed containers at -0.5° to 4°C or when heads were kept refrigerated
for 1 week (Van Duyne et al. 1944). Root vegetables, including po¬
tatoes, sweet potatoes, and onions, should be kept cool and moist,
but should not be stored in the refrigerator in order to optimize their
nutrient retention. Grains, dry legumes, and flours must be kept cool
and dry. These products are susceptible to microbial damage, especially
at higher moisture levels. If stored properly, these products will not
suffer nutrient losses and are stable for extended periods of time
(Erdman and Erdman 1982). Storage of dry legumes in dark jars or in
the refrigerator minimize destruction of light-sensitive B vitamins
(Curran and Erdman 1980).
570 C. E. Adams and J. W. Erdman, Jr.

Fresh fruits are not stable for long periods in the refrigerator and will
deteriorate rapidly. The climateric fruits, for example, bananas, peaches,
apples, and pears, are rapidly respiring fruits and must be kept cool to
retain their ripe, but not spoiled quality. Citrus fruits have more
extended storage lives, since they are less rapidly respiring and are non-
climateric.
Reheating Stored Vegetables
Charles and Van Duyne (1958) studied the effects of refrigerator
storage and of reheating on the ascorbic acid content of cooked vege¬
tables. Cooled broccoli, brussels sprouts, shredded cabbage, sliced
cabbage, cauliflower, peas, and snap beans lost significant amounts of
ascorbic acid during 1 day of refrigeration, whereas cooked asparagus
and spinach lost insignificant amounts. When these vegetables were
reheated, they all showed a further significant loss. The ascorbic acid
in the cooking liquid was stable during refrigeration and during reheat¬
ing, indicating that the vitamins in the vegetables were being destroyed.
When the refrigerator storage was extended to 3 days, the losses were
even greater.
More research is essential on the effects of contemporary food
practices on nutrient content. Today, there is a greater reliance on con¬
venience or leftover foods that are stored and reheated in the home.
More complete nutritional information is needed regarding these
practices.
Growing conditions will affect the nutritional quality of fresh fruits
and vegetables (Nagy 1980; Smith and Rasmussen 1961; Smith 1969;
Jones et al. 1970; Marsanija 1970; Embleton et al. 1973; Reitz and Koo
1960; Smith and Rasmussen 1960; Embleton and Jones 1966; Jones
1961; Sites and Reitz 1951). Geographic location influences growing
conditions. Tomatoes grown in Michigan and New Jersey have 71 and
72%, respectively, of the ascorbic acid found in California-grown fruit
(Burge et al. 1975). It is most likely that these results reflect differences
in available sunlight and total heat. Klein and Perry (1982) analyzed
cabbage, carrots, celery, corn, onions, and tomatoes from six different
geographical regions for vitamins C and A. These researchers found
considerable and significant variations between locations, seasons, and
cultivars. Some reported values of both vitamins C and A were below
the level listed in Agriculture Handbook 8 (Watt and Merrill 1963).
Those who grow garden produce at home should be aware that the
degree of ripeness affects the nutrient composition of harvested fruits
and vegetables. Vitamin C concentration declines during ripening of
citrus fruits. However, the volume of juice and size of fruit increases
with ripening, so that the total vitamin C content of each fruit actually
increases (Nagy 1980). Liu and Luh (1979) evaluated ascorbic acid in
tomato paste and found that pastes made from vine-ripe tomatoes had
less vitamin C than pastes made from the near-ripe product. Thus, it
 21. Home Food Preparation Practices 571

would appear that ascorbic acid level declines in tomatoes as they

ripen; however, reports are conflicting (Watada et al. 1976; Betancourt
etal. 1977).

Canned Storage ,
Canned fruits and vegetables are not immune from the effects of
time and temperature with respect to nutrient retention. Although
canned products are considered shelf stable, there are losses of vitamin
C caused by oxidation by the very small amount of oxygen present.
Chemical degradation from the oxidative reaction causes a darkening
of color which occurs more rapidly in concentrated fruit juices than in
dilute or single-strength juices. This is due to the higher concentration
of sugars, acids, and nitrogenous compounds that are chemically active
agents (Bender 1978). Kefford (1973) studied the effect of storage
temperature on orange juice either hot-packed or aseptically sealed in
glass bottles. Juice stored at the recommended temperature (10°C)
lost only 1% of vitamin C over a 12-month period. Even at 18°C, only
5-10% of vitamin C w#s lost after 1 year. At room temperatures
(24 C), only 75% of the original vitamin C remained after 1 year.
Considerably more juice products are currently being stored in
plastic containers. Despite the fact that oxygen may diffuse through
the container walls and degrade ascorbic acid (Adam 1941; Bender
1978), plastic containers appear to protect ascorbic acid from the
effects of oxygen more effectively than do waxed cartons. Orange
juice stored at 5°C in waxed cartons lost 5-7% of vitamin C/week
(Rushing and Senn 1964). If the product was stored in large contain¬
ers with more oxygen, then losses due to oxidation were even greater.
Other canned foods have been studied. Ang (1978) evaluated
nutrient loss in canned peas and found that after 2 years of storage at
27°C, 19% ascorbic acid, 30% thiamin, and 10% carotene were lost. In
the same study, orange juice lost 50% of the original ascorbic acid
content.
Since it is impractical and costly to use refrigerator space in the
home for canned foods, it is advised that canned foods be used within
6 months to 1 year after purchase. Canned foods should, if possible,
be stored in a cool (18°C or cooler) and dry location (Curran and
Erdman 1980).
More dehydrated foods are being used in the home, principally as a
matter of convenience and to alleviate refrigerator storage problems.
Stability of the nutrients in dehydrated foods may become a more
significant issue as more of such foods are marketed. Vitamin C is the
nutrient that is most sensitive to deterioration in most dehydrated
fruits and vegetables (Reimer and Karel 1977). Gee (1979) reported
values for retention of ascorbic acid, j3-carotene, and thiamin in de¬
hydrated cut carrots, spinach, and tomatoes. The products were
packaged and stored in air, under vacuum, N2 or C02, for 5-7 months
572 C. E. Adams and J. W. Erdman, Jr.

at room temperature. Vitamin content diminished rapidly in air storage.

Vitamin C loss progressed regardless of method of storage. Conditions
that precluded exposure of /3-carotene to air and light maintained high
nutrient levels for at least 7 months. Thiamin was relatively stable,
regardless of storage environment. In another study using a model
system, Gregory and Kirk (1978) found that vitamin B$ was stable
when stored at 37°C and 0.6 aw (water activity) for 128 days.
Some dried fruits are treated with sulfur dioxide to prevent oxida¬
tion and to retain their initial color. Hollingsworth (1970) reported
that vitamin A in dried fruit was susceptible to light and heat, but that
ascorbic acid was stabilized by sulfur dioxide. Heikal et al. (1972)
found that sulfur dioxide was not helpful in protecting vitamin C.
Bolin and Stafford (1974) determined that vitamin C in sulfured fruit
was more stable than in nonsulfured product. As the sulfur dioxide
concentration of apricots was increased, vitamin C showed progressive¬
ly greater stability. Apricot halves dried without sulfuring and stored
at 32°C retained only 5% of their initial ascorbic acid after 12 weeks
and 88% of their /3-carotene. Fruit dried with 0.3% sulfur dioxide
retained 26% of it vitamin C content and 95% of the /3-carotene. How¬
ever, sulfur dioxide treatment rapidly diminishes the thiamin content of
foods. It is apparent that some degree of processing for apricots,
prior to drying, is beneficial for ascorbic acid retention, but that sulfur
dioxide treatment of foods that are rich sources of thiamin would be
counterproductive.
Food irradiation has received more attention as an effective method
of food preservation. Irradiation is used as a means of prolonging
shelf storage of foods and may be approved by the Food and Drug
Administration (FDA) for several food items in the near future. Cur¬
rently, the FDA has granted approval for use of irradiation to prevent
sprouting in stored potatoes and to kill msects and pathogenic organisms
in wheat and wheat flour. A total of 26 commodities have been cleared
in one or more of 19 countries having legislation for irradiated foods.
A benefit of using irradiation for produce is that there is a reduction
in pathogenic microorganisms, helminths, and insects on the surface
and below the surface of a product, without causing some of the detri¬
mental changes that occur during heat processing. Irradiation tech¬
niques may even be used on frozen products, thus minimizing the
deterioration of nutritional quality. One of the great nutrient benefits
is that the processing (irradiation) can be done at reduced temperatures,
thus reducing heat destruction of vitamins.

Cereal Products
Cereal products are a staple component of many diets and their
nutritional value and storage characteristics are extremely important.
Cereal products have the virtue of being quite stable over extended
periods of storage. Cereal products are rich sources of B vitamins and
 21. Home Food Preparation Practices 573

Table 21.3. Shelf Life for Retail Products

Product Days Weeks Months

Bread, white (summer) 2-5

Bread, white (winter) f • 3-7
Bread, white (frozen) 30+
Cake, angel 2
Cake, cup 2
Cake, fruit 24
Donuts 1-4
Flour, all-purpose 15
Refrigerated dough 9-10
Evaporated milk 12
Fluid milk 5-7
Cottage cheese 10-15
Creamed cheese 3
Ice cream 3
Canned apricots 36
Canned asparagus 24
Canned kidney beans 36
Canned tomatoes J- 30-36
Catsup 24
Canned fruit cocktail 36
Canned fruit and vegetable juices 24
Frozen lobster 3
Frozen dinners 6
Frozen foods (general) 12
Cereal, ready-to-eat 6-8
Macaroni (dry) 6-8
Spaghetti (dry) 9-12
Dehydrated gravy/sauce mixes 6-12
Sweet or dill pickles 12-15
French/Italian dressings 10-12
Pizza sauce (jar) 36
Lard 3
Vegetable oil (liquid) 4
Margarine 2-6
Canned puddings 24

Source: Anonymous (1971B).

should be stored in a dark, cool place to prevent destruction of thiamin

and other B vitamins (Curran and Erdman 1980). Storage stability of
unmilled grains depends upon moisture content. Rice and maize stored
for 2 years at moisture content below 10% had no loss of thiamin
(Bayfield and O’Donnell 1945; Cuendet et al. 1954). White rice stored
for 2 1/2 years lost 30% thiamin, 5% riboflavin, and 5% niacin. Brown
rice lost somewhat less thiamin (Kik 1955). Another researcher (Caileau
et al. 1945) reported more rapid loss of thiamin in brown rice, white
rice, and bran. After 6 months of storage at 20°C, the product lost
30% thiamin, and 50-70% after 2 years.
574 C. E. Adams and J. W. Erdman, Jr.

If moisture content was elevated to 17%, thiamin was destroyed

more rapidly. Rice lost 30% of thiamin in 5 months compared to a
12% loss at 12% moisture. Cuendet et al. (1954) found no thiamin loss
at low moisture levels of 6%.
Jones et al. (1943) determined that provitamin A in unmilled yellow
maize was quite stable in cool storage. However, provitamin A was un¬
stable in milled maize (Fraps and Kemmerer, 1937).
Shelf life in prepared baked products ranges between 2 days and 2
weeks. Table 21.3 lists retail shelf life for a variety of cereal products.
In addition, shelf life for perishable dairy, canned, and frozen items are
also given.

LOSSES DUE TO PREPARATION PROCEDURES

There can be extensive loss of nutrients in the preparatory stages

between storage and cooking. However, with the appropriate care,
losses can be minimized.

Trimming of Meats
It may be necessary for the consumer to trim fat from meats pur¬
chased from a supermarket. Toepfer et al. (1955) evaluated oven roasts
in boneless beef that had been trimmed to U.S. Army specifications
(external fat maximum of 3/4-in. thickness) or trimmed to leave
1/4-in. external fat. Trimming of the beef resulted in 6% loss in weight
with little nutrient loss. The trim contained 82.6-87.5% fat and 2.1-
4.5% protein. Phosphorus and magnesium were also in high concentra¬
tion in the fat portion. Meat trimmings may contain one-third of the
phosphorus and magnesium concentration of the lean and marble
portions (Leverton and Odell 1959).
Given the caloric cost of consuming visible fat, such as meat trim¬
mings, it is practical to recommend that Americans trim away most
visible fat from meats. While a small amount of protein may be lost
from the trimmed meat, most Americans can less afford the calories
that fat trim would provide.

Preparations of Fruits and Vegetables

To the best of our knowledge, the losses due to trimming, washing,
soaking, chopping, and mincing as prepared for consumption in the
home are similar in nature and extent to those that occur in large-scale
food preparation. In general, it is better to delay the preparation of
foods until a few minutes before they are to be cooked and served.
Protracted soaking should be avoided. Frozen vegetables should not
 21. Home Food Preparation Practices 575

be thawed or washed before cooking; instead, they should be placed

directly into a minimum quantity of rapidly boiling water. In this
respect, boil-in-the-bag procedures offer superior conditions because
losses into cooking water are completely avoided and nutrients are
theoretically held by the butter or cream sauces usually associated
with food packaged in this manner.
Salads should be prepared just before they are to be served in order
to minimize losses in nutrients, especially ascorbic acid (Curran and
Erdman 1980).
Although weight loss due to trimming of fruits and vegetables may
be small, nutrient losses can be excessive. Vitamins and trace minerals
are often concentrated at the outer layers of vegetables, seeds, root
crops, and fruits (Lachance 1975).

EFFECTS OF COOKING

Changes that occur dhring processing either result in nutrient loss or

destruction, or can be beneficial. Although cooking effects are generally
discussed with regard to losses, it is important to realize that some
nutrients can be made more bioavailable by processing. This is par¬
ticularly true in the legumes, which contain a variety of substances
that inhibit digestive enzymes or bind nutrients, making them unavail¬
able. For example, heat-labile trypsin inhibitors complex with the
pancreatic protease trypsin and decrease protein digestion. Solanine
in potatoes is a recognized food neurotoxin that is only safe when
consumed in small quantities. Solanine is largely destroyed in cooking.
Avidin in raw eggs is a substance that binds the essential nutrient
biotin, yet avidin is destroyed with heat during the cooking process.
Heating generally increases the overall digestibility of foods, therefore
increasing nutrient utilization. -Overheating reduces sensory and nutri¬
tional value. However, the key in home or industrial processing is to
optimize the cooking process to provide the best sensory and nutri¬
tional characteristics.

Foods of Animal Origin

Animal products are significant sources of protein, vitamins, and
minerals in the U.S. diet. Research regarding losses during cooking of
meats has concentrated on protein and vitamin retention. Methods that
use no water or minimum liquid yield greatest retention of nutrients.
Thiamin is the nutrient most susceptible to thermal degradation and
leaching from meat; thus, most research uses thiamin retention as the
indicator of cooking losses.
576 C. E. Adams and J. W. Erdman, Jr.

Effect of Liquid Used in Cooking

Methods that include no water (e.g., broiling and frying) or mini¬
mum water result in greater nutrient retention than do methods that
require that meat be submerged in liquid (e.g., stewing or use of a
Crock-Pot®). Broiling is considered' the mildest cooking method and
results in retention of 60-85% of thiamin and 60-100% of riboflavin.
Frying results in lower retention of thiamin, 50-89%; and roasting,
40-70%.
Thiamin retention is dramatically dependent on the presence of
water. Wilcox and Galloway (1952) reported that 63-68% of thiamin
was retained in pan-broiled lamb chops and 49-63% in roasted leg of
lamb. Stewed lamb lost approximately 50% of thiamin. Broiled and
roasted lamb and veal lost from 30 to 43% of thiamin, while braised
or stewed meats lost 60 and 74%, respectively. Causey et al. (1950A)
found good retention of B vitamins in broiled ground pork patties.
The cooking process was responsible for losses of 6-21% of thiamin,
5- 39% of riboflavin, and 0-12% of niacin. Broiled lamb patties lost
6- 20% thiamin, 40-60% of riboflavin, and 2-15% of lysine (Causey
et al. 1950B). For both pork and lamb, loss of B vitamins in the drip
accounted for less than 10% of the initial value.
Pork is a richer source of thiamin than any other meat and appears
to retain more thiamin than do other meats. Beef cooked in a small
amount of water loses 40-45% of thiamin. Pork, similarly cooked,
loses only 20-30% (Farrer 1955). Other researchers have confirmed
this report (Cover et al. 1949).
Oven and pan roasting results in nutrient retention similar to broil¬
ing (Erdman 1979). Toepfer et al. (1955) found good retention of
protein (95.6% in meat with 1.8% loss in drip) in boneless roasts when
no water was added. Retention of protein dropped to 89.9% in meat,
with 7.6% loss in drip when water was added.
Frying liver in a pan with margarine resulted in 85% retention of
thiamin, 94% of riboflavin, and 87% of niacin (Kotschevar et al. 1955).
Farrer (1955) found greater losses of thiamin in fried meats, with losses
ranging generally from 40 to 50%.
Other types of cooking require that the meat be placed in varying
amounts of water. Braised meats are generally first pan-browned and
then cooked with water. The amount of water added is usually 8-10%
of the meat weight. The pan is then tightly covered and the meat is
cooked. Noble (1970) tested several types of meats for thiamin and
riboflavin retention, using both braising and simmering methods of
cooking (Table 21.4). The difference between the methods is that
simmering includes a greater amount of water (approximately one-half
to two times the meat’s weight of water added). Braising of meats
yielded consistently better thiamin or riboflavin retention than did
simmering. Some simmered meats had greater cooked weight due to
less fluid loss.
 21. Home Food Preparation Practices 577

Table 21.4. Mean Thiamin, Riboflavin, and Weight Retention (%) of Variety
Meats after Braising or Simmering

Thiamin Riboflavin Total Weight

Meat type Braised Simmered Braised Simmered Braised Simmered

t
Calf
Sweetbreads 66 55 61 69 58 66
Beef kidney 45 37 65 46 53 53
Lamb heart 51 49 77 72 53 62
Pork heart 34 30 72 69 50 60

Source: Noble (1970).

Other B vitamins are also leached in cooking liquid along with

thiamin. Niacin in braised or stewed meats is substantially reduced
(33-50% lost), but can be recovered in the broth. From 3 to 27% is
lost in broiling, frying,^and oven roasting. Most of the heat-stable
niacin is lost through leaching or dripping, and only an insignificant
portion appears to be chemically destroyed. Moss et al. (1980) re¬
ported retention of niacin in broiled and roasted meats as 79 and
74%, respectively.
One-half or more of pantothenic acid may be found in broth when a
large amount of water is used, but only about 40% when a small amount
is used. These results are predictable based on this nutrient’s known
solubility characteristics. Schweigert and Guthneck (1953) evaluated
cuts of pork, beef, and lamb and found higher values of pantothenic
acid retained in broiled meats than in roasted samples. Meyer et al.
(1969) compared roasted and braised beef for retention of pantothenic
acid. Retention in oven-roasted loin averaged 89%, with a mean of 19%
being transferred to the drip. Braised roasts retained only an average of
56% of pantothenic acid in the meat and 44% in the cooking drip.
Thus, more than twice as much pantothenic acid was extracted from
the meat by braising as by roasting. These results supported earlier
work using heel-of-round and chuck beef roasts (Meyer et al. 1947).
Meyer and co-workers, in both braising studies, found good total reten¬
tion for pantothenic acid when meat and drip values are added. Cover
et al. (1947A) found only 78% total retention in beef stew.
Early reports of folic acid retention (Cheldelin et al. 1943) showed
that the nutrient was seriously affected by cooking. Recent advances
in folic acid research have yielded more reliable and consistent data
for nutrient retention. Recent assays using new methodology revealed
35% loss of folic acid in braised beef, while broiled beef lost only 14%
and roasted beef only 5% of folic acid (Moss et al. 1980).
Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) is also a water-soluble vitamin and is thus
predictably affected by the presence of water in cooking. Mclntire
578 C. E. Adams and J. W. Erdman, Jr.

et al. (1944) reported poor retention of vitamin B6 for all cooking

methods. Roasting and broiling produced about 30% retention, braising
and stewing resulted in only about 18%. Lushbough et al. (1959) used the
Saccharomyces carlsbergenesis microbiological yeast assay for vitamin B$
in fresh, cooked, and processed meats. The results indicate retention
between 67 and 43%. Veal retained vitamin B6 best. Lamb and Boston
cut beef had the least retention of this vitamin. More recent data by
Meyer et al. (1969) show vitamin B6 retention in roasted and braised
beef. Retention in the oven-roasted loin averaged 92%, and 16% was
recovered in the drip. Retention in the oven-braised round averaged
49%, with 34% transference to the drip. Approximately twice as much
pyridoxine was transferred to the drip by braising as by roasting.
It could be noted that mean retention of vitamin B6 in roasted and
braised beef in Meyer’s investigation was considerably higher than in
earlier studies with beef and other meats. More recent work by Moss
et al. (1980) revealed data for broiling and roasting beef that show only
modest retention (50-60%). Results for braised beef more closely
correlated with those of Mclntire etal. in 1944, which showed extremely
poor retention rates for pyridoxine.
Limited data have been published regarding choline and biotin reten¬
tion. Mclntire et al. (1944) showed choline was stable in cooking of
meat. Schweigert et al. (1943) found that 77% of biotin was retained
in cooked meats.

Effect of Time and Temperature

The relationship of time and temperature influences the nutrient
stability of meats during a variety of cooking treatments. Home pre¬
paration practices that utilize shorter periods of time (and higher
temperatures) may yield greatest B vitamin retention. However, the
effect of temperature is not reported to-be as great as may be expected
given the thermo lability of thiamin, riboflavin, and pantothenic acid
and other B complex vitamins in nonfood systems. Since many B
vitamins exist in foods in coenzyme complexes, they are probably
more thermodynamically stable than the free vitamin in solution.
Noble and Gomez (1960) roasted five different cuts of beef at both
149° and 177°C to an internal temperature of 71°C. Beef loaf was
heated to an internal temperature of 75°C. The longer cooking period
was not more detrimental to thiamin or riboflavin. Beef loaf retained
70% of the thiamin and top round and rib roasts retained, on an average,
54% thiamin. Rump and tenderloin cuts retained intermediate values
for thiamin. Riboflavin retention was greatest in rib and rump roasts
(87%) and was lowest in roasted beef loaf and top round (80%).
Noble and Gomez (1958) showed similar results in various cuts of
lamb. Roasting lamb to internal temperatures of either 82° or 79°C at
an oven temperature of 149°C failed to have a significant effect on
either thiamin or riboflavin.
 21. Home Food Preparation Practices 579

Cover et al. (1949A) found that high oven temperatures (204°C)

resulted in greater destruction of B vitamins than did lower oven
temperatures (149°C) when cooking beef and pork roasts. Cover and
co-workers evaluated retention of thiamin, pantothenic acid, niacin,
and riboflavin in beef and pprk cooked on a large scale and on a small
scale (Cover et al. 1944) and found consistently greater retention when
cooking was done at low rather than high temperatures. For rib roasts
cooked to rare and well done, retentions were, respectively, 75 and 69%
for thiamin, 83 and 77% for riboflavin, 75 and 79% for niacin, and 91
and 75% for pantothenic acid.
Cover et al. (1947A) reported that pantothenic acid retention was
decreased by 10% in stewed meat that was browned first. The author
states that increased temperature may have been a factor affecting
increased losses found in pressure-cooked beef. The same effect was
not evident in lamb similarly cooked.
Alternatively, Bognar (1978) reported that reduced cooking time at
higher temperatures could have been a factor contributing to increased
thiamin retention in roasted pork. Thiamin loss was reduced to 40%
by using a porous earthenware pot in an electric oven or by microwave
cooking. These methods included higher temperature and shorter
cooking times than roasting pork in glass containers, plastic film, or
aluminum foil in electric ovens or roasting on a grill in a gas oven.
These latter methods resulted in a 50% reduction in thiamin.
Hall and Lin (1981) compared thiamin retention in broilers cooked
at 204° and 121°C. Poultry cooked at the lower temperature was
heated for 85.2 min longer. Contrary to previous studies with red
meats, broilers that were cooked for the shorter time at the higher
temperature retained more thiamin than when the long-time-low -
temperature method was used. The considerable difference in cooking
times may have resulted in these differing results.
Protein quality has been assessed in meat as affected by cooking
time and temperature. It has been concluded that the biological value
of meat protein is little affected by home cooking practices (Mayfield
and Hedrick 1949; Thomas and Calloway 1961).

Effect of Size of Cut

Smaller cuts of meat require less cooking time and will have greater
nutrient retention [e.g., Bognar (1978) for thiamin]. However, protein
quality may be adversely affected by direct and intense heat if cut in
slivers. Protein quality was assessed in beef roasted as thin slivers
(thickness 0.5 cm) or large beef pieces (Mglinets and Zheleznyak 1980).
Both in vitro digestibility and a microbiological method were used to
determine protein value. Protein quality of beef slivers diminished
2- to 3-fold by roasting 15-20 min at 250°C. Large meat pieces roasted
for 70-80 min to reach an internal temperature of 75°C were minimally
affected (only a 10% reduction in the nutritional value). It was deter-
580 C. E. Adams and J. W. Erdman, Jr.

mined that cooking affected principally the outer layers of beef, and
digestibility of the protein in the outer layers was reduced by approxi¬
mately one-third. The research team of Mglinets and Zheleznyak con¬
cluded that meat should not be overcooked or burnt if the protein
nutritional value of the product is to'be maintained.

Mineral Retention in Meat

Reports for mineral retention in cooked meats are conflicting. A
recent study conducted by the USDA/Meat Board (Moss et al. 1980)
indicates that nearly all zinc, copper, and iron is retained in beef
cooked in any of three cooking methods. However, Freeland-Graves
and Day (1980) report that mineral loss in beef round steak ranged
between 25.4 and 92.6%. The large variance depended on the degree
of meat shrinkage during cooking. Manganese was the most stable
mineral, followed by iron, zinc, and copper. Given the minimal amount
of research on mineral retention in cooked meats, more research is
needed in order to make a conclusive interpretation of conflicting
results.

Microwave (Electronic) Cooking

Microwave ovens have been on the market for over 20 years, and in
recent years there has been a dramatic increase in the utilization of
microwave cooking. The use of microwaves in cooking has been
promoted for its economy in terms of both energy and time savings.
The use of high-energy, electromagnetic radiation is an extremely
efficient process, since it heats only the food (Wing and Alexander
1972) and not the external environment. Several researchers have
shown that meat can be cooked in a microwave oven four to five
times faster than in a conventional oven (Bowers et al. 1974; Headley
and Jacobson 1960; Marshall 1960, Wooldridge 1974).
Initial reports on vitamin retention indicated that losses were reduced
using electronic cooking methods compared to conventional ovens
(Thomas et al. 1949). Thomas et al. reported that thiamin loss was
less for beef and pork patties cooked in 3 microwave oven (9-23%)
than when grilled (21-45%). Niacin and riboflavin were relatively
stable. Yet other researchers have failed to show differences in thiamin,
riboflavin, or niacin retention between cooking methods for pork
(Kylen et al. 1964, Baldwin et al. 1976), lamb (Noble and Gomez
1962; Baldwin et al. 1976), or beef (Baldwin et al. 1976) and Baldwin
reported less thiamin retention in microwave-cooked beef roast. Baldwin
and co-workers (1976) found that more thiamin was lost in a 2450
MHz microwave oven operating at 115 V than at 220 V.
Moore et al. (1980) and Kylen et al. (1964) found greater drip loss
in microwave-cooked beef top round steak and beef roasts. Moore
and co-workers (1980) did not consider vitamin retention in their
study, but greater drip losses correlated with less total moisture and
lower sensory scores for juiciness and tenderness. Greater drip loss
 21. Home Food Preparation Practices 581

has also been shown in pork (Bowers et al. 1974) and poultry (Wing
and Alexander 1972).
Janicki and Appledorf (1974) analyzed lipid content in ground
beef patties from various fast-food chains. Beef patties were either
broiled, grill fried (over 371°C gas flame) or microwave cooked (2450
MHz), or raw patties were broiled, frozen, and reheated in a micro-
wave oven. Microwave-treated patties contained the largest ratio of
unsaturated:saturated fatty acids. The authors postulated that the
saturated fatty acids are lost to a greater extent in the drip during
cooking. The C18:1 and C18:2 fatty acids are more integrally related
to the structural components in meat and are present in phospholipids
and are, thus, less likely to be lost to drip. The health benefit of a high
proportion of polyunsaturated fat in the diet is still controversial, but
it may be a factor in the prevention of heart disease.
Bowers and Fryer (1972) investigated thiamin and riboflavin loss
from turkey meat cooked in conventional gas and microwave ovens.
Frozen turkey pectoralis muscle was either (1) cooked and stored 1
day at refrigerator temperature, (2) cooked, frozen, or (3) cooked,
frozen, and then reheated. There was no difference in thiamin con¬
tent. However, riboflavin was better retained with conventional cook¬
ing preparation than with microwave heating if retention was expressed
in a moisture-free, fat-free basis.
Hall and Lin (1981) using fresh broiler chickens, found better thiamin
retention when cooked in a microwave as compared with an electric
oven. Cooking time may be a factor for thiamin retention, since
chickens cooked in an electric oven at 204°C for a shorter time retained
significantly more thiamin than when cooked at 121°C for a longer
time. The difference between cooking times in the electric ovens was
85.2 min. There was no difference for thiamin retention in poultry
cooked in microwave ovens at 800 or 1600 W. The difference in cook¬
ing times in the case of the microwave cooking was only 4.4 min.
Vitamin B6 retention in chicken breasts was evaluated by Wing and
Alexander (1972). Researchers showed that, contrary to riboflavin,
vitamin B6 was better retained in microwave-cooked chicken breasts
(cooked for 1.5 min) than in conventionally cooked chicken (heated
for 45 min). Bowers et al. (1974), using pork loin to study the effect
of cooking method on vitamin B6 retention, showed a significantly
higher retention in conventionally cooked pork based on a moisture-
free basis.
In summary, there seems to be good agreement between researchers
using various species of meat that greater drip loss occurs from micro-
wave-cooked meats than from conventionally cooked products. Results
for nutrient retention are variable, but appear to depend on the par¬
ticular nutrient, species, and cooking time applied. If drip losses are
added to nutrients retained in meat, microwave cooking is usually
equivalent or superior to conventional methods. Thiamin may be
582 C. E. Adams and J. W. Erdman, Jr.

better retained with microwave 'booking in beef, pork, and poultry.

Riboflavin and niacin appear relatively stable and are independent of
cooking method. Vitamin B6 is more stable in microwave-cooked
poultry but may be lost more rapidly in pork similarly treated if results
are expressed on a moisture-free basis.

Other Cooking Methods

There is a paucity of data reporting nutrient retention for home
canning of meats. A single study (Cover et al. 1949B) reported the
effect on thiamin, pantothenic acid, niacin, and riboflavin after a home
processing method for canning beef and veal. Meats were packed in
No. 2 and No. 3 tin cans and in pint and quart glass jars and processed
at 15 psi, 121°C for at least 60 minutes. After 3 months storage,
thiamin retention was as low as 45%, while pantothenic acid was high¬
est at 70%. Riboflavin and niacin appeared relatively stable.
Other common methods of home preparation, including long-time-
low-temperature methods (e.g., Crock-Pot® type), have not been re¬
ported. However, prediction of nutrient retention can be made from
other studies. Other reports on cooking methods using a low oven tem¬
perature for a longer time period reveal that nutrient retention is lower
than when high temperature for a short time is applied. Also, the
detrimental effect with large amounts of water used in cooking has
already been reviewed in this chapter. It is predictable that such
methods, including crockery cooking, may be convenient, but are not
recommended for nutrient retention.

Foods of Plant Origin

Traditionally, fruits and vegetables are prepared in the home on the
basis of convenience and taste preference rather than on nutrient
retention. Particular food preferences are important considerations,
since even the most nutritious food is void of nutritional value until it
is consumed. If foods are not prepared according to individual likes
and dislikes, either small quantities of the product will be eaten, or the
disliked food will not be eaten at all. Therefore, the ideal situation in
the home is for foods to be served in a form that is preferred, using
preparation practices that minimize nutrient losses.
Vitamins have been the most widely studied of the nutrients in fruits
and vegetables. First, these foods provide significant sources of vitamins
in most U.S. diets and second, vitamins are the nutrients most at risk of
being destroyed during common preparation practices. Ascorbic acid,
thiamin, and pantothenic acid are the most heat labile, and the water-
soluble vitamins are the most susceptible since most cooking methods
utilize water. Ascorbic acid is generally used as the indicator nutrient
for studying cooking losses in fruits and vegetables, since it is present
in significant levels, is sensitive to thermal and oxidative destruction,
and also is lost by leaching to water. Thiamin is also used as an index
 21. Home Food Preparation Practices 583

of retention. Vitamin A is generally the indicator vitamin for evaluat¬

ing fat-soluble nutrient losses. Pennington (1976) proposed that a
selected group of nutrients be evaluated in order to determine the
adequacy of a group of foods or an entire diet. Vitamin Bg , panto¬
thenic acid, vitamin A, fojacin, magnesium, iron, and calcium were
suggested as the best indicator micronutrients. The theory is that if
these nutrients are supplied at adequate levels, then the diet is most
likely providing sufficient amounts of all other required nutrients. As
Lund (1979) points out, to utilize this concept requires that significant
increases in knowledge regarding the effect of processing on these
seven nutrients must be forthcoming.
In a classic study conducted in 1948, Hewston et al. reported the
results of a comprehensive study of the effect of home preparation on
the vitamin and mineral content of 20 common foods. Ascorbic acid
was the most sensitive of all the nutrients studied. Retention was low¬
est when (1) the volume of cooking water was large, (2) the time of
cooking was long, and (3) the size of food particles was small.
Effect of Liquid Used in ^Blanching and Cooking
The effect of cooking liquid on nutrient retention is a factor in
several methods of home preparation. Methods including boiling,
steaming, pressure cooking, home canning, and boil-in-the-bag cooking
utilize the cooking liquid in different ways.
The USD A (1971) recommendation for nutrient retention is to cook
vegetables until just tender, in only enough water to prevent scorching.
Covering saucepans with tight-fitting lids is suggested in order to reduce
cooking time and the amount of water required. The USDA recom¬
mendation is based on published research demonstrating the leaching
of nutrients to the cooking water. Krehl and Winters (1950) studied
vitamin and mineral loss from 12 different vegetables cooked in small
portions to simulate family-style, preparation. Four different cooking
methods were compared: (1) boiling in enough water to cover, (2)
boiling with 1/2 cup water added, (3) pressure cooking with 1/2 cup
water added, and (4) cooking with no water added (only water that
remained on vegetables after rinsing was present). Vitamin retention
was best for waterless pressure cooking and cooking with 1/2 cup water.
Boiling vegetables with water to cover resulted.in about a 10% greater
loss for thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, ascorbic acid, and carotene relative
to the other methods. Retention for calcium, iron, and phosphorus
decreased by 15% for boiled vegetables covered in water compared
to waterless cooking. Kamalanathan et al. (1974) confirmed that
pressure cooking better preserved calcium, phosphorus, ascorbic acid,
thiamin, and riboflavin than steaming or boiling. McIntosh et al.
(1942) found pressure cooking vegetables to be superior for vitamin C
retention. For other studies on ascorbic acid retention, see Noble
(1967), Gordon and Noble (1959B), Sweeney et al. (1960), Erdman
and Klein (1982), and Chapter 12 in this book.
584 C. E. Adams and J. W. Erdman, Jr.

Table 21.5. Effect of Water:Food Ratio on the Retention (%) of Vitamins during
Small-scale Boiling of Foods of Plant Origin

Water .-food Cooking Ascorbic

ratio time (min ) Thiamin Riboflavin Niacin acid

Carrots 3.5/2 30 71
1/30 30 99
Potatoes 1/1 30 70 55 74 88
1/7.5 25 96 97 100 98
Bean,snap 2/1 15-30 48-50
1/2 15 74
Broccoli (frozen) 1/1 5.5 82
5/1 5.5 57
Broccoli 1/4 30 56 63 36 47
1/9 30 95 73 88 67
Cabbage 1/2 7 78
2/1 7 60
4.2/1 6-8 60
5/1 10 68
5/1 8 46
4/1 12.5 70
4/1 5.5 51
2/1 8.5 50
2.5/4 15 82
3/1 15 24
Kohlrabi 1/1 2 45
Peas (300 g/150 cc) 1/2 15 74
Peas (300 g/600 cc) 2/1 15-30 48-50
Peas 4/5 24 54 69 64 68
1/30 20 94 93 97 86
1/3 8 71-76
1/1 54-57
Spinach 2/4 7 47
2/1 7 36
1/1 2 ■v. 63
2/1 2 25
2/1 8 24
1/5 8 62
Soybeans 1/2 12 .4
71
2/1 12-24 52-45

Adapted from Harris and Levenberg (1960).

Vegetables that were cooked while covered in water may retain

better color and be milder in flavor than vegetables that are steamed
under pressure or cooked without added water (Gordon and Noble
1964). However, vitamin C is least effectively retained by cooking
with excessive water (Harris and Levenberg 1960; Clyde et al. 1979).
Table 21.5 and Fig. 21.2 present data on the effect of the water:food
ratio on percentage of retention of four vitamins using home prepara¬
tion methods. It seems appropriate, given the research published, to
 21. Home Food Preparation Practices 585

Fig. 21.2. Percentage retention of ascorbic acid during small-scale cooking as a re¬
sult of increasing water to food ratio. Source: Lachance and Erdman (1975);
McIntosh et al. (1942); Olliver (1943).

recommend steaming or pressure cooking of vegetables to minimize

the effects of cooking on nutrient loss. Microwave cooking of vegetables
is discussed later in this chapter.

Blanching and Losses into Cooking Water

Blanching of produce prior to freezing or canning is a home process
as well as a commercial one. The objectives of blanching are to in¬
activate enzymes that would contribute to undesirable color, texture,
and flavor changes; to fix color; to reduce microbial levels; to soften
the product; and to minimize loss of nutritive value. An issue facing
both commercial and home food processors is the question of steam
versus water blanching.
Studies indicate that the loss of nutrients from vegetable foods
during cooking with water is primarily caused by extraction into the
cooking water rather than by destruction. Munsell et al. (1949) evalu¬
ated the water used in cooking cabbage. The cooking water contained
more thiamin, riboflavin, and niacin than did the cabbage. Brush
et al. (1944) demonstrated that the water phase of canned foods con¬
tained considerable amounts of vitamins extracted during canning.
Thus, the objective in blanching and cooking is to minimize both the
leaching of nutrients to the cooking water and the oxidative changes
that occur in heating. Several studies comparing steam and water
blanching are intended for commercial application (see Chapter 12), but
the same theories are appropriate for home use. Odland and Eheart
(1975) compared blanch methods for broccoli. Steam-blanched product
retained significantly more ascorbic acid than did water-blanched
586 C. E. Adams and J. W. Erdman, Jr.

broccoli. Steam-blanched broccoli also was found to be firmer, as

measured by a shear press, than that which had been water-blanched.
Lathrop and Leung (1980) found that vitamin C loss from steam-
blanched peas was greater than from water-blanched peas during the
first 0.5 min of the blanch process. However, for blanch times longer
than 0.5 min vitamin C content of peas decreased more rapidly in water
blanching than that in steam blanching. Authors remarked that the
substantial vitamin C loss during the first 0.5 min of steam blanching
was probably due to the availability of oxygen and the enzyme ascorbic
acid oxidase in the peas. Once the enzyme was inactivated, ascorbic
acid was quite stable during times of 0.5-5 min in steam blanching,
since there was no leaching of the vitamin to the steam environment.
A cooking method more common to commercial processing than to
home practice is boil-in-the-bag or retort pouches. Both products have the
nutritional advantage of retaining cooking liquids, often in creamed or
seasoned sauces that are generally consumed with the product. It is note¬
worthy that the boil-in-the-bag method of food preservation is increasing
in the home, probably more for its convenience than its nutritional profits.
Food processing in retort pouches is increasing. Chen and George
(1981) showed that vitamin C stability in green beans packed in metal
cans was superior to that in retort pouches. Sensory quality of the
retort pouch product was better, and it is likely that retort pouch
processing will be designed for greater nutrient retention in the future.

Effect of Time and Temperature

The time-temperature relationship is important in all forms of home
food preparation using heat, but the impact varies for the various cook¬
ing methods and products. For example, some vegetables require
longer heat processing to inactivate enzymes or to render the product
tender. Eheart and Gott (1965) found that stir-frying green beans
caused poorer retention of ascorbic acid in green beans (57.5%) as
compared with broccoli (76.6%); however, the green beans required
5 min of frying while the broccoli was cooked for only 1 min.

Effect of Size and Cut

Some vegetable products are more sensitive to nutrient destruction
than are others. Some of this enhanced sensitivity is due to the surface:
weight ratio of the food product. Vegetables with larger surface:weight
ratios are more easily affected by the amount of cooking water present,
the time, and, perhaps, temperatures applied in the cooking process.
Slicing and quartering vegetables increases vitamin losses. Quartering of
potatoes may reduce cooking time, which may help reduce thermal
cooking losses of some vitamins. Thiamin, for example, was better re¬
tained in quartered potatoes than in potatoes cooked in the skin since
cooking time was reduced by 17 min for the portioned product. How¬
ever, loss of vitamin C in the cook water was accelerated by exposing
more product surface to the cooking medium.
 r
21. Home Food Preparation Practices 587

Effect of Cooking Utensils

A variety of cooking vessels are used in home preparation of foods.
The type of utensil used is more frequently a factor of cost, availability,
or decor rather than nutrient retention, however, the particular cooking
utensil used may affect nutrient value. Brown and Fenton (1942)
found that boiled parsnips contained more ascorbic acid if cooked in
enamel or Pyrex (84 and 81%, respectively) than if prepared in either
aluminum or stainless-steel pans (71 and 66%, respectively). Other
researchers have seen little effect from glass, stainless steel, aluminum,
and enamel; however, copper, brass, and monel could lead to great
nutrient losses (Harris and Levenberg 1960; Van der Laan and Van
der MijllDekker 1945).

Bicarbonate in Cooking
Sodium bicarbonate and other alkaline salts are occasionally added
to the cooking water because the color is preserved better and because
the rate of cooking is increased. This practice is destructive to nutrients
that are sensitive to alkali, especially thiamin and ascorbic acid. Alkali
should not be used in cooking vegetables. It appears that this practice
is less common in today’s homes than in previous times.

Mineral Retention
Minerals in food products are generally considered stable, with
minimal losses during processing. Losses are generally related to the
leaching of minerals into the cooking water, although some changes in
the oxidative state of minerals can occur during heating. Few studies
have been done using home processing techniques, but Schroeder
(1971) showed that mineral losses occur in commercially thermal -
processed vegetables. The amount of mineral loss depended on the
particular product, the packing medium, and the length of storage.
Schroeder showed that mineral losses from the food product could be
substantial if cooking water was discarded. Canned spinach lost 82%
of the manganese, 71% of the cobalt, and 40% of the zinc found in raw
spinach. Canned beans lost 60% of their original zinc and canned
tomatoes lost 83%. If the cooking medium was considered, then losses
were minimized.
Lee et al. (1982) studied mineral and amino acid content in canned
green peas. Water blanching has only a minimal effect on mineral
losses. Canning losses can be significant (again with discarded water),
especially for potassium, and losses were also recorded for magnesium,
manganese, zinc, and phosphorus (Chung et al. 1981). There was a
dramatic increase in sodium content in canned peas which is a reflection
of the salt used in canning. Only a small amount of calcium was
absorbed in canned peas from the water and the iron content was
unaffected.
The application of heat in cooking may alter the chemical form of
the mineral and thus affect the bioavailability of the nutrient. Lee and
588 C. E. Adams and J. W. Erdman, Jr.

Clydesdale (1979) have extensively reviewed the effect of food com¬

ponents and cooking processes on iron availability. Lee and Clydesdale
(1981) studied the changes in endogenous and added iron during
cooking and processing. Heating caused a decrease in insoluble iron
from 96 and 93% to 87 and 85% for spinach samples with and without
ascorbic acid added, respectively. An increase in iron solubility with
heating suggests a more bioavailable form of iron which is created upon
heating. Rosenbloom and Potter (1981) investigated the change in bio¬
availability of zinc in spinach, beef, and potatoes during processing.
These researchers found that most of the endogenous zinc in spinach
and potatoes and at least half of the total zinc in beef will be available
for intestinal absorption, regardless of processing methods, which
included canning, thermal processing, freezing, storage, and boiling.
Phytic acid in vegetables may bind minerals and make them unavailable,
but Rosenbloom and Potter were unable to show that appreciable
amounts of insoluble phytic acid-zinc chelates or other complexes
resistant to acid-enzyme digestion were formed as a result of processing
treatments. They concluded that processing appeared to have little
effect on zinc-macromolecule associations.
In summary, some minerals may be more resistant to leaching than
others, and potassium is probably the most sensitive mineral to leach¬
ing losses. In light of the limited quantity of research available on
mineral retention, particularly in home practices, a greater focus should
be placed for research in this area. Also of importance is the need for
more studies considering the effects of home preparation practices on
mineral availability in prepared foods.

Microwave and Other Cooking Methods

Gordon and Noble (1959A) compared four methods of cooking,
including microwave, pressure saucepan, boiling water, or cooking on
an electric range, with a small amount of water for cabbage, broccoli,
and cauliflower. Researchers found superior retention of ascorbic acid
in microwave cooked vegetables (80-90%), followed by pressure sauce¬
pan cooking (70-82%). Least effective for vitamin C retention was
boiling in a large excess of water (38-73%). Eheart and Gott (1965)
showed that microwave cooking resulted in better retention of ascorbic
acid in broccoli than did boiling with a large waterrfood ratio (4:1).
However, broccoli that was stir-fried or boiled with a small water:food
ratio (1:2) resulted in less destruction of vitamin C. Green beans boiled
using a small water:food ratio (1:2) had greater vitamin C value than
did microwave-cooked green beans. Ascorbic acid retention in micro-
wave cooking is dependent on the particular food product (Eheart
and Gott 1964). Five vegetables were cooked by boiling or microwave,
using similar amounts of added water or with no water added. Greater
vitamin C retention was observed for frozen spinach cooked in the
microwave than by conventional means (66 and 50%, respectively).
 21. Home Food Preparation Practices 589

Yet, neither peas, potatoes, nor broccoli showed significant differences

in vitamin retention between cooking methods.
Although most literature reporting nutrient retention in microwave
cooking is for ascorbic acid, other nutrients have been studied. Lanier
and Sistrunk (1979) explored the relationship between the method of
preparation for consumption and vitamin content in sweet potatoes,
including ascorbic acid, niacin, riboflavin, pantothenic acid, and total
cartenoids. Other quality attributes were considered by the researchers,
who also reported on sensory factors of color, firmness, and mouthfeel.
The results indicated that microwave-prepared sweet potatoes retained
significantly more pantothenic acid than did potatoes that were baked,
boiled, steamed, or canned. Baked sweet potatoes contained more
ascorbic acid than did microwave-cooked or canned potatoes. Except
for carotene, canned vegetables consistently showed poor nutrient
retention, while microwave and baking methods or preparation were
superior for all nutrients.
Augustin et al. (1978) also found that white potatoes baked in a
microwave had better vitamin retention than did conventionally baked
potatoes. Other factors including peel thickness, moisture content
(Augustin et al. 1979), and location of the nutrient within the potatoes
(Mondy and Mueller 1977) all influence nutrient retention when com¬
paring cooking methods.
A comparison of microwave and conventional cooking on the con¬
tents of total and nonprotein nitrogen, amino acids, and minerals of
potato tuber cortex and pith was conducted by Klein and Mondy (1981).
The study was conducted because of the knowledge that conventional
and microwave heating systems operate with different mechanisms of
heat transfer. Conventional baking, which heats by external heat
penetrating inwards, caused destruction of nitrogen-containing com¬
pounds throughout the potato. Microwave baking, which heats inner
portions of food products first, actually caused an increase in nitrogen
compounds at the outer cortical layers, but resulted in nutrient damage
at the inner pith region. Potassium and iron content decreased in the
cortical layer by 15 and 12% by conventional and baking systems,
respectively, but was increased in the inner pith area by 22 and 23%.
Mineral composition of microwave-cooked potatoes was only minimally
affected. The authors propose that minerals migrate from the outer to
the inner portions during conventional baking as result of the drying of
the outer layer from the high temperature and prolonged exposure to
heat.
An early study considering conventional cooking methods showed
that baking may be quite destructive for vitamins in sweet potatoes.
Pearson and Luecke (1945) found better retention of thiamin, ribo¬
flavin, nicotinic acid, and pantothenic acid in boiled whole, unpared
sweet potatoes than in baked potatoes. Baked sweet potatoes retained
75% of ascorbic acid, 89% thiamin, 85% niacin, and 77% pantothenic
590 C. E. Adams and J. W. Erdman, Jr.

acid. Vitamin B6 and niacin were significantly leached to cooking

water in boiled, halved potatoes. Baking an intact potato preserved
these nutrients (Page and Hanning 1963).
There is little published research regarding the effect of baking on
products other than potatoes. However, one study evaluated the loss
of ascorbic acid from apples during baking. Curran et al. (1937) found
that apples baked 60-90 min at 204°C in an open dish retained 40%
ascorbic acid. The retention was only 25% during baking in a covered
dish and 20% during baking in a pie.
Few vegetables are fried, and there are few reports in the literature
on the effects of frying on nutrient content. In 1942, a study was
made on the effects of frying for 30 vegetables. Losses of ascorbic
acid ranged from 0.7 to 32.7%. Vegetables that were boiled, then fried,
lost from 22.2 to 78.8% ascorbic acid. Potatoes fried for 15 min in
deep fat retained 72% ascorbic acid, yet potatoes fried in butter or
Crisco® were reported to lose no ascorbic acid (Richardson et al.
1937). Other reports reveal that frying may be more detrimental to
nutrient retention. Potatoes fried for 20 min retained only 20-45%
ascorbic acid (Rudra 1937). Basu and Neogy (1948) evaluated ascorbic
acid retention in several fried foods as follows: potato, 60% (12 min);
sweet potato, 19% (20 min); jackfruit, 22% (5 min); papaya, 48%
(5 min); and peas, 60% (4 min). In a more recent report, Domah et al.
(1974) studied the ascorbic acid content of potatoes after frying.
They reported that reduced ascorbic acid is rapidly oxidized to the
less active dehydroascorbic acid form. Further hydrolysis to the
inactive diketo form proceeds more slowly. Frying of potatoes for even
30 min at 140°C resulted in at least 80% retention of the total vitamin
value, but this is almost entirely as the dehydro form.
Data on nutrients other than ascorbic acid are fragmentary. Cheldelin
et al. (1943) reported a 74% loss of riboflavin in onions after 20 min of
frying. Recently, Augustin et al. (1981) evaluated various cuts of fried
potatoes for thiamin, niacin, vitamin B6 , ascorbic acid, and folic acid.
Authors found that niacin and vitamin B6 letention was little affected
by home frying. Retention of ascorbic acid in large french fries, small
french fries, and potato rounds was less than or equivalent to oven-baked
samples. There was total thiamin retention in pan-fried hashbrowns,
but only 59% retention in pan-fried shoestring french fries. Ascorbic
acid retention ranged between 53 and 91%, and was lowest for potatoes
prepared as large fries. Folic acid retention was low and ranged from
14 to 75%. Folic acid was lowest for deep-fried potatoes rounds. In
general, fried potatoes scored lower in respect to vitamin retention than
before cooking samples, but values were not always less than the
equivalent product that had been overbaked.
Frying as a means of retaining water-soluble nutrients such as ascorbic
acid is often castigated and there currently is no experimental basis for
such a view. The effect of high temperatures for even a short time
 21. Home Food Preparation Practices 591

during frying appears to be sufficient to cause significant reduction in

heat-labile vitamin content. In addition, the absorption of fat used for
frying increases the fat content of foods consumed. Fried foods there¬
fore have a lower nutrient:calorie ratio compared to vegetables cooked
in a minimum of water. Fof this reason, and the availability of altern¬
ative cooking methods with good vitamin retention, use of fried vege¬
tables in a low-calorie diet is inappropriate.
Essential fatty acid degradation occurs in oils (safflower, cottonseed,
and corn) used for frying (Kilgore and Bailey 1970). Fleishman et al.
(1963) found that linoleic acid was also degraded in sesame, coconut,
olive, peanut, and soy oils. Fleishman and co-workers also showed
that frying oils may influence nutrient stability. Poor quality frying
oils adversely affect ascorbic acid content in fried foods. Ascorbic acid
and essential fatty acid stability may become important in diets rich
with fried foods.
With the increased concern for conservation of energy, solar drying
has become increasingly appealing for home food preservation. Little
research exists regarding* the effect of drying on nutritional quality.
Labuza (1972) reported that vegetables dried by conventional methods
suffered losses of ascorbic acid ranging from 10 to 50%. Gooding
(1960) reported that a major factor determining ascorbic acid stability
after drying was the final moisture content of the food product. The
higher the final percentage of moisture corresponds with a higher
percentage of nutrient losses. In a recent study by Maeda and Salunkhe
(1981), the researchers used ascorbic acid and total carotene as indicator
nutrients for loss during sun drying, both in direct sunshine and in solar
driers with and without shade provided. In general, maximum nutrient
retention was obtained for four vegetables dried in enclosed driers with
shade provided. However, retention for ascorbic acid ranged from only
1.6 to 24.4%, and for total carotene between 4.2 and 57.1%. Vegetables
that were selected for study were extremely rich sources of both
nutrients in their fresh form, but after drying were only minimal
sources of ascorbic acid and total carotene Therefore, it is clear that
sun drying and solar driers are quite harmful to vitamins despite their
energy savings.

Cereal Products
Cereal products are a staple food in many diets worldwide. For
most western cultures, cereal foods are primarily sources of dietary
carbohydrate. However, for some they make a significant contribu¬
tion to the daily protein intake and, thus, the protein quality is also
important. Factors that affect nutrient stability in baked grain products
include (1) type of flour, (2) leavening agents and other ingredients, (3)
time and temperature of heating, and (4) surface area exposed to heat.
The type of flour used for baked goods is important, since flours
differ in their nutritional content. Moran (1959) calculated that 80-95%
592 C. E. Adams and J. W. Erdman, Jr.

of seven B complex vitamins were retained in whole wheat flour (95%

extraction). White flour (70% extraction) retained only 15-60% of
these vitamins. Four nutrients are added in enriched flour, including
thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, and iron. Other nutrients, including fiber,
are removed in milling and must be obtained from other dietary sources.
Some ingredients added to baked products affect the alkalinity or
acidity of the product. Baking powders, sodium aluminum sulfate, and
phosphates increase the alkalinity of the product and may cause sig¬
nificant destruction of thiamin. When large amounts of these leavening
agents are used, as much as 84% of thiamin is destroyed (Briant and
Hutchins 1946; Briant and Klosterman 1950). A pH of 6.0 or lower
is desirable for satisfactory stability of thiamin during baking.
The composition of the bread formula also seems important. The
retention of thiamin was 87, 84, 83, and 81% when biscuits were made
with fresh milk, evaporated milk, dry milk, and water, respectively
(Briant and Hutchins 1946).
The presence of reducing sugars to bind amino acids, such as lysine,
will diminish the quality of the protein in bread. During baking, lysine
and reducing sugars such as glucose form a linkage that can not be
broken down by human digestive enzymes. The linkage is cleaved in
laboratory analyses of amino acids by acid hydrolysis. The biological
availability of lysine may therefore not concur with reports from
chemical analysis alone (Sabry 1969). Baked goods are commonly
prepared using quantities of dry milk powder. Jansen et al. (1964A,B)
added 6-14% of nonfat dry milk to breads before baking and found
that the nutritive loss of natural and fortified lysine averaged 36%.
Presumably, the amino acid loss was due to the large content of the
reducing sugar D-lactose in the dried milk. L-Lysine loss is extremely
detrimental to the protein quality of wheat products since it is already
the most limiting amino acid in wheat.
The presence of yeast in bread doughs can actually increase the
B complex vitamin content due to synthesis by the yeast organism
(Matz 1975). Also, the action of fermehtation causes liberation of
minerals, including calcium and iron, from phytic acid complexes
(Ranhotra 1972). Zinc may also be made more available. There are
yeast phytases and natural wheat phytases that cleave mineral inositol-
phosphate complexes and make minerals more bioavailable (Ranhotra
et al. 1974).
Yeast fermentation also increased the natural folacin in bread dough
by about 30% (Keagy et al. 1975). However, this increase in folacin
was lost during the baking process.
Time and temperature of baking can greatly affect nutrient content
of baked goods. The intensity of the baking process will affect thiamin
retention. Bread baked to a dark brown retained 9.7% less thiamin
compared to bread baked to a pale color (Zaehringer and Personius
(1949). This detrimental effect of baking appears largely as thiamin
 21. Home Food Preparation Practices 593

loss from the crust. Direct exposure of the outer crust to heat results
in 35% more thiamin destruction than for the crumb portion (Morgan
and Frederick 1935). There is evidence of a 20-29.5% loss in bread
during baking (Coppock et al. 1957; Bottomley and Nobile 1962).
Niacin and riboflavin, which are less heat labile, are generally well
retained in baking (Harris and Levenberg 1960).
The destruction of lysine during baking is also dependent on time
and temperature. The vulnerability of lysine to heat leads to serious
impairment in the nutritive quality of the protein because of its rela¬
tively exposed e-amino group (Liener 1960). Again, most destruction
takes place in the crust, where the browning reaction occurs. Reports
of lysine loss due to the heat in baking vary from 12.5 (Tara et al.
1972) to 15% (Rosenberg and Rohdenberg 1951; Ericson et al. 1961).
Tsen et al. (1982) evaluated amino acid loss in pizza crust. Lysine
was the most significant amino acid that was lost with a range between
7.1% destruction for whole wheat pizza to 19.4% for a commercial
pizza crust. Relative to bread baking, pizza crust is generally exposed
to higher temperatures (2fl6°-344°C) for a shorter time period (4-10
min). Breads are generally baked at 218°-232°C for 20-25 min.
Authors reported that the nutritive loss of lysine in baking was due to a
destruction of a portion of lysine in the pizza crust, since the difference
between total and available lysine was small.
Tsen and Reddy (1977) demonstrated the physiological effect of a
diminished lysine value after toasting of bread. The authors studied
weight gain in rats, feed efficiency, and protein efficiency ratio (PER)
of breads toasted to varying degrees of brownness. The toasted breads
did not differ in their proximate analysis, but the effect on grow¬
ing rats was significant. Weight gain was especially low with diets
consisting of dark-toasted bread. Adjusted PER was 2.50 for the
control (casein) diet, 0.90 for untoasted bread crumb and 0.64, 0.45,
and 0.32 for light, medium, and dark-toasted bread-based diets,
respectively.
In toasting bread, the greater surface area exposed to toasting heat
allows a greater proportion of the product to become browned and
lysine destruction is greater. For example, thickly sliced bread would
be less susceptible to nutritional loss than thinly sliced bread since
less surface area is exposed.
Abdel-Rahman (1982) studied the effect of cooking time on the
vitamin and mineral content of spaghetti. Pasta was cooked for either
10, 15, or 20 min in 500 ml of water. Mineral losses were small, with
the exception of potassium. Potassium was reduced by 6.1, 14.5, and
16% for each of the three cooking times, respectively. The rate of loss
for thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, and pantothenic acid was greatest during
the initial 10 min of cooking and then diminished as cooking time
increased. Authors recommended that for retention of quality and
nutritional value, the maximum cooking time for spaghetti be 15 min.
594 C. E. Adams and J. W. Erdman, Jr.

Reheating Prepared Foods

The effect of refrigerator storage on nutritional quality of cooked
foods has already been discussed in this chapter. Unfortunately, there
is little research that has been reported concerning the nutritional value
of reheated convenience foods or leftovers. This void is of particular
concern given the prevalence of these practices in the home.
One of the most comprehensive studies is that of Charles and Van
Duyne (1958). Vitamin C content of eight vegetables was evaluated
(1) when raw, (2) after boiling until done with half their weight in
water, (3) after holding for 24 hr refrigerated (4°-9°C), and (4) after
24 hr refrigeration and reheating. After 24 hr refrigerated storage,
cooked broccoli, brussels sprouts, shredded cabbage, sliced cabbage,
cauliflower, peas, and snap beans lost about 22% ascorbic acid each,
whereas asparagus and spinach reportedly lost only about 4% each.
Reheating of the cooked and stored vegetables increased ascorbic acid
losses to an average of 32%. Extended storage resulted in greater
nutrient destruction. The losses that occurred with reheating apparent¬
ly were from the vegetable itself, since ascorbic acid in the cooking
liquids was stable during storage and in reheating.
Wood et al. (1946) found significant destruction of vitamin C in
cooked, drained, and refrigerator-stored (24 hr) cabbage. Thiamin
and riboflavin were considerably more stable than vitamin C. Ang
et al. (1975) compared ascorbic acid, thiamin, and riboflavin retention
in cooked, frozen, and reheated mashed potatoes. Potatoes were
reheated by convection, infrared, steam, or microwave oven. Large
losses of ascorbic acid were recorded, particularly for the microwave-
heated product. Thiamin and riboflavin showed good retention, regard¬
less of the reheating system.
More recently, Augustin et al. (1980) studied vitamin retention in
baked and rehydrated mashed potatoes. Potatoes were cooked, chilled,
and microwave reheated, then analyzed for thiamin, riboflavin, niacin,
vitamin B6, ascorbic acid, and folic acid content. Nutrient losses
occurred with each step; however, total retention values after micro-
wave reheating were high for thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, and vitamin
B6 . All were retained at 90% or more of their original values. Ascorbic
acid and folic acid were more susceptible to destruction, with total
retention around 70%. These two vitamin values were significantly
reduced relative to the fresh product.
From these results, using only a limited number of different products,
it is clear that ascorbic acid and folic acid are susceptible to significant
losses in stored and reheated foods. More research should be done
since, for some segments of the population, reheated foods may com¬
prise a significant portion of the diet.
 21. Home Food Preparation Practices 595

Table 21.6. Major Sources of Nutrient Losses during Preparation and Service

Animal products Plant products

Thaw drip, especially from chopped or Spoilage of unprocessed plant foods

ground meats
Cooking drip, especially from micro- Excessive trimming, cutting, chopping,
wave cooking slicing, washing, soaking
Nutrient leaching, especially during Excessive use of water in cooking
braising or stewing
Heat losses, especially thiamin, during Excessive use of heat in cooking
roasting at high temperatures
Excessive (more than 3 hr) steam table Discarded cooking water
holding in food-service operations
Use of alkaline processes in soaking or
baking
Refrigeration of once-cooked plant
foods in excess of 1 day
Reheating of once-cooked plant dishes

Source: Adapted from Erdm^n (1979).

CONCLUSION
The food habits of the U.S. population are changing toward use of
convenient, quick-to-prepare foods. In addition, packaging is gearing
towards use of smaller or single-serving containers that require a mini¬
mum of preparation. The nutritional value of foods prepared in these
manners should be considered in order to ensure the general good
health of the population. This chapter has highlighted the techniques
of food handling and preparation that best retain nutrients, and has
noted that specific nutrients are more susceptible to heat or to water
leaching than are others. Although general guidelines for nutrient
retention may be practiced in the home, specific practices may vary,
depending on the particular product, cut of meat or vegetable, and type
of preparation technique. The goal is to optimize the nutritional value
of prepared foods, yet to provide desirable sensory characteristics.
Foods, no matter how nutritious, do not provide nutrition until they
are consumed, and nutritious, but less enjoyable foods may not be
consumed.
Major sources of nutrient losses during home preparation and service
of foods of animal and plant origin are listed in Table 21.6.

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 21. Home Food Preparation Practices 603

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 .

.
■

«
Nutrification,
> >

Legal Aspects,
and Nutrient Analysis
 22
Addition of Vitamins,
Minerals, and
Amino Acids to Foods
Benjamin Borenstein
Howard T. Gordon

In the context of this chapter, fortification is a generic term for the

addition to foods of vitamins, minerals, and amino acids for the purpose
of nutritional improvement. The emphasis here is on vitamins, since
the bulk of the literature is in this area.
The technology of fortification involves the selection of the in-
process point for addition of micronutrients, the mode of addition, and
the market forms of the micronutrients. These decisions are dependent
on a number of interrelated factors, including stability, bioavailability,
organoleptic problems, safety, cost, production practicality, and the
reliability of the system. An important ancillary capability is analytical
methodology for micronutrients at the low concentration found in
foods.

STABILITY

Vitamin stability results are so dependent on the process specifics

and the specific micronutrient market forms used that extrapolation to
other applications should not be made without detailed knowledge of
the process and product. The influence of temperature, moisture, pH,
and so on can be critical. For example, Beetner et al. (1974), in study¬
ing stability of added vitamins Bj and B during extrusion of corn
2

grits, found that a temperature increase in the extruder of 22°C caused

a 21% lower vitamin B! retention and that increasing moisture of the
grits by 1.5% decreased vitamin B retention by 21%. This type of
2

specific processing data is obviously highly desirable in studying forti¬

fication problems. Similarly, even though the kinetics approach to
predicting stability of vitamins in foods was used at least as early as
1948, this type of data is rarely published except in model systems.
An excellent article on the thermal destruction of folic acid added to

609
610 B. Borenstein and H. T. Gordon

model systems and to low pH foods with kinetics data is available

(Mnkeni and Beveridge 1982). Prediction of nutrient losses from a
mathematical point of view is reviewed by Karel (1979).
Several reviews of fortification technology and related stability
problems are available (Borenstein 1971, 1974). The mechanics of
fortification of rice, wheat, and salt with vitamins and amino acids was
discussed by Rubin and Cort (1969). The properties and stability of
indigenous and added vitamins and amino acids during food processing
has been reviewed (Borenstein 1972). A comprehensive survey of food
applications of vitamin A is available (Bauernfeind and Cort 1974).
Nutrient stability of cereal products fortified with seven vitamins and
four minerals was evaluated by Cort et al. (1976).
The more labile vitamins, which can present stability problems in
food processing and storage, are vitamins A, D, Bj, C, pantothenic
acid, vitamin B12 , and folacin. Although serious degradation of these
vitamins can be encountered under adverse conditions, measures can be
employed to minimize losses. These include protective coating of
individual vitamins, addition of antioxidants, control of temperature,
moisture, and pH, and protection from air, light, and incompatible
metals during processing and storage. By applying appropriate tech¬
nology and using a suitable manufacturing overage of added vitamins
based on a critical evaluation of stability data, it is possible in most
food applications to maintain desired label claims for the normal shelf
life of food products. Overages above label claim are essential, even in
fortification with stable micronutrients, due to analytical, distribution,
and sampling errors.
The stability of added micronutrients generally parallels the stability
of indigenous food micronutrients., Differences, however, can occur in
the case of vitamins Bj, B6, A, and E.
Vitamin B6 occurs in food primarily as pyridoxal, pyridoxamine, and
pyridoxine. Of these, pyridoxal is the least stable, and vitamin B6 added
in the form of pyridoxine hydrochloride is more stable than native
pyridoxal in heat stress processes. Kinetics data for the loss of Bg
vitamers in dehydrated model systems at 37°C is shown in Table 22.1
(Gregory and Kirk 1978).
Similarly, thiamin is more stable than thiamin pyrophosphate, which
may account for over 50% of the native vitamin Bl in specific foods.
Vitamin E occurs in nature primarily as a-tocopherol, which is highly
reactive compared to a-tocopheryl acetate, the most widely used
synthetic analog of vitamin E.
Vitamin A occurs in animal source foods primarily as retinyl palmitate
and as provitamin A carotenoids in plant products. j3-Carotene is the
most important indigenous provitamin A carotenoid, both because of
its high provitamin A value and its widespread occurrence in foods. In
plant products the provitamin A carotenoids are stable (>85% retention
 22. Vitamins, Minerals, and Amino Acids 611

Table 22.1. Kinetics Data for the Loss of the

Bg Vitamins from Dehydrated Model Systems
during Storage at 37°C

ka h/2b
t~ (days 1) (days)

Pyridoxal 0.0170 41
Pyridoxine
Days 0-58 NMDC —
After 58 days 0.0049 141
Pyridoxamine 0.0200 35

Source: Adapted from Gregory and Kirk (1978).

a First-order rate constant.
b Half-life.
c No measurable degradation.

in most food products and processes. A notable exception is the poor

stability of carotenoids jn freeze-dried carrots exposed to air during
storage.
Vitamin A esters and j3-carotene added to foods may oxidize quickly
during processing and storage of many products. Therefore, most
food applications require coated and/or antioxidant-stabilized market
forms of these compounds to obtain adequate stability during product
storage. Many market forms for specific vitamin A fortification appli¬
cations have been commercialized. An important example is a spray-
dried, stabilized vitamin A palmitate product specifically developed for
flour and bread fortification. Applications of this product were thor¬
oughly investigated by Parrish et al. at Kansas State University. Dis¬
tribution and stability in flour, flour handling, shipping, and storage
were satisfactory for commercial needs (Parrish et al. 1980A). Excellent
stability was reported in white pan bread, corn bread, corn mush, cakes,
pancakes, and spaghetti (Parrish et al. 1980B). Retention of vitamin A
during baking (or other processing) of these products was generally
>90% when processed with flours stored less than 6 months. When
these products were stored at room temperature for 5-6 days, reten¬
tion was 72-108%. Vitamin A stability in corn curls fortified via corn
flour was unsatisfactory. Corn curls can be satisfactorily fortified by
addition of vitamin A and other vitamins postextrusion. Biopotency
and bioavailability of the vitamin A in fortified flour after accelerated
storage at 40-45°C was excellent (Liu and Parrish 1979).
The difficulty of predicting vitamin C stability in food systems is
demonstrated in model systems studies by Yu et al. (1974), who
reported that all amino acids except cysteine reacted with ascorbic
acid, resulting in more pronounced color formation than when ascorbic
acid was present alone. Cysteine protected ascorbic acid against the
612 B. Borenstein and H. T. Gordon

formation of the brown pigment. Tryptophan enhanced the browning

of ascorbic acid more than the other amino acids. At 72°C, color
development caused by ascorbic acid plus tryptophan was further en¬
hanced by the addition of malic acid, citric acid, FeS04, CuS04, and
Na2HP04, but color formation was reduced by fumaric acid, tartaric
acid, succinic acid, calcium salts, bisulfite, tetrasodium pyrophosphate,
sodium tripolyphosphate, sodium tetraphosphate, sodium metaphos¬
phate, and sodium polyphosphate.
The comparative stability of vitamin C in beverages reconstituted
and stored under home usage conditions was studied by Beston and
Henderson (1974) to determine differences in vitamin C stability
between orange juice from frozen concentrate, canned orange juice,
and formulated beverage powders. Stability curves for 96 hr at 42°F
(5.5°C) were very similar for all products.
The effect on ascorbic acid retention in orange juice of the type of
container used (glass, polyethylene, polystyrene, or cardboard) was
studied by Bissett and Berry (1975), who confirmed the superiority
of glass over oxygen-permeable materials. The significance of container
packaging materials on vitamin stability is also shown in a kinetics
analysis of light-induced riboflavin loss in whole milk (Singh et al.
1975). Exposure of enriched macaroni packaged in transparent bags to
fluorescent light, 50-250 fc for 7 days, caused riboflavin losses of
30-35% (Furuya and Warthesen 1984).
The stability of added vitamins in canned fruits and vegetables
generally parallels the stability pattern of the naturally occurring vita¬
mins in the same products. Processing plus long-term storage of canned
and frozen vegetables can be expected to degrade significant amounts
(20-50%) of vitamins C, Bj, and B (Guerrant and O’Hara 1953).
2

Although frozen products have a higher initial vitamin C content than

canned, storage of 9-12 months tends vto equalize the vitamin C levels
because of oxidation of ascorbic acid in oxygen-permeable containers
even at 0 C. Thus, packaging of frozen foods becomes an important
variable in vitamin C stability
Equally important is the difference in vitamin C stability during
storage of vegetables processed in tin versus glass (Guerrant and O’Hara
1953). The dissolved stannous ion in canned products is an effective
reducing agent and significantly retards ascorbic acid degradation.
The stability of reduced and total ascorbic acid has been studied in a
low moisture dehydrated model food system as a function of water
activity, moisture content, oxygen content of the container, and tem¬
perature (Dennison and Kirk 1978). The kinetics data obtained sub¬
stantiate prior empirical conclusions that the headspace oxygen dis¬
solves rapidly as the oxygen in the moisture phase of the product is
consumed by reaction with ascorbic acid. Headspace oxygen accelerates
ascorbic degradation at a water activity as low as 0.1 aw.
 22. Vitamins, Minerals, and Amino Acids 613

Table 22.2. Stability of Ascorbic Acid in Orange

Drink Circulated by a Jet Spray Dispenser

Retention
mg/8 fl oz (%)
b
Initial 100 —
8 hr 77 77
24 hr 76 76
48 hr 62 62

Source: DeRitter and Metzner (1978).

Table 22.3. Stability of Ascorbic Acid in Apple Saucea

mg/3 av. oz Retention (%)

Refrigerated Freezer Refrigerated Freezer

Initial 86 86 — —

1 week 86 NR 100 —

2 weeks * 81 NR 94 —
3 weeks 68b NR 79 —

1 month 75c 83 87 97
2 months NR 75 — 87
3 months NR 78 — 91

Source: Gordon and Gerenz (1982).

a Not run.
b Sample gaseous and container ballooned.
c Container ballooned and white mold on surface of apple sauce.

A comprehensive review on the problems of incorporating vitamin C

in baked goods is available (Seib and Hosney 1974).
In an unpublished study of a vitamin C-fortified orange drink, the
beverage was circulated in a commercial jet spray unit continuously for
48 hr. The results are presented in Table 22.2 (DeRitter and Metzner
1978). In another study, single-service 3 oz plastic containers of apple
sauce fortified with ascorbic acid showed the stability results reported
in Table 22.3 (Gordon and Gerenz 1982).
In evaluating the stability of added nutrients, it is important that
factors such as market form, processing/storage conditions, moisture
level, product pH, other ingredients, and type of container be considered.
Insistence on detailed information surrounding the product, its
production/handling, and its storage is not frivolous. It is needed in
order to make a proper judgment on the true stability of a nutrient in a
given food product or, inversely, the reasons for nutrient losses in a
given product.
For instance, Bookwalter et al. (1980) has shown the superior stabil¬
ity of ethyl cellulose-coated ascorbic acid over uncoated ascorbic acid
614 B. Borenstein and H. T. Gordon

Table 22.4. Storage Stability of Ascorbic Acid Added to

Prune Juice

After 11 months at room temperature

Addition Rate Assay Retention

(mg/6 fl oz) (mg/6 fl oz) (%)

78 13 17
120 30 25
200 64 32

Source: Gordon and Cort (1979).

Table 22.5. Stability of Ascorbic Acid Added to Cookies via the

Dough (mg/cookie)

Oatmeal Sugar

Retention Retention
Addition rate Assay (%) Assay (%)

78 50.4 65 66.7 86
96 80.1 83 72.6 76
114 88 77 87.3 77

Source: Gordon and Borenstein (1982).

in heat-treated CSM (corn-soy-milk formulated dry food). However,

without proper attention to all variables, we would not have learned that
the most significant factor in the rate of destruction was the moisture
level in the product rather than the heat treatment process step.
The level of addition, that is, concentration of vitamin C, is also an
important variable, as shown in a prune juice study (Table 22.4) (Gordon
and Cort 1979). »
Unexpectedly good vitamin C stability results were obtained in
baking cookies (Table 22.5) (Gordon and Borenstein 1982).

BIOAVAILABILITY

In almost all cases, commercial synthetic vitamins are chemically

and biologically identical to naturally occurring vitamins. In the most
important exception, vitamin E, potency is expressed in biological
units to account for the differences in biopotency between analogs and
optical isomers.
Bioavailability, in the context of this discussion, is the percentage of
the ingested dose that is absorbed still in a biologically active form. In
the case of vitamin A, for example, the trans isomer could be isomer -
ized to lower biological potency cis isomers in the intestinal tract and
then be absorbed. The bioavailability of spray-dried vitamin A palmitate
in stored flour was demonstrated by Liu and Parrish (1979).
 22. Vitamins, Minerals, and Amino Acids 615

Vitamins indigenous to food are not absorbed completely. This is

due to poor solubility of specific vitamins, destruction of specific
vitamins in the gastrointestinal tract, the occurrence of vitamins in
bound form in specific foods, and the poor digestibility of specific
foods. »‘
For example, foods containing higher glutamate conjugates of folic
acid have poorer bioavailability than foods containing the monoconju¬
gate, folic acid, which happens to be the article of commerce. The
addition of folic acid to foods, unless it becomes bound in an indigest¬
ible form, should result in bioavailability as good as or better than that
of indigenous folate in foods.
The concern that an added vitamin may become bound and, hence,
less available can be dispelled in those cases where the analytical extrac¬
tion procedure indicates ready solubility or extractability in water.
This important principle has received little attention by nutritionists.
The available data base on absorption of vitamins added to foods
demonstrates absorption equivalent to that of indigenous vitamins. The
bioavailability of synthetic and natural ascorbic acid provided by orange
juice was very similar (Pelletier and Keith 1974). The slight superiority
of synthetic L-ascorbic acid in this study was explained by a slightly
higher urinary excretion of the vitamin after consuming orange juice.
In the case of j3-carotene, absorption is probably superior from
fortified foods. The intestinal absorption of provitamin A carotenoids
from foods such as carrots is less than 30%, and it was suggested by the
Food and Nutrition board (FNB) (1980) that the average absorption of
food carotenoids be calculated as one-third of the provitamins ingested
compared with retinol, which is assumed to be completely absorbed.
Since 1 IU of vitamin A activity is equivalent to 0.3 pg retinol and
0.6 pg /3-carotene, the overall utilization (intestinal absorption plus
convertibility of /3-carotene to retinol) of indigenous /3-carotene is cal¬
culated as one-sixth that of retinol by the FNB.
On the other hand, crystalline /3-carotene dissolved in margarine is
absorbed as well as the U.S. Pharmacopeia vitamin A standard and has
a provitamin A activity of 1.66 million units/g (Marusich et al. 1957).
Therefore, the calculation suggested by the FNB for determining the
retinol equivalent of /3-carotene in foods is inappropriate for /3-carotene
added in fortification.

TECHNOLOGY OF ADDITION
Fruit and Vegetable Products
The technological problems in fortification are best demonstrated by
considering fruit and vegetable products. This large group of foods is
diverse chemically, physically (e.g., corn-on-the-cob, diced carrots,
616 B. Borenstein and H. T. Gordon

sliced string beans, juices, and purees), and in processing technology

(e.g., frozen, canned, dehydrated, blanched, refrigerated, concentrated,
or fried). Newer technologies such as asceptic packaging and retort
pouches, which decrease the exposure of food products to heat, tend to
improve stability of the more labile vitamins.
Each food product in each form poses its own potential technological
difficulties. For example, a fortification technique for canned corn
kernels with lysine or other water-soluble nutrients would require
careful development to ensure that most of the lysine is not in the can¬
ning liquid and, thus, discarded by the consumer when used. On the
other hand, with cream-style corn there is no problem of distribution of
nutrients between particles and a liquid phase likely to be discarded.
Fortification of corn products with iron could cause the formation of
iron sulfides, which seriously discolor corn products. The addition of
insoluble iron salts might circumvent this problem; however, they are
not generally favored by nutritionists.
Fortification of particulate canned foods with any and all nutrients
is difficult because of the distribution of nutrients between the par¬
ticles and the canning liquid, and the potential waste and deception of
the water-soluble vitamins being discarded by the consumer. In theory,
it is easier to fortify frozen than canned vegetables. A spray solution
or suspension of nutrients can be applied to frozen food products
directly at the packaging line and the losses during frozen storage
would be moderate for most of the vitamins. The losses during home
preparation will also be moderate as long as the weight ratio of cook¬
ing liquid:solids is low and controlled.
Small-particle dehydrated fruits and vegetables (40-200 mesh) are
relatively easy to fortify, since all the commercial vitamins, amino
acids, and minerals are available in dry market forms in this particle
size range. Blended foods containing dehydrated vegetables (e.g.,
soup mixes with seasonings or salt) are easy to fortify with respect
to distribution of the added nutrients. Stability of nutrients in de¬
hydrated foods is greatly dependent on moisture content. Vitamin C
can both discolor and degrade at high relative humidity in dehydrated
foods. Nitrogen flushing of packaged, dehydrated foods improves
vitamin C stability. Stable forms of vitamin A for fortification of
dehydrated foods are available. Stability of most of the other vita¬
mins in dehydrated foods is satisfactory
Vitamin C stability in canned foods is dependent on pH and re¬
actants present. Anthocyanins, iron, and copper accelerate vitamin C
degradation. For example, the high levels of both anthocyanins and
iron in prune juice cause very rapid degradation of added vitamin C.
Vitamin B2 is unstable in glass packs exposed to light. Vitamins B! and
B12 have poor stability at high pH. Vitamin Bi added to a high-pH
(10.4) tortilla was almost completely destroyed during baking (Gordon
 r

22. Vitamins, Minerals, and Amino Acids 617

1978). Vitamin B! can cause off-flavor in some fruit and vegetable

products, but the threshold flavor level is dependent on the specific
food. The flavor of vitamin Bj is due to trace amounts of sulfhydryl
compounds caused by degradation and off-odors can be produced by
almost immeasurable destruction of vitamin B!. In the case of vege¬
tables, vitamin Bj can also catalyze pyruvic acid degradation to acetoin,
which produces off-flavors.
Apple sauce has been commercially fortified with vitamin C by
metering an ascorbic acid solution directly into the cooker. It is also
theoretically possible to meter an ascorbic acid solution into glass or
tin containers prior to filling with sauce. The limiting factor in this
approach is the rate of diffusion of ascorbic acid throughout the con¬
tainer. It is essential that there be sufficient agitation during the filling,
sealing, and cooling operations plus diffusion during the first 2-4 weeks
of storage to produce reasonable distribution of vitamin C throughout
the container so that each serving of sauce meets the label claim.

Particulate Dry Foods *

Dry-mix fortification presents minimal technological problems. For

example, the reliability of fortifying flour by continuous metering of a
dry, free-flowing premix into flour streams was shown by Fortmann
et al. (1974), who took flour samples at 15-min intervals while process¬
ing a carload (1000 cwt) of bulk flour at a flour mill. The flour was
then resampled at the bakery as it was fed from the bakery storage bins
into the dough mixers. The vitamin B! varied from 2.31 to 2.56 mg/lb
and vitamin B from 1.25 to 1.34 mg/lb in 14 samples at the bakery.
2

Reduced iron analyses were equally satisfactory, ranging from 15.3 to

16.4 mg/lb of flour. Stability of micronutrient premixes per se and in
flour was reviewed by Cort et al. (1976).

Dehydrated Potato Flakes

It is more difficult to fortify large-particle products such as dehy¬
drated potato flakes or breakfast cereal flakes than it is flour, cake
mixes, and other fine-particle dry products. Dehydrated potato flakes
can be fortified at the mash stage prior to dehydration. However, two
problems exist in this procedure, namely vitamins degradation of
vitamins A and C and “pinking.” Degradation of vitamins A and C is
primarily an economic problem, since high overages can be used to
make up for process losses. Pinking is an unpredictable problem due to
vitamin C. Apparently, ascorbate reacts with potato protein causing a
pink Schiff-base compound. Pinking occurs erratically and takes time
to appear after dehydration. Oxygen is necessary for this reaction,
since nitrogen flush-packaged flakes do not pink until opened and
exposed to air.
618 B. Borenstein and H. T. Gordon

Flake fortification after dehydration with dry vitamins presents the

serious problem of vitamin segregation in the retail package. This
problem was solved in a patented process by Pedersen and Sautier
(1974). “Vitamin flakes” of approximately the same size and shape as
potato flakes are mixed with the potato flakes and are nonsegregating
and difficult to detect visually. These vitamin flakes are actually 50-75%
fat, mp 110°-165°F, containing water-soluble vitamins and minerals.
The stability data on vitamins C, B,, Ba, and niacin shown in this
patent are satisfactory. It is essential in this approach that the vitamin
flakes be added uniformly to the potato flakes and that they be organ¬
oleptically satisfactory.

Breakfast Cereals
A different approach to the same type of physical distribution
problem was used by Duvall and Stone (1974) for the fortification of
ready-to-eat cereals. In their process a precooked cereal is coated with
a sugar solution, dried, and then coated with dry vitamins while the
cereal is hot and tacky. In this patent the preferred procedure is the
use of fat-coated vitamins to prevent formation of undesirable flavors
and to enhance vitamin adherence to the cereal particles.
Heat-labile vitamins such as Bj, C, and A are usually sprayed onto
toasted breakfast cereals as they leave the oven. Emulsions (or water-
dispersible solutions) of vitamin A can be sprayed onto breakfast
cereals after toasting, but stability during product storage is greatly
dependent upon the composition of the spray solution. A high carbo¬
hydrate level in the spray solutions is desirable. Added sugars, in effect,
coat the vitamin A and act as an oxygen barrier during cereal storage.
Losses during process and cereal storage cannot be specified because of
the large number of vitamin A market forms available, and cereal prod¬
uct and process variables. Vitamin A overages above label claim would
usually be 30-50% for ready-to-eat cereals.
If a product is to be fortified with both vitamins A and D, it is best
to add vitamin D at the same stage as vitamin A. The vitamin D market
form should be similar in composition and stability to the vitamin A
market form so that the vitamin A stability profile can be used to
monitor vitamin D. This is desirable because of the poor accuracy of
vitamin D assays at food fortification levels. Modern high-performance
liquid chromatography has greatly improved analysis of vitamins in
food, but vitamin D analysis is still difficult.

Tea

Spraying particulate foods to optimize distribution of added fortifi-

cants was recommended by Brooke and Cort (1972) for fortification of
tea leaves, as distinct from tea dust, with vitamin A. In this study,
 22. Vitamins, Minerals, and Amino Acids 619

oil-in-water emulsions of vitamin A palmitate or acetate, diluted in 50%

sucrose solution and sprayed on tea leaves, resulted in 90% retention
after 6 months of storage at 37°C. This is excellent stability for vitamin
A, substantiating the fact that coating vitamin A in situ with carbohy¬
drates improves stability. A further stress for vitamin A in this applica¬
tion is the tea-brewing step. Brooke and Cort (1972) reported 100%
retention of vitamin A palmitate after cooking tea for 1 hr in boiling
water, but only 4% retention using the vitamin A acetate emulsion-spray
system. This large differential in stability between the two esters was
not explained.

Textured Soy Protein

Textured soy proteins can usually be fortified either before or

after granulation, or “texturization,” of the soy flour, following the
processor’s personal preference as to production ease and control.
The two major concerns in soy fortification are uniformity of dis¬
tribution of the added* micronutrients and compliance with label
claims. Micronutrient requirements for these products issued by the
U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) (1982) include magnesium,
iron, zinc, calcium, phosphorus, vitamins A, Bj, B , B6, B12, niacin,
2

pantothenic acid, and folate. The most stable vitamin in this specifica¬
tion is niacin. Riboflavin and vitamin B6 are somewhat less stable,
and vitamins A, Bj, B12, and calcium pantothenate present the highest
potential losses.
A convenient way to monitor fortification and improve physical
distribution in soy fortification is to premix all the micronutrients,
thus adding 50-100 mg of premixed ingredients to 100 g of soy pro¬
tein, instead of each ingredient separately. This premix can be added
directly to the soy flour before granulation by batch mixing, continu¬
ous metering, or with the “dough water,” if the production process
and equipment lends itself to this approach. The major concern when
the premix is added prior to texturizing is stability during processing.
The short processing time required to texturize with heat, pressure,
and high moisture does not significantly degrade vitamins Bj, Bi2 , and
pantothenic acid in the authors’ experience.
The nutritional requirements for protein products established by the
USDA Food and Nutrition Service are for protein products used as
partial replacement of meat, poultry, or seafood in meals served under
the National School Lunch Program, Summer Food Service Program
for Children, and the Child Care Food Program. While the regulations
refer generically to vegetable protein products, only soy protein prod¬
ucts have, thus far, found their way into this market.
The nutritional specifications for these products cover protein level,
protein efficiency ratio (PER), product hydration and product use
620 B. Borenstein and H. T. Gordon

Table 22.6. USDA Micronutrient Require¬

ments for Protein Products

Per gram protein

Vitamin A 13 0 IU
Thiamin 0.02 mg
Riboflavin 0.01 mg
Niacin 0.3 mg
Pantothenic acid 0.04 mg
Vitamin B6 0.02 mg
Vitamin B12 0.1 /ug
Iron 0.15 mg
Magnesium 1.15 mg
Zinc 0.5 mg
Copper 24.0 pg
Potassium 17.0 mg

Source: USDA (1982).

rate, as well as stipulating the levels of nutrients per gram of protein

(USDA 1982) shown in Table 22.6.
The nutrient requirements are designed by USDA to provide nutri¬
tional equivalence with raw ground beef containing a maximum of
30% fat and to meet the nutrient profile proposed by the Food and
Drug Administration (FDA) in their tentative final regulations for
vegetable protein products.
One of the most interesting aspects of these regulations is the ad¬
justment in the zinc level to compensate for the inhibiting effect the
phytate found in vegetable protein products has on zinc absorption.
Based on a number of studies and plant trials, fortification of pro¬
tein products to meet USDA nutrient requirements can successfully
be achieved with relative ease by utilizing a vitamin-mineral premix
designed with both USDA specifications and the product’s processing
parameters in mind.
Unfortunately, this may require a manufacturer to use different
premixes if different protein products are produced by significantly
differing processing procedures, unless the producer is willing to slightly
“overfortify” some of his products in order to enjoy the advantage of
only needing one premix.
Because of the extremely low vitamin profile of the unfortified
protein product, one or two vitamin premixes could probably be used
industrywide. The apparent stumbling block to this approach is that
there is no industry agreement on the baseline levels of vitamins present.
Some processors may prefer to add the micronutrients to the finished
textured protein via a spray of the premix suspended in vegetable oil.
 22. Vitamins, Minerals, and Amino Acids 621

In this approach, uniformity of addition is the most serious problem

and requires careful engineering and control of the spray system.
The natural mineral content of soy protein is relatively high, and it is
desirable to make a conservative calculation of these levels and adjust
the fortification addition levels accordingly. For example, soy protein
contains well over the 57 mg magnesium/100 g level proposed by the
FDA and there is no reason to add magnesium to comply with this
specification.

MINERALS

The technical problems in mineral fortification pertain more to

organoleptic deficits and bioavailability than to stability of the com¬
pounds per se or to methods of incorporation in foods. Large amounts
of calcium and magnesium salts are required to obtain nutritionally
significant levels of these minerals, and their compounds; for example,
tribasic calcium phosphate, calcium sulfate, and magnesium oxide can
produce chalky flavors, opacity, sediment, and color changes in food
products. Furthermore, little is known about the bioavailability of
these compounds to man (as opposed to laboratory animals). Their
poor solubility suggests poor absorption compared to soluble salts such
as calcium gluconate, but soluble calcium salts cannot be used in most
food v applications because of the reactivity and undesirable flavor of
calcium ions. The absorption of the more insoluble calcium salts
probably decreases as a person ages, at least for those individuals who
become hypochloric resulting in higher stomach pH.
The recommendation by the FNB that all cereal grain products be
fortified with magnesium, calcium, iron, and zinc led to increased
research on their bioavailability as it relates to fortification technology.
The American Institute of Baking investigated the bioavailability of
various zinc and magnesium compounds and their effect on bread¬
making characteristics. Zinc absorption by rats from zinc acetate,
stearate, chloride, oxide, and sulfate did not differ much from one
another. None of the zinc sources tested (2.2 mg zinc/100 g flour)
exerted any adverse effect on loaf volume or on general bread quality
(Ranhotra et al. 1977). Absorption of zinc from different dietary
sources by women was studied by two techniques, which did not agree
with each other (Swanson et al. 1983).
The absorption of magnesium from a variety of compounds did not
differ significantly from each other (Ranhotra et al. 1976A) but mag¬
nesium oxide, hydroxide, and carbonate (44.1 mg magnesium/100 g
flour) raised bread pH and adversely affected loaf volume and flavor
(Ranhotra et al. 1976B). This was partially corrected by either pH
adjustment with acetic acid or adding the magnesium salt to the dough
622 B. Borenstein and H. T. Gordon

instead of the sponge in the sponge-dough process. The relative bio-

availability of magnesium from breads fortified with minerals or soy
protein was recently reported (Winterringer and Ranhotra 1983).
Magnesium absorption from leafy vegetables was 40-60% in a recent
study (Schwartz et al. 1984).
Both iron and copper compounds catalyze oxidation of fat, vitamin
A, and vitamin C. Fortification with these minerals requires thorough
evaluation of possible organoleptic changes and effects on product
shelf life.
The iron source may not be the critical absorption factor in specific
fortification situations. Schricker and Miller (1982) compared the rela¬
tive iron availability or eight iron fortification sources and concluded
that meal composition had a greater influence than the iron form. For
the technologist, this is good news as, generally, the more available
ferrous iron forms are the most reactive and may cause a number of
technological problems such as catalyzing fat oxidation, destroying
vitamin C, and causing product discoloration. These problems are
generally avoided when ferric orthophosphate or elemental iron are
used. There is also the possibility that ferric iron will be partly con¬
verted to ferrous during storage in liquid products which, one might
argue, provides the best of both worlds.
The bioavailability of iron is an active research area. Gastrointestinal
absorption of iron depends on a number of variables, including the
oxidation state of the iron (Fe, Fe2 + , or Fe3 + ), whether the iron is
bound to organic compounds, the type of binding, the redox poten¬
tial and pH of the gastrointestinal tract, and the specific anions in the
food or foods consumed simultaneously. Rat experiments with ferric
chloride indicated that lumen pH may be the most important variable
effecting absorption of ferric salts. Within 5 min of adding an acid
solution of ferric chloride directly into tied-off intestinal segments in
vivo, the lumen pH rose above pH 4, where ferric ion is insoluble, and
mucosal iron uptake ceased. Addition of ascorbate to the same solu¬
tion prevented the cessation of iron uptake despite the pH rise (Hunger-
ford and Linder 1983).
In effect, meal components enter an equilibrium pool, which deter¬
mines the ratio of Fe2 + :Fe3+ present and the rate of iron absorption.
Factors which shift the ratio to Fe3+ and increase the formation of
ferric hydroxide decrease absorption; reducing agents and ions, which
form soluble iron chelates, increase the iron absorption rate. Ascorbic
acid is particularly effective as shown in numerous human studies
(Hallberg et al. 1982). Hallberg and Rossander (1984) reported on
several approaches to increase iron absorption from Latin American
meals (maize, rice, and black beans). Nonheme iron absorption from
 22. Vitamins, Minerals, and Amino Acids 623

the basal meal was 3.6% compared to 8.5% with meat added, 6% with
added ferrous sulfate, 9.5-10.5% with ascorbic acid (50-65 mg) added,
5% with added soy flour, and surprisingly, only 1.4% with citric acid
added. Insoluble compounds such as iron phytates and oxalates are
poorly absorbed. Meal composition greatly effects iron absorption
since so many compounds can effect iron solution chemistry. Heme
iron is well absorbed, perhaps as high as 35% in deficient subjects.

AMINO ACIDS

As a generalization, the first nutritionally limiting amino acids for

humans in cereal grains is lysine. Most studies, however, show that
cereal grains also require the addition of the second limiting amino acid
(tryptophan or threonine) to approach the protein quality of animal
protein.
Although synthetic lysine and methionine (and methionine analogs)
are widely used in animal nutrition, primarily in monogastric species,
fortification of human foods with amino acids is not widely practiced.
L-Lysine monohydrochloride is commercially available and technolog¬
ically can be added to foods and treated as if it were a moderately
stable B vitamin. Lysine reacts with reducing sugars, decreasing its
biological value.
Methionine is the first limiting amino acid in legumes and has
received particular attention in fortification of soy-based foods. Meth¬
ionine presents potentially serious odor and flavor problems in forti¬
fication projects. This problem can be minimized by the use of N-
acetyl-L-methionine (NAM), which is an approved food additive (FDA
21 CFR 172.372) for use as a source of L-methionine “to improve
significantly the biological quality of the total protein in a food con¬
taining naturally occurring primarily intact vegetable protein . . . .”
It may not be used in infant foods or foods containing added nitrates
or nitrites. It must be used in sufficient concentration to increase the
PER of the protein in the finished ready-to-eat food to the equivalent
of casein. NAM is much more stable than methionine in model food
systems conducive to Maillard browning, but is less stable under ox¬
idative conditions (Schleske and Warthesen 1982).
All of the amino acids commonly occurring in food proteins are
approved by the FDA as special dietary and nutritional additives to
improve protein quality, but may be used only under very specific
limitations. The researcher should review current regulations before
initiating any development work in fortifying with amino acids.
624 B. Borenstein and H. T. Gordon

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vitamin A. Crit. Rev. Food Technol. 5, 337—375.
Beetner, G., et al. 1974. Degradation of thiamine and riboflavin during extrusion
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Beston, G. H., and Henderson, G. A. 1974. Vitamin C stability in reconstituted
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Bissett, O. W., and Berry, R. E. 1975. Ascorbic acid retention in orange juice as
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 *>

■<

'
Protein Complementation
of Foods
Ricardo Bressani

INTRODUCTION

The concept of protein quality is one that measures the efficiency

with which a food carrier of protein and its components, the essential
amino acids and nonessential nitrogen, meet the needs of the individual
in his different physiological states. The efficiency of utilization is
determined by the amounts of essential amino acids as well as by the
proportion in which they are present in the protein, in comparison with
the specific needs at the particular physiological state of the individual.
It is not altogether surprising, therefore, to find that most foods,
with the exception of those from animal origin, are utilized at a lower
efficiency because, in their amino acid pattern, there is one or more
amino acid present in a lower amount and, in some instances, out of
proportion.
The efficiency of utilization of the amino acids is also affected by
the availability of the amino acid, even if it is present in appropriate
amounts. The availability may be conditioned by the structure of the
protein, by specific effects of processing, or by reactions between
specific components in the food and amino acids (Cheftel 1979).
The deficiencies of amino acids in protein foods, either because the
content is low or because of a low availability, may be corrected by
supplementation with the appropriate amount of the deficient amino
acid, as discussed elsewhere in this chapter. Addition of synthetic
amino acids, carried out following well-established principles, results in
increased protein quality due to the improvement of the essential
amino acid pattern in the protein that is supplemented.
The deficiency can also be overcome by supplementation with a pro¬
tein rich in the deficient amino acid or by protein complementation.
Before going any further, it may be useful to define the terminology
used, particularly with respect to “protein supplementation” and “pro¬
tein complementation.” Both terms express the same overall effect,
that is, to improve the efficiency of utilization of a poor-quality protein
with another protein. As will be shown, protein supplementation

627
628 R. Bressani

represents a section of a complementation response. A complementa¬

tion response is one in which two protein sources provide an essential
amino acid pattern approximating or equal to those found in animal
proteins. Some authors use the expression “mutual protein supple¬
mentation” to signify complementation.
This chapter attempts to discuss the principles of supplementation
and of complementation, the different types of response obtained, and
the application of the information for the preparation of better protein
quality foods and for other purposes.

PROTEiN QUALITY IMPROVEMENT

It is well known that most proteins, with the possible exception of

only a very few, have essential amino acid deficiencies. Likewise, essen¬
tial amino acid excesses may be responsible to some extent for lower
than expected protein quality values, even though this condition is not
often appreciated.
As is well documented, amino acid deficiencies can be overcome by
the addition of the appropriate amounts of the deficient amino acids,
either as crystalline compounds or as proteins, which are rich sources
of the deficient amino acids. Addition of synthetic amino acids, when
carried out following well-established principles, results in increased
protein quality due to the improvement of the essential amino acid
pattern, and due only to that, since there are no other variables involved.
The problem in this situation is that the addition of the most limiting
amino acid may induce the deficiency of the second limiting amino
acid, and so on.
On the other hand, addition of the deficient amino acids as protein
will result also in an increased protein quality, but the effect is the re¬
sult of at least two variables, improved essential amino acid pattern and
higher protein content. This situation is^ defined as protein supple¬
mentation, which, though it corrects the deficiency of the most limit¬
ing amino acid, may also increase the levels beyond the adequate balance
of other essential amino acids. In contrast, protein complementation,
another alternative to improving protein quality, is the result of a more
balanced mixture of amino acids coming from two or more protein
sources, which is used with a greater efficiency.

The Protein Supplementation Approach

The method usually utilized to improve protein quality by the pro¬
tein supplementation approach is to add to a protein with a deficient
pattern a quantity of a protein that is a good source of the deficient
amino acid. The amount of protein added should increase the level of
 (6) imd6 a6oj0Ay
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JO Jff tN O CO tO fN

i—I-1 -1-1_l_< « •

Protein quality improvement of maize from soy protein supplementation.

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630 R. Bressani

the deficient amino acid to a point where it is no longer limiting protein

quality. To establish the amount of protein to add to the deficient
protein, increasing amounts of the supplemental protein are added, and
the biological response is measured, as shown in Fig. 23.1. The biologi¬
cal response may be the usual protfein quality indices as well as bio¬
chemical changes. As seen in the figure, as the amount of supplemen¬
tary protein increases, there is an increase in biological response, which
reaches a plateau at the high level of supplemental protein (Bressani
et al. 1978). The point of optimum quality achieved may be estab¬
lished by calculating two linear regressions, one on the points around
the plateau and one using the values in the increasing section of the re¬
sponse. The point of interception of the two regressions represents the
optimum amount to add. A second approach is to calculate a quadratic
equation and, by developing the first derivative, obtain the optimum
level. With the amount of available data on the amino acid content of
foods, the level of the deficient amino acid to add is calculated and
then converted into protein or amount of supplement, this represent¬
ing a third possibility. This approach, as well as other mathematical
approaches (Hayes et al. 1978; Wadsworth et al. 1979; Traver st al.
1981; Ballesteros et al. 1983), assumes that the biological availability
of the limiting amino acid is close to, or is, 100%.
There are many examples in the literature showing the amounts of
protein supplements to add to improve the quality of proteins deficient
in specific amino acids. The examples found usually involve cereal
grains, be they wheat flour, rice, sorghum, or maize, because of their
well-known deficiency of lysine (Bressani et al. 1968) and because
they are consumed in relatively large amounts by the world popula¬
tion. Table 23.1 gives some results for maize quality improvement
(Bressani and Marenco 1963) as well as for rice (Elias et al. 1968)
and for whole wheat and wheat flour (Jarquin et al. 1966). One aspect
that is apparent is that besides the increase in protein quality, there is
also an increase in total protein content. Likewise, the levels needed
for maximum improvement are relatively small.
One aspect of interest is that the optimum amounts of supplemental
protein reported, for example, for rice, are not the same for all protein
supplements. The possible reasons for this observation are that the
level of bioavailability of the amino acid to be added as protein is not
the same for all proteins; likewise, other amino acids may be, in low or
high amounts, introducing imbalances in the supplemented food.
This, however, has no practical significance. However, a positive correla¬
tion is always found between the amount of the limiting amino acid
provided and the protein quality improvement measured (Bressani and
Marenco 1963; Jarquin et al. 1966). Similar results have been ob¬
tained by many other researchers (Sure 1948; Westerman et al. 1954;
Kik 1960; Mouron and Motter 1962).
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632 R. Bressani

Since the objective is to supply, as protein, the deficient amino acid

in another protein, the supplementation approach is also applicable to
proteins deficient in sulfur amino acids. However, the examples are not
as numerous as those to be found when lysine is the deficient amino
acid. The protein quality of common beans, navy beans, and broad
beans can be improved through supplementation with Brazil nuts
(Antunes and Markakis 1977) and with sesame (Boloorforooshan and
Markakis 1979; Al-Nouri et al. 1980); common beans can be improved
in protein quality by supplementing them with soybeans (Bressani
1981; Sgarbieri et al. 1978). The response is due to the contribution of
sulfur amino acids from soybean to common bean protein which con¬
tains lower levels of total sulfur amino acids than soybeans.
Finally, although the protein efficiency ratio (PER) has been often
used to measure the response, other biological tests give equal results
(Bressani and de Villareal, 1963). Likewise, the improvement in pro¬
tein can also be measured by nitrogen balance in children. For example,
nitrogen retention at the same intake of protein increased from 30 to
63 mg/kg/day, when lime-treated corn was supplemented with 8% soy¬
bean flour (Viteri et al. 1972; Bressani et al. 1976).
The protein quality improvement resulting from protein supplementa¬
tion is mainly due to an increase in the deficient amino acid in the
supplemented food, although the resulting protein increase may also
contribute to the response. An example on this is shown in Fig. 23.2.
In this particular study, lime-treated corn flour was supplemented with

% Nitrogen in Diet % Fish Flour in Diet

Fig. 23.2. (Left) Effect of fish flour and of corn gluten protein in the PER of lime-
treated corn. (Right) Improvement of the PER of lime-treated corn with fish flour.
 23. Protein Complementation 633

Table 23.2. Selected Amino Acid Content (mg/g) in Diets of Lime-treated Corn
Supplemented with Fish Flour or Corn Gluten

Fish flour level of supplementation (%)

FAO /
0 V 2 3 4 5 WHO*

Lysine 180 218 250 276 298 319 340

Tryptophan 33 35 37 39 40 42 65
Isoleucine 280 286 292 296 298 302 250
PER 1.61 2.16 2.36 2.44 2.51 2.38
Weight gain 25 42 74 79 112 109

Corn gluten level of supplementation (%)

0 1.4 2.7 4.1 5.4 6.8

Lysine 180 174 169 165 160 157 340

Tryptophan 33 32 31 30 30 29 65
Isoleucine 280 276 273 270 267 265 250
PER 1.61 1.38 1.34 1.32 1.27 1.22 —

Weight gain 25 27 33 32 33 37

N in diet (%) 1.26 1.38 1.50 1.62 1.75 1.87 —

a Food & Agriculture Organization/World Health Organization standard.

fish flour in one case, and with equivalent amounts of protein derived
from corn gluten in the other (Bressani and Marenco 1963). The
protein quality response for fish flour, which is rich in lysine, is different
from the response to corn gluten, which is deficient in lysine. However,
the effect of the increase in protein content due to added corn gluten is
seen in the increase in weight gain of the experimental animals. The
changes in the content of selected essential amino acids with respect to
the level of supplement added is shown in Table 23.2 for the two cases.
While there is a continuous increase in all three amino acids for the fish
flour case, there is a decrease or no change for the corn gluten case. An
additional aspect which must be considered is that the essential amino
acid pattern of the food to be supplemented and of the supplemental
protein is affected by processing, thus influencing the response ob¬
served at a fixed level of supplemental protein. This is observed in the
results shown in Table 23.3 in which various corn selections or products
were supplemented with a fixed level of different soybean protein
sources (Bressani et al. 1981). As shown, soybean flour, the least
damaged of the soybean products, gave the highest supplemental ef¬
fect. Likewise, the whole corn flours performed better than the de-
germinated corn flours.
As already indicated, the levels of supplemental protein are relative¬
ly small; however, lower levels result when the protein content of the
supplement is higher, since amino acid content on a weight basis is
higher, although on a protein basis it is usually the same. The use of
634 R. Bressani

Table 23.3. Supplementary Effect of Different Sources of Soybean Protein on the

Protein Quality Improvement of Different Sources of Corn Protein"

Corn product

Supplement (%) Degermed Cuarenteno Azotea Opaque-2

None 0.40 ± 0.08° 1.19 ± 0.06 1.02 ± 0.07 2.02 ± 0.08

Soy flour protein
2.5 1.41 ± 0.08 2.06 ± 0.06 2.16 ± 0.03 2.28 ± 0.06"
5.0 1.98 ± 0.05 2.07 ± 0.04 2.36 ± 0.07 2.12 ± 0.08
7.5 2.13 ± 0.06 2.03 ± 0.05 2.37 ± 0.08 2.12 ± 0.08
Text soy protein
2.5 1.05 ± 0.04 1.77 ± 0.06 1.87 ± 0.08 2.18 ± 0.05"
5.0 1.90 ± 0.05 1.99 ± 0.03 2.13 ± 0.06 1.99 ± 0.10
7.5 2.04 ± 0.03 2.03 ± 0.08 2.14 ± 0.09 1.95 ± 0.08
Soy protein
2.5 1.44 ± 0.07 1.98 ± 0.05 1.98 ± 0.05 2.14 ± 0.06"
5.0 1.97 ± 0.06 1.97 ± 0.04 2.12 ± 0.09 2.10 ± 0.11
7.5 2.14 ± 0.05 1.89 ± 0.06 2.14 ± 0.09 1.98 ± 0.11

Source: Bressani et al. (1981).

" Average standard error ±.

more concentrated forms of protein supplements, for example, soy

flour (50% protein) versus soy protein isolates (over 90% protein), is
recommended because of the lower amounts needed for maximum
improvement in protein quality. Such low levels will reduce possible
changes in the organoleptic and functional properties of the supple¬
mented food.

The Protein Complementation Approach

Types of Response Observed
The responses shown in Fig. 23.3 were obtained from the results of
biological trials using young growing rats (Bressani and Elias 1968;
Woodham 1978; de Groot and Van Stratum 1963); however, similar
responses can be obtained from other species, including man. The
method used to obtain the responses shown consists of mixing two pro¬
teins in different proportions in a series of diets. The nitrogen from
one of the proteins is progressively replaced by an equal amount from
the second one in such a way that all combinations have the same pro¬
tein content, usually 7-12%. Two of the diets, the extremes, are pre¬
pared exclusively from the individual protein sources. These series of
diets, properly supplemented with calories, vitamins, and minerals, are
then fed to the animal species chosen to measure the biological response.
The response may be measured by any of the techniques used to
measure protein quality, such as net protein utilization (NPU) (Bender
and Doell 1957), nitrogen balance (NB) (Bressani 1977), or PER
 23. Protein Complementation 635

% protein distribution in % protein distribution in

diet diet

Fig. 23.3. Types of response lines obtained when mixing two protein sources.

[Association of Official Agricultural Chemists (AOAC) 1972]. The

responses are also similar between animal species, such as rats, poultry
(Woodham and Clark 1977; Woodham and Deans 1977), and humans
(Kofranyi and Jekat 1967). The dotted lines in the graphs in Fig. 23.3
represent the responses to be expected if there were no complementary
effects, thus, all values above such lines may be interpreted as the re¬
sults of complementary effects.
Of the four types of responses shown, the only one representing true
complementation is type III, since there is a synergistic effect from the
two amino acid patterns mixed. Even though type II may also be a case
of protein complementation, there is no synergistic effect on protein
quality as for type III. The difference is appreciated by drawing a
vertical line from the maximum response to the dotted diagonal line
drawn between the extreme points. The height of the vertical line for
true complementation (type III) is higher than that from type II. The
condition yielding type II are obviously different from those yielding
type III.
636 R. Bressani

Type I results when the protein sources mixed have common essen¬
tial amino acid deficiencies, and to the same extent. The quality of
such mixtures is essentially the same throughout.
Type II is usually the result of the combination of two protein foods
with a common amino acid deficiency and a similar overall essential
amino acid pattern; however, one of the two proteins contains a higher
level of the deficient amino acid than the other one. This relatively
higher amount of the deficient amino acid in one of the proteins is able
to maintain, up to a certain point, the protein quality of the mixture.
From the point of view of the protein with lower amounts of the com¬
mon deficient amino acid, there is some contribution of this amino acid
from the other source, which explains the increase in quality, followed
by a plateau, as more of this second protein contributes to the total
protein of the mixture.
Type II also results from the dilution of the essential amino acid pat¬
tern of high-quality proteins, such as egg and lactalbumin (Braham and
Bressani 1969; Huang et al. 1966, Young and Villarela 1970; Bressani
et al. 1972). Type III represents true complementation, the response
showing a higher value than that observed from each individual com¬
ponent, and higher than expected from amino acid content.
Finally, in type IV responses, the individual quality values of the two
proteins are significantly different. One of the two proteins is highly
deficient in one amino acid, which is supplied by the other protein
usually having a good amino acid balance. The linear response is
probably due to either an overall better essential amino acid balance or
higher amino acid availability, or both.

Differences between Supplementation and Complementation

Figure 23.4 further clarifies the differences between protein com¬
plementation and protein supplementation. The graph on the upper
left (A) was obtained by mixing maize and soy protein in different
proportions, but keeping protein content of the diet constant.
On the other hand, the graph on the lower left (C) was obtained by
adding to a fixed level of maize increasing amounts of soy protein;
therefore, protein content of the diet increased. Graph A shows a
complementary effect of soy to maize protein, while graph C shows a
supplementary response.
The same results are shown on the right side. In this case, however,
protein quality is not represented by PER, but is expressed as utilizable
protein, a figure which includes protein concentration.
As shown, the shape of graph B is the same as graph A. This is be¬
cause only protein quality changed, since protein content remained
constant. Graph D, however, is now almost linear, which resulted when
the protein quality factor was corrected for protein content.
Other differences include the following: lower amounts of protein are
used or are added for protein supplementation than for complementation;
 23. Protein Complementation 637

total protein in a supplemented food is lower than in complemented

foods; the essential amino acid pattern in complemented foods has a
better balance than in supplemented foods (Bressani and Elias 1968;
Woodham 1978). This last point is presented in Table 23.4, which
shows selected amino acid values expressed as mg/g N when corn is
supplemented with soybean protein (Bressani and Marenco 1963;
Bressani et al. 1974). The 11% soybean supplementation level showed
the mixed protein to contain 274, 51, 285, and 184 mg/g N of lysine,
638 R. Bressani

Table 23.4. Selected Amino Acid Content (mg/g N) in Diets of Lime-treated Corn
Supplemented with Soybean Flour

FAO /
0 1 3 7 9 1 WHO
v 5

Lysine 180 194 217 236 251 264 274 340

Tryptophan 33 36 40 43 46 48 51 65
Isoleucine 280 280 281 282 283 284 285 250
T.S.A." 176 177 179 181 182 183 184 220
PER 0.82 1.19 1.54 1.96 2.09 2.37 2.42 —
Weight gain 12 22 36 64 79 113 125

Pi :P2 100:0 80:20 70:30 60:40 50:50 40:60 20:80 0:100

Lysine 180 224 245 266 310 352 396 340

Tryptophan 38 48 52 57 67 76 86 65
Isoleucine 280 336 250
T.S.A. 198 197 197 197 196 196 195 220

PER 1.50 2.80

a T.S.A., total sulfur amino acids.

tryptophan, isoleucine, and total sulfur amino acids. On the other

hand, the 50:50 protein mixture of soy and corn contained more of the
same amino acids and closer to the levels to the Food and Agriculture
Organization/World Health Organization (FAO/WHO) reference pattern
(FAO/WHO 1973).

MIXTURES OF PROTEINS GIVING

MAXIMUM PROTEIN QUALITY
Cereal Grains and Food Legumes
The first example represents the results obtained when mixing nor¬
mal maize with black beans, as shown in Fig. 23.5. Results for opaque-2
maize (Mertz et al. 1964) and black beans are also shown for compara¬
tive purposes. The response observed for opaque-2 maize and black
beans is different from that resulting from normal maize and black
beans (Bressani et al. 1962; Bressani and Elias 1969).
As shown, the isonitrogenous replacement of black bean nitrogen by
opaque-2 maize nitrogen resulted in a constant increase up to the 50:50
protein distribution level, with no further change when the nitrogen of
the diet was provided more and more from opaque-2 maize. On the
other hand, the replacement of bean nitrogen by normal maize nitro¬
gen resulted in a maximum response at the 50:50 protein distribution
level; however, as more nitrogen was derived from maize, a lower re¬
sponse was measured.
The reason for both curves is to be found in the deficient amino
acids in the three protein sources under consideration. Bean protein is
 23. Protein Complementation 639

Black beans 100 80 60 40 20 0

Maize 0 20 40 60 80 100

% protein distribution in diet

Lys Try T.S.A.A.

mg/g N

Normal maize 180 38 197

Opaque-2 maize 306 94 234
Black bean 464 58 125

Fig. 23.5. Protein efficiency ratio of combinations of normal or opaque-2 maize

and black beans.

deficient in methionine and, to a lower extent, in tryptophan, although

it is a relatively good source of lysine (Tobin and Carpenter 1978;
Jansen 1973).
Normal maize is deficient in lysine and tryptophan and adequate in
methionine. These differences may explain the responses found. On
the left side of the maximum point, methionine is more deficient; on
the right side, lysine and tryptophan form the bean-normal maize
curve. The same is true for the bean-opaque-2 maize, with the excep¬
tion that to the right of the maximum point lysine and methionine are
deficient, to the left, only methionine is deficient.
640 R. Bressani

Table 23.5. Amino Acid Supplementation of Maize and Beans, and Optimum Pro¬
tein Quality of Maize-Bean Diets

Protein ratio, Average weight

maize:black beans Amino acid added (%) gain (g) PER

100:0 None 29 1.05

Lysine, tryptophan, isoleucine 74 2.47
50:50 None 51 2.10
Methionine, tryptophan 59 2.03
Methionine, lysine 75 2.42
0:100 None -3
Methionine, tryptophan,
leucine 23 1.04

Evidence for this is shown in Table 23.5. The 50:50, bean-normal

maize mixture responded to the addition of lysine and total sulfur
amino acids, in contrast to the 100% maize diet, which responded to
lysine and tryptophan. This last amino acid is not deficient in the
50:50 mixture, since its addition with methionine resulted in no change
in PER.
The last two lines show the effect of methionine, tryptophan, and
leucine on the 100% bean protein diet. Although three amino acids
were added, other results suggest that methionine alone would cause
the same, if not higher, increase in protein quality (Bressani et al. 1962).
The proteins of soybean flour and of maize, whether normal or
opaque-2, have complementary amino acid patterns, as shown in Fig.
23.6. The results show that soybean-normal maize and soybean-
opaque-2 maize have complementary patterns when they are mixed in a
protein ratio of 60 soy to 40 maize. The difference between the two is
in weight gain, but the maximum value for PER was the same (Bressani
and Elias 1969; Bressani and Elias 1967).
Examination of the amino acid patterns of both sets show the largest
difference to be in lysine, which is found in greater concentrations in
the soy-opaque-2 maize combination. Further comparison shows that
the concentration of sulfur amino acids and of threonine is very similar
in both sets.
In the soyflour-opaque-2 maize system the limiting amino acids
are methionine, threonine, and lysine, as shown in Table 23.6. The
soybean-opaque-2 maize combination responded to the addition of
methionine and to threonine in the presence of the first. However,
the soy bean-normal maize responded to methionine, threonine, and
lysine addition. It should be indicated that most proteins responded to
amino acid supplementation when fed at low levels. For example, the
normal maize-soybean mixtures, 60:40 at the 10% protein level in the
diet responded to methionine and the mixture methionine-threonine
and lysine. These amino acids were without effect when the protein
 23. Protein Complementation 641

3.0-

2.8-

2.6-

2.4-

2.2-

2.0-

1.8-

1.6-

1.4-

1.2- —1

Maize 100 80 60 40 20 0
0 100
Soybean
P 40 60 80

% protein distribution in diet

Lys Try T.S.A.A.

mg/g N

Normal maize 180 38 197

Opaque-2 maize 306 94 234
Soybean flour 395 86 195

Fig. 23.6. Protein efficiency ratio of combination of normal or opaque-2 maize

and soybean flour.

Table 23.6. Effect of Amino Acid Supplementation of Soybean-Opaque-2 Maize

and of Soybean-Normal Maize 60:40 Protein Combination

Maize Amino acid (% added) PER

Opaque-2 None 2.30

0.20 DL-Methionine 2.65
0.20 DL-Methionine + 0.20 DL-threonine 2.95
0.20 DL-Methionine + 0.20 DL-threonine + 0.20
L-lysine HC1 2.66
Normal None 2.23
0.20 DL-Methionine 2.81
0.20 DL-Methionine + 0.20 DL-threonine 2.85
0.20 DL-Methionine + 0.20 DL-threonine + 0.20
L-lysine HC1 3.06
Casein — 2.65

Source: Bressani and Elias (1969).

642 R. Bressani

Rice 100 80 60 40 20 0
Block boon 0 20 40 60 80 100 Block bean 0 20 40 60 80 100
% protein distribution in diet

Lys Met Thr

mg/g N

Rice 235 188 233

Black beans 464 125 271

Fig. 23.7. Protein complementation between rice and cooked black beans.

in the diet was increased to about 18%. The lack of effect of the amino
acids is to be expected, because of the well-established effect of protein
level on PER (Bressani and Elias 1967, Bressani and Elias 1969).
Results of studies with rice and cooked black beans (Bressani and
Valiente 1962; Vargas et al. 1982) are given in Fig. 23.7. The study
was carried out with diets containing 6.2% protein, because of the low
levels of this nutrient in rice. At this low level of dietary protein, rats
fed the 100% black bean diet did not gain weight, as shown on the
graph at the right.
From the protein quality point of view, the best rice-bean protein
combination was 80% from rice and 20% from beans. The increase
in protein quality of the 100% rice diet to the 80% rice was due to the
lysine and threonine contribution of 20% beans, while rice provided
beans with methionine.
This can be seen from the amino acid values of the two proteins
studied, also shown in the lower section of the graph. The weight
gained by the animals on each diet followed PER, as can be seen on the
graph to the right.
The graph also shows the effects on weight gain when some of the
diets are supplemented with the limiting amino acids. A significant
response was obtained in each case. Of interest is the fact that bean
 23. Protein Complementation 643

protein supplemented with methionine and valine did not reach the
levels obtained with rice supplemented with lysine and threonine.
This was interpreted on the basis of the lower protein digestibility
of bean protein. These results also show that even though a mixture of
rice and beans has a protein qpality higher than each component alone,
the individual components, as well as any of the mixtures, may be im¬
proved by amino acid supplementation. Similar findings have been
reported by other workers, with combinations of cereal grains and food
legumes, such as Vicia faba and various cereal grains (Bressani 1982);
mung bean and rice Asian Vegetable Research Development Center
(1976); common beans, maize, and sorghum (Cabezas et al. 1982;
Sirinit et al. 1965); and cowpeas and maize (Sirinit et al. 1965). In all
these examples the mixture giving maximum protein-quality response
is around 70 parts cereal grain and 30 parts food legume, with a few
exceptions. Similarly, the amino acid deficiencies at the maximum
point have also been reported to be as those indicated above (Sirinit
et al. 1965; Sarway et al. 1975).

Oilseed Proteins and Other Vegetable Sources

Results on combinations of torula yeast with sesame flour are
shown in Fig. 28.8. Torula yeast protein has been shown to be a good
source of lysine, containing higher levels of this amino acid than sesame
flour, as indicated in the figure (Elias and Bressani 1970; Bressani 1968).
With respect to total sulfur amino acids, sesame flour contains (Evans
and Bandemer 1967) twice as much as torula yeast. Therefore, when
these two proteins combine, they result in mixtures with higher quality
than either component.
The increase in protein quality of torula yeast by sesame flour at
the optimum level of 60:40 was equivalent to 108%, and the increase in
the protein quality of sesame flour by torula yeast at the same point
was on the order to 54%. Obviously, these factors are due to the re¬
spective contributions of the limiting amino acids by the two proteins to
each other. Similar results have been reported for common beans and
sesame by Boloorforooshan and Markakis (1979) and by Akpapunam
and Markakis (1981). As indicated before, the sulfur amino acid
deficiency in common beans is met by the relative abundance of this
amino acid in sesame. On the other hand, the relative deficiency of
lysine is met by the high amounts present in common beans.
Three legume grains of different protein quality were combined
individually with cottonseed flour (Elias and Bressani 1971). The
legume grains were Vigna sinensis (cowpea) and pigeon pea, deficient in
sulfur amino acids and of a high protein digestibility; and Phaseolus
vulgaris (black bean), deficient in total sulfur amino acids and of a
relatively low protein digestibility. However, all are sources of lysine,
an amino acid deficient in cottonseed protein.
644 R. Bressani

Torulo yeast 100 80 60 40 20 0

Sesame flour 0 20 40 60 80 100
% protein distribution in diet

Lys T.S.A.A. Thr

mg/g N

Torulo yeast 493 153 315

Sesame flour 160 311 194

Fig. 23.8. Protein quality of mixtures of torula yeast and sesame flour

This protein also contains higher levels of tryptophan and slightly

higher levels of sulfur amino acids than the legume grain proteins. The
protein quality of these mixtures is shown in Fig. 23.9. Optimum mix¬
tures with cowpea and cottonseed tpok place at the 40:60 protein
ratio. The same was also true for pigeon pea and cottonseed, although
at a lower level of quality.
Finally, the black bean-cottonseed flour mixture giving optimum
values was the 30:70 protein mixture. In all cases, the tendency is to
increase levels of legume grain protein to cottonseed flour, suggesting
the greater importance of the lysine contribution of the legume grains
in contrast to the methionine contribution of cottonseed.

Other Studies

Following the same procedure described, other investigators have

also found optimum mixtures between two proteins, using rats as ex¬
perimental animals (de Groot and Van Stratum 1963; Dutra de Oliveira
and De Souza 1972). These results are summarized in Table 23.7. The
optimum mixtures correspond closely to those already shown. Of
 23. Protein Complementation 645

Legume groin 100 80 60 40 20 0

Cottonseed flour 0 20 40 60 80 100
% protein distribution in diet

Lys Try S.A.A.

mg/g N

Cowpeo 407 60 177

Pigeon Peo 451 34 161
Block Beon 464 58 125
Cottonseed 268 74 188

Fig. 23.9. Protein quality of combination of cowpea, pigeon peas, and black
beans with cottonseed flour.

Table 23.7. Protein Quality of Optimum Combinations of Food Proteins

Optimum Protein
Component mixture (%) quality Reference

Rice:beans 40:60 61 NPU de Groot and Van Stratum (1963).

Oats: beans 60:40 61 NPU
Wheat: beans 50:50 62 NPU
Wheat gluten:beans 60:40 58 NPU
Brown bread:beans 60:40 63 NPU
White bread:beans 60:40 63 NPU
Egg:beans 50:50 81 NPU
Sesame :peas 40:60 66 NPU
Maize:milk 50:50 2.8 PER Dutra de Oliveira and
Opaque-2:milk 66:34 2.74 PER De Souza (1972).
646 R. Bressani

interest are the normal maize-milk and opaque-2 mixture, suggesting

the economy of food proteins through improved quality. This case is
similar to the normal or opaque-2 maize and soybean flour described
earlier. There are many other studies based on the principles described.
Almquist and Grau (1944) described systems between sesame and soy¬
beans, while various composite protein foods based on ground nuts,
soybean, and sesame flour were studied by Krishnamurthy et al. (1960).
Other studies reported include combinations between wheat milling by¬
products and vegetable protein concentrates (Elias and Bressani 1973)
and mixtures of food legumes (Bressani et al. 1977A). Other have been
reviewed by Bressani and Elias (1968), Bressani (1974), Woodham
(1978), and de Groot and Van Stratum (1963).

Human Studies
Studies with human subjects, following the same methodology de¬
scribed for rats, are very few, for obvious reasons. However, the results
of Kofranyi and Jekat (1967) are summarized in Table 23.8.
In these studies, the authors indicate that the mixtures of the two
foods shown in the middle column gave what they called a “balance
minimum” when their intake in grams of protein per kilogram body
weight was according to the figures shown in the third column. This
value is equal to the minimum protein requirement, as suggested by
the authors of the study. They define balance minimum as the lower
protein intake giving nitrogen equilibrium. It follows, therefore, that
the higher the protein quality or biological value of the protein, the
lower will be the balance minimum.
The average balance minimum for whole egg was 0.5 g protein/kg
body weight. The values shown in the last column, therefore, have

Table 23.8. Minimum Requirement of Protein from Optimum Com¬

binations of Food Proteins

Optimum Minimum protein requirement

Components mixture (%) (g/kg)

Egg:beans 30:70 0.45

Egg:soybean 60:40 0.41
Egg:corn 88:12 0.44
Egg:potato 35:65 0.37
Egg:rice 62:38 0.46
Egg: wheat 72:24 0.43
Milk: wheat 75:25 0.47
Egg 100 0.50

Source: Kofranyi and Jekat (1967).

 23. Protein Complementation 647

better protein than egg. This is probably due to a better overall essential
amino acid balance in the mixtures than in egg, particularly for the egg-
potato mixture studied. The results also show that for cereal grains,
less egg protein is needed for cereals of better protein quality, which, in
descending order, are rice, wheat, and maize.
These same authors reported an optimum protein quality mixture of
55% bean to 45% maize on a protein basis, a value close to those report¬
ed earlier in this paper.
Other results in humans are those reported by Viteri et al. (1981),
who allowed children to feed freely on cooked maize and cooked beans.
The results of their study confirmed the findings in rats (Bressani et al.
1962), as well as those of Kofranyi et al. (1967).
Although the results presented have been interpreted in terms of the
limiting amino acids in the proteins being studied and their mutual
complementation, the results obtained in some cases are higher than
expected, suggesting that other factors are influencing the results. One
such factor is overall amino acid balance (Bressani and Elias 1968;
Woodham 1978). It is, however, very difficult to estimate how much
of the improvement is due to this factor, since the concomitant correc¬
tion of the individual amino acid deficiencies is also changing amino
acid balance. Even though a higher protein quality is obtained, the
mixture is still deficient in some amino acids, as shown.
Figure 28.10 is presented to indicate the changes taking place, which
permit some understanding of the results. Line A represents the

Fig. 23.10. Protein quality of mixtures of normal maize and soybean protein.
648 R. Bressani

increase in quality of protein P1 due to the addition of protein P .

Similarly, line B represents the converse.
Line E may be considered as the theoretical protein quality value of
the various mixtures; therefore, the actual increase in protein quality is
represented by line C for the optimum mixtures and by line D for one
of the various other mixtures, in this case the 70:30 mixture. Point X
should have an amino acid pattern similar to point Y; it does not, how¬
ever, except in the limiting amino acids of protein P2.
From these considerations, it appears that the optimum mixture
becomes limiting in those amino acids that do not change between
different amounts of the component’s proteins. This point was shown
previously.
The second point, which would be desirable, is to be able to predict
the protein quality of the optimum mixture. The optimum mixture
may be calculated from the individual essential amino acid patterns in
comparison with a reference pattern to be discussed.

AMINO ACID PATTERNS RESULTING FROM

OPTIMUM PROTEIN QUALITY MIXTURES

The essential amino acid pattern of the optimum mixtures discussed

in this chapter from animal and human studies was calculated. These
values are shown in Table 23.9, where amino acids are expressed as
milligrams per gram N.

Table 23.9. Essential Amino Acid (E.A.A.) Patterns (mg/g N)fl

Ttats

PER PER Overall

Amino acid 2.0-2.4 2.6-2.9 average Required Human

Lysine 322 342 335 351 378

Tryptophan 63 78 73 58 87
Total sulfur-containing
amino acids 176 205 195 234 257
Threonine 234 247 243 195 280
Isoleucine 303 318 313 195 370
Leucine 510 508 508 312 525
Phenylalanine 340 316 324 351 335
Valine 336 337 337 273 412
Arginine 436 424 428 78 362
Histidine 160 163 162 117 143

Total E.A.A. 2883 2938 2919 2164 3151

a Calculated from mixture giving maximum protein quality values.

 23. Protein Complementation 649

The table also shows the rat requirements and the amino acid
patterns calculated from the human studies. The results with rats
were divided into two groups, those having a PER value between
2.0 and 2.4 and between 2.6 and 2.9, as well as the overall aver¬
age. Comparing the amino > acid patterns of the optimum mixtures
with the pattern required by the young rat, a very high correlation
becomes evident, with slightly lower values in lysine and sulfur-
containing amino acids in the optimum protein mixtures, which may
explain the positive effects upon supplementation with these amino
acids.
These mixtures show high values for leucine, arginine, and possibly
others, which are probably due to the high levels of these amino acids
in the vegetable proteins used. For practical applications it is suggested
that the essential pattern from the mixtures be used as a reference
pattern.
This reference pattern guarantees a PER value above 2.5, if the
pattern under the 2.6-2.9 range is used. The essential amino acid
pattern of the mixtures With a PER value above 2.6 is practically the
same as that suggested by the FAO/WHO in 1973.
Finally, one interesting aspect of this analysis is the fact that the
essential amino acid pattern of the optimum mixtures resulting from
human studies is very similar, although, in general, slightly higher than
the experimentally derived pattern from the rat studies. This was
interpreted to mean that the rat pattern can be used to predict the pro¬
tein quality of foods to be used in human nutrition. Total essential
amino acid content also was similar between rat and human work.
The theoretical protein quality can then be calculated from the in¬
dividual protein quality values of the two components according to
the degree in which they are combined. Mathematical calculations to
accomplish this by linear programming have been attempted. Recently,
the determination of the combination of specific sets of ingredients,
giving optimum quality, has been estimated using computer programs
such as a flexible simplex pattern search optimization scheme (Hayes
et al. 1978), an indirect approach employing linear programming
(Wadsworth et al. 1979), and a computer based graphical method
(Traver et al. 1981). Least-cost formulations using linear programming
were used by Ballesteros et al. (1984) for the elaboration of prod¬
ucts based on cereals and legumes. The data base needed for these
programs includes the chemical composition of the ingredients and
their amino acid profiles. The methods also introduce a number of
constraints, such as protein content, minimum level of fat, total per¬
centage of ingredients equal to 100, cost, chemical score, and others.
These methods are valuable in many respects since they decrease the
time and cost in product formulation. Their limitation, however, is
that of amino acid bioavailability, which is not taken into consideration.
650 R. Bressani

This problem could be improved by correcting amino acid content by a

digestibility factor, assuming equal bioavailability for all amino acids.
Finally, even with this correction, it would be required to subject such
mathematically formulated blends to biological testing in experimental
animals or, better, with human subjects for confirmation of the results
obtained. None of these studies conducted biological tests and used
chemical score as the evaluation method.

APPLICATIONS
General Considerations
Until now in this chapter, the emphasis on supplementation and/or
complementation was mainly from the nutritional point of view. How¬
ever, the successful implementation of the potential of supplementa¬
tion/complementation to increase and improve the world food supply
will depend also on paying the necessary attention to the eating quality
of the supplemented or complemented foods, since eating quality is the
primary criterion for acceptance.
Although the increase in nutritional quality of protein through sup¬
plementation and complementation has been very well demonstrated,
the number of cases in actual use is relatively small, mainly because
only recently is increased attention being given to the organoleptic
and functional properties of the nutritionally improved food, such as
flavor, texture, and color. This implies that it will be necessary to
establish the role and interaction of the chemical components in the
supplement or in the complement being added to the basic food, and
how these chemical components are affected by the standard process
usually applied to the basic ingredient to make specific foods as we
have known them. Therefore, the challenge is to retain the nutri¬
tional quality at the same cost with organoleptic and functional prop¬
erties that will ensure eating quality.

Protein Supplementation
The findings of the studies carried out on protein supplementation
have significant nutritional implications if such findings were imple¬
mented into practical applications, particularly in developing countries.
In these, where the production and availability of animal food proteins
is inefficient and low, and where there is a malnutrition problem, the
use of the information of protein supplementation implies better
quality protein more efficiently utilized, as well as small increases in
total protein intake. If such increased quality and quantity of protein
were to be supplemented with other nutrients, the overall utilization
would, of course, be greater.
 23. Protein Complementation 651

The main applications have been in the protein supplementation of

cereal grain food products. Among these, wheat flour supplemented
with soy flour has yielded bread with higher protein quality (Betschart
1978; Yanez et al. 1982). The same kind of approach has been used
for protein-supplemented tortillas, with soy protein products (Bressani
et al. 1978), including whole soybeans (Del Valle et al. 1976), to be
manufactured industrially or at the home level. Similar applications
have been indicated for arepa flour (Salazar de Buckle et al. 1972;
Chavez 1972) and a variety of other types of bread and supplemental
proteins. Examples include sweet lupine (El-Dash and Sgarbieri 1980),
common beans (Sathe et al. 1981), single-cell protein (Volpe and
Zabik 1981), various food legumes (Morad et al. 1980) and cottonseed
flour (El-Minyawi and Zabik 1981), fish protein concentrate (Arafah
et al. 1980), and germinated and ungerminated faba beans (Finney
et al. 1980) for Baladi bread.
A second area of application of supplementation is associated with
the preparation of composite flours (Dendy et al. 1975; McWatters
1980; Nielsen et al. 1980; Finney et al. 1982; Jeffers et al. 1979;
McConnell et al. 1974; Okaka and Potter 1977) to be used in bakery
and pasta products, in increasing demand among the population.
Governments are forced to increase their purchase of wheat, since most
of these countries do not produce this cereal grain. As a measure to
extend the wheat supplies, programs designed to extend wheat flour
have.been proposed and in some cases implemented. The products
used include cassava flour and other cereal grain flours. The inclusion
of cassava flour, for instance, reduces the protein level of the product
as well as its quality. To bring these back to the original value, or even
to improve it, protein sources, mainly soy flour, have been used.
Many of the experimental results available have not been implement¬
ed for various reasons. One is that the functional properties or organ¬
oleptic characteristics have not been critically considered. A second
reason is the lack of nationally produced supplements with the required
specifications, as well as economic applications. Finally, there has
been reluctance on the part of manufacturers to accept such technolo¬
gies and lack of interest by governments to support such programs.

Protein Complementation
The results of protein complementation have had a number of
applications. One such application is in the formulation of “high
protein quality food mixtures” used in nutrition programs in many
developing countries, or produced as commercial products. Examples
are Incaparina (Bressani and Elias 1968), Maisoy (Bressani 1981), and
others (Hayes et al. 1978; Wadsworth et al. 1979; Traver et al. 1981;
Terrel et al. 1981; Guerra et al. 1981; Reber et al. 1983; Cheryan et
al. 1979). These new products, based on a cereal grain and protein-
652 R. Bressani

rich flours from oilseeds or food legumes, have been formulated to con¬
tain variable amounts of protein and have been presented either raw or
processed. If mixtures of high-protein flours are complemented, for
example soy and corn gluten, these may be texturized and used as
regular soy-textured products. These' mixtures would be high in protein
content, thus they could be used to formulate other foods based on
starchy food flours, such as cassava, plantain, or banana (Dendy et al.
1975; Bressani et al. 1977B).
A second application of interest is associated with agricultural
production and grain storage programs. For example, the combination
of corn and beans in a 70:30 weight ratio is nutritionally superior to
just corn or beans. Agricultural policies should, therefore, attempt to
induce a production of the two staples in a 2.8:1 ratio. Since yield is
different for the two, more land should be used for beans. This, of
course, does not imply that the land for corn should be reduced, since
the cereal grain has more applications, it only indicates that for human
use and for purposes of storage the above ratio should be maintained
(Bressani 1979).
Other types of agricultural programs could benefit from the sig¬
nificance of findings such as the one above. The system may be very
useful in genetic programs to increase the nutritional value of food
crops. For example, bean cultivars should be selected for higher
methionine content but not at the expense of lysine, the amino acid
mainly responsible for the significant increase in the quality of corn and
beans. These could be screened biologically on the basis of the optimum
protein quality found, which may be more discriminative than feeding
the protein source alone (Vargas et al. 1982; Bressani 1982).
An additional application of protein complementation is assoc¬
iated with national food and nutrition programs, which distribute basic
staples and other foods among the rufal and poor populations. The
food distributed should be based on the amounts giving the higher
nutritional-quality response. These programs have a number of draw¬
backs; however, better nutrition is implied if the distributed foods are
in th correct weight ratio, and they would be more successful if they
were accompanied by nutrition education programs (Araya 1981).
Finally, protein complementation is useful in the preparation of
simulated foods of either animal or vegetable origin. For example,
common beans and soybeans can be processed in an equal weight
ratio to simulate common beans in flavor and texture but with im¬
proved chemical composition, such as higher oil content and improved
quality. Similar approaches can be used for common beans and cow-
peas. The examples for animal-simulated foods are quite extensive
and more will be available in the future. The potential of protein sup¬
plementation and/or complementation to increase, extend, and im¬
prove the world food supply is great, particularly if the problem is con¬
sidered from the economic, organoleptic, and nutritional point of view.
 23. Protein Complementation 653

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 V

'

'

.4
 24
f

Improving the Nutritional

Quality of Vegetables
through Plant Breeding
H. C. Bittenbender
John F. Kelly

Our understanding of the genetic and environmental factors control¬

ling nutrient levels in vegetables is incomplete. Several factors contribute
to this situation. First, the number of vegetable crops greatly exceeds
the number of staple grain crops. The number of vitamins and minerals
warranting consideration is large compared to the other nutrients;
starch, oil, sugar, and protein. The instrumentation and methodology
necessary for rapid, precise, and inexpensive analysis are lacking for
many nutrients. Strong environmental and genetic interactions control
nutrient levels in most vegetables (Mengel 1979). Lastly, there has not
been a strong demand by farmers, consumers, or governments to in¬
clude a thorough understanding of the control of nutritive content of
vegetables among major agricultural research priorities. Kelly (1975)
estimates that worldwide, less than 10 scientist-years were, at that time,
devoted to understanding the basic effects of genetics and environment
on nutrients in vegetables.
Several recent reviews indicate that past genetic efforts to improve nu¬
tritional content of crops have been primarily to increase the protein con¬
tent of wheat, maize, beans, and, to a lesser extent, potatoes (Andryush¬
chenko 1981; Baker 1975; Gableman and Peters 1979; Kelly and Rhodes
1975; Meiners and Litzenberger 1973; Silano et al. 1982; Tomes 1972;
Williams 1979). Most reviews discuss few nutrients, using a few crops as
examples, such as /3-carotene in carrot or tomato (Baker 1975) or ascorbic
acid in potato or tomato (Gableman and Peters 1979), or antinutritive
compounds such as protease inhibitors, tannins, and toxins (Kehr 1973;
Silano et al. 1982).
The current efforts to improve vitamin and protein quantity and
quality and to reduce antinutritional factors over a wide range of
vegetable crops are discussed.

659
660 H. C. Bittenbender and J. F. Kelly

COMMON BEAN: Phaseolus vulgaris

The common bean is the major legume consumed in the New World.
It is grown primarily as a grain legume in Central and South America
and as a grain and pod legume in the United States and Canada. Com¬
pared to the less than 20 legume species frequently consumed by
humans, its protein content is about midrange. Methionine, cystine,
and tryptophan, the most commonly limiting amino acids, have a wide
range of genetic variation (Bressani and Elias 1980). Bean protein
digestibility is limited by hemagglutinins, trypsin inhibitors, protease-
resistant proteins, and tannins, which reduce protein digestibility by
44_84% (Griffiths 1979; Silano et al. 1982).
In the 1960s, interest in protein content of legumes and cereals was
enhanced by the public concern about overpopulation and starvation in
less developed countries. These problems were frequently interpreted
as protein deficiency rather than as a complex socioeconomic problem
including protein and calorie malnutrition. Until the mid-1970s,
breeding efforts had concentrated on increasing the yield of legumes
first and protein content second. Afterward, attention turned to amino
acid quality of proteins (Hulse et al. 1977; Meiners and Litzenberger
1973). Today, the focus is manipulation of individual proteins and
their polypeptides (Barton et al. 1983).
Scientists at the University of Wisconsin have been active in develop¬
ing an understanding of the genetics of and breeding strategies for bean
protein. Bliss (1980) lists those factors affecting legumes as protein
sources in general, and beans, in particular, as (1) the quantity of
protein per seed, (2) the quality of the protein, (3) the biological
activity of certain proteins (e.g., trypsin inhibitors and hemagglutinins),
(4) inhibition due to protein complexes (e.g., tannins), and (5) poor
protein digestibility.
As with most legumes and cereal crops, percentage of protein con¬
tent is negatively correlated with yield (Silano et al. 1982). However,
this negative relationship can be avoided by reducing the selection
pressure for protein and selecting for protein within a yield potential or
simultaneously with yield [Adams 1973, Centro Internacional de
Agricultura Tropical (CIAT) 1981,1983, Parraga et al. 1982]. Dickson
and Hackler (1973) noted that the maternal genotype, and not the
maternal cytoplasm, controls protein content. The backcross and
recurrent selection methods are employed with high rates of heritabil-
ity (56%) and rapid advance from 21.9 to 24.6% protein, dry-weight
basis, in two cycles (Poligano 1982, Sullivan 1982).
The major shift from protein content to protein quality, specifically
methionine content, was initiated by Kelly (1971) using a Streptococcus
zymogenes microbiological assay. He demonstrated that a wide range
of available methionine, from less than 50 to more than 200% of
‘Sanilac,’ a standard cultivar, existed among 3600 bean lines. The
 24. Plant Breeding 661

environmental effect was small compared to the genetic variation. Adams

(1973) proposed a three-gene model to explain the range of methionine
and protein from Kelly’s work involving three proteins of varying
methionine content present at high or low levels. Kelly later suggested
simultaneous screening for available methionine and cystine using a
Leuconostoc mesenteroides microbiological assay and the importance
of maximum biological value of bean protein rather than amino acid or
protein content alone (Kelly and Rhodes 1975, Kelly 1973). Wood et
al. (1978) reported a high positive association (r = .86) between available
methionine per gram of protein (AM/P) and protein efficiency ratio
(PER) in rats, and higher heritability for AM/P compared to total
methionine or methionine per gram of protein. However, the relation¬
ship was not consistent (Wood et al. 1979).
The successful improvement of maize protein quality through the
incorporation of the opaque-2 gene has stimulated interest in specific
bean proteins. University of Wisconsin scientists found that variation in a
distinct globulin-1 fraction protein (G-l), also called phaseolin, in different
cultivars can be used to clafssify cultivars into three groups (Brown et al.
1980). Using gel electrophoresis, 14 phaseolin protein subunit bands have
been identified. ‘Tendergreen’ and ‘Sanilac’ groups share no common sub¬
units, while the ‘Contender’ group is intermediate (Brown etal. 1981). A
series of crosses was made to further clarify the inheritance of the phaseo¬
lin subunit and globulin-2-albumin protein subunits using these cultivars.
No recombinant electrophoretic phenotypes were noted for phaseolin or
globulin-2-albumin groups (Brown et al. 1981). With use of a wheat
RNA translation system, cultivar subunit banding patterns were shown to
be different, according to the structural coding genes for the protein, and
not regulator genes alone (Buchbinder et al. 1979). In a six-line diallel,
the broad-sense heritability of phaseolin was 37-95% (Mutschler and
Bliss 1981). They compared the accumulation of phaseolin between highl¬
and low-phaseolin-accumulating lines. Phaseolin accumulation com¬
menced earlier, proceeded at a higher rate, and ceased later in the high-
phaseolin lines (Mutschler et al. 1980). Recent work with phaseolin
indicates that the level is simply inherited, low-phaseolin percentage
being controlled by a single dominant gene (Romero-Andreas and Bliss
1982).
Hall et al. (1980) suggest that bean globulin is suitable for a major
effort to direct genomic sequences, the end product being the altera¬
tion of the amino acid composition. This may not increase the yield of
high-quality protein, as change in amino acid sequence also affects
protein secondary structure and stability, mRNA stability and meta¬
bolism, and may induce a metabolic imbalance through high demand on
a specific amino acid pool (Barton and Brill 1983).
Mutation breeding to increase protein and methionine content has
been used in Soviet and Indian breeding programs with some success
(Vardanyan and Vardanyan 1980; Prasad and Prasad 1981).
662 H. C. Bittenbender and J. F. Kelly

Improvement of the high-quality albumin proteins is complicated by

the association of hemagglutinin (lectin) activity with various globulin-
2-albumin protein fractions. Brown et al. (1982) separated bean cul-
tivars into eight groups, based on electrophoretic protein/subunit
bands, and their agglutinating activity. They list the phaseolin and
globulin-2-albumin types and agglutination ratios of more than 107
cultivars. This is in contrast to earlier work suggesting that hemag¬
glutinin activity was under the control of a single gene (Pusztai et al.
1979). Cultivars lacking hemagglutinins are available; moreover, the
hemagglutinins are heat labile, their activity is destroyed during cooking.
High-yielding cultivars generally have high trypsin inhibitors activity
through lack of selection for low levels, but again, cooking denatures
the enzyme (Cury et al. 1980).
Beans naturally have very low levels (2 mg/100 g dry weight or less)
of cyanogenic glycosides (Liener 1973A). Wild types and local cultivars
of P. lunatus, lima beans have fairly high levels of cyanogenic glycosides
(210-300 mg/100 g). Breeding programs in the United States and
Europe have developed very low hydrogen cyanide (HCN)-producing
cultivars (less than 20 mg/100 g), generally associated with the white
seed types. High HCN content in lima beans from an F2 population
ranged from 8 to 240 mg/100 g, indicating dominance for high cyanide
and polygenic inheritance (Vanderborght, 1979).

PEA: Pi sum sativum

The pea is consumed both as fresh and grain legume in the Western
countries and as a grain legume throughout the parts of Asia exper¬
iencing cool seasons. As with most legumes, yield and protein are
negatively correlated. Blixt (1978) studied 20 characters in 2000 lines
of the Swedish pea collection. However, among those lines carrying
the gene for short internodes, he reported a positive association between
yield and protein content (Blixt 1979). Other associated characters
may hold promise for selecting for high-protein content. O. P. Singh
et ol. (1980) tried to bridge this negative association with yield by
selecting for seed size, which correlates positively with both yield and
protein. A Polish study indicates that the inheritance of crude protein
content can show dominance for low protein in one cross and additive
effects in another. This suggests the need to look more closely at
specific proteins (Swiecicki et al. 1981).
Bajaj’s (1973) classic work with rats measured the PER levels of
various cultivars associated with a range of albumin contents. It clearly
shows a high positive correlation between PER and albumin content
and a low correlation of PER with N or globulin contents. Further¬
more, he found that albumin has twice the concentration of sulfur
 24. Plant Breeding 663

amino acids as globulins. Schroeder (1982), on the other hand, was

unable to predict protein fraction ratios (globulin:albumin) using crude
seed sulfur content. Gel filtration of albumins from five Pisum spp.
indicates general similarity with greater differences in the total amount
of albumins. Among specie:?, Jakubek and Przybylska (1979) find
electrophoretic patterns that reveal qualitative albumin differences.
Legumin, the major globulin protein, has significant variation in
amino acid content; methionine varies from 0.28 to 0.72 mol% and
cystine from 0.81 to 1.20 mol%, respectively (Casey and Short 1981).
A pleiotropic gene, ra, appears to control the amount of total legumin,
starch quality and quantity, and sugar content (Davies 1980). Earlier
work by Thompson and Schroeder (1978) suggests five legumin and
three vicilin electrophoretic bands, of which all the vicilin bands and
two legumin bands were multiple alleles at a single locus. More recently,
three legumin genes have been identified, of which two are linked. Vicilin
still appears to be controlled by one gene (Matta and Gatehouse 1982).
Inheritance of methionine and tryptophan levels, based on a nine-
line diallel, exhibits mort nonadditive gene action with heterosis,
ranging from 60 to 150% and 30 to 140% of the better parent for
tryptophan and methionine, respectively (Gupta et al. 1982).
The inheritance of seed-coat tannins is related to flower color. White
seed coats from white-flowered lines lack tannins and have no effect on
trypsin, a-amylase, or cellulase activities (Griffiths 1981). A five-line
diallel using Soviet cultivars indicates that trypsin inhibitors are con¬
trolled by one to three genes, showing both additive and dominant
effects (Mukhsinov 1981).
Soviet mutation breeding programs, using ionizing radiation and
chemomutagens, report 6-15% higher levels of protein compared to
initial forms (Masalova 1980; Vasileva 1980).

BROAD BEAN: Vicia faba

Interest in the broad bean as a cool-temperature, high-protein grain
legume for food and feed has increased (Bond 1979). Significant genetic
variation exists, whole-seed protein and starch ranging from 26 to 39%
and 35 to 53% (dry weight), respectively (Barratt 1982). The legumin to
vicilin ratio for these globulin fraction proteins ranges from 1.75 to 2.3,
with legumin accounting for up to 70% of the globulin in fraction (Marten-
sonn 1979). Differences in the protein electrophoretic banding patterns
for cultivars differing in cooking quality also suggests variation in these
proteins (Stegemann et al. 1980). Complete analysis and understand¬
ing of the three polypeptide subunits of legumin and the four of
vicilin may permit genetic manipulation in the future (Williams 1979).
Major breeding efforts in Europe indicate a variety of selection
strategies to improve protein quality and quantity. Some breeders
664 H. C. Bittenbender and J. F. Kelly

advocate selection for protein content rather than amino acid composi¬
tion for rapid results (Rakowska 1980). In an effort to avoid the tradi¬
tional negative association of protein content and seed yield, de Vries
(1981) developed a selection index to increase yield and protein simul¬
taneously. The selection index evaluated four yield conponents: plant
height, duration of reproductive phase, ratio of podless portion of the
plant to overall height, and date of final seed filling. Plants selected
were intermediate-sized with many pods.
Those urging protein-quality selection within populations find
seed protein content associated positively with total methionine and
methionine content of the protein (Pandey et al. 1979). Among genetic
populations, only tryptophan and arginine levels are higher in associa¬
tion with higher protein contents (Baudet and Mosse 1980). Sjodin
et al. (1981A) recommends selecting for increased sulfur content or
legumin fraction within a constant protein level, followed by crosses
for higher protein later to maintain high-quality protein.
New sources of genetic variation, such as the wild subspecies V. faba
spp. minor, major, equina, and paucijuga, indicate highest protein in
paucijuga, but greatest variation in minor (Lafiandra et al. 1979). A
mutation program using 7 radiation and subsequent selection yielded
lines with 35% higher relative protein content (Abo-Hegazi 1979).
Several toxic reactions are associated with broad beans, the most
infamous being a hemolytic anemia known as favism. Favism is associated
with a human genetic disorder (the inability to produce the enzyme
glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase) within populations indigenous to
the southern Mediterranean region. The heat-stable pyrimidines, vicine
and convicine, seem to be associated with favism. However, these sub¬
stances have been identified in other legumes that do not produce
symptoms (Williams 1979). Concentrations of these pyrimidines are
highest in pods and seeds, 3-4 weeks after flowering. Favism is associated
more with green pod consumption than with consumption of cooked,
mature seeds. Of 242 cultivars analyzed for vicine and convicine, con¬
centrations ranged from 0.44 to 0.82% and 0.13 to 0.64% (dry weight)
respectively (Pitz et al. 1981).
Other antinutritional substances include hemagglutinins, trypsin in¬
hibitors, and tannins. Sjodin (1977) developed screening methods for
hemagglutinins and trypsin inhibitors. Working with populations con¬
taining high and low concentrations of these in a rat feeding program,
he concluded that hemagglutinins do not affect the biological value of
the diet, but high concentrations of either trypsin inhibitors or tannins
do give lower biological values (Sjodin et al. 1981B). Tannins not only
reduce utilization of seed protein but they inhibit digestive enzymes in
vivo (Griffiths 1981). Fortunately, the inheritance of a tannin-free seed
coat is well understood. A pleiotropic recessive gene controls white
flower color, unpigmented nectaries of the stipules, lack of anthocyanin
 24. Plant Breeding 665

pigment in the stem, and tannin-free seed coat (Crofts et al. 1980).
These characters permit early and rapid selection.

COWPEA AND YARDLONG BEAN:

Vigna unguiculata spp. unguiculata AND
V. unguiculata ssp. sesquipedalis

Cowpea, the black-eyed or crowder pea of the United States, is the

dominant grain legume in Africa, and an important pod and grain
legume in southern and southeastern Asia. Silano (1982) reports the
protein range as 21 to 34% (dry weight). Earlier Bliss (1973) found
Nigerian accessions with as high as 36% protein (dry weight).
Globulin is the main seed protein in Philippine cultivars. It ranges
from 63 to 67% of total N. Albumin content is less, but its variation is
greater. Several lines have been selected for protein quality based on
sulfur and albumin content (del Rosario et al. 1981A). Crosses made
for high-methionine content with the Philippine local cultivar, ‘Bush
Sitao,’ indicate that high rhethionine is recessive and under maternal
control (Dessauer and Hannah 1978). Bliss (1973), also selecting for
high methionine, reported a 14% advance over the higher methionine
parent and significant location and genotype-location effects on
methionine content.
Yardlong bean is consumed as a pod and grain legume in southern
and southeastern Asia. Malaysian breeders, using seven diverse lines
in a diallel, found that protein content variation was controlled by
dominance rather than additive effects and that high protein is recessive
(Mak and Yap 1980).

MUNG BEAN AND BLACK GRAM:

Vigna radiata AND V. mungo

The mung bean is a grain legume consumed in flour products and as

sprouts in southeastern and eastern Asia. Both the mung bean and
black gram are important grain legumes in southern Asia. The Asian
Vegetable Research and Development Center (AVRDC) has a world
mandate for overall mung bean improvement (AVRDC, 1981). Their
protein improvement program utilizes the black gram V. mungo as a
source of high-methionine genes because of limited variation for protein
content and quality in mung bean (Tsou et al. 1979). An eight-line
diallel grown in three locations in India revealed consistent, general
combining ability over several environments with dominant genes con¬
trolling high protein content (Malhotra et al. 1979).
Indian breeders, using an eight-line diallel, found 70% of the black
gram Fj hybrids exhibited heterosis over midparental values for protein
666 H. C. Bittenbender and J. F. Kelly

and tryptophan. The best parental combinations were identified

(Waldia et al. 1981). A study of 10 characters in 268 lines revealed that
protein content was negatively correlated with seed yield, seeds per
pod, pod length, pod clusters per plant, and pods per plant. Pod length
appeared to be the simplest selection criteria for protein content (San-
dhu et al. 1978).

LUPINES: Lupin us a I bus, L. angustifolius,

L. luteus, AND L. mutabilis

Lupines are a minor grain legume in cool, temperate regions. Hudson

(1979) reviewed the breeding program at the University of Reading,
England. He reports significant progress in reducing the toxic quinolizi-
dine alkaloids to acceptable levels in the first three of the above listed
species. This program has set the stage for development of this crop,
which has protein content and quality equal to or better than soybean
and is free of protease inhibitors and hemagglutinins.

PIGEON PEA: Cajanus cajan

This grain legume is important throughout southern Asia and the

Caribbean. The major breeding effort on pigeon pea has been in India,
particularly at the International Center for Research in the Semi-Arid
Tropics (ICRISAT). The breeding program emphasizes improved yielding
ability, disease and insect resistance, and enhanced nutritional value
(Remanandan 1981). A range of short- (102 days) and medium- (200
days) duration vegetable-type cultivars have been evaluated in a number
of countries. Protein contents ranged JTom 18 to 23%, sugar from 7 to
15%, and starch from 36 to 54% (dry weight) (Jain et al. 1981).

CHICKPEA: Cicer arie tinum

Commonly consumed in the United States as a salad condiment, the

chickpea or garbanzo has been a major grain legume of the drier areas
of southern Asia and the Middle East for centuries. The small-seeded
“desi” type has higher trypsin and chymotrypsin inhibitor activity,
associated with high tannin concentration, than the large-seeded “kabuli”
type (Singh and Jambunathan 1981).
Breeding results in India indicate that protein content is positively
associated with seed color and size (Govil 1980) and seeds per pod
(Rang et al. 1980). Sulfur content, although positively associated with
methionine, is not associated with tryptophan levels and is negatively
 24. Plant Breeding 667

associated with protein content (Rang et al. 1980). Specific combining

abilities for protein content in a 15-parent diallel indicate that protein
content is governed by nonadditive gene action and is maternally in¬
herited (Rao 1980; M. P. Singh et al. 1980). Electrophoretic banding
of nine diverse cultivars with a protein range of 18-29% (dry weight)
were found to differ only in minor bands (Tyagi et al. 1982).

HYACINTH BEAN: Dolichos lablab

Both pods and mature seeds are consumed in India. Path coefficient
analysis reveals that protein content is positively associated with yield;
which is unusual for a grain or edible legume (Pandey et al. 1980)!
The value of hyacinth bean protein must be determined before any ef¬
fort is made to enhance protein levels. The author (unpublished data)
found very low PER values in selected lines.

WINGED BEAN: Psophocarpus tetragonolobus

The winged bean is consumed as a pod legume, leafy vegetable, and

root crop in southern and southeastern Asia and has promise as a high
protein oilseed adapted to high rainfall and short photoperiod areas
[National Academy of Sciences (NAS) 1981]. A comparison of
Southeast Asian types with 32-35% protein and 14-15% crude oil
(dry weight) shows that the electrophoretic patterns of high methionine
and cystine globulin fractions differ among cultivars. This suggests
significant genetic variation is available for improvement (del Rosario
etal. 1981B).

TOMATO: Lycopersicon esculentum

Due to the tomato’s high consumption per capita throughout the

United States and much of the world, its nutritional contribution is
significant even without special breeding efforts to improve its nutri¬
tional quality (Gableman and Peters 1979). Baker (1975), in an earlier
edition, reviewed the nutritional breeding efforts for carotenes by
Tomes and for organic acids, flavor factors, and phosphorus content by
Stevens.
Tomes’ four-gene system, in explaining the various carotene pheno¬
types, included an R gene controlling carotene precursors, and a T gene
directing synthesis from other carotenes to lycopene (red) or j3-carotene
(orange). A B gene controls the relative proportion of lycopene to 13-
carotene when R and T are present. A fourth gene, hp, proportionally
668 H. C. Bittenbender and J. F. Kelly

increases the concentration of all pigments (Baker 1975). Tomes (1972),

in discussing the history of /3-carotene breeding in tomatoes, relates that
initial efforts were directed toward increasing disease resistance by
crossing L. esculentum with a wild, green fruited species, L. hirsutum.
The discovery of high /3-carotene content led to the subsequent develop¬
ment of the ‘Caro-Red’ cultivar. However, the orange-red cultivar
had low consumer acceptability, not because of off-flavor, but because
it lacked the traditional red color. Today, U.S. breeding efforts con¬
tinue with high-lycopene, low-/3-carotene tomatoes.
Soviet breeders, also using interspecific crosses, observe a similar /3-
carotene-enhancing effect in a cross using Solarium pennellii. The line
selected for advancement had 3.3 mg/100 g /3-carotene; others were as
high as 17 mg/100 g. They hypothesize that a gene analogous or iden¬
tical to the B gene from L. hirsutum in ‘Caro-Red’ is responsible, as the
progeny had carotene content from 10 to 20 times higher than either
parent (Vorob’eve and Glushchenko 1981). Another interspecific cross,
involving L. cheesmanii, revealed dominance and additive effects for
high carotene and low lycopene (Daskaloff and Konstaninova 1981).
Efforts to improve ascorbic acid content reveal dominance for high
concentration in crosses with L. cheesmanii (Daskaloff and Konstan¬
tinova 1981). Higher levels are associated with homozygous hp (Fedro-
witz and Tigchelaar 1979) as well as a high specific combining ability
necessary for hybrid development (Singh et al. 1980). High ascorbic
acid content has been incorporated in a yield and quality breeding pro¬
gram in India via a weighted discriminate function program to select
breeding lines (Bhattacharya et al. 1979). A soviet mutation breeding
program irradiated F! pollen to increase phenotypic variation (Zhuchenko
et al. 1981). The observed reduction of silver nitrate by ascorbic acid
in fruits, leaves, and even pollen may serve in the development of a
rapid and inexpensive screening method for ascorbic acid (Airapetova
and Stepanyas 1981).

CUCUMBER AND BITTER GOURD:

Cucumis sativa AND Momordica charantia

Over a 15-year period, Soviet breeders have been developing high-

yielding cucumber hybrids with enchanced sugar, dry-matter, and
ascorbic acid contents for irrigated areas (Glukhova and Malychenka
1980).
An extensive study of bitter gourd by Ramachandran and Gopala-
krishnan (1980) reveals heritability estimates of additive genes for
ascorbic acid, phosphorus, and iron. Protein and potassium are under
nonadditive gene control. They conclude that selection for high total
soluble solids will increase ascorbic acid, vitamin K, and phosphorus
 24. Plant Breeding 669

while maintaining high protein. Increasing iron in this high-iron vege¬

table may require a separate program.

CHILI: Capsicum annum »

Soviet breeders, using chemomutagens, are developing processing

cultivars with contents of niacin, pantothenic acid, thiamin, and pyri-
doxine higher than the standard cultivars (Gukasyan and Gevorkyan
1983).

LETTUCE: Lactuca sativa

Soviet breeders are evaluating new breeding lines and have intro¬
duced cultivars with high ascorbic acid, sugar, and dry-matter contents
(Kochneva 1982; Yudaeva 1982). Under conditions of high nitrate
fertility, many vegetables, including lettuce, accumulate nitrates.
Subramanya et al. (1980), using crosses between high and low nitrate-
accumulating cultivars, found that nitrate accumulation is controlled by
a few recessive genes.

SPINACH AND INDIAN CHARD: Spinacia sativa AND

Beta vulgaris var. benga/ensis

Maynard and Barker (1979) rejected the hypothesis that the savoyed
(wrinkled) leaf trait compared to the smooth leaf is associated with
high levels of nitrates in spinach cultivars. They found a stronger re¬
lationship existing between high leaf nitrate levels and low leaf dry-
matter content. With the use of chemomutagens, a long-standing high
dry-matter spinach with four times more iron, one-fourth the oxalic
acid, and twice the yield of standard spinach cultivars has been de¬
veloped in Germany (Handke 1981). ‘Pusa Jyoti,’ an Indian chard or
palak selected from colchicine-treated seeds of ‘All Green,’ is higher in
dry matter and nutritive value than other Indian chards (Choudhury
and Rejendran 1980).

CELERY AND PARSLEY: Apium graveo/ens

AN D Petroselinum hortense

An attempt by Soviet breeders to obtain resistance to parsley Sep toria

leaf spot by crossing parsley with celery produced unexpected changes
in nutritional composition. A parsley X celery hybrid released as a new
670 H. C. Bittenbender and J. F. Kelly

parsley-like cultivar ‘Festival 68’ is significantly higher yielding and con¬

tains more ascorbic acid and /3-carotene than the parsley parent. Celery
X parsley hybrids have segregated into four distinct types, those com¬
mercially useful as leaf celery have more protein, iron, calcium, and
twice as much ascorbic acid than the celery parent (Madjarova and
Bubarova 1978).

C E L OS IA: Celosia argen tea

In Nigeria, breeding celosia, an important West African, leaf vege¬

table has resulted in improved iron content in nonpigmented cultivars,
which are higher in protein and ascorbic acid than anthocyanin-pigmented
types (Omueti 1982).

Brassica spp.

The genus Brassica contains many important vegetable crops, B.

oleracea being one of the most important species. Breeding objectives
to improve the nutritional value of these vegetables include increased
dry-matter, protein, and vitamin content and reduction of toxins, such
as erucic acid and glucosinolates. Glucosinates, single-chained carbon
groups with the thiocynate ion (—SCN), have been associated with
thyroid problems leading to goiter (Liener 1973B).
Analyses of approximately 1000 cultivars of B. nigra, B. oleracea, B.
campestris, B. carinata, B. juncea, and B. napus revealed differences in
glucosinolate carbon-side chain lengths. Brassica nigra produces gluco-
sinolate side chains 3C or less in length. B. oleracea had 3C and 4C
side chains and B. campestris 3C, 4C, and 5C side chains. Analysis
of the amphidiploid species B. carinata% B. juncea, and B. napus suggests
that enzyme systems necessary for elongation or hydroxylation of side
chains are controlled by additive gene effects (Gland et al. 1981).
Red and savoy cabbage (capitata group) cultivars contain more
goiterogenic precursors than other cultivars (VanEtten et al. 1980),
as do late-maturing cultivars compared to early-maturing cultivars
(Bible et al. 1980). VanEtten et al. (1976) place cabbage cultivars into
four groups based on the relative amounts of 11 different glucosino¬
lates, suggesting the involvement of several genes. Tookey et al. (1980)
note that seeds proportionally contain 10 times more glucosinolates
than leaf tissue. This relationship can be used in a glucosinolate screen¬
ing program. An enzymatic degradation of glucosinolates to glucose
can further facilitate analyses of multiple samples (Kerber and Buchloch
1980).
Brussels sprouts (gemmifera group) genotypes have a range of total
glucosinolates 100-400 mg/100 g (Heaney et al. 1980).
 24. Plant Breeding 671

In cauliflower and broccoli (bo try tis group) cultivars, thiocyanate

concentrations decrease at maturity. Large curd and late-maturing
types have the highest thiocyanate contents. Ju et al. (1980) found a
range of thiocyanate concentrations from 0.95 to 1.4 mg/g and 0.77 to
0.95 mg/g (dry weight), in cauliflower and broccoli, respectively.
Kale (acephala group) breeding programs in Europe have concen¬
trated on yield and higher protein content (Anonymous 1979). One
approach is to redesign the plant to decrease the ratio of petiole and
midrib to leaf (Schuphan 1970). In Scotland, selection for dry matter
and digestibility plus near-infrared analysis for thiocyanate and other
toxic compounds is incorporated into an annual breeding cycle, thus,
shortening the biennial generation time (Bradshaw and MacKay 1981).
Soviet workers (Ter-Manuel’Yants 1982) examined various cole
crops for vitamin content: cultivars of brussels sprouts and kale had
highest ascorbic acid, broccoli and highest in phylloquinone, and
cauliflower was highest in niacin and choline.

TURNIP AND RUTABAGA: Brassica rapa

AN D B. napus

Cultivars of the root vegetables rutabaga (Swede) and turnip have

glucosinolate concentrations from 0.9 to 10 mg/100 g and 1 to 12 mg/
100 g, respectively (Mullin 1978). A turnip lacking goitrin, but not all
glucosinolates, has been identified (Chong et al. 1982). Chong and co¬
workers noted that thiocyanate was higher in late-maturing cultivars,
reaching a maximum later in the season. In both species, as in cabbage,
glucosinolate concentrations in seeds or in etiolated leaves can be used
as a screening tool (Jurges and Robbelen 1981).

CHINESE CABBAGE: Brassica rapa OR campestris

(ch inerts is AND pekinensis GROUPS)

The major thrust of the breeding program for Chinese cabbage at

AVRDC has been toward higher yields through high dry matter and
soluble solids content, which may result in higher carbohydrate, protein,
and ascorbic acid levels (AVRDC 1981). Total glucosinolate levels in
the cultivars examined range from 23 to 130 mg/100 g in leaves, with
a high proportion of 5C glucosinolate side chains. Williams and Dax-
enbichler (1981) established a qualitative and quantitative baseline for
glucosinolates to monitor lines resulting from wide species crosses.
672 H. C. Bittenbender and J. F. Kelly

OILSEED RAPE AND MUSTARD: Brassica napus

AND B. campestris OR rapa

Rape oil has been used in Asia for centuries. Breeding programs have
successfully reduced the toxic erucic acid content. Coupled with the
naturally low level of saturated fatty acids, this crop should increase in
commercial importance (Williams 1979). A German program, utilizing
the world Brassica collection, has analyzed glucosinolate content in
B. oleracea, B. campestris, and B. napus. The objective is to produce
synthetic B. napus from its diploid parents,B. oleracea and B. campestris.
Glucosinolate concentration in defatted natural B. napus seed meal
ranges from 10 to 250 pmol/g, while in the new synthetic lines it ranges
from 66 to 196 pmol/g (Gland 1981). The defatted meal has great
value as a protein concentrate. Amino acid content in B. campestris is
greater in alanine, valine, and aspartic acid than is B. napus; and B. alba
is higher in glycine and aspartic acid than is B. napus (Appelquist and
Nair 1977).

POTATO: Solanum tuberosum

The European Association for Potato Research lists the following

breeding areas to improve potato quality: greening, after-cooking
blackening, protein and ascorbic acid content, reduction of toxic fac¬
tors, and flavor and tuber quality for processing (Holden 1981). Soviet
breeders emphasize starch content in addition to the above (Osipchuk
1980).
In their review of breeding to improve nutritional quality of vege¬
tables, Gableman and Peters (1979) reason that potato protein should
be the focus for major breeding efforts tor five reasons: (1) Potato con¬
tinues to be a major staple food in many parts of the world; (2) potato
protein yields per hectare can exceed wheat protein yield by a factor of
two; (3) potato protein quality has a biological value comparable to
soybean; (4) genetic variability necessary for protein quantity and qual¬
ity improvement exists; and (5) as recently as the mid-1970s, potato
has been a major source of the ascorbic acid, riboflavin, thiamin, and
niacin in the U.S. diet [Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)
1980].
Various breeding strategies have successfully enhanced potato pro¬
tein content. Soviet breeders use high (2.5-2.9%) protein S. tuberosum
lines as parents and maintain high starch content. They also have de¬
veloped chemomutants with 2.65-2.85% protein. The potential pro¬
tein gain from interspecific hybridization involving S. andigena, S.
demissum, S. stoloniferum, (Kiryukhin et al. 1981), S. rybinii with
3.5% protein (Kogut 1981), S. chacoense, and S. phureja (Demidko
 24. Plant Breeding 673

1981) is being considered. In factorial crossing, U.S. breeders using

diploid S. phureja lines, a species capable of producing unreduced 2x
gametes, and high-protein 4:X lines, observed favorable combining
abilities for protein. High variability observed in the S. phureja progeny
may have resulted from lack of photoperiodic adaptation (Veilleux
et al. 1980, 1981). The International Potato Center in Peru has de¬
veloped breeding lines with 20% protein (dry weight) compared to
average cultivars with 7% protein (dry weight) [Centro Internacional
Potato (CIP) 1979].
Several new selection techniques promise advances in breeding for
high protein. Gel electrophoresis separates albumins and globulins from
species with a range of PERs (Boody and Desborough 1981). The tryp¬
sin inhibitor electrophoretic patterns from more than 500 clones of
S. tuberosum and hybrids with S. andigena and S. demissum show a
distinct association between specific trypsin inhibitor patterns and high
protein (Lewosz et al. 1981). Thus, specific trypsin inhibitor levels
can be used as an aid in selecting high protein lines.
Polish breeders suggest ^screening for high starch based on positive
correlations between dry-matter content of tuber sap and tuber dry
matter. They indicate the potential use of refractometrically deter¬
mined soluble solids which correlate with tuber Kjeldahl nitrogen
to screen for high protein (Samotus et al. 1980, 1982). Schuphan
(1970), in Germany, suggests selection based on tuber morphology,
since the bulk of potato protein is found in crystals in the outer cor¬
tex; therefore, selection for a thicker outer cortex should increase
protein.
At Michigan State University, a protocol to regenerate potato shoots
from roots has been developed. Cell lines with twice the free methionine
and 1.5 times the total methionine found in unselected cell lines can be
isolated and cloned to the callus stage (Hunsperger, 1982). German
workers successfully regenerated.plants from microspore, protoplast
suspension, and shoot tips. Plants were obtained from S. phureja
and calluses from S. infundibuliforme, S. sparsipilium, and S. tarijense
protoplasts (Wenzel et al. 1979). Thus, completely new approaches
are available for genetic improvement of potato.
Inheritance of various toxic glycoalkaloids (solanine, chaconine, and
commaursonine), via simple dominance from its wild parent S. chacoense,
forced the recall of a new cultivar, ‘Lenape’ (McCollum and Sinden
1979). The discovery of elevated levels of glycoalkaloids in ‘Lenape’
precipitated an effort to regulate nutrient and toxin levels in crop
varieties previously on the Food and Drug Administration’s GRAS
(Generally regarded as safe) list (Anonymous 1966, 1970).
An investigation of solamarine glycoalkaloids in more than 100
potato cultivars revealed that, in ‘Kennebec’ and 10 other cultivars,
42-85% of the total glycoalkaloid concentration is solamarine. The
674 H. C. Bittenbender and J. F. Kelly

remaining cultivars had much less or lacked solamarines. A selection

from S. demissum, USD A—96—56, is the male parent of Kennebec and
9 other cultivars, and the source of genes for the synthesis of solamarine
and Rx, the gene conferring resistance to late blight (Phytophthora
infestans). There is no association between solamarine synthesis and
late blight resistance from the Rx (Sinden and Sanford 1981).
Soviet breeders consider glycoalkaloid concentrations of 20 mg/
100 g in potatoes as potentially toxic to humans. A chemomutation
program has developed new cultivars significantly lower in glycoal-
kaloids than parent clones (Kolesnikova 1980).
The development of rapid, simple, and inexpensive methods to eval¬
uate glycoalkaloid content has been problematic. A new method of
acid extraction of the material has low recovery, though subsequent
hydrolysis of the glycoalkaloids and titration is accurate. It should be
suitable as a screen for large genetic differences in breeding programs
(Coxon et al. 1979; MacKenzie and Gregory 1979).

SWEET POTATO: Ipomoea batatas

Sweet potato breeding programs in China, Taiwan, the southern

United States, and Africa have nutritional objectives. Some U.S. cul¬
tivars released in recent years have higher j3-carotene levels (17 mg/
100 g versus 6 mg/100 g) than do older cultivars. ‘Nancy Hall,’ an old
cultivar, is noted for high (19 mg/100 g) ascorbic acid, although culti¬
vars lacking ascorbic acid are also available.
Sweet potato protein is generally deficient in lysine and total sulfur
amino acids. However, protein extracts with PER comparable to casein
have been identified in some U.S. breeding lines (Collins and Walter
1982). High protein lines (up to 18% dry weight) are being incorporated
into the North Carolina program.
Both the Taiwan and AVRDC programs emphasize protein, j3-carotene,
and dry-matter content. Selection indices based on multiple charac¬
ters are expected to enhance root yield by 85% compared to selection
for root yield alone (Li 1983).
A selection index based on percentage of soluble solids and root
flesh color was 50% more effective than selection for protein content
alone (Li 1983). Li (1982) found 70% of the phenotypic variation for
protein content was genetically based on Fs progeny testing over years
and locations. Heritability for protein was 57%. Using mass selection
with root color as the selection criterion (which correlates with root
protein content), and advancing 10% of each generation, he obtained a
7% genetic advance for protein content.
Lin and Chen (1980) report that trypsin inhibitor activity and heat
stability range from 20 to 99% among 50 cultivars, and trypsin inhibitor
activity correlates positively with water-soluble protein content.
 24. Plant Breeding 675

Edible leaves and stem tips make the sweet potato a multipurpose
food crop. Some breeding lines high in root protein are high in leaf
protein and lysine, containing 13% protein and 4 g lysine/100 g protein,
respectively, in the leaves (Zheng, 1980). Villareal et al. (1982) noted
the need to select for leaf color and flavor to gain consumer acceptance.
At both the International Institute for Tropical Agriculture (IITA)
in Nigeria and AVRDC, major selection emphasis for high dry matter
and yield resulted in lines with enhanced protein and j3-carotene con¬
tents (IITA 1981; AVRDC 1981).

C ASS A V A: Marti ho t esculert ta

A 1978 review of cassava breeding objectives emphasizes high yield and

starch content. Higher protein content, and low cyanide (HCN) are less
important (dos Satos Filhoefa/. 1980). The Cl AT, the international agri¬
culture research center responsible for cassava improvement, has similar
objectives (ClAT 1982). A Brazilian program identifies breeding lines
both high in starch and low in HCN. Root HCN contents range from
0.06 to 0.32 mg/g and starch, as acid-digestible carbohydrate, from 25
to 39% (de Miranda et al. 1982). De Battisti (1982) suggests selecting
for high-soluble carbohydrate in leaf tissue, which correlates with high
dry matter in the roots. By eliminating the need for roots in preliminary
screeping, it should be possible to reduce the length of the generation
cycle. Furthermore, soluble carbohydrate and HCN contents do not
correlate. Thus, selection for high soluble carbohydrate should not
affect HCN content.

CARROT: Daucus carota

Intensive investigation of the genetics and breeding of carrots in

Gableman’s laboratory at Wisconsin reveal at least five genes control¬
ling total carotene, a-carotene, and j3-carotene in the phloem and xylem
of the root. The expression of the carotenoid pigments is recessive to
three major genes, X, Y, and Y2. In the xylem, any dominant allele of
the X, Y, or Y2 genes prevent orange coloration. In the phloem, orange
coloration is prevented when Y and Y2 are present, even if the pigment¬
enhancing genes IO and O are present. The range of carotene content
controlled by these genes is at least 200-fold (Gableman and Peters
1979).
The inheritance of carotene is independent of the inheritance of
flavor components, thus, allowing enhancement of flavor without loss
of nutritional value (Simon and Peterson 1979). Freeman et al. (1980)
demonstrated that glucose and fructose concentrations are simply in¬
herited, high sugar being dominant. Differences in sugar contents were
676 H. C. Bittenbender and J. F. Kelly

explained by high sugar lines having delayed maturity, which results in

prolonged photosynthetic activity, compared to low sugar lines (Lester
et al. 1982).

ASSESSING BREEDING PRIORITIES

The number of vegetable crops for which there are nutrient improve¬
ment programs is large. The combination of crops in the average U.S.
family diet and the varying amounts of nutrients, protein, vitamins,
minerals, plus calorie and fiber content in each crop is difficult to com¬
prehend. How can a breeder decide which nutrient to increase? In the
United States the answer to this question is not as crucial as in a coun¬
try where malnutrition, as a result of insufficient calories, protein,
vitamins, and minerals in the diet plus disease and poverty, is a life or
death issue.
Two basic breeding strategies can be used: increase the nutrient
content of a crop high in a particular nutrient, or increase the nutrient
content of a crop low in a particular nutrient but which provides a
significant portion of that nutrient in the diet. For example, consider
protein supply in the U.S. and Nigerian diets. From Table 24.1 we note
that legumes supply 5% of the recommended dietary allowances (RDA)
as established by the FAO for protein in the United States. Legumes,
chili, green leafy vegetables, and corn-on-the-cob together supply 16%
of the RDA for protein in Nigeria. These crops have the highest protein
content in the diet. However, in Table 24.2, we note that the con¬
sumption of potatoes, beans, corn-on-the-cob, and tomatoes supply
three times more protein than all legumes in the U.S. diet. A similar
situation exists in Nigeria, where yams, cowpeas, taro, chili, and cassava
supply twice as much protein as those*crops with high protein content.
Using the Nigerian situation, suppose the decision was made to in¬
crease protein in the diet. Breeding to double the protein content of
cowpea from 23 to 46%, considering the genetic variation, would most
likely be unsuccessful. Alternatively, doubling the protein content of
yam (from 2 to 4%) is feasible with known genetic variation. Doubling
the protein content of these crops within the present Nigerian food
production and consumption situation would provide 9.6 and 14 g/day
of protein, from cowpea and yam, respectively. A 200% increase in
present cowpea production at the current protein level is necessary to
permit consumption equal to 14 g/day of protein. Simply doubling
the protein content of yams would require no increase in yield to sup¬
ply 14 g/day with no increase in yam production.
From the U.S. standpoint, it is interesting to note that potato,
lettuce and tomato, not legumes or spinach, are the major noncereal
sources of protein, calcium, iron, |3-carotene, and ascorbic acid in the
American diet. These calculations are based on household supply and
 CO
05

% FAO

All vegetable crops could not be identified by FAO. Therefore, nutrient contribution and content is unknown for a percentage of
the diet. For each country the percentage of the daily per capita supply from this category is U.S. 11% of 244 g/day, Brazil 31% of
67 g/day, Nigeria 21% of 67 g/day, and India 64% of 140 g/day. Crops are arranged in descending order of specific nutrient concen¬
RDA
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Table 24.2. Percentage of FAO Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA) Attainable from Those Vegetables,0 Roots, Tubers, and
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not on actual consumption and absorption data. Potatoes and fresh

cassava provide significant amounts of potential ascorbic acid in the
diets of the United States, Brazil, Nigeria, and India. If either is cooked
too long, if potatoes are stored too long or if cassava is ground and
dried into flour, then the ascorbic acid content is greatly reduced.
Therefore, the choice of which nutrient to enhance in a given crop is
not as simple as considering which nutrient is important in the diet of
a particular population. Rather, the normal diet and production po¬
tential of the farmers and the relative price of the nutrient from various
sources should be considered. It may be more feasible for the public
to eat the same amount of high protein potatoes or cassava than it is
for farmers to produce twice as many beans and for the consumer to
buy twice as much.

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 25

The Role of
the United States Government
in Regulating
the Nutritional Value
of the Food Supply
Victor P. Frattali
John E. Vanderveen
Allan L. Forbes /j-

For the most part, the role that the United States government plays
in regulating the nutritional value of the national food supply has been,
and coptinues to be, based on authority contained in various federal
laws. In chronological order, according to date of enactment, key ex¬
amples include the Food and Drugs Act of June 30,1906, the Federal
Meat Inspection Act of March 4, 1907, the Federal Food, Drug, and
Cosmetic Act of June 25, 1938, which superseded the Food and Drugs
Act of 1906, and the Poultry Products Inspection Act of August 28,
1957. This chapter will be limited almost exclusively to a considera¬
tion of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FFD&C Act) be¬
cause it is on the basis of this law that the Food and Drug Administra¬
tion (FDA), a Public Health Service agency in the Department of
Health and Human Services, has promulgated regulations dealing with
the nutritional value of the food supply. The Food Safety and Inspec¬
tion Service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) has re¬
sponsibility under the Federal Meat Inspection Act and the Poultry
Products Inspection Act for ensuring that meat and poultry products
in the marketplace are wholesome, unadulterated, and properly labeled.

HISTORY

Prior to a discussion of federal regulations pertaining to the nutri¬

tional value of foods, a brief review of past and current food laws is in

687
688 V. P. Frattali, J. E. Vanderveen, and A. L. Forbes

order. The first federal food and drug law banned from interstate
commerce any traffic in adulterated or misbranded food or drugs.
The statute also made it unlawful to manufacture adulterated or mis¬
branded foods or drugs within any territory of the United States and
the District of Columbia. The term food included all articles used by
man or animals for food, drink, confectionary, or condiment, whether
simple, mixed, or compounded. Several conditions, among others,
whereby a food was deemed in violation of the 1906 Act included the
following: (1) if any substance was mixed and packed with an article
so as to reduce or lower or injuriously affect its quality or strength;
(2) if any substance was substituted wholly or in part for the article;
(3) if any valuable constituent of the article was wholly or in part ab¬
stracted; (4) if the article contained any added poisonous or other
deleterious ingredient which might render it injurious to health; and
(5) if it consisted in whole or in part of a filthy, decomposed, or putrid
animal or vegetable substance, or any portion of an animal unfit for
food, or if the food was the product of a diseased animal, or one that
had died otherwise than by slaughter. Food was to be considered mis¬
branded if it was an imitation of or if it was for sale under the name of
another article. Labeling or branding so as to deceive or mislead the
purchaser, purporting to be a foreign product when not so, partial or
total replacement of the contents of the package as originally put up, or
failure to state certain ingredients on the label all constituted mislabel¬
ing. Any packaging or labeling bearing a statement, design, or device
which was misleading in any particular rendered a food misbranded.
The Secretary of Agriculture, the Secretary of the Treasury, and the
Secretary of Commerce and Labor were to promulgate rules and regula¬
tions for carrying out the provisions of the Act, including the collection
and examination of foods and drugs. The Bureau of Chemistry of the
USDA, predecessor of the current FDA, was to examine specimens of
food and drugs for adulteration or misbranding. Any product which
was adulterated or misbranded within the meaning of the Act was sub¬
ject to seizure and condemnation.
As with most initial endeavors, it became apparent after some years
that the 1906 Act had serious weaknesses in several areas of food and
drug regulation. Attempting to strengthen federal authority, Senator
Royal S. Copeland of New York introduced new legislation in 1933.
Congress, however, was not spurred toward developing any new law
until the “Elixir of Sulfanilamide” incident occurred in 1937. The
drug, a sulfanilamide, marketed as a solution in diethylene glycol, a
deadly poison, eventually caused the deaths of 107 persons. This
incident brought out one of the inherent weaknesses of the 1906 Act
and provided the impetus for passage of the FFD&C Act of 1938,
which is the progenitor of the law currently in effect.
With regard to foods, the 1938 Act provides for the promulgation of
a reasonable definition and standard of identity, a reasonable standard
 25. Role of U.S. Government in Regulations 689

of quality, and/or reasonable standards of fill of container. It prohibits

traffic in food which is injurious to health, whereas the 1906 Act per¬
mitted regulation of injurious food only in the event poison was added.
The 1938 Act requires th^-label of nonstandardized food to bear the
common or usual name of the food and, in case it was fabricated from
two or more ingredients, the common or usual name of each ingredient.
Spices, flavorings, and colorings can be so designated, however, without
naming each. The Act requires the label of a food which is purported
to be or is represented for special dietary use to bear such information
concerning its vitamin, mineral, and other dietary properties as is deter¬
mined to be necessary in order to inform purchasers as to its value for
such use.
Among the general provisions applying to any food, drug, or cos¬
metic, the 1938 Act deems illegal any commodity whose labeling
is false or misleading in any particular. It prohibits traffic in food,
drugs, or cosmetics which were prepared or handled under unsanitary
conditions. It authorizes factory inspections of establishments pro¬
ducing commodities covered by the Act, subject to certain conditions.
It deems illegal any food, drug, or cosmetic whose container is made,
formed, or filled so as to be misleading. The FDA is authorized to
procure transportation records and other documents necessary to
establish federal jurisdiction. The 1938 Act also authorizes the fed¬
eral courts to restrain violations by injunction.
Although a number of amendments were made to the Act from
1941 to 1980, only two deal directly with the nutrient content of
foods, whereas a few others deal indirectly or have the potential for
dealing with the nutritional value of foods.

FOOD STANDARDS AMENDMENTS

In 1954, the FFD&C Act was amended to simplify the procedure

for establishing standards of identity, quality, and fill of container
for foods. Previously, the law required a formal hearing upon any
proposal to issue, amend, or repeal regulations regarding several sec¬
tions of the Act, including definitions and standards for foods. The
1954 amendments eliminated the requirement for a formal hearing
when there was no controversy over the facts of the proposed rule.
In 1956, legislation was passed to further simplify the rulemaking
process for food standards. Taking the changes made in 1954, the
1956 amendment applied this simplified procedure to the regula¬
tions on foods for special dietary uses, tolerances for poisonous in¬
gredients, use of emergency permits, and certain other areas requir¬
ing rule making.
690 V. P. Frattali, J. E. Vanderveen, and A. L. Forbes

THE FOOD ADDITIVES AMENDMENT

In 1958, the Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce of the

House of Representatives reported out the Food Additives Amend¬
ment of 1958. The bill contained, among other things, a specific re¬
quirement for preclearing certain chemical additives for safety before
such substances could be used in foods. The legislation provided that
no additive could be intentionally added unless the formula and a des¬
cription of the proposed conditions for use had been submitted to and
approved by the FDA. If the agency approved the petition for use of
the additive, it could also establish the maximum amount of the sub¬
stance, or tolerance, which would be permitted for use in foods.
The 1938 Act already prohibited poisonous or deleterious sub¬
stances in foods except in certain instances where such substances were
allowed in small amounts. However, the lack of a premarket clearance
requirement made this provision relatively ineffective. In order to bar
the use of a dangerous additive, the FDA had to assume the burden of
proof and show that the additive was poisonous or deleterious. This
process was extremely time-consuming and, while it continued, the
additive remained on the market. The House bill applied the principle
of premarket testing to food additives for the first time.
One problem area in the bill related to the question of how to deal
with additives already in use on the market. Industry spokesmen or¬
iginally proposed that additives already in use be exempted from the
provisions of the bill, while a number of members of Congress objected
on the ground that such an exemption would leave many untested
additives still in use. As a result, the bill provided for the following
scheme: most new additives not in use before January 1,1958 would
be automatically subject to the preclearance requirements set out in
the bill; substances generally recognized as safe (GRAS substances)
after years of repeated use were to be exempted from the procedures
of the bill; additives approved under the old procedures contained in
the FFD&C Act or under the meat and poultry inspection laws were
also exempted, although they could be removed from the market if
later discovered to be hazardous; and additives previously untested and
unapproved already on the market as of January 1,1958, would be sub¬
ject to the procedure in the bill. It is important to note that the bill (and
the law, after the bill was passed) did not apply the preclearance safety
procedures to GRAS substances among experts qualified by training and
experience to evaluate such safety considerations. It was noted by agency
officials in 1958 that, although GRAS substances would be exempt from
the preclearance procedure, such substances could immediately become
controlled if evidence appeared to warrant the conclusion that their
safety was not generally recognized by experts. The amendment was
signed into law by President Eisenhower on September 6,1958.
 25. Role of U.S. Government in Regulations 691

VITAMIN AND MINERAL

SUPPLEMENTS AMENDMENT

In 1976, legislation waft passed which had the effect of curtailing

proposed regulations of the FDA dealing with the sale of vitamins and
minerals. For more than 10 years, the FDA had tried to revise the
regulations dealing with special dietary foods, including food supple¬
ments such as vitamins. A controversy erupted with considerable
intensity following the publication of a tentative rule in the Federal
Register of January 19, 1973 (FDA 1973A). The proposed potency
limits, labeling restrictions, and other matters brought on a reaction
from the health food industry and thousands of users of vitamin and
mineral supplements. There was so much controversy on the proposed
FDA action that an estimated 1 million pieces of mail flooded con¬
gressional offices. Objectively viewed, there were fundamental issues
on both sides. The FDA contended that research over a long period
of time revealed that £ome vitamins consumed in excessive amounts
can produce harmful effects; notable examples are vitamins A and D.
Furthermore, the FDA contended that false or unproved therapeutic
claims were being made for some products. Opponents claimed that
the consumer was well able to choose those items required in their
diet and no “diet dictation” was necessary. Civil libertarians, both
right and left, professed fear of a perceived excess in governmental
regulation.
Representative Craig Hosmer introduced legislation by the end of
the first session of the 93rd Congress; a simple majority of 218 rep¬
resentatives also introduced legislation to overturn the regulations.
A similar bill was introduced by Senator William Proxmire and was
cosponsored by 10 other Senators. The amendments, which passed
both the House and the Senate, placed certain restrictions on the
Secretary of the FDA’s parent, Department of Health and Human
Services. Accordingly, the Secretary may not establish maximum
limits on the potency of any synthetic or natural vitamin or mineral
within an applicable supplement, classify any natural or synthetic
vitamin or mineral as a drug solely because it exceeds the level of
potency which is nutritionally rational and useful, require the pres¬
ence in dietary supplements of nutritionally essential vitamins and
minerals, and prohibit in dietary supplements questionable additional
ingredients of no nutritional value A large number of other respon¬
sibilities remain unchanged. This amendment, for example, does not
preclude the FDA from regulating the potency of a vitamin or mineral
preparation based on safety. Contained in this amendment is a current
definition of a food for special dietary use. This term means a par¬
ticular use for which a food purports or is represented to be used,
including but not limited to the following: (1) supplying a special
692 V. P. Frattali, J. E. Vanderveen, and A. L. Forbes

dietary need that exists by reason of a physical, physiological, patho¬

logical, or other condition, including but not limited to the condition
of disease, convalescence, pregnancy, lactation, infancy, allergic hyper¬
sensitivity to food, underweight, overweight, or the need to control the
intake of sodium; (2) supplying a vitamin, mineral, or other ingredient
for use by man to supplement his diet by increasing the total dietary
intake; (3) supplying a special dietary need by reason of being a food
for use as the sole item of the diet.
It is of interest to note that consumption of supplemental vitamins
and minerals continues to grow in popularity among Americans. In a
recent national survey, 39.9% of adults 16 years of age or older, but
excluding pregnant or lactating women, consume one or more sup¬
plements daily (McDonald et al. 1983). Of these, 52.4% consume 1
supplement, while 10.9% consume 4 or more, up to a maximum of 14
separate products. Both vitamins and minerals show a wide range of
intake, extending to five to ten times the recommended daily levels
for individual nutrients.

THE INFANT FORMULA ACT

In 1978, a major U.S. manufacturer of soy-based infant formulas
made changes in their formulations to lower sodium content by re¬
ducing the levels of sodium chloride. Unfortunately, a concomitant
consequence was a substantial reduction of the chloride content of the
product, far below the minimum level for this essential nutrient recom¬
mended in 1976 by the Committee on Nutrition of the American
Academy of Pediatrics. Because food manufacturers, including those
who produce infant formulas, are not required to obtain premarket
clearance from the FDA for new or reformulated products when ap¬
proved or safe ingredients are used, the FDA was unaware of possible
problems with the chloride-deficient formulas until several incidents
involving a serious illness among infants were brought to the agency’s
attention late in July 1979. The illness, hypochloremic metabolic
alkalosis, is characterized in infants by constipation, lethargy, loss of
appetite, and failure to gain weight and thrive. Subsequently, more
than 200 clinically diagnosed cases of hypochloremic metabolic alkalosis
were documented among the estimated 20,000 infants who were fed
either of the two chloride-deficient formulas during the year or so that
the faulty products were on the market. Immediately upon discovery
of the problem, the FDA undertook audit procedures to determine
the effectiveness of the manufacturer’s product recall, while informing
the company that their recall was not progressing satisfactorily. The
entire incident, however, became the subject of a TV report in Wash¬
ington, DC and came under the scrutiny of Representative Albert Gore,
Jr., who was the parent of a child fed one of the deficient formulas.
 25. Role of U.S. Government in Regulations 693

As a result, Congressional hearings were held, several bills were intro¬

duced in the House and Senate, and less than a year later the Infant
Formula Act was signed into law in September 1980 as the latest
amendment to the FFD&G Act.
The Infant Formula Act ensures the nutritional safety of formulas
by establishing specific requirements for nutrient content. Through
regulation, the Secretary of the Department of Health and Human
Services may revise the list of nutrients specified by law as new clinical
knowledge is developed with respect to requirements in infant nutri¬
tion. The required level for any nutrient may also be revised, and re¬
quirements for quality factors for such nutrients may be established
by regulation. Quality control procedures may be established by
regulation to assure that an infant formula provides nutrients in accord¬
ance with the specifications of the Infant Formula Act. These quality-
control procedures include the periodic testing of infant formulas by the
manufacturers to determine whether they are in compliance with the Act.
Drawing from recoxhmendations made by the Committee on Nutri¬
tion of the American Academy of Pediatrics in 1976, and subsequently
reaffirmed in 1980, the Act establishes minimum levels, and maximum
levels in a few cases, for protein, fat, essential fatty acids, and 26 vita¬
mins, minerals, and other nutrients. All nutrients are required to be
present at these levels per 100 kcal. Possibly because of oversight when
the Infant Formula Act was written, nothing is stipulated about a mini¬
mum energy density of an infant formula as it is normally prepared in
ready-to-feed form. The Committee on Nutrition of the American
Academy of Pediatrics did specify an energy level of 670 kcal/liter of
formula. The Act specifies that, at the minimum level, the source of
protein shall be at least nutritionally equivalent to casein. There is
also a specification for a minimum and a maximum value for the ratio
of calcium content to phosphorus content. It should be noted that the
nutrient specifications in the Act apply to food for normal, full-term in¬
fants, which is represented for special dietary use by reason of its simula¬
tion of human milk or its suitability as a complete or partial substitute for
human milk. Specifically exempted from some of the requirements of the
Act, particularly the requirements for nutrient content, is any formula
which is represented and labeled for use by an infant who has an inborn
error of metabolism or a low birth weight, or who otherwise has an un¬
usual medical problem requiring some extraordinary dietary treatment.
The minimum level for iron content in infant formulas is appreciably
below that contained in the current regulation for infant foods (21
CFR 105.651) as well as the 1980 recommended dietary allowance
(RDA) established by the Food and Nutrition Board of the National

1 This designation and others elsewhere in the text represent current codification of
federal regulations ;e.g., Title 21 in the Code of Federal Regulations, Section 105.65.
694 V. P. Frattali, J. E. Vanderveen, and A. L. Forbes

Research Council. For practically all intents and purposes, the Infant
Formula Act supersedes the current regulation on infant foods speci¬
fically with regard to formulas. The latter requires, for example, that a
formula which contains less than 1 mg iron/100 kcal bear a label state¬
ment to the effect that an additional quantity of iron should be supplied
from other sources. In their 1976 statement, the Committee on Nutri¬
tion of the American Academy of Pediatrics recommended that infant
formulas contain an amount of iron equal to the lower end of the range
commonly found in human milk, a value of about 0.15 mg iron/100
kcal, and that the iron be in a bioavailable form. This is the level that
was incorporated into the Infant Formula Act. Part of the rationale
for maintaining the minimum level is to permit some flexibility in the
selection of foods and formulas for those infants who might be in¬
tolerant to some forms of iron. The Committee also affirmed its
recommendation that infants at risk for iron deficiency be given form-
mulas supplemented with iron at levels between 1 and 2 mg/100 kcal.
In 1981, the Committee maintained its position that the minimum level
for iron is 0.15 mg/100 kcal, and also indicated that the caution state¬
ment for infant formulas containing less than 1 mg/100 kcal is appro¬
priate. This brief review on iron addresses only part of a much larger
issue. From a regulatory standpoint, one critical aspect centers on what
level of iron is considered to be appropriate to support claims that a
product is fortified with iron. A corollary deals with the achievement
of some labeling practices for all infant foods. Issues such as these
are part of a proposal for revision of 21 CFR 105.65, which was pub¬
lished in the Federal Register (FDA 1983A). Using comments re¬
ceived on the proposal, the FDA will seek to develop the best possible
regulation.
The list of nutrients in the Infant Formula Act is not necessarily
all-inclusive. In their 1980 statement of recommended dietary allow¬
ances, the Food and Nutrition Board of the National Research Council
established what is termed an “estimated safe and adequate daily diet¬
ary intake” for four trace elements that are not listed in the Act, namely,
fluoride, chromium, molybdenum, and selenium. In contrast to a
recommended allowance, which is a single value, the estimated safe and
adequate daily dietary intakes are presented as ranges of intakes be¬
cause it is felt that the available data do not permit the definition
of a single intake for these nutrients. The Secretary of the Department
of Health and Human Services can, through regulation, revise the
list of nutrients for infant formulas if such an action is considered
appropriate.
With regard to regulations stemming from the Infant Formula Act
and other sections of the FFD&C Act, the FDA recently has issued
final rules regarding quality control procedures for the manufacture
 25. Role of U.S. Government in Regulations 695

of infant formulas (FDA 1982A, 21 CFR Part 106)2 and enforcement

policy for recall of infant formulas from the marketplace (FDA 1982B,
21 CFR Part 7). In addition to the proposed rule for labeling of infant
formulas cited above (FDA 1983A), other proposals include those for
revision of nutrient requirements (FDA 1984A) and for quality-control,
nutrient, and labeling requirements for exempt infant formulas (FDA
1983B).

RELATIONSHIP OF THE FFD&C ACT

TO THE NUTRITIONAL QUALITY OF FOODS

The provisions of the FFD&C Act presented above establish a basis

upon which to consider how the nutritional value of the U.S. food
supply is regulated. It is generally accepted that the FDA has the re¬
sponsibility for assuring a safe, wholesome, and nutritious food supply
in the United States. ^However, insofar as such remarks assume that
the FDA has ample authority to assure the nutritional quality of the
United States’ food supply, they are not necessarily justified. The
FFD&C Act provides the FDA explicit and extensive authority to
undertake regulatory action with respect to toxic substances or filth
in food; in contrast, the agency’s ability to regulate the nutritional
quality of the food supply is much more dependent upon agruments
of implicit authority, and the extent of that authority may be much
narrower.
Perhaps in former decades this was a matter of small import. In the
last few decades, however, significant new developments in food tech¬
nology have made possible new fabricated food products, which sub¬
stitute for and resemble traditional foods but which may not provide
the same nutritional value as^ the traditional foods. Fabricated sub¬
stitutes for meat, cheese, and eggs are already on the market; such
products may be purchased directly by consumers for use in place of
traditional articles of food (e.g., cholesterol-free egg substitutes or
hamburger meat extenders), or they may be used by manufacturers
to replace traditional ingredients in food products (e.g., a frozen pizza
product may be made with a cheese substitute instead of cheese). All
commentators seem to agree that the substitute foods now on the
market are only the beginning of an anticipated explosion of new

2 Citations to final rules are provided with reference to original date or publication
in the Federal Register as well as codification under Title 21 of the Code of Federal
Regulations. The latter is the preferred reference for all final rules since the CFR is
revised and issued on an annual basis and will, thereby, provide the current version
of a rule if any revision to that rule is made after first publication in the Federal
Register.
696 V. P. Frattali, J. E. Vanderveen, and A. L. Forbes

developments with respect to synthesized food products, made possible

by rapid advances in food technology and encouraged by the economic
conditions of the era immediately facing us.
Clearly, it is the responsibility of the FDA’s Center for Food Safety
and Applied Nutrition (formerly the Bureau of Foods) to apply existing
strategies and find new ways to assure that the appearance of new
fabricated foods does not lead to significant degradation of the U.S.
food supply. Following is a brief review of some of the FDA’s possible
regulatory options in taking action to ensure the nutritional quality of
the food supply under the authority of the FFD&C Act. Included are
various approaches the FDA has taken in the past with respect to nutri¬
tion regulation and consideration of their possible application to new
substitute food products.
Generally, the FDA has six existing nutrition regulation programs
which might have significance for new food products. A seventh
category dealing with a few miscellaneous issues is also included for
completeness.

Standards of Identity
The FFD&C Act authorizes the FDA to establish a “definition and
standard of identity” for a food “whenever in the judgement of the
Secretary [in practice, the FDA] such action will promote honesty and
fair dealing in the interest of consumers.” The FDA has used this
authority to establish more than 300 definitions and standards covering a
wide array of foods and classes of food. In addition to defining the
composition of a food, a standard also prescribes mandatory ingredients,
lists optional ingredients that may be used, and sets the amounts or
relative proportions of each. Important to this chapter is that a number
of standards deal with vitamins and essential minerals as mandatory or
optional ingredients. It should not be overlooked that such standard¬
ized foods have been significant contributors in maintaining the overall
high nutritional quality of the U.S. food supply. Although it is not
the purpose of this chapter to provide a comprehensive review of those
standards that list vitamin or mineral ingredients, a few will be mention¬
ed to serve as representative examples.
A number of standards exist for the class of milk and cream products
(21 CFR Part 131). The standard for milk provides for the addition of
vitamins A and D as optional ingredients (21 CFR 131.110), whereas
the standard for skim milk requires the presence of vitamin A at a level
of 2000 IU/qt and allows for the optional addition of vitamin D (21 CFR
131.143). The standard for margarine requires the presence of vitamin
A at not less than 15,000 IU/lb and permits the addition of vitamin D as
an optional ingredient (21 CFR 166.110). More germane to this dis¬
cussion are the standards and definitions for cereal grain foods that
include bakery products (21 CFR Part 136), cereal flours and related
 25. Role of U.S. Government in Regulations 697

products (21 CFR Part 137), and macaroni and noodle products (21
CFR Part 138). Generally, standards for enriched products contain
specifications for thiamin, niacin, riboflavin, iron, calcium, and vitamin
D. For example, the standards for enriched flour (21 CFR 137.165)
and for enriched corn meals (21 CFR 137.260) require the presence of
thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, and iron. The enriched flour standard per¬
mits the optional addition of calcium, while the enriched-corn meals
standard contains options for calcium and vitamin D. Generally speak¬
ing, the effect of a standard for an enriched food is to require that if
any vitamin or mineral is added to the food, the food must provide all
of the nutrients required by the standard, in the amounts required by
the standard. Historically, such enrichment practices have had a pro¬
found effect on the nation’s nutritional health. It is fairly well established
that such enrichment practices around the early 1940s were a major
contributing factor, if not the major factor, in the eventual conquest of
pellagra, a niacin deficiency disease once prevalent in the southern
United States. ^
Although the FFD&C Act provides the FDA with the authority to
standardize an enriched food, the FDA has not attempted to use this
authority to prohibit the existence of an unenriched article. For
example, although standards of identity for both bread and enriched
bread have been established, the FDA has depended upon the market¬
place for consumer selection of the enriched article rather than the
unenriched product. As noted, standards of identity for enriched
products were promulgated soon after enactment of the FFD&C Act
and, through the intervening years, the FDA has continued to pro¬
mulgate and revise such standards. However, more than 30 years
passed before the FDA seriously undertook additional types of regula¬
tory programs bearing upon the nutritional quality of the U.S. food
supply. In the 1970s, partly in response to increased interest by con¬
sumers in the nutritional quality of the foods they eat, partly out of
concern to protect the nutritional quality of the U.S. food supply,
the FDA instituted several additional regulatory programs with res¬
pect to nutrition.

Nutrition Labeling
In 1973, the FDA ushered in a new era of nutrition regulation by
publishing a final regulation with respect to nutrition labeling of foods
(FDA 1973A, B, 21 CFR 101.9). Generally, this regulation provides
that if any vitamin, mineral, or protein is added to a food, or if any
nutrition claim or information is included in labeling or in advertising
for a food, full nutrition information must be contained on the label
in a standardized format. This includes information on the serving
size of the food; the caloric content in Calories (kcal) per serving; the
protein, carbohydrate, and fat content in grams per serving; and the
698 V. P. Frattali, J. E. Vanderveen, and A. L. Forbes

Table 25.1. Recommended Fortification Levels Based on a 2,000 kcal/day

Standard

Nutrient and unit of measure U.S. RDA* Amount/100 kcal

Protein, g 65b 3.25c

45 2.25c
Vitamin A, IU 5000 250
Vitamin C, mg 60 3
Thiamin, mg 1.5 0.075
Riboflavin, mg 1.7 0.085
Niacin, mg 20 1.0
Calcium, g 1 0.05
Iron, mg 18 0.9
Vitamin D, IU 400 20c
Vitamin E, IU 30 1.5
Vitamin B6, mg 2 0.1
Folic acid, mg 0.4 0.02
Vitamin Bj2, Mg 6 0.3
Phosphorus, g 1 0.05
Iodine, Mg 150 7.5C
Magnesium, mg 400 20
Zinc, mg 15 0.75
Copper, mg 2 0.1
Biotin, mg 0.3 0.015
Pantothenic acid, mg 10 0.5
Potassium, g _d
0.125
Manganese, mg _d
0.2

Source: 21 CFR 104.20.

a U.S. RDA for adults and children 4 or more years of age.
b If the protein efficiency ratio (PER) of protein is equal to or better than casein,
then the U.S. RDA is 45 g.
c Optional.
^ No U.S. RDA has been established for either potassium or manganese.

percentages of the U.S. RDA per serving for protein, vitamin A, vitamin
C, thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, calcium, and iron. Optional listing in
percent of the U.S. RDA of any one or more of 12 other vitamins and
minerals is permitted as part of the format. The U.S. RDAs, which
are listed in Table 25.1, were developed by the FDA in response to a
need for a single set of standard nutrient requirements applicable to
nutrition labeling and other regulations with nutrition components.
The U.S. RDA values were derived, through simplification, from RDA
values established for various age-sex population groups by the Food
and Nutrition Board of the National Academy of Sciences, National
Research Council. Accordingly, the designation U.S. RDA was created
to distinguish this set of values from any single set of RDA values
established by the Food and Nutrition Board.
In addition to the above, fatty acid and cholesterol content may be
incorporated in the nutrition labeling format (FDA 1973A, B, 21 CFR
 25. Role of U.S. Government in Regulations 699

101.25). Recently, the FDA published a rule for the declaration of the
sodium content of a food (FDA 1984B, 21 CFR Parts 101 and 105).
This rule provides definitions for use of such terms as sodium free, low
sodium, and reduced sodium. Although this rule provides for declara¬
tion of sodium content in isolation of other label information, it does
require that, whenever nutrition labeling information is given for a
product, sodium content will be included as part of the required format.
Although nutrition labeling does not impose any requirements with
respect to the nutritional quality of a food, the FDA believes that such
labeling will cause consumers to become more aware of the nutritional
value of the foods they purchase and more likely to consider nutritional
value in making purchasing selections. It should be noted that the
FFD&C Act does not explicitly require nutrition labeling It does,
however, prohibit labeling which is “misleading in any particular,’’
and provides that in determining whether labeling is misleading, “there
shall be taken into account (among other things) not only representa¬
tions made or suggested by statement, word, design, device, or any
combination thereof, but also the extent to which the labeling. . .fails
to reveal facts material in the light of such representations. . . .” Further¬
more, the FDA has “authority to promulgate regulations for the ef¬
ficient enforcement of this chapter [the FFD&C 4pt].” The FDA’s
nutrition labeling regulations are based on the premise that failure to
provide “full” nutrition information, in the manner established by the
regulations, would cause labeling to be misleading within the meaning
of the FFD&C Act for failure to reveal facts that are material in light of
“triggering” nutritional representations. The addition of a nutrient to a
food product results in a triggering nutrition claim or information be¬
cause the presence of the nutrient ingredient must be declared in the
labeling in the list of ingredients, as required by the Act.
On a periodic basis since 1978, the FDA has conducted surveys of
the U.S. marketplace to determine the extent to which nutrition label¬
ing is being utilized. Results for the 1983 Food Label and Package
Survey indicate that 55.2% of sales for packaged, processed foods con¬
sisted of products bearing nutrition information panels (Schucker
1984). This percentage is a sales-weighted measure, based upon a
sampling of FDA-regulated, packaged, processed foods. Interestingly,
only approximately one-third of nutrition labeling is required in order
to be in compliance with the regulation; the balance of such labeling is
provided on a voluntary basis by food manufacturers.

Common or Usual Names

The FFD&C Act provides that the label of a food must bear “the
common or usual name of the food, if any there be.” In the interest of
efficient enforcement of the Act, the FDA has provided that, in ap¬
propriate circumstances, it will establish by regulation the common or
700 V. P. Frattali, J. E. Vanderveen, and A. L. Forbes

usual name for a particular food. Although most common or usual

name regulations published prior to the early 1970s have not focused
on nutritional factors, the FDA has established a final common or
usual name regulation for frozen heat-and-serve dinners, which re¬
quires, among other things, that frozen dinner products include at least
one component which is “a significant source of protein” (FDA 1973B,
21 CFR 102.26). In addition to protein, the regulation also specifies
minimum levels for seven vitamins and iron. Similarly, there has been
established a common or usual name regulation for peanut spreads
(FDA 1977, 21 CFR 102.23). Accordingly, a spreadable peanut product
shall be considered nutritionally equivalent to peanut butter if it meets
specified conditions for protein content and biological quality, and if it
contains specified levels per 100 grams of product of the following
nutrients: niacin, vitamin B6, folic acid, iron, zinc, magnesium, and
copper. The agency has also published a tentative rule to establish a
common or usual name for plant protein products (extenders and re¬
placements for meat, seafood, poultry, eggs, or cheese which are pro¬
duced from edible plant protein sources such as soybeans), which
would establish minimum nutritional criteria to be met by certain types
of such products (FDA 1978).

Nutritional Quality Guidelines

FDA regulations provide for the establishment of “nutritional qual¬
ity guidelines” for particular foods (FDA 1973B, 21 CFR Part 104,
Subpart A). A nutritional quality guideline prescribes the minimum
level or range of nutrient composition (nutritional quality) appropriate
for a given class of food. The regulations provide that a food which
complies with all of the requirements of an applicable nutritional qual¬
ity guideline may bear a label statement that “this product provides
nutrients in amounts appropriate for the class of food as determined by
the U.S. Government.” At the present time, the only food for which a
nutritional quality guideline has been established is “frozen ‘heat and
serve’ dinners” (FDA 1973B, 21 CFR 104.47).

Imitation Foods Policy

The FFD&C Act provides that a food which is an “imitation” of
another shall clearly be labeled as such. The FDA has concluded that
the imitation section of the Act should not be interpreted so as to be¬
come a trade barrier, which might present a serious obstacle to the de¬
velopment and marketing of new substitute food products with sound
nutritional content. Indeed, in light of the connotations of inferiority
applicable to the term imitation, it might be misleading to consumers to
require that a new substitute food be labeled as an imitation if it is
nutritionally equivalent, or superior, to its traditional counterpart.
 25. Role of U.S. Government in Regulations 701

Pursuant to this policy favoring informative labeling the FDA has pro¬
mulgated a regulation providing, among other things, that a food which
substitutes for and resembles another food must be labeled as an imita¬
tion if it is nutritionally inferior to the other food, but that a food
which substitutes for and resembles another food need not be labeled as
an imitation if it is not nutritionally inferior to the food for which it
substitutes and which it resembles, and if it bears an appropriate name
which accurately identifies or describes its basic nature [FDA 1973C,
21 CFR 101.3(e)], Obviously, the FDA intended this regulation on
imitation foods to have a carrot effect, to encourage that a new sub¬
stitute food be formulated so as to be nutritionally equivalent to its
traditional counterpart in order to avoid pejorative imitation labeling.

Fortification Policy
In 1980, the FDA issued a policy statement concerning the nutrient
fortification of foods that expresses a series of guidelines which manu¬
facturers are urged to f6llow if they elect to add nutrients to a manu¬
factured or processed food (FDA 1980, 21 CFR 104.20). This policy
statement is intended to promote the rational addition of nutrients to
foods in order to preserve a balance of nutrients in the diets of U.S.
consumers. It is clearly stated that widespread fortification is not to be
encouraged, but that the guidelines should be followed to nutritionally
improve or restore foods by fortification. These guidelines are intended
to cover most types of foods, with the notable exceptions of fresh
produce, meat, poultry, and fish products (foods that are adequately
nutritious in the absence of fortification), as well as sugars, candies,
carbonated beverages, and other snack foods (foods considered inap¬
propriate for fortification). The guidelines do not apply to any food
covered by any other federal regulation that requires, permits, or pro¬
hibits nutrient additions. Such-regulations supersede the guidelines and
include, but are not limited to, standards of identity, nutritional qual¬
ity guidelines, and common or usual name regulations.
The guidelines list three main situations in which fortification of
foods is deemed appropriate. First, fortification of food is desirable to
correct a dietary insufficiency recognized by the scientific community
to exist and known to result in a deficiency disease. In order to iden¬
tify the dietary insufficiency, adequate information must be available
to pinpoint the specific nutritional problem and affected population
groups. In addition, a suitable carrier food for the nutrient(s) to be
added must be selected. Suitable carrier foods are generally inexpen¬
sive staple foods already consumed by the target population. The foods
must not react with the added nutrient(s) in a way that would alter the
biological value of the nutrient(s).
Fortification of foods is also considered appropriate when nutrients
are added to restore levels inherent in a food prior to conventional
702 V. P. Frattali, J. E. Vanderveen, and A. L. Forbes

processing and storage. Only nutrients which are known to have been
present in the food in quantities of at least 2% of the U.S. RDA can be
restored, and all nutrients contained at that level should be added.
Restoration of nutrients lost from poor manufacturing practices or stor¬
age and handling procedures is not appropriate.
Nutrients may also be added to foods to balance protein, vitamins,
and minerals to the caloric content of the food. The food to be forti¬
fied in this situation must contain at least 40 kcal in a normal serving.
This quantity is 2% of the 2000 kcal/day standard established in the
guidelines. The 2000 kcal/day standard was selected as being represen¬
tative, generally, of a uniform daily calorie requirement for individuals.
The standard is intended to provide a baseline for fortification of new
or unique foods in relation to their caloric content, but not to provide a
recommended caloric requirement for all individuals. It was reasoned
that, when the specific use of new or unique products cannot be pre¬
dicted, it is not possible to anticipate a specific and limited nutrient
content or profile. Therefore, when products cannot be categorized as
substitutes or replacements for a particular food and a manufacturer
elects to add nutrients to such products, the nutrient additions should
conform to a profile reflecting all the foods which the product might
substitute for or replace in the diet. Because it is impractical to develop
such a profile for each food, the logical alternative selected by the FDA
is a profile that would sustain a balance in the average person’s overall
nutrient intake by relating nutrient content to caloric content. All
nutrients identified for addition are required to be added to achieve
this nutrient-to-calorie balance. These nutrients are listed in Table 25.1
along with their amounts per 100 kcal in a fortified food. The guide¬
lines also allow nutrient addition to a food intended to replace a tradi¬
tional food in the diet. Allowance for addition of nutrients to these
substitute foods is designed to prevent nutritional inferiority of such
foods. The guidelines stress that nutrients added to food should be
stable in the carrier food, physiologically available from the food,
added at levels unlikely to result in an adverse reaction due to excessive
intake, and in compliance with federal regulations governing the safety
of food substances.

Miscellaneous Programs
As a possible health measure to deal with endemic goiter, supplemen¬
tation of the diet by the use of iodized table salt on a voluntary basis
became widespread throughout the United States beginning in the
1920s. This practice remains in effect and, in 1972, the FDA issued a
policy statement with regard to label declarations for noniodized and
iodized salt to dispel consumer confusion over terms used to describe
the physical and chemical characteristics of table salt (FDA 1972, 21
 25. Role of U.S. Government in Regulations 703

CFR 100.155). Accordingly, common retail packages of iodized salt

are required to bear the label statement: “This salt supplies iodide, a
necessary nutrient.” Noniodized salt is required to bear a comparable
statement to the effect tha£ the product does not supply iodide.
In 1973, a final rule was issued on the conditions for safe use of
amino acids in foods (FDA 1973D, 21 CFR 172.320). This food addi¬
tive regulation provides for properly controlled additions of amino
acids to appropriate protein-containing foods in order to improve pro¬
tein quality. By the same token, it is intended to prevent uncontrolled
uses of amino acids in the fortification of certain foods that may re¬
sult in risk to the public health from excessive intakes of free amino
acids. This regulation permits addition of amino acids as nutrients to
those foods considered to be significant sources of dietary protein in
order to achieve a substantial improvement in the biological quality of
the total naturally occurring protein in a food.

The programs listed |ibove represent the major approaches the FDA
has used to regulate nutrient content of foods. These approaches do
not, however, assure that the nutritional quality of the U.S. food sup¬
ply will be maintained. Consider the hypothetical situation of the de¬
velopment of new dairy substitutes (cheese, yogurt, or milk products)
that have the appearance and taste of their traditional counterparts but
that are twice as shelf stable and cost half as much. Suppose, however,
that such products contained insignificant levels of calcium and amounts
of sodium that were severalfold those of the traditional products. In
view of the importance of the traditional foods, particularly for their
calcium content, it is conceivable that the health of a significant seg¬
ment of the U.S. population might be adversely affected by substantial
use of the substitute products. Considering the FDA’s existing pro¬
grams for nutrition regulation, it is worthwhile to examine each of the
first six programs listed above to see whether the agency is able to take
effective action under any program to prevent the adverse nutritional
impact posed by any one or more of the hypothetical products.
A standard of identity or a common or usual name regulation may be
promulgated, establishing appropriate nutritional requirements for a
class of food products. If a manufacturer should decide, however, not
to reformulate his product to comply with the standard or not to have
the product bear the common or usual name, he would be free to mar¬
ket the product by calling it an imitation without improving its nutri¬
tional characteristics. If a manufacturer adds a vitamin or mineral to a
product, or makes a nutrition claim, nutrition labeling will be required
for the product. If neither is done, the manufacturer may sell his
product without nutrition labeling. The FDA could promulgate a
nutritional quality guideline for substitute products, thereby encourag¬
ing manufacturers to formulate such products in compliance with the
704 V. P. Frattali, J. E. Vanderveen, and A. L. Forbes

guidelines to permit use of the label statement that the product pro¬
vides nutrients in amounts appropriate for this class of food as deter¬
mined by the U.S. Government.” But a manufacturer would remain
free to forego use of this stamp of approval and instead sell a less nutri¬
tious product. The FDA’s imitation regulation, in effect, tells a manu¬
facturer of a substitute product that he may avoid imitation labeling
if the product is fortified to be nutritionally equivalent to the tradi¬
tional commodity and an appropriately informative name is used. A
manufacturer is, nevertheless, not required to take this action. Finally,
the FDA’s fortification policy establishes approved rationales for the
addition of nutrients to foods, but does not compel a manufacturer to
fortify his product. In sum, the FDA’s existing nutrition regulation
programs might be used to encourage manufacturers to produce, and
consumers to select, a substitute product with a sound nutrition profile,
but none of the programs compel a manufacturer to add calcium, to
limit sodium, or even to reveal the product’s nutrient composition in
nutrition labeling if the product is sold as an imitation without making
a nutrition claim.
Fortunately, so far, there has not been any reason to conclude that
one or more new substitute foods have significantly degraded the nu¬
tritional quality of typical U.S. diets. If the opposite were true, that is,
if the existing programs already discussed proved ineffective in pre¬
venting an adverse impact on the nutritional quality of the food supply,
then the FDA would have to attempt some new approach under exist¬
ing statutory authority to correct such a situation. Clearly, the FDA’s
existing regulatory programs with respect to nutrition may not be
sufficient to assure indefinitely that significant degradation of the nu¬
tritional quality of the U.S. food supply will not result from the ap¬
pearance of new fabricated food products, which substitute for and
resemble traditional articles of food. Whether or not the FDA under¬
takes any new regulatory program will be determined by whether or
not a need is perceived to do so. Accordingly, the FDA’s Center for
Food Safety and Applied Nutrition will continue to keep abreast of
new scientific information on human nutrition, clinical survey and
other data on the nutritional health of Americans, trends in the market¬
ing of foods, and trends and attitudes of U.S. consumers with regard to
food selection, in order to consider the best possible regulatory options
to improve the health status of the U.S. populace by improving the
nutritional quality of the food supply.

REFERENCES

FDA 1972. Salt and iodized salt: label statements. Fed. Reg. 37(17), 1166-1167,
Jan. 26.
FDA 1973A. Food labeling. Fed. Reg. 38(13), 2152-2164, Jan. 19.
 25. Role of U.S. Government in Regulations 705

FDA 1973B. Food labeling. Fed. Reg. 38(49), 6950-6975, Mar. 14.
FDA 1973C. Food and food products; definitions, identity, and label statements
Fed. Reg. 38(148), 20702-20750, Aug. 2.
FDA 1973D. Food additives; amino acids in food for human consumption Fed
Reg. 38 (143), 20036-20039>, July 26.
FDA 1977. Part 102—Common or usual names for nonstandardized foods, peanut
spreads. Fed. Reg. 42(136), 36452-36455, July 15.
FDA 1978. Common or usual names for vegetable protein products and substitutes
for meat, seafood, poultry, eggs, or cheeses which contain vegetable protein
products as sources of protein. Fed. Reg. 43(136), 30472-20491, July 14.
FDA 1980. Nutritional quality of foods; addition of nutrients. Fed. Reg. 45(18),
6314-6324, Jan. 25.
FDA 1982A. Infant formula quality control procedures. Fed. Reg. 4 7,(76)
17016-17027, Apr. 20.
FDA 1982B. Enforcement policy; infant formula recalls. Fed. Reg. 4 7(84)
18832-18836, Apr. 30.
FDA 1983A. Infant formula, labeling requirements. Fed Reg. 48(134), 31880-
31887, July 12.
FDA 1983B. Exempt infant formula. Fed. Reg. 48 (134), 31875-31880, July 12.
FDA 1984A. Nutrient requirements for infant formulas. Fed. Reg. 49(71), 14396-
14402, Apr. 11. *
FDA 1984B. Food labeling; declaration of sodium content of foods and label
claims for foods on the basis of sodium content. Fed. Reg. 49(76), 15510-
15535, Apr. 18.
McDonald, J. T., et al. 1983. Assessment of vitamin and mineral usage by means
of a telephone survey. Fed. Proc. 42(3), 530.
Schucker, R. E. 1984. Nutrition labeling in the retail processed food supply.
Division of Consumer Studies, FDA, Washington, DC.
 v

.
 26
The Contribution of
Consumption of Processed Food
to Nutrient Intake Status
in the United States
John P. Hey bach
Gus. D. Coccodrilli, Jr.
Gilbert A. Leveille

FOOD PROCESSING, NUTRIENT INTAKE,

AND HEALTH STATUS

Any analysis of the nutritional contribution of food processing must,

of necessity, proceed from a knowledge of health status (Murphy 1982),
nutrient needs, and food and nutrient intake patterns in the popula¬
tion. As the health status of the U.S. population has improved, the nu¬
tritional considerations underlying food processing practices have
begun, and will continue, to shift from emphasis on ameliorating
relatively well-defined specific nutrient deficiencies (i.e., goiter and
iodine fortification of salt, Quick and Murphy 1982) to recognition of
the important but less well-defined role of a nutritious diet in prevent¬
ing the development of marginal nutrient deficiencies, and promoting
and maintaining a general level of health and functional well-being.
However, the relationships between nutrient intake levels, biochemi¬
cal measures of nutritional status, and health are extremely complex
(Anderson et al. 1982; Beaton 1971). In the absence of clear nutrient
deficiency symptoms these relationships are often not completely
understood (Kerr et al. 1982; Singer et al. 1982). Consideration of
these relationships is therefore beyond the scope of this chapter and we
will restrict ourselves to nutrient intake considerations.
Rather than undertaking a detailed analysis of the impact of past
and present food processing technology, including restoration, enrich¬
ment, and fortification, on the nutrient content of the food supply
(Friend 1972; Quick and Murphy 1982), we will attempt here to con¬
struct some overall estimate of the patterns of consumption and the
contribution of processed foods in each of several food categories to
total nutrient intake status in the U.S. population.

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 26. Nutrient Intake Status 709

POPULATION NUTRIENT INTAKE STATUS

Despite the fact that on a per capita basis the amount of food
energy available for consumption in the United States has increased
over the last 80 years (Welsh and Marston 1982) to a 1981 level of
3420 kcal (Prescott 1982), the actual consumption of calories, as
measured in national food consumption surveys, is considerably lower
and decreasing. The National Health and Nutrition Examination Sur¬
vey (NHANES II) conducted in 1976-1980 showed a mean energy in¬
take of 2381 and 1578 kcal for males and females, respectively (Carroll
et al. 1983), reflecting a slight reduction from 2393 and 1618 kcal
for males and females, respectively, measured in NHANES I, 1971-
1974 (DHEW, 1979).
However, despite continuation of the general trend of reduced
caloric intake, the actual intake of some selected nutrients has increased.
Table 26.1 shows a comparison, on a per calorie basis, of selected nu¬
trient intakes from the jast two NHANES surveys. In general, these
figures reflect an increase in the nutrient density of the U.S. diet.
Fortunately, this increase in nutrient density tends to compensate for
what otherwise could be a reduced nutrient intake due to the reduc¬
tion in caloric intake. As will be seen below, processed foods play a
significant role in providing these nutrients.

Cereal Grain Products

Cereal grains, particularly wheat and corn, are processed into a vari¬
ety of foods, which as a category account for about 25% of our food
energy intake [U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) 1980]. Probably
the most important cereal grain products, in terms of consumption,
are baked bread products, pastas and ready-to-eat breakfast cereals. An
analysis of the results of the Nationwide Food Consumption Survey,
1977-1978 show that on a day in Spring, 1977, 79% of the individuals
surveyed used bread, rolls or biscuits, 29% used ready-to-eat cereals and
14% used pastas indicating widespread use of these grain products as a
basis for their contribution to nutrient intake. The majority of con¬
sumption of cereal grains occurs after some level of processing has been
applied to the whole grain. Table 26.2 shows the use patterns in the
U.S. population of some of these product categories.

Table 26.2. Percentage of Individuals in Different Use Pattern Categories of Some

Processed Grain Products

Yeast breads Pasta Ready-to-eat cereals

Use patterns (%) (%) (%)

Once in 3 days 93.7 11.4 43.4

Daily 32.0 0.5 12.4

Source: USDA (1982).

 so

Data from Nationwide Food Consumption Survey, 1977-1978;

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 26. Nutrient Intake Status 711

Cereal grain products, due primarily to enrichment and fortification,

supply an increasing percentage of total intake of several key nutrients.
Figure 26.1 shows the contribution of foods from the grain products
category to total daily intakp of selected nutrients. The contribution of
grain products to total intake of the nutrients shown is significant, but
particularly so for thiamin, iron, niacin, and riboflavin. As can be seen,
the percentage contribution from grain products of these nutrients ex¬
ceeds the percentage of total dietary energy intake from grain products.
The important contribution of the consumption of grain products to
nutrient intake is demonstrated even more convincingly when nutrient
intake contributions are compared over time. Figure 26.2 shows the in¬
creased contribution to total nutrient intake of cereal grain products
between 1965 and 1977 (Pao 1981).
Although it is difficult to precisely assess the actual nutrient contri¬
bution of consumption of food in a particular food category, the con¬
tribution of a food can be estimated. One approach to this assessment
is exemplified by an analysis of the role of ready-to-eat breakfast
cereals to nutrient consumption at the breakfast meal (Morgan et al.
1981). As can be seen in Table 26.3 users of ready-to-eat cereals have
a better nutrient intake profile than nonusers at breakfast, highlighting

Table 26.3. Nutrient Intake at Breakfast of Users and Nonusers

of Ready-to-eat Cereals

Users Nonusers

Amount RDA Amount RDA

(%) (%)

Energy (kcal) 409 18 413 18

Protein (g) 13 36 12 33
Carbohydrate (g) 60 — 53 —
Fat(g) 14 — 17 —
Ascorbic acid (mg) 49 96 31 75
Thiamin (mg) 0.50 45 0.28 24
Niacin (mg) 5.2 35 2.2 14
Riboflavin (mg) 0.75 55 0.41 29
Pyridoxine (mg) 0.56 47 0.22 17
Vitamin Bj2 (Mg) 1.48 73 0.84 39
Folacin (M g) 100 35 55 18
Vitamin A (IU) 1559 48 817 24
Iron (mg) 3.9 35 2.5 21
Calcium (mg) 310 35 243 17
Phosphorus (mg) 323 37 269 30
Magnesium (mg) 57 23 46 18
Copper (mg) 0.345 — 0.275 —
Zinc (mg) 1.9 17 1.7 15

Source: Morgan et al. (1981).

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 26. Nutrient Intake Status 713

the important role ready-to-eat cereals play in the diet of 5- to 12-

year-old children consuming these products. A similar type of analysis,
applied to data from the first National Health and Nutrition Examina¬
tion Survey (1971-1974), has demonstrated generally superior nutrient
intake profiles in users versus nonusers of pasta products for several
important nutrients (Khoo et al. 1983).
In general, this brief overview indicates some of the areas where the
consumption of processed cereal grain products makes an important
contribution to total nutrient intake in the diet of the U.S. population.

Processed Milk Products

The vast majority of milk and milk-derived dairy products consumed
in the United States undergoes some form of processing and fortifica¬
tion. Milk is pasteurized, homogenized, and widely fortified with
vitamins A and D. Figure 26.3 shows that despite a slight reduction in
the contribution of mill^ and milk products in the total intake of food
energy between 1965 and 1977, the contribution of milk and milk
products to total vitamin A intake has increased, while the contribu¬
tion of nonfortified nutrients (protein, thiamin, riboflavin, calcium) has
remained relatively stable or decreased.
Over the past 15 years, due to changing food preferences and health
concerns about intake of calories and saturated fats, the production and
consumption of fat-reduced milk products has increased dramatically.
Per capita sales of whole milk have dropped from 265 to 150 lb from
1954 to 1980, while sales of low fat milk have increased over the same
period from essentially 0 to 75 lb (Prescott 1983). The increasing
trend toward consumption of low fat fluid milk probably makes a
meaningful and important contribution to increasing the nutrient den¬
sity of the diet for important nutrients, particularly calcium and mag¬
nesium, while reducing fat intake. In addition to fluid milk, there has
been a general increase in the consumption of milk-derived processed
food products, particularly cheeses and yogurts (Pao 1981; Prescott
1983). Table 26.4 shows the relationship between use patterns of vari¬
ous fluid milk categories as assessed in the Nationwide Food Consump¬
tion survey, 1977-1978 (Pao et al. 1982).

Fruits and Vegetables

Although generally not involving the addition of nutrients (with the
exception of some fortified juices), the processing of vegetables and
fruits through canning, drying, and freezing does allow for wider dis¬
tribution of these important foods both geographically and seasonally.
Figure 26.4 shows the contribution of vegetable consumption to nu¬
trient intake as measured in the Nationwide Food Consumption Survey,
1977-1978. Although great variability in nutrient content arises from
714
PERCENT
CONTRIBUTION

tr
m
<
>
z
<
5

u.
o
o
_l
CJ
O

2O UJ
O cc
oo
Fig. 26.3. Contribution of consumption of milk and milk products to total intake of
selected nutrients in 1965 and 1977. Source: Data from Nationwide Food Consump¬
tion Surveys, 1965-1966 (USDA, 1972) and 1977-1978; adapted from Pao (1981).
 PERCENT
CONTRIBUTION

V-O
<
*
< UJ
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tr u.
S §
t O

o o
I<H

V NIWV1IA
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Fig. 26.4. Percentage contribution to total intake of selected nutrients contributed
from vegetable products. Source: Data from Nationwide Food Consumption Survey,
1977-1978; adapted from USDA, 1980.

715
716 J. P. Heybach, G. D. Coccodrilli, Jr., and G. A. Leveille

Table 26.4. Percentage of Individuals in Each Use Pattern for

Various Fluid Milk Categories

Whole Low fat Skim

milk milk milk
Use patterns (%) (%) (%)

At least once in 3 days 64.6 17.3 5.6

Daily 37.1 8.6 2.6

Source: Adapted from Pao et al. (1982).

Table 26.5. Percentage of of Households Using Fruits and Vege¬

tables in Fresh and Various Processed Categories in a Week

Processed
Fresh
Frozen Canned Dried
(%) (%) (%) (%)

Vegetables 34.7 34.7 72.3 19.8

Fruits 44.7 38.7 35.0 10.2

Source: USDA (1982).

a wide variety of factors, such as growing region and processing method

(Dudek et al. 1982), it is becoming clear that processed vegetables com¬
pare favorably with fresh vegetables and are in some instances superior
to “fresh” vegetables, particularly after time in distribution channels
(harvest to consumption) is considered (Dudek et al. 1982). A currently
active research area involves assessing the relative nutrient content due
to the differing methods of processing of canned and frozen vegetables
compared to not processed (i.e., supermarket fresh) vegetables. This
has been, and will continue to be, an area of intense research activity.
Table 26.5 shows the relative household consumption of fresh, canned,
and frozen fruits and vegetables (USDA 1982).
Citrus juices, and orange juice in particular, deserve some additional
comment with respect to vitamin C due to the fact that consumption of
processed juice, including vitamin C-fortified juice, accounts for the
majority of juice intake. Frozen juice consumption leads in terms of
per capita intake and, with chilled juice, continues to increase, while
canned juice intake appears to be decreasing or stabilizing (Prescott
1982). Consumption of citrus and non citrus juices contribute measur¬
ably to vitamin C intakes as measured in the Nationwide Food Con¬
sumption Survey, 1977-1978 (Pao 1981).
 26. Nutrient Intake Status 717

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

The consumption pattern of a particular food or food category in

conjunction with its nutrient content, the nutrient content of associated
accompaniment items and ingredients, and the nutrient needs of the
population that consumes the food in question determines the con¬
tribution of that food to total dietary nutrient intake. It has become
clear over the last several years and been made explicit in this brief
review, that processed foods are an extremely important contributing
source of many important nutrients in the U.S. diet. This contribution
is based not only on restoration and enrichment of foods, but also on
the wider availability of food nutrients due to preservation and distribu¬
tion technologies and other less visible processes, such as fat reduction
of milk, that lead to increased nutrient density of our diets in the face
of continuing reductions in caloric intake.
It is also clear that the processed food industry has contributed and
will continue to contribute and respond, through application of current
and developing food technologies, to consumer behavioral, nutritional
and health challenges in the future.

REFERENCES

Anderson, G. H., Peterson, R. D., and Beaton, G. H. 1982. Estimating nutrient

deficiencies in a population from dietary records: The use of probability analy¬
ses. Nutr. Res. 2, 409-415.
Beaton, G. H. 1971. The use of nutritional requirements and allowances. In
Proc. Western Hemisphere Nutrition Congress III. P. L. White and N. Selvey
(Editors). Futura Publishing, Mount Kisco, NY.
Carroll, M. D., Abraham, S., and Dresser, C. M. 1983. Dietary Intake Source Data:
United States, 1976-80. Vital and Health Statistics Series 11, 231. DHHS
Pub. (PHS) 83-1681. Public Health Service, National Center for Health Statis¬
tics, U.S. Govt. Printing Office, Washington, DC.
DHEW 1979. Dietary Intake Source Data: United States, 1971-74. Public Health
Service 79-1221. Office of Health Research Statistics and Technology, National
Center for Health Statistics, Hyattsville, MD.
Dudek, J. A., Elkins, E. R., Jr., Chin, H. B., and Hagen, R. E. 1982. Investigations
to determine nutrient content of selected fruits and vegetables — Raw, processed
and prepared. Final Report prepared for Science and Education Administration,
Agricultural Research Service, USDA, Hyattsville, MD.
Friend, B. 1972. Enrichment and fortification of foods, 1966-70. National Food
Situation, Economic Research Service, USDA, Hyattsville, MD.
Kerr, G. R., Sul Lee, E., Lam, M-K. M., Lorimor, R. J., Randall, E., Forthofer, R. N.,
Davis, M. A.., and Magnetti, S. M. 1982. Relationships between dietary and
biochemical measures of nutritional status in HANES I data. Am. J. Clin. Nutr.
35, 294-308.
Khoo, C. S., Rawson, N., and Riley, A. M. 1983. Nutritional health status and
dietary patterns of pasta users and non-users. Proc. Western Hemisphere Nutri¬
tion Congress, Alert 84, Miami, FL.
718 J. P. Heybach, G. D. Coccodrilli, Jr., and G. A. Leveille

Morgan, K. J., Zabik, M. E., and Leveille, G. A. 1981. The role of breakfast in
nutrient intake of 5- to 12-year old children. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 34, 1418-1429.
Murphy, R. S. 1982. The national health and nutrition examination survey data
and food fortification policy. In Adding Nutrients to Foods: Where Do We Go
From Here? J. L. Vatter (Editor). American Assoc. Cereal Chem., St. Paul,
MN.
Pao, E. M. 1981. Changes in American food consumption patterns and their
nutritional significance. Nationwide Food Consumption Survey, 1977-78.
Food Technol. 35, 43-53.
Pao, E. M., Fleming, K. H., Guenther, P. M., and Mickle, S. J. 1982. Foods Com¬
monly Eaten by Individuals: Amount Per Day and Per Eating Occassion. Con¬
sumer Nutrition Center, Human Nutrition Information Service, Home Economics
Research Report 44. USDA, Hyattsville, MD.
Prescott, R. 1982. Food Consumption, Prices and Expenditure 1960-81. ERS
Stat. Bull. 694. USDA, Washington, DC.
Prescott, R. 1983. Charts on U.S. Food Consumption. ERS Staff Rep. AGES-
821124. USDA, Washington, DC.
Quick, J. A., and Murphy, E. W. 1982. The Fortification of Foods: A Review.
Agriculture Handbook 598. USDA, Washington, DC.
Singer, J. D., Granahan, P., and Goodrich, N. N., et al. 1982. Diet and iron status,
a study of relationships: United States, 1971-1974. Vital and Health Statis¬
tics. Ser. 11, 229. DHHS Publ. (PHS) 83-1679. U.S. Gov’t. Printing Office,
Washington, DC.
U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) 1972. Food and Nutrient Intake of
Individuals in the United States, Spring 1965. USDA Household Food Con¬
sumption Survey 1965-66. Rep. 11. Consumer and Food Economics Re¬
search Division, Agr. Res. Serv. USDA, U.S. Government Printing Office, Wash¬
ington, DC.
USDA 1980. Food and Nutrient Intakes of Individuals in One Day in the United
States, Spring 1977. USDA Nationwide Food Consumption Survey, 1977-78.
Prelim. Rep. 2. Consumer Nutrition Center, Human Nutrition, Science and
Education Administration, USDA, Hyattsville, MD.
USDA 1982. Food Consumption: Households in the United States, Spring 1977.
Nationwide Food Consumption Survey 19C77-78, Rep. H-l. U.S. Gov’t. Print¬
ing Office, Washington, DC.
Welsh, S. O., and Marston, R. M. 1982. Review of trends in food use in the United
States, 1909-1980. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 81, 120-125.
 27
Methodology for
Nutrient Analysis1
Jesse F. Gregory III

The preservation of foods by thermal processing, drying and other

osmotic manipulation, and freezing has been nutritionally beneficial
by enhancing the distribution and accessibility of many products.
However, losses of quality factors such as flavor and texture, along
with certain nutrients, are to some degree inevitable.
Efforts to adjust processing conditions to maximize the retention
of quality factors, while assuring microbiological safety, require ac¬
curate and precise data for mathematical modeling of the physical,
chemical, and biological processes involved. Such models must in¬
clude terms that describe the reaction rate at a reference temperature,
the concentration dependence of the reaction rate, the temperature
dependence of the reaction rate, and the influence of environmental
variables such as pH, ionic strength, or competing reactants. Process¬
ing experiments are generally performed with multiple regression or
similar design, utilizing various processing or storage times, tempera¬
tures, reactant concentrations, and varied environmental factors. In
order to accommodate an analytical load involving large numbers of
samples and replicates and provide data suitable for accurate modeling,
the methods used must be as precise, accurate, simple, and rapid as
possible. The determination of the nutrient content of foods for
routine quality-control applications in industry, nutritional data gather¬
ing, or for regulatory purposes poses similar analytical needs.
Potential nutritional effects of food processing, as discussed in
previous chapters, may include enhancement or impairment of protein
digestibility and amino acid bioavailability, alteration in the chemical
form and bioavailability of certain minerals, degradation or reduction
in the biological activity or availability of certain vitamins, and altera¬
tion of compounds that affect the biological activity of certain nutri¬
ents. This chapter will be limited to a discussion of methodology for
vitamins. It is not intended to be a comprehensive review of vitamin

1 Based on “Methods of Vitamin Assay for Nutritional Evaluation of Food Process¬

ing,” by J. F. Gregory III. Food Technol. 37( 1):75-80 (1983). Copyright© by
Institute of Food Technologists.

719
720 J. F. Gregory III

assay procedures, but, rather, a discussion of current technology and

research needs pertaining to physicochemical and biological assay
methods.

VITAMIN ASSAY METHODS

Selection of a Method
While many of the vitamins can be quantified in fairly pure form
using direct spectrophotometric, fluorometric, or electrochemical
methods, more specific procedures are required for the analysis of
foods and other biological materials. Chemical methods suitable for
food analysis ordinarily employ spectrophotometric quantitation,
after the formation of specific chromophores or fluorophores, or high
efficiency separations such as high-performance liquid chromato¬
graphy. In addition, certain vitamins have been assayed traditionally
by microbiological methods based on the specific nutritional require¬
ments of various microorganisms. Other biologically specific assay
methods for certain vitamins involve quantitation of binding to specific
binding proteins.
Several analytical approaches are presently available for the deter¬
mination of many of the vitamins, such that methodology may be
selected on the basis of the type of data needed, number of samples,
and capabilities of the laboratory. When justified by the sample load,
automation of all or part of an assay may be desirable. Accurate assess¬
ment of nutritional quality of foods requires that the assay chosen
respond equally to all biologically active forms of the vitamin. This is
particularly important in modeling studies of vitamins that can undergo
interconversion of vitamers differing itiarkedly in stability properties
(e.g., vitamin B6 and folacin). The ability to quantify individual vita¬
mers is another desirable characteristic for assays used in modeling
studies. In contrast, knowledge of specific vitamer concentration is
less important when gathering data for use in applications such as
nutritional labeling and nutrient data banks.
The accuracy of any analytical method must be carefully established
for the particular sample to be analyzed. Lack of sufficient confirma¬
tion of an analytical method can be responsible for erroneous inter¬
pretation of experimental results. Relatively recent examples of
erroneous interpretation of data include research concerning the con¬
tent and distribution of vitamin B6 (Gregory and Kirk 1977; Gregory
and Kirk 1978A) and folacin compounds (Tyerman et al. 1977; Maru-
yama et al. 1978; Lewis and Rowe 1979) in foods or other biological
materials. In each case, an analytical procedure was reexamined and
found to be inadequate for accurate quantitation of naturally occurring
forms of the vitamins being studied. Stewart (1980) summarized the
 27. Methodology for Nutrient Analysis 721

Table 27.1. State of Current Methods for the Determina¬

tion of Vitamins in Foods

Needing further development

L
Conflicting data Fragmentary data

Niacin Folacin Biotin

Riboflavin Pantothenic acid Vitamin K
Thiamin Vitamin A
Ascorbic acid Vitamin B6
Vitamin Bi2
Vitamin D
Vitamin E

Source: Adapted from Stewart (1980).

current status of analytical methodology for vitamins and other nu¬

trients in foods. As summarized in Table 27.1, it is apparent that
there are conflicting reports and inadequate data concerning the suit¬
ability of analytical methods for the determination of many vitamins
in foods. While improvements have been made since this evaluation,
a great deal of refinement, adaptation, and development of analytical
methods is still clearly needed.
Adequate extraction techniques are vital to the success of all vitamin
assay, although they are often taken for granted in methods develop¬
ment. Extraction efficiency, in contrast to recovery, is difficult to
determine for many biological materials and should be the subject of
further research. The ability of an extraction procedure to solubilize
all of the bound or entrapped analyte is a primary factor affecting
accuracy. Studies with radiolabeled vitamins injected into experi¬
mental animals and allowed to equilibrate with tissue vitamin pools
prior to analysis are one means of obtaining data concerning extrac¬
tion efficiency. Typical experimental data are shown in Table 27.2.
Similar studies with plants, such as those employed for pesticide
extraction research (Wheeler et al. 1978), could be performed using

Table 27.2. Examination of Extraction Efficiency for Liver Folacin Determina¬

tion in a Rat Injected with 14C-Folic Acid 24 Hr Prior to Sacrifice and Liver Analysis

14 C extracted
(% of total
Liver fraction hepatic C)

Incubated in 1.0 M mercaptoethanol at 100°C for 5 min, blended,

and centrifuged ~90
Two washes of pellet ~10
Remaining insoluble material 0.3

Source: McMartin et al. (1981).

722 J. F. Gregory III

labeled vitamins or their precursors. Limitations in this approach

center mainly on the identification of unextracted residues, although
currently there are few alternatives. It is also important that the ex¬
traction conditions do not cause artifactual shifts in the proportions
of the various forms of the vitamin being assayed. Thorough studies by
Vanderslice et al. (1981A) illustrate the importance of attention to
extraction conditions for vitamin B6 determinations.

Microbiological Assays
Microbiological assays for the B vitamins were developed initially
as an extension of early metabolic research. Quantification of bacter¬
ial and yeast growth assays has been performed largely by turbidi-
metric methods or titration of acid produced. Assessment of growth
on the basis of metabolic products such as ATP (Harber and Asscher
1979) or 14C02 release from labeled substrates (Chen et al. 1978;
Voigt and Eitenmiller 1979; Guilarte et al. 1981) could improve assay
precision and shorten incubation times. Further research is needed
concerning the application of these alternate methods of quantitation.
While being extremely sensitive, microbiological assays are not well
suited for studies of food processing or other large-scale analysis be¬
cause of their length and cumbersome nature, susceptibility to cultur¬
ing variables, limited sample analysis capacity, the poor precision often
encountered, the differences in response to various forms of a vitamin,
possible stimulation or growth inhibition by other compounds, and
possible nonlinear response (drift) for various volumes of food extract
analyzed. Assay response nonlinearity, as illustrated in Table 27.3,
introduces serious uncertainly and indicates interference. Potentially

Table 27.3. Examples of Drift in Microbiological Assays for B Vitamins

t Volume of Apparent
extract vitamin
added per concentration
Vitamin Sample assay tube (ml) (Mg)

b6* Super Sugar Crisps® cereal 0.05/5 ml 50.2/g

0.10/5 ml 43.2/g
0.15/5 ml 40.5/g
b6* Cocoa Pebbles® cereal 0.05/5 ml 61.5/g
0.10/5 ml 53.4/g
0.15/5 ml 46.6/g
Pantothenic Beef puree 1/10 ml 0.28/ml
acid^ (1.5 hr, 143°C) 2/10 ml 0.41/ml
3/10 ml 0.58/ml
4/10 ml 0.61/ml

a Gregory (1980A); Saccharomyces uuarum assay.

^ Hamm and Lund (1978); Lactobacillus plantarum assay.
 27. Methodology for Nutrient Analysis 723

Table 27.4. Example of Differential Response to B6 Vitamers in Yeast Growth

Assays

Relative activity^

Assay organism B6 vitamer** Mean Range

Saccharomyces uvarum PL 0.92 0.78-1.01

PM 0.76 0.53-0.99
Kloeckera brevis PL 1.03 0.79-1.17
PM 0.60 0.36-0.83

Source: Adapted from Gregory (1982).

a PL, pyridoxal; PM, pyridoxamine.
^ Relative activity (pyridoxine = 1.00). Values are for dose-response curves for
each vitamer under typical assay conditions. Range = 0-10 ng/5 ml assay tube for
each vitamer, triplicate tubes.

interfering factors, including neutralization salts and certain foods addi¬

tives, have been evaluated by Voigt et al. (1979).
Microbiological assays are also subject to error if certain forms of the
vitamin yield a lower response than that used as a standard. Conflicting
data have been reported in this regard concerning the activity of various
folacin monoglutamates in the Lactobacillus casei assay (Shane et al.
1980; Phillips and Wright 1982). Many researchers have reported
unequal response of the three nonphosphorylated B6 vitamers in yeast
growth assays (Table 27.4), although recent studies have suggested
that careful control of culturing conditions and selection of an alternate
assay organism may minimize these response differences (Guilarte et al.
1980). Problems in quantitation arising from unequal response can be
alleviated by chromatographic separation and individual microbiological
determination of each of the B6 vitamers against its own standard
curve (Toepfer and Polansky 1970); however, this method is unsatis¬
factory for multiple analysis. ' Whereas the magnitude of errors intro¬
duced by such response variables may be obscured by the imprecision
of certain microbiological assays, low response to certain vitamers could
be responsible for underestimation in the assay. Problems involving
drift and variable response would limit the usefulness of a microbiolog¬
ical assay method regardless of the technique used for growth measure¬
ment. These problems encountered in microbiological vitamin assay
methods emphasize the need for refinement and development of alter¬
nate assay methods. This is particularly true for folacin, pantothenic
acid, biotin, and vitamin B12, for which microbiological procedures are
currently the principal methods used. Advanced techniques in micro¬
biological genetics currently are being applied to the development of
organisms that exhibit highly specific requirements for the specific
analyte and that are much less susceptible to the limitations of con¬
ventional microbiological assays. Such methodology will be an impor¬
tant addition to the field of nutrient analysis.
724 J. F. Gregory III

Spectrophotometric Assay Methods

Absorption and fluorescence spectrophotometric assay methods
have long been available for the determination of ascorbic acid, niacin,
thiamin, and riboflavin. The chemical reactions involved in the forma¬
tion of absorbing or fluorescing species in these methods impart greater
sensitivity and specificity than can be obtained by direct spectrophoto¬
metric examination of a food extract. Although these procedures are
somewhat cumbersome for large-scale multiple analysis, they can be
employed realiably and with minimal expense (Thornburg 1977).
The documented accuracy and comparative simplicity of these methods
made them well suited for automation. A variety of continuous-flow
methods has been reported and widely used for the determination of
these vitamins (e.g., Kirk 1974A, B; Kirk and Ting 1975; Egberg and
Potter 1975; Roy et al. 1976; Egberg et al. 1977B; Jacobson 1977;
Pelletier and Madere 1977; Behrens and Madere 1979). Application
of automated methods to the determination of water-soluble vitamins
has been reviewed by Roy (1979). Research concerning the nutritional
effects of food processing, along with routine analysis, has been greatly
enhanced by the application of automated methods. Continuous-flow
methodology ordinarily improves analysis rate, reduces technician time
requirements, improves the precision of reactions in which timing and
reagent volume are critical (e.g., alkaline ferricyanide oxidation of
thiamin), and improves overall assay precision (Kirk 1974A, B; Egberg
and Potter 1975; Snyder and van der Wal 1981).
Automated vitamin assay methods based on the segmented-flow
technique of continuous-flow analysis employ a Technicon Auto¬
analyzer® or similar system, which uses a peristaltic pump to meter
precisely samples and reagents through the manifold system (Snyder
et al. 1976; Snyder 1980), much as originally devised by Skeggs (1957).
Segmented-flow analysis is based on the use of air bubbles to provide
segmentation between adjacent portions of the mixed sample-reagent
stream to minimize carryover and enhance mixing. Segmented-flow
methods are normally operated at sampling rates of 30-60/hr.
An alternate technique for automated analysis is flow-injection
analysis, which is a continuous-flow method based on narrow-bore
flow manifolds and valve injection of small sample volumes to provide
controlled dispersion in the absence of air segmentation (Ruzicka and
Hansen 1975; Stewart et al. 1976; Betteridge 1978; Ruzicka and
Hansen 1980; Ranger 1981). Flow-injection systems yield fast sampling
rates (e.g., 60->200/hr) with baseline resolution between samples,
require little stabilization time, usually consume less reagent than
comparable segmented-flow methods, and in many respects are more
versatile than segmented-flow systems (Ruzicka and Hansen 1980;
Ranger 1981). Although the application of flow-injection methodology
 27. Methodology for Nutrient Analysis 725

has been extensive for the analysis of many inorganic and organic
materials, and for enzyme activity assays, application of the technique
to vitamin analysis has been limited to several preliminary reports
concerning ascorbic acid #and thiamin (Ruzicka and Hansen 1978;
Karlberg and Thelander 1978,1980; Strohl and Curran 1979). Many of
the conventional chemical methods for vitamin assays may not be well
suited for flow-injection analysis because of the relatively long reaction
times involved and the residence time limitation of most flow-injection
systems (<2 min). Future applications of flow injection analysis
appear likely to enhance analytical capabilities for automated vitamin
analysis.

High-Performance Liquid Chromatography

Vitamin assay methods based on analytical chromatography have
centered mainly on high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC).
Most vitamins are poorly suited for gas chromatography, while HPLC
provides a wide range of applicable separation and detection methods.
In contrast to the other methods discussed, HPLC offers the potential
for limited multivitamin analysis of a single food extract, but few such
procedures have yet been developed. For example, procedures have
been reported for the simultaneous determination of thiamin and niacin
in pasta and cereals (Kamman et al. 1980); niacin, riboflavin, and
thiamin in rice products (Toma and Tabekhia 1979); pyridoxine,
thiamin, and riboflavin in fortified cereals (Wehling and Wetzel 1984);
vitamins A and E in fortified cereal products (Widicus and Kirk 1979);
and vitamins A, D, and E in animal feeds and premixes (Cohen and
Lapointe 1978). Limitations in further development of HPLC methods
for multivitamin determinations include (1) the complexity of resolving
and quantifying all biologically active forms of many vitamins, (2) the
need for multiple detectors To maximize detection sensitivity and
specificity, and (3) techniques suitable for sample extract purification,
which depend on the chemcial nature of the analytes.
High-performance liquid chromatography methods for the deter¬
mination of individual vitamins in certain foods have been applied to
both fat-soluble and water-soluble vitamins. Comprehensive listings
of HPLC applications to vitamin assays have been published in recent
reviews (Foltz et al. 1983; Yeransian et al. 1985). Numerous HPLC
procedures have been reported for vitamins A, D, and E and certain
metabolites in many foods and other biological materials (e.g., Dennison
and Kirk 1977; Egberg et al. 1977A; Head and Gibbs 1977; Thompson
et al. 1977; Cohen and Lapointe 1978; Jones 1978; Thompson 1978;
McMurray and Blanchflower 1979; Widicus and Kirk 1979; Howell
and Wang 1982). An HPLC method also has been reported for the
determination of phylloquinone, a form of vitamin K, in milk and
726 J. F. Gregory III

formula products (Haroon et al. 1982). These methods improve the

specificity and simplify fat-soluble vitamin assays by reducing the need
for extensive sample preparation and eliminating the need for correc¬
tion for the spectral characteristics of potentially interfering compounds
(Erdman et al. 1973). Separations of various vitamin E compounds
have been developed and applied to foods (Manz and Phillip 1981;
Cort et al. 1983). Procedures such as these are important because they
permit individual quantitation of various tocopherols and tocotrienols
differing widely in vitamin E activity.
High-performance liquid chromatography methods also have been
reported for the determination of ascorbic acid (Pachla and Kissinger
1976; Sood et al. 1976; Augustin et al. 1981; Dennison et al. 1981;
Vanderslice and Higgs 1984; Kacem et al. 1986), riboflavin (Toma and
Tabekhia 1979; Ang and Moseley 1980; Fellman et al. 1982), niacin
(Toma and Tabekhia 1979; Kamman et al. 1980), and thiamin (Toma
and Tabekhia 1979; Ishi et al. 1979; Ang and Moseley 1980; Kammen
et al. 1980; Kimura et al. 1980; Fellman et al. 1982) in biological
materials. Although HPLC methods often provide a greater assurance
of specificity than other methods, HPLC analysis for these water-
soluble vitamins generally offers little advantage over the well-established
continuous-flow automated methods in many cases and often decreases
analysis rate.
A major advantage of HPLC for B vitamin assay is for vitamins for
which there is no widely suitable chemical assay method (e.g., vitamin
B6 and folacin). Numerous methods for the separation and quantita¬
tion of B6 vitamers have been reported and recently reviewed (Gregory
and Kirk 1981). Successful application of vitamin B6 HPLC to the
analysis of certain foods and other biological materials has been report¬
ed using reverse-phase (Gregory 1980A* Gregory and Feldstein 1985)
and ion-exchange methods (Vanderslice etal. 1980,1981A, B,C;Coburn
and Mahuren 1983). Numerous HPLC methods also have been reported
for the separation of folacin monoglutamates. Initial reports indicated
varied success in certain HPLC applications to food folacin analysis
(Clifford and Clifford 1977; Reingold and Picciano 1982; Day and
Gregory 1981; Gregory et al. 1982). Gregory et al. (1984) recently
modified a reverse-phase HPLC procedure to permit the determination
of naturally occurring folacin vitamers in a wide variety of materials.
Although these HPLC methods for vitamin B6 and folacin are rather
lengthy, they provide a potentially favorable alternative to micro¬
biological assay methods.
Another promising area for extension of HPLC to vitamins is post¬
column derivatization using the principles of flow-injection analysis
to enhance sensitivity and specificity. Postcolumn derivatization
methods have been employed in the HPLC determination of folates
(Day and Gregory 1982), various thiamin compounds (Osborne and
 27. Methodology for Nutrient Analysis 727

Voogt 1978; Ishi et al. 1979; Kimura et al. 1980), and niacin (Osborne
and Voogt 1978).

Ligand Binding Assays >*

Ligand binding assays represent a potentially important methodology
for the simple, rapid, and highly sensitive determination of many water-
soluble vitamins. These techniques are based mainly on the interaction
of the analyte with either a naturally occurring binding protein or an
antibody formed against a protein-analyte conjugate. Quantification is
ordinarily based on competition for the binding protein between the
vitamin in a food extract or standard solution and a known quantity of
a radiolabeled derivative. Competitive binding radioassays also have
been applied to the individual quantification of vitamin D compounds
in milk following HPLC fractionation (Hollis 1983; van den Berg et al.
1986). Competitive binding assays for folacin and vitamin B12 have
been used widely for clinical analysis, although their use in other
applications has not been extensive. The accuracy of initial radioassay
methods for vitamin B12 has been questioned (Anonymous 1979); how¬
ever, assays using a sufficiently specific binding protein and rigorous
extraction and pretreatment methods assure accuracy (Beck 1979).
Vitamin B12 radioassays have been applied successfully to foods and a
variety of other materials (Beck 1978, 1979). The accuracy of several
folacin radioassay methods for plasma analysis has been questioned

Table 27.5. Comparison of Assay Methods for the Determination of Folacin in

Selected Foods and Other Biological Materials

Radioassay Microbiological HPLC

Sample (A g/g) (Mg/g) (Mg/g)

Rat liver*2
0 hr autolysis 20.4 6.7 —
3 hr autolysis 20.7 19.9 —
5 hr autolysis 18.5 19.5 —
Spinach, frozen, uncooked^2 4.0 2.5 —

Spinach, fresh, raw* 4.2 1.6 —

Spinach, cooked* 5.0 1.8 —

Brussels sprouts*7 1.05 1.05 —

Collard greens0 1.08 0.93 —

Meat loaf0 20.1 17.9 —

Cabbage, raw*^ 1.34 0.59 2.24

Oat cereal, fortified*^ 7.83 9.30 6.19
Infant formula, fortified^ 0.06 0.19 0.18

a Tigner and Roe (1979).

* Klein and Kuo (1981).
c Graham et al. (1980).
^Gregory et al. (1982).
728 J. F. Gregory III

(Waxman and Schreiber 1977), although methods for accurate plasma

folacin determinations are available (Waxman and Schreiber 1980).
The validity of folacin radioassays for analysis of other biological
materials is uncertain because of the varying affinity of different folacin
vitamers for folacin-binding proteins (Shane et al. 1980). Data sup¬
porting the accuracy of folacin radioassays for certain foods and animal
tissues (Tigner and Roe 1979; Graham et al. 1980; Gregory et al. 1982)
have been reported; however, several studies have shown variable agree¬
ment between the results of radioassays and other methods (Reingold
et al. 1980; Klein and Kuo 1981; Gregory et al. 1982). Typical data are
shown in Table 27.5. A potential source of error in food analysis using
ligand binding assays is the possible assay response due to binding of
biologically inactive vitamin degradation products. Radioassay methods
have been employed in a study of folacin stability, although the assay
specificity with respect to degradation products was not examined
(Ruddick et al. 1980).
Competitive binding radioassays for biotin have been developed
using avidin as the binding protein (Hood 1979; Dakshinamurti and
Allan 1979). Similar methods using thiamin- and riboflavin-binding
proteins have been reported, but these procedures do not appear to
offer an advantage over chemical methods. A radioimmunoassay for
pantothenic acid has been reported to be a favorable alternative to
microbiological methods (Walsh et al. 1979). Radioimmunoassays
also have been reported for folic acid (DaCosta and Rothenberg 1971;
Hendel 1981) and the phosphorylated B6 vitamers (Thanassi and
Cidlowski 1980), but these are of limited use because they do not
respond to other biologically active B6 and folacin vitamers.
An innovative concept for ligand binding assays was recently devel¬
oped for the determination of biotin'based on a biotinyl-lysozyme
conjugate and the inhibition of lysozyme activity by its complexation
with avidin (Gebauer and Rechnitz 1980). The basis of quantification
is the degree of avidin binding to free biotin in standards or sample
extracts, which, in turn, influences the enzymatic activity of the
lysozyme conjugate. This technique presumably could be applied to
other vitamins for which specific binding proteins exist (i.e., riboflavin,
thiamin, folacin, and vitamin B12), and thus eliminate the need for
radiochemicals in their ligand binding assays. Similarly, Viceps-Madore
et al. (1983) prepared monoclonal antibodies which, as indicated by
initial data, could be used to quantify all of the biologically active
vitamin B6 compounds using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay
(ELISA) technique. Methods such as this show great promise for
rapid, simple and highly sensitive assays for various water-soluble
vitamins in the future. With further research and validation, ligand
binding methods may become suitable alternatives to microbiological
assays.
 27. Methodology for Nutrient Analysis 729

Enzymatic Assays
Other biologically specific assay methods, which may be applicable
to food analysis, are based on the coenzymatic activity of certain vita¬
mins. Enzymatic assays ha^e been reported for certain folacin, vitamin
B6, riboflavin, pantothenic acid, and vitamin B6 compounds. Their use
in the determination of total vitamin activity would be limited by the
need to convert other vitamers to a coenzymatically active form. The
sensitivity of such assays would be inversely proportional to the Michaelis
constant for each coenzyme. An enzymatic assay for biotin using
pyruvate apocarboxylase appears to be an attractive alternative to
other assay procedures for this vitamin (Haarasilta 1978). Relatively
few applications of enzymatic methods have been reported for the
nutritional evaluation of foods.

BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITY AND BIOAVAILABILITY

Evaluating Biological Activity
The basic assumption in the use of vitamin assays by any of the
previously discussed methods is that the result is an accurate reflection
of the biological activity or potency of the specific vitamin in a food
sample. Biological activity, in this context, refers to the ability of a
compound to function in fulfilling a specific metabolic requirement.
This should be distinguished from bioavailability, which is normally
used in reference to the extent of absorption and metabolic utiliza¬
tion of a nutrient. In order for an assay to accurately reflect the
biological activity of a vitamin in a food, it must respond to all vita¬
mers in proportion to their biological activity.
Several examples of differences between biological activity and
vitamin assay response illustrate this point. Many conventional assays
for vitamin A compounds are'based on direct spectrophotometry or
colorimetric assay of chromophores produced with various Lewis
acids. The extent of vitamin A isomerization during food processing
and storage is presently unclear. Cis-geometric isomers have lower
vitamin A activity than the all-trans reference compounds (Ames
1965), although all isomers yield equivalent response in nonspecific
vitamin A assays. High-performance liquid chromatographic methods
have been developed which permit individual determination of vita¬
min A isomers for more accurate assessment of biological activity
(Egberg et al. 1977A; Mulry et al. 1982, 1983). Similarly, two oxida¬
tion products of vitamin E, a-tocopheryl oxide and a-tocopheryl
quinone, have been found to exhibit approximately 100 and 35%
molar vitamin E activity, respectively, in rat bioassays using plasma
pyruvate kinase activity as an index of quantitation (Widicus 1980).
Conventional chemical assays for vitamin E would not respond to these
730 J. F. Gregory 111

derivatives. A similar situation has been found with respect to e-

pyridoxyllysine, a reduced protein-bound complex of vitamin B6
aldehyde vitamers formed in thermal processing and storage. This
complexed form of vitamin B6 exhibits partial vitamin B6 activity
for the rat (Gregory 1980B) by virtue of its enzymatic conversion
the vitamin B6 coenzyme form (Gregory 1980C), although it would
not be detected by many assay procedures. Conversely, pyridoxine-S'-
(3-glucoside, a naturally occurring form of vitamin B6 in fruits and
vegetables, exhibits little vitamin B6 activity in the rat but yields a full
response in microbiological assays employing acid hydrolysis (Ink et al.
1986; Gregory and Ink 1987). These examples illustrate the need for
characterization of the various forms of a vitamin present in a food,
along with the biological activity of its derivatives or degradation prod¬
ucts, before biological activity and processing effects can be fully
determined.

Animal Bioassay Methods

The determination of biological vitamin activity of foods or purified
compounds is performed using animal bioassay procedures. Such
methods are lengthy, less precise than physicochemical procedures, and
are expensive to conduct. In vitro alternatives to bioassay methods
obviously would be desirable. However, until the correlation between
the results of in vitro (microbiological or physicochemical) and bio¬
assay methods is fully determined for a particular sample, there is no
alternative to the use of animal bioassays for the evaluation of bio¬
logical activity.
As stated previously, the bioavailability of a nutrient in a food refers
to the fraction (or percentage) which^is absorbed and metabolically
utilized by an animal or person. In view of the length, expense, and
difficulty of human bioassays, many bioavailability studies are per¬
formed using animal models. In this experimental context, bioavail¬
ability is defined as the concentration of biologically available forms
of a nutrient (as determined by animal bioassay) divided by the total
concentration of the nutrient determined chemically or microbiologi-
cally. In most cases microbiological assay procedures cannot adequately
substitute for animal bioassays for the evaluation of nutrient bioavail¬
ability because of the extreme difficulty of devising sample extraction
procedures which would adequately model mammalian (or avian)
digestion and intestinal absorption processes.
Animal bioassays are performed typically using at least three (prefer¬
ably four to five) levels of the purified reference compounds and one
or more levels of the test compound (or dried food sample) added to a
basal diet which is adequate in all nutrients except that being assayed.
Ordinarily at least 8-10 animals per group are employed. The sensi-
 27. Methodology for Nutrient Analysis 731

tivity of many bioassays is increased by a preliminary depletion

period in which all animals are fed a diet deficient in the assayed
nutrient in order to induce a state of moderate deficiency prior
to the repletion phase of the assay. Proper selection of the test animal
is important to the success of the bioassay. The inbred laboratory rat
is commonly used as a test animal in many vitamin bioassays because
of its rapid growth rate, relative ease of handling and genetic uniform¬
ity. In cases where the rat is not satisfactory and a nonmammalian
species would be acceptable, the chick often is a suitable alternative for
vitamin bioassays.
Although early bioassay work was performed almost exclusively
using animal growth as the response criterion, assay specificity can only
be assured by using biologically specific response criteria. Examples of
commonly used response criteria for B vitamins include urinary thiamin:
creatinine ratio, liver thiamin pyrophosphate concentration, and ery¬
throcyte transketolase activity for thiamin (Gregory and Kirk 1978C;
Trebukhina et al. 1981; *Brin 1964); erythrocyte glutathione reductase
activity for riboflavin (Tillotson and Sauberlich 1971); plasma or liver
folacin concentration for folacin (Keagy 1983; Ristow et al. 1982;
Abad and Gregory 1987); plasma pyridoxal 5'-phosphate or erythro¬
cyte aspartate animotransferase activity for vitamin B6 (Lumeng et al.
1978) ; urinary methylmalonic acid for vitamin B12 (Barness et al.
1963); and urinary iV-methyl-nicotinamide excretion for niacin (Carter
and Carpenter 1982). Another quantitative factor, which is useful in
bioassays for riboflavin, thiamin, and vitamin B6 , is the relative increase
in the enzymatic activity of erythrocyte glutathione reductase, trans¬
ketolase, and aspartate aminotransferase, respectively, after in vitro
incubation with the appropriate coenzyme (flavin adenine dinucleotide,
thiamin pyrophosphate and pyridoxal 5'-phosphate, respectively;
Bayoumi and Rosalki 1976). The percentage of stimulation by added
coenzyme provides an index of the degree of apoenzyme saturation,
which is a sensitive functional measure of the animal’s nutritional status
for these vitamins. Biologically specific functional criteria, which have
been used for quantitation of bioassays for fat-soluble vitamins, include
plasma tocopherol, fetal resorption, and degree of myopathy as indi¬
cated by the enzymatic activity of plasma pyruvate kinase in vitamin E
bioassays (Leth and Sondergaard 1977; Machlin et al. 1978; Ames
1979) ; the extent of rat vaginal epithelial cornification for vitamin A
assays (Pugsley et al. 1944; Sietsema and DeLuca 1982); the degree of
metaphysial calcification in rachitic rats or chicks for vitamin D assays
(Anonymous 1970); and plasma prothrombin for vitamin K assays
(Knauer et al. 1976).
Whereas the measurement of biologically specific criteria such as
those listed increases the analytical requirements and expense of
animal bioassays, their use is essential to the accuracy of the results.
732 J. F. Gregory III

-tf-1-1-1-1-1——-1-
0 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50

Added Folic Acid (mg/kg diet)

Fig. 27.1. Dose-response curves for folic acid of diets varying in type of dietary
fiber. Differences observed in growth were not due to an effect of diet on folacin
absorption or metabolism. Source: Ristow et al. (1983); courtesy of the American
Institute of Nutrition.
 27. Methodology for Nutrient Analysis 733

Animal growth is a highly sensitive indicator of nutritional status, but

growth is subject to dietary influences other than that of the variable
being studied. An example is the depressed growth observed in chick
bioassays used to determine the effect of dietary fiber on folic acid
bioavailability (Ristow et al. 1982). In this study diets containing
lignin, sodium alginate, and pectin yielded lower chick growth than
diets containing wheat bran or cellulose, while the actual folacin status
of the chick (as indicated by plasma or liver folacin) was equivalent
for each source of dietary fiber (Fig. 27.1).
A limitation of bioassay data, even for studies conducted using
specific criteria for quantitation, is that there may be a lack of agree¬
ment between results based on different biochemical parameters. For
example, many vitamin B6 bioassays are monitored using several
functional indicators of vitamin B6 status, in addition to growth-
based data. As typified by the results of Table 27.6, estimates of the
concentration of biologically available vitamin B6 often differ widely
among the criteria used-hn a single assay. Statistically significant differ¬
ences between bioassay results based on various biochemical indicators
are not uncommon. Although these criteria would ordinarily provide
consistency in general experimental conclusions, quantitative evalua¬
tion is often difficult. Such differences may be due to subtle influences
of diet composition on the metabolism and pharmacokinetics of
the vitamins; however, little data are available in this regard. Another
problem encountered in the quantitation of certain vitamins by bioassay

Table 27.6. Concentration of Total and Biologically Available Vitamin Bg in

Selected Foods

Vitamin Bg concentration (nmol/g dry weight)^

Nonfat dry Rice-base Raw

Assay method^ milkc cerealc potato^

Total vitamin B6
Microbiological 40+1 201 ± 7 89 ± 4
HPLC - 210 ± 5 —
Available vitamin Bg (rat bioassay)
Growth 48 ± 2 91 ± 11 37 ± 8
Feed efficiency 42 ± 2 55 ± 9 62 ± 5
Liver PLP 35 ± 10 37 ± 11 —
AspAT activity 53 ± 8 89 ± 11 —
AspAT stimulation 28 ± 3 220 ± 56 —
Plasma PLP — — 85 ± 9

a Mean ± S.E.
^ HPLC, high performance liquid chromatography; PLP, pyridoxal 5'-phosphate;
AspAT, erythrocyte aspartate aminotransferase.
c Adapted from Gregory (1980D).
^Adapted from Nguyen and Gregory (1983).
734 J. F. Gregory III

Table 27.7. Differences in Apparent Relative Activity of

Bg Vitamers as a Function of the Bioassay Response
Criterion Employed

Relative activity of B6 vitamer6-c

Response criterion5 Pyridoxal Pyridoxamine

Rat growth 0.92 ± 0.06 0.86 ± 0.03

Feed efficiency 1.05 ± 0.03 1.12 ± 0.04
AspAT activity 0.47 ± 0.02 0.24 ± 0.02
AspAT stimulation 0.29 ± 0.01 0.17 ± 0.01
Plasma PLP 0.75 ± 0.08 0.99 ± 0.26

a AspAT, erythrocyte aspartate aminotransferase; PLP,

pyridoxal 5'-phosphate.
6 Biological activity calculated relative to pyridoxine dose-
response curves. A value of 1.0 would indicate full activ¬
ity of pyridoxal or pyridoxamine, relative to that of
pyridoxine. Mean ± S.E., 9 rats per group.
c From Nguyen et al. (1983).

methods is a differential response to various forms of the vitamin.

Research has shown that B6 vitamers exhibit differing biological re¬
sponses in rat bioassays, the magnitude of which varies as a function of
the response criteria employed (Table 27.7; Nguyen et al. 1983). The
magnitude of these differences in apparent activity of the B6 vitamers
has been shown to vary as a function of the dose employed (Gregory
and Litherland 1986).
A major problem with bioassays for B vitamins using rats or other
rodents is the pronounced effect of diet on the extent of vitamin
biosynthesis by the intestinal microflora-; The contribution of intestinal
microorganisms to the B vitamin nutritive of mammals is difficult to
quantify. Absorption of microbially synthesized nutrients may occur
directly after release from microbial cells,* as appears to be the case
for biotin (McGregor et al. 1947; McCormick 1976) and probably
most other B vitamins. In the case of most rodents, the practice of
coprophagy provides a recycling of initially unabsorbed vitamins from
both microbial synthesis and the diet. The contribution of coprophagy
to the nutriture of rodents for B vitamins and vitamin K has been
shown in many studies which employed feces-retaining tail-cup devices
(Barki et al. 1949; Kulwich et al. 1953; Barnes and Fiala 1958, 1959;
Barnes et al. 1959; Gregory and Litherland 1986; Abad and Gregory
1987). Research concerning the effects of dietary antibiotics on
vitamin status also indicates a role of the intestinal microflora in
vitamin nutriture.
Because of the significant role of the intestinal microflora and the
well-documented influence of diet composition variables on the types
 27. Methodology for Nutrient Analysis 735

and numbers of microorganisms present, careful design and evaluation of

animal bioassays is required to achieve accurate results. It is often difficult
to ascertain whether a response to a test material is due to the assayed nu¬
trient or stimulation of its synthesis by the intestinal microflora. Bioassay
results which exceed chemically or microbiologically determined values
for the total concentration of the assayed vitamin also are suggestive of
microfloral interference. Whenever possible, test materials should be ana¬
lyzed in a bioassay at several levels of addition to the basal diet (Bliss and
White 1967) in order to permit testing for dose dependence of response
and to provide increased precision via a slope-ratio method of quantita¬
tion. Dose dependence and/or a Y intercept of the dose—response curve for
the tested material that is significantly different from that of the standard
dose-response curve suggest interfering effects involving the intestinal
microflora. A method has been reported recently whereby dose-response
curves of standards and test materials exhibiting unequal Y intercepts can
still be quantified (Keagy and Oace 1984), although its application has
been limited. Efforts t© reduce microfloral interference by the preven¬
tion of coprophagy have been partially successful in improving bioassay
accuracy in our laboratory (Gregory and Litherland 1986; Abad and
Gregory 1987). While the prevention of coprophagy improves accuracy in
some applications, biases may be induced by changes in intestinal micro¬
bial populations (Fitzgerald et al. 1964) and interferences can still be en¬
countered via apparent direct absorption of microbially synthesized vita¬
mins (Gregory and Litherland 1986). Use of the chick as an animal model
has partially alleviated this problem in certain applications in which a non¬
mammalian species was acceptable (Ristow et al. 1982; Nguyen etal. 1981).
In studies of the behavior of vitamins during processing in model systems,
the use of an unfortified control permitted an evaluation of ingredient
effects on the bioassay response (Gregory and Kirk 1978A, B).
In spite of the length, expense, relatively low precision, and the
problems previously discussed, animal bioassays provide a great deal
of otherwise unobtainable information concerning the nutritional
quality of foods. In addition to their application in the determination
of the biological activity and bioavailability of nutrients, bioassays
also have been used extensively in the study of naturally occurring
antinutritional factors (e.g., Balloun and Johnson 1953; Carlson et al.
1964; Thompson et al. 1968; Klosterman 1981) and are useful in
evaluating the accuracy of physicochemical assay methods. Through
careful experimental design and evaluation of data, extremely useful
data can be obtained with animal bioassay procedures.

SUMMARY
The selection of analytical methods is of critical importance in
nutritional evaluation of food processing and for routine monitoring.
736 J. F. Gregory III

Assay methods must be precise and accurate and ideally should be able
to accommodate the analysis of large numbers of samples. Much more
research is needed concerning the development and application of
vitamin assay procedures for research and routine use and for the con¬
firmation of their efficacy.

REFERENCES

Abad, A. R., and Gregory, J. F. 1987. Determination of folate bioavailability with

a rat bioassay. J. Nutr. 117, 866-873.
Ames, S. R. 1965. Bioassay of vitamin A compounds. Fed. Proc. 24, 917-923.
Ames, S. R. 1979. Biopotencies of several forms of alpha-tocopherol. J. Nutr.
109, 2198-2204.
Anonymous 1970. Bioassay methods — Vitamin D. In Methods of Analysis,
11th Edition. Association of Official Analytical Chemists, Washington, DC.
Anonymous 1979. Pitfalls in the diagnosis of vitamin Bi2 deficiency by radio¬
dilution assay. Nutr. Rev. 37, 313-316.
Ang, C. Y. W., and Moseley, F. A. 1980. Determination of thiamin and riboflavin
in meat and meat products by high-pressure liquid chromatography. J. Agric.
Food Chem. 28, 483-486.
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ogy in Relation to the Human Nutrition Requirement. National Academy of
Sciences, Washington, DC.
Waxman, S., and Schreiber, C. 1980. Determination of folate by use of radioactive
folate and binding proteins. Methods Enzymol. 66, 468-483.
Wehling, R. L., and Wetzel, D. L. 1984. Simultaneous determination of pyridoxine,
riboflavin, and thiamin in fortified cereal products by high-performance liquid
chromatography. J. Agric. Food Chem. 32, 1326-1331.
Wheeler, W. B., Thompson, N. P., Andrade, P., and Krause, R. T. 1978. Extrac¬
tion efficiencies for pesticides in crops. 1. [14C] carbaryl extraction from mus¬
tard greens and radishes. J. Agric. Food Chem. 26, 1333-1337.
Widicus, W. A. 1980. Degradation and biological activity of alpha-tocopherol dur¬
ing storage in a dehydrated model system. Ph.D. dissertation. Univ. of Florida,
Gainesville.
Widicus, W. A., and Kirk, J. R. 1979. High pressure liquid chromatographic deter¬
mination of vitamins A and E in cereal products. J. Assoc. Offic. Anal. Chem.
62, 637-641.
Yeransian, J. A., Sloman, K. G., and Foltz, A. K. 1985. Food. Anal. Chem. 57,
278R-315R.
n, V

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 28
Nutrient Data Banks
for Nutrient Evaluation
in Foods
Lena Bergstrom

During the past decades, the use of computers in nutrition and di¬
etetics has increased. In North America, about 70 nutrient analysis sys¬
tems are listed in the 1984 edition of the Nutrient Data Bank Directory
(Hoover 1984), but over 165 developers of nutrient analysis systems
were contacted. In Sweden, 16 systems were found in an inventory
(Bergstrom 1985). In the United States, cooperation in this field
started in 1976 with the First Annual National Nutrient Data Bank
Conference. For coordination of food composition tables and of nu¬
trient data banks, a Nordic project group (NORFOODS) was created in
1982, and in the same year plans for an international (INFOODS) and
a European (EUROFOODS) collaboration began to take form. IN¬
FOODS (International Network of Food Data Systems) activities began
with a planning conference, reported in Food and Nutrition Bulletin
(1983, Vol. 2). The goal of INFOODS is to improve the amount, qual¬
ity, and availability of food composition data (Rand 1984). For reach¬
ing this goal INFOODS has set up a secretariat and initiated international
working committees on various topics such as users and needs, informa¬
tion systems, and data quality and terminology. There are also several
regional committees working independently and together with IN¬
FOODS. EUROFOODS is working on several projects (West 1985), as
is NORFOODS (Bergstrom 1985). For example, both INFOODS and
the regional committees are creating food composition tables and nu¬
trient data base systems for user needs.

USERS OF FOOD COMPOSITION DATA

There are many users who need food composition data for various
tasks. International, national, and local users are involved as well as
individuals. International organizations require food composition data
for calculating food supplies, as do epidemiologists for tracing the rela¬
tionship between diet and disease.

745
746 L. Bergstrom

Government agencies at the national level need nutritional informa¬

tion on foods for planning agricultural policies, for evaluating national
food supply, and for assessing nutritional status of the population by
performing surveys of different kinds. These surveys, such as the
National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys (NHANES)
and the Nationwide Food Consumption Survey (NFCS) in the United
States, provide objective data from which a government can base de¬
cisions regarding nutrition-related public policies. The food industry
needs data for optimizing recipes (replacing a component by another
with similar nutrient content) for nutrition labeling and for creating
new food products.
At the local level, hospitals and other institutions systematically
plan menus and special diets. This planning includes production, pur¬
chasing, and menu and fiscal controls (Buchanan 1983; Moore and
Tuthill 1971). Food composition data can be used in research projects
in such disciplines as nutrition and diefetics, medicine, odontology,
food science and economics, food technology, home economics,
psychology, sociology, ethnology, cultural anthropology, economic
history, and economics.
Diet counseling and consumer guidance are examples of uses of food
composition data at the individual level. Nowadays, a person who
needs to check the intake of special nutrients can do so on a personal
computer with a special nutrient analysis program.

NUTRIENT DATA BASE SYSTEMS

A nutrient data base system or a nutrient analysis system consists of

three main parts: a computer (hardware), programs (software), and a
nutrient data bank.
Computers in nutrition are usually divided into three categories,
depending on their size and capability: maxi- (mainframe), mini-, and
microcomputers. The boundary lines between the sizes are diffuse,
especially between mini and micro, and change in pace with the de¬
velopment of computer technology. This technology is developing so
quickly that in selecting a computer for a system, one has to examine
carefully all new information. What was true yesterday may be false
today. The computer is outside the scope of this chapter, but three
references for further study are given: Maloff and Zears (1979),
McMurray and Hoover (1984), and Williams and Burnet (1984).
More important than hardware is the selection of software for the
system. Presently, there are many tools to help with this task. The
most important are unbiased reports and information from colleagues
working with analysis systems. An entire issue of the Journal of Nutri¬
tion Education (1984, 2) is devoted to the use of computers in nutri¬
tion education. Software programs with short descriptions are listed
 28. Nutrient Data Banks 747

on 40 pages. Another journal, the Journal of Dietetic Software, deals

exclusively with this topic.
The Consumer Nutrition Center of the U.S. Department of Agricul¬
ture (USDA) has one of tfye most well-known nutrient data banks in
the world, the National Nutrient Data Bank (NDB).
The NDB is a computer-based management system analyzing nutri¬
ent values in food and is designed for storage, summary, and retrieval of
food composition data. Sources of the data are scientific literature,
unpublished data from government and university laboratories, indus¬
try laboratories, and contract research.
Data evaluation and food identification coding are performed through
three data bases before data are entered into the system for processing:
(1) individual analyses, (2) average values of like items, and (3) repre¬
sentative values. This last data base was used to create the revised
USDA Agriculture Handbook No. 8 (USDA 1976-1984) and different
data bases which are available for purchase (Butrum and Gebhardt
1976; Rizek et al. 198 J; Hepburn 1982). These data bases, together
with other nutrient data sources, can be found in U.S. systems.
Countries with limited resources cannot use the same procedures in
creating food composition tables and nutrient data bases as the USDA.
Usually the country’s own comprehensive or abbreviated food composi¬
tion tables are the main nutrient data sources in the different systems.
Nutrient data from national laboratories as well as information from
food manufacturers and from the literature are included. Many bases
also have a recipe file and programs for calculating nutrients in different
dishes.

DESIGNS OF A NUTRIENT DATA BASE SYSTEM

If the decision is made to use a nutrient analysis system and not to

purchase it or buy services, then it must be developed. Developing
computerized systems is expensive, laborious, and time-consuming.
Accuracy and knowledge in nutrition, chemistry, biochemistry, physiol¬
ogy, medicine, food technology, cooking, mathematics, statistics, and
computer technology are required. Since it is very rare that a single
individual has insight into all these disciplines, developing systems is
typically a team effort.
Before starting the work, careful planning is needed. First, the pur¬
pose of the system has to be decided because selection of foods, nutri¬
ents, and programs is related to the purpose(s). Systems can be divided
into three main types: comprehensive, for nearly all purposes; abbre¬
viated, for use in schools, slimming courses, and so on; and specialized,
for research in a special field.
748 L. Bergstrom

Selection of Foods
For the comprehensive system, the raw foods, the products purchased
in the particular country, and recipes or analyses for dishes generally
consumed are needed. In the abbreviated system, only selected core
foods and recipes for the most common dishes are included. In a
specialized system, the foods included in the comprehensive base are
supplemented with special foods.

Selection of Nutrients
In the comprehensive system, as many nutrients as possible need to
be included, although many may eventually be missing. These gaps
must be flagged. The nutrients included in the national nutrition re¬
commendations will be enough for an abbreviated base, but, of course,
only approximations may be used. For a specialized system, analysis
of food for special nutrients will have to occur (Bruce and BergstrOm
1983).

Selection of Programs
The comprehensive system includes input and output programs for
recalls, records, dietary histories, food frequencies, menu planning,
meal patterns, consumption analyses, nutrition calculations, dietary
analyses of different kinds, energy percentages of protein, fat, carbo¬
hydrates, and alcohol, percentages of national and special nutrition
recommendations, P:S ratios, and statistical parameters. The abbre¬
viated base may only include a simple input program of food items and
outputs for nutrition calculation, energy percentages, percentages of
nutrition recommendations, and perhaps, P:S ratios. The specialized
system programs depend on the topic.
In designing a nutrient analysis system, one should choose a flexi¬
ble data base management system and programs for easy and continu¬
ous revisions. It is extremely important that a system is well docu¬
mented with manuals, flow charts, and so on.

NUTRITION EVALUATION

Data Quality
The goal for all users of nutrient analysis systems is to work with
reliable nutrient data. As analyses of nutrients always are costly (some
are extremely expensive), nutrient data base developers and compilers
of food composition tables have to “borrow” values from others. How¬
ever, before doing so, one may need to know the corresponding food
name in a particular foreign language. (Sometimes the scientific name
 28. Nutrient Data Banks 749

can be of some help, INFOODS and the other committees are now
working on thesauri.) The food standards and the additions of vita¬
mins and minerals to food, the methods of analyses, and the number of
analyses are also required. >
Products with or without brand names and cooked dishes are more
difficult to identify correctly with only a name, therefore, lists of main
ingredients, preferably in grams, and recipes can be helpful. There are
natural variations in the composition of plant foods because of weather
and soil conditions, fertilizers, harvesting time, storage time, and so
forth. In animal food, the race, sex, addition of vitamins and minerals
to the feeds, breeding, and seasonal variations (e.g., in fish and milk)
are important.
Different processing and preparation methods of foods will also
generate variations in nutrient content. Fortification, enrichment, and
standards in a foreign food are further sources of incompatibility.
Therefore, an accurate description of foods analyzed is a necessity. The
analytical methods and* procedures used also need to be described
(Southgate 1974).
In the United States, the state of development of methods for
analyzing nutrients in foods has been reported. The state of methodology
for quite a few common nutrients is conflicting, and for other more
unusual nutrients, the methodology is missing. The state of knowledge
of nutrition composition for different food groups has also been surveyed.
The use of quality indices and confidence codes for foods can be help¬
ful for the compilers of food composition data (Stewart 1983).
Guidelines for the production, management, and use of food com¬
position data will improve the quality of data in the future (Greenfield
and Southgate 1985).

Foods and Dishes

In the following tables, nutrient contents in selected foods are com¬
pared. The values derive from published German, Danish, British, and
American food composition tables and the Swedish and Finnish (Helsinki
University) nutrient data base systems (Souci et al. 1981;M011er 1983;
Paul and Southgate 1978; USDA 1976-1984; Kost 1981; Food System
1981). It is assumed that the values in the tables are included in the nu¬
trient data bases of the country concerned, but since computerized sys¬
tems can be easily updated, the values might not be current. Neverthe¬
less, these values are still good for comparative purposes. In order not
to overload the tables, certain information has been omitted. The fig¬
ures will speak for themselves, but some comments are appropriate.
Dairy products in different countries are usually regulated by differ¬
ent food standards (e.g., fat content). Lowfat milk products are also
750 L. Bergstrom

often fortified with vitamins. If a product is missing in a base, it has to

be replaced by a similar one. An example is quark instead of cottage
cheese in Table 28.1.
If comparing beef meat with pork', for example, the thiamin content
is higher in pork, but the iron content is higher in beef (Table 28.2).
As shown in Table 28.3, in the calculation of food supplies, the edi¬
ble portion values are important. Refuses must be described carefully.
Different energy values depend also on different methods of calculation.
Vitamin D in fish is sometimes calculated. The low and high retinol
contents in American (and Swedish) tuna and shrimp are probably due
to rather old methods of analyses.
Table 28.4 shows that for fats and oils, different kinds of standards
may be used for different products. Margarine is usually supplemented
with vitamins A and D. Some oils might also be enriched with these
vitamins. Fatty acids in margarine depend on the use of oils and fats,
which differ from country to country.
Cereal products very often have added vitamins and minerals such as
thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, B6, and iron. Before one borrows a value
from another country, the enrichment practices must be known (Table
28.5).
Variation in the edible portion of core vegetables such as cabbage,
carrots, and potatoes is important (Table 28.6). The high protein qual¬
ity in peas and potatoes should be kept in mind.
Fruits are usually eaten for vitamin C content. Processing of fruit
products such as orange juice will affect the vitamin C level, as can be
seen in Table 28.7. Vitamin C content in apples varies according to
variety. Apple with skin has more vitamin C than peeled apples.
Nuts are important contributors of protein and fat to the diet in
some parts of the world. With a fat percentage of 50 and above, the
fatty acid composition is of interest. In Table 28.8, only the linoleic
acid is included. The high potassium levels should be noted.
Although confectionary and sugars are * mostly “empty calories,”
some nutrients other than carbohydrate are found.
For the beverage examples in Table 28.10, it is of interest to note
that 10 cups (about 1 dl) of coffee a day for a woman will encompass
50% of the RDA of niacin in England, but only ~20% in the United
States. Coffee seems to provide more energy than tea.
Today, computers are commonly used to produce food composition
tables. Even if three decimal figures seem to be appropriate in computer
calculations, the output should perhaps be rounded off. Too many figures
give a wrong impression of accuracy. For nutrition evaluation the calcu¬
lation of recipes is a source of error. Different food yields, lack of
food yields, “guesstimated” yields, and different factors for the calcula¬
tion of nutrient losses and gains make recipe-calculated values uncertain.
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Table 28.12. Recipe Ingredients (Grams)

Meat loaf GB*’* SFb Sb

Beef, minced v 140

Pork, minced 648 666
Pork sausage meat 100
Onion 100 108 25
Breadcrumbs 100 99 32
Eggs 50 130 81
Salt 5 18 12
Potatoes 124
Butter 13
Margarine 25
Milk 167
Cream 216
Water 167

Thick Thin

Pancake SF S GB S

Wheat flour 199 247 100 261

Milk, summer 125
Milk, winter 987 125 871
Milk, low fat 725
Eggs 217 239 60 141
Lard 50
Margarine 25 55
Butter 11
Salt 8 5 4
Sugar 24

Potato salad GB SF S

Potatoes, boiled 100 569 573

Salad cream 60
Water (=vinegar) 40
Cream, sour 335 95
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Mayonnaise 91
Mustard, prepared 30
Capers (=cucumber),
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Apple 100
Onion 71 82
Salt 2
Sugar 25
Parsley 4

a Wiles et al. (1980).

b GB, Great Britain; SF, Finland; S, Sweden.
 28. Nutrient Data Banks 703

The best system is, of course, to have all dishes analyzed, but as this
usually is impossible due to economic reasons, calculations has to be
used. At the USDA, three methods have been used for calculating the
nutrient content of a cooked dish: (1) applying a retention factor to
each raw ingredient for each nutrient to be determined, (2) using nu¬
trient data for cooked ingredients together with information about
yield of cooked ingredients from raw materials, and (3) using retention
factors for each nutrient for the whole dish (Marsh 1984). In Tables
28.11 and 28.12, some dishes with calculated nutrient content and
ingredients serve as examples.

Discrepancies in Nutrient Evaluation

In comparing different nutrient analysis systems, discrepancies can
be related to the nutrient data base, calculating procedures, computer
programs, and the user. One reason for these discrepancies are differ¬
ent sources of data in ftie bases, particularly those data entered addi¬
tionally to a standard data set. Data must be reliable, valid, and cur¬
rent, and missing, uncertain, or estimated values should be marked.
Especially in research, there have to be enough food items in the
base so that substitutions of foods to similar items can be avoided.
Sufficient choices of household measures and serving sizes should be
provided.
Calculation of recipes is not standardized. Different food yields
and loss and gain factors are used. Computer programs may not be
accurate and must always be checked before being used in standard
procedures. Usually the food items are entered with codes. If the
user inputs a wrong code or wrong weight of a food item, the con¬
sequences are unpredictable. A nutritionist or dietitian has to be
familiar with food values so that errors can be detected. Several com¬
parative studies of nutrient analysis systems have been performed
(Hoover 1983; Dwyer and West Suitor 1984), and methods for ap¬
praisal of nutrient data base system capabilities now exist (Hoover and
Perloff 1983).
INFOODS, EUROFOODS, NORFOODS, LATINFOODS, MEDI-
FOODS, NOAFOODS, and ASIAFOODS, etc., are all working toward
the same goals: improving the quantity, quality, and accessibility of
food composition data.

REFERENCES

Bergstrom, L. 1985. Review of food composition tables and nutrient data banks in
Europe; Sweden. Activities of norfoods. The Nordic project on food composi¬
tion tables and nutrient data banks. Am Nutr. Metab. 29 (Suppl. 1), 11-13,
16-24.
764 L. Bergstrom

Bruce, A., and Bergstrom, L. 1983. User requirements for data bases and applica¬
tions in nutrition research. Food Nutr. Bull. 5(2), 24-29.
Buchanan, P. W. 1983. Quantity Food Preparation. American Dietetic Associa¬
tion, Chicago.
Butrum, R. R„ and Gebhardt, S. E. 1977. Nutrient data bank: computer-based
management of nutrient values in foods. J. Am. Oil Chem. 53(12), 727A—730A.
Dwyer, J., and West Suitor, C. 1984. Caveat emptor: Assessing needs, evaluating
computer options. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 84(3), 302-312.
Food System. 1981. Department of Nutrition. University of Helsinki. (Nutrient
data base.)
Greenfield, H., and Southgate, D. A. T. 1985. Guidelines to the Production, Manage¬
ment, and Use of Food Composition Data Systems. 4th Edition. (In manuscript.)
Hepburn, F. N. 1982. The USDA national nutrient data bank. Am. J. Clin. Nutr.
35(5)’ 1297-1301.
Hoover, L. W. 1983. Computerized nutrient data bases. 1. Comparison of nutrient
analysis systems. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 82(5), 501—505.
Hoover, L. W. 1984. Nutrient Data Bank Directory. 4th Edition. Presented at the
Ninth Annual National Nutrient Data Bank Conference.
Hoover, L. W., and Perloff, B. P. 1983. Computerized nutrient data bases. 2. De¬
velopment of model for appraisal of nutrient data base system capabilities. J.
Am. Diet. Assoc. 82(5), 506-508.
KOST 1981. Swedish National Food Administration. (Nutrient data base.)
Maloff, C., and Zears, R. W. Computers in Nutrition. Artech House, Dedham, MA.
Marsh, A. 1984. Problems associated with recipe analysis. Presented at the Ninth
Annual National Nutrient Data Bank Conference.
McMurray, P., and Hoover, L. W. 1984. The educational uses of computers: Hard¬
ware, software, and strategies. J. Nutr. Educ. 16(2), 39-42.
Miller, A. 1983. Levnedsmiddeltabeller. Danish National Food Agency, S^borg.
Moore, A. N., and Tuthill, B. H. (Editors). 1971 (3rd printing, 1982). Computer-
Assisted Food Management Systems. Univ. of Missouri, Columbia.
Paul, A. A., and Southgate, D. A. T. 1978. McCance and Widdowson’s The Com¬
position of Foods, H. M. S. O., London.
Rand, W. M. 1984. The need for an international food system. Presented at
ASIAFOODS conference, Sept.
Rizek, R. L., Perloff, B. P., and Posati, L. P. 1981. USDA’s nutrient data bank.
Food Technol. Austr. 33(3), 112-114.
Souci, S. W., Fachmann, W., and Kraut, H. 1981. Food Composition and Nutri¬
tion Tables 1981/82. Wissenschaftliche Verlagsgtesellschaft, Stuttgart.
Southgate, D. A. T. 1974. Guide Lines for the Preparation of Tables of Food
Composition. Karger, Basel.
Stewart, K. K. 1983. The state of food composition data: An overview with
some suggestions. Food Nutr. Bull. 5(2), 54-68.
U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) 1976-1984. Agriculture Handbook 8,
Vols 1-12. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.
West, C. E. (Editor). 1985. Towards Compatability of nutrient data banks in
Europe. Ann. Nutr. Metab. 29 (Suppl. 1).
Wiles, S. J., et al. 1980. The nutrient composition of some cooked dishes eaten in
Britain: A supplementary food composition table. J. Hum. Nutr. 34(3), 189-
223.
Williams, C. S., and Burnet, L. W. 1984. Future applications of the microcomputer
in dietetics. Hum. Nutr. 38A(2), 99-109.
Index

A p-Aminobenzoic acid, stability of, 4

Aminoethoxyvinylglycine (AVG),
Abscissic acid, effect on fruit effect on fruit composition, 82
composition, 82 Animal bioassay methods, for vitamin
Acidity control, as food-processing activity, 730-735
method, 16-17 Animal fats, composition of, 164
Acids, effects on nutrients, 448-449 Animal foods, U.S. consumption of, 9
Aflatoxins, residues of, in meat, 193 Animals, meat of, human food
Agricultural-practices effects resources and feeds for, 154-155
on cereals, 101-118 Antibiotic(s)
on fruits, 73-100 in animals’ diet, effects of, 177-178
on legumes and oilseeds, 119-152 residues, in meat, freezing effects on,
on vegetables, 23-71 306
Alcohol Antioxidants, beneficial effects of, 452
in beverages, 760 Apium graveolens, breeding for better
fermentations involving, 4^4 quality in, 669-670
Aldrin, in fish and shellfish, 252 Apple, nutrients in, 757
Alfalfa, nutrient loss during drying of, Araucana chickens, eggs from,
410 cholesterol in, 235
Alkalies, effect on nutrients, 448 Arginine, stability of, 5
Alkaloids, in vegetables, 31-32 Arsenic
Almonds, nutrients in, 758 in animals’ diet, effect on meat, 176
Aluminum, use in food packaging, in fish and shellfish, 252, 253
493, 494 in vegetables, 31
Amino acids Ascorbic acid
baking effects on, 355-356 baking losses of, 356, 358
in canned baby foods, 166-171 as beneficial food additive, 452, 453
in cereals, 103, 108, 114 cooking losses of, 528-551
detrimental interactions involving, in dairy products and eggs, 751
451 drying-process effects on, 413-415,
in dried beans, 37 419
FDA regulations regarding safe use fermentation effects on, 439-441
of, 703 food-storage conditions effect on,
fermentation effects on levels of, 497-501
430-431 fortification with, stability of,
in fish and shellfish, 251 611-614, 616, 617-618
fortification with, 623 freeze preservation effects on, 269,
irradiation effects on, 471 283
in legumes, 123 in fresh vegetables and fruits, 508-509
loss during extrusion processing, in frozen vegetables, cooking effects
385-386 on, 282-285
in meat, bioavailability, 190 in fruit juices, 757
of milk proteins, 205-206 contribution to U.S. diet, 716
in oilseeds, 132, 133 in fruits, 757
in optimum protein quality freeze preservation effects on,
mixtures, 648-650 287-293
in sausage products, 183-187 maturity and, 78-79
stability of, 3-5 in home-prepared foods, losses of,
in vegetables, 26-28 560-564, 566, 570-595

765
766 Index

Ascorbic acid (cont.) fatty acids in, 157

iron reaction with, 449 home-cooking effects on nutrients in,
irradiation effects on, 472-473 574,575-582
as marker vitamin for nutrient loss, irradiated, 459-460, 483
269-270 effect on protein, 470, 471
mineral effects on, 622 nutrients in, 157, 750
nitrite reaction with, 449 genetic effects, 165, 173
RDAs, attainable from various plant home-storage effects, 560-563
foods, 677-678 protein, biological value of, 206
stability of, 3, 4, 269-270 tallow, composition of, 164
in tomato, genetic improvement for, thaw-exudate of, nutrient loss in,
668 298-303
in vegetables U.S. consumption of, 9
freeze-preservation effects on, world consumption of, 154, 155
269-283, 309 Beer, nutrients in, 760
growing procedure and, 34-36 N6 -Benzyladenine, effect on vegetable
Asparagine, stability of, 5 shelf-life, 65
Atherosclerosis Beta vulgaris var. bengalensis, breeding
dietary meat and, 191-192 for better quality in, 669
fish unsaturated acids and, 248 Beverages
Auxins nutrients in, 760
effect on fruit composition, 82 U.S. consumption of, 10
effect on vegetables, 65 Bicarbonate, effects on foods cooked
with, 587
Biochemical cycle, of foods, 7, 8
Biogenous amines, in cheese, 215
Baby foods, canned, chemical Biological availability
composition of, 166-171 evaluation of, 729-735
Baking, effect on nutrients, 355-364, of vitamins in fortified foods,
542-543 614-615
Banana, nutrients in, 757 Biomass, availability of, for animal
Barley feeds, 155
amino acid, content of, 103, 114 Biotin
composition of, 102 ^ssay of, 728-729
processing of, 113-114 fermentation effects on, 438-439
Bean(s), 120 safe dietary intake of, 14
amino acid composition of, 123 stability of, 3, 4
breeding for better quality of, Bitter gourd, breeding for better
660-662 quality in, 668-669
composition of, 11, 37, 38, 120-127 Black beans, protein complementation
fatty acid composition of, 124 using, 638-643
mineral content of, 126 Black gram, breeding for better quality
protein, biological value of, 206 in, 665-666
protein complementation using, Blanching
638-643 definition of, 320
sugars and polysaccharides in, 124 effects on nutrients, 334-338,
Bean flours, extruded, processing 583-585
effects on, 380-383 storage of food following, 338-339
Beef Blood sausage, chemical composition
baby food containing, composition of, 182-183
of, 166-171 Boiling, nutrient losses during,
cooking losses of nutrients in, 528-532, 534-536, 540-541, 584
509-526 Bolognas, chemical composition of,
factors affecting, 165, 173 162, 182-183
 Index 767

Braising, nutrient losses during, 512-517 Calcium

Brassica spp., breeding for better in animals’ diet, effect on meat,
quality in, 670-671 175-176
Bratwurst, chemical composition of, in beverages, 760
182-183 ' in cheese, 216, 751
Braunschweiger sausage, chemical in confectionaries and sugars, 759
composition of, 182-183 in dairy products and eggs, 751
Breadmaking in fish and shellfish, 251, 753
amino acid losses in, 357 fortification with, 621
Maillard reaction in, 547 in mechanically deboned meat, 180,
nutrients retained during, 592-593 196
Breakfast cereals in nuts, 758
nutrient intake in U.S. of, 711 RDAs for, attainable from various
vitamin fortification of, 618 plant foods, 677-678
Broad beans, 120 in soil, vegetable nutrients and,
amino acid composition of, 123 47-48
breeding for better quality in, as vegetable preservant, 64
663-665 in vegetables, 756
composition of, 120-127 Calorie density, in blended foods,
fatty acid composition of,i24 extrusion effects on, 378-379
sugars and polysaccharides in, 124 Calories, in food, fermentation effects
vitamin content of, 125 on, 424-425
Broasting, nutrient losses from, 519 Cancer, dietary meat and, 192-193
Broccoli Canned foods
fresh, ascorbic acid in, 508 baby foods, nutrients in, 166-171
vitamins and thiocyanate in, 671 fortified, stability of, 616
Broiling, cooking losses from, nutrient retention in, 344-347,
' 509-512, 576 492
Bromide chemicals, effect on fruit vitamin retention during storage of,
composition, 83 498
Brotwurst, chemical composition of, Canning, of fish and shellfish, 259
182-183 Canopy fruit, ascorbic acid content of,
Brown shell eggs, erroneous 78
information on, 235 Carbendazine, limits of, in meat
Brussels sprouts, 671 products, 193
glucosinolates in, 670 Carbohydrates
Bureau of Chemistry USDA, as FDA baking effects on, 363
predecessor, 688 in beverages, 758
Butter in confectionaries and sugars, 759
nutrients in, 757 as energy sources, 25-26
U.S. consumption of, 10 in fruits and fruit juices, 757
Buttermilk, lactic acid in, 215 irradiation effects on, 462-466
in recipes, 761
in vegetables, 756
C
Carotene. See also Vitamin A
Cabbage cooking losses of, 534-539
breeding for better quality in, 670 food storage conditions effect on,
nutrients in, 756 497-498
Cadmium loss during drying, 418, 419
in fish and shellfish, 252, 253 RDAs for, attainable from various
in meat and meat products, 176 plant foods, 677-678
in milk, 208 stability of, 4
Cajanus cajun, breeding for better Carotenoids, in fruits, factors affecting,
quality in, 666 79-80
768 Index

Carrot mineral content of, 126

breeding for improved quality in, sugars and polysaccharides in, 124
675-676 vitamin content of, 125
nutrients in, 756 „ Chicken
Carving juice, from cooked meats, nutrients in, 752
nutrients in, 528 cooking effects on, 525
Casein U.S. consumption of, 9
amino acids in, 206 Chili, breeding for better quality in,
biological value of, 206 669
Cassava Chinese cabbage, breeding for improved
breeding for improved quality of, 675 quality in, 671
nutrients in, 30 Chlordimeform, limits of, in meat
Cauliflower, thiocyanate in, 671 products, 193
Celery, breeding for better quality in, Chloride, safe dietary intake of, 14
669-670 Chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides,
Cellophane, as food packaging material, in animal tissue, 178
495-496 Chlortetracycline, in animals’ diet,
Celosia, breeding for better quality in, effects of, 178
670 Chocolate, nutrients in, 759
Center for Food Safety and Applied Cholesterol
Nutrition, jurisdiction of, 696, 704 in animal fats, 156
Cereal-cottonseed blends, nutritional health problems and, 191-192
evaluation of, 377 cooking effects on levels of, 524,
Cereals and cereal grains, 101-118 525
chemical composition of, 101, 102 in eggs, 235-237, 238
fermentation of, 427 in food groups, 11
home preparation of, nutrient losses in mechanically deboned meat, 197,
in, 566-574, 591-593 232
nutrients in, 8, 102-115, 755 nutritional labeling for, 698-699
processed foods based on, U.S. in poultry meat, 225
consumption of, 709-713 in seafood, 249, 250, 260
Cereal grains in U.S. diet, 10
protein complementation of, 638-643, Choline, stability of, 4, 5
651 Chorizo, chemical composition of,
protein supplementation of, 630, 631 ' 182-183
Standards of Identity for, 696-697 Chromium, daily dietary intake
U.S. consumption of, 9 recommendations for, 14, 694
Cheese Cicer arietinum, breeding for better
nutrients in, 751 quality in, 666-667
processing and storage effects on, Citrus fruits
215-218, 433, 434, 435, 437-439 agricultural practices and quality of,
U.S. consumption of, 9 74-81
Chemical additives, use in food harvesting of, 84-85
preservation, 16, 17 U.S. consumption of, 9
Chemical agents, affecting fruit Climate, for fruit crops, 76-78
composition, 82-83 Clostridia, formation in cheese ripening,
Chemical preservation, of fruits and 217
vegetables, 64-66 Cobalamin, see Vitamin B12
Chick peas, 120 Cobalt
amino acid composition of, 123 in animals’ diet, effect on meat, 175
breeding for better quality of, as vegetable preservant, 64-65
666-667 Cocoa, U.S. consumption of, 10
composition of, 120-127 Coconut meat, nutrients in, 758
fatty acid composition of, 124 Cod, nutrients in, 753
 Index 769

Coffee food uses of, 145-146

nutrients in, 760 oil and meal from, 138
U.S. consumption of, 10 protein complementation using,
Cola soft drink, nutrients in, 760 643-644, 645
Colon carcinogenesis, dietary mekt Cowpea
and, 192-193 breeding for better quality in, 665
Common names, for foods, regulations composition of, 121
for, 699-700, 703 mineral content of, 126
Compudase, as animal growth Crock-Pot®, meat cooked in nutrient
promoter, 177 losses, 576, 582
Computers, use in nutrient data Cruciferous vegetables
storage, 746-747, 750, 763 nutrients in, 27, 28
Concentration, 393 toxic factors in, 29, 31
nutrient loss during, 398-401 Cucumber, breeding for better quality
Confectionaries, nutrients in, 759 in, 668—669
Consumer Nutrition Center, of USDA, Cucumis sativa, see Cucumber
747 Cultured milk products, composition
Controlled atmosphere (CA) storage, and digestibility of, 213-214
of fruits, 89-91 Curing
Convective heating, nutrient josses effect on nutrients, 449
during, 522, 523 offish, 256-257
Convenience foods, from seafoods, of meat, 180-181
260-261 of vegetables, 56
Cooking Cyanogenic glycosides, in beans, 662
nutrient loss during, 4 Cyhexatin, limits of, in meat products,
home cooking, 557-605 193
liquid used in, 576-578 Cysteine
Vegetables, 281-287 stability of, 5
Cooking utensils, effect on nutrient as thiamin protectant, 453
retention, 587 Cystine, stability of, 5
Copper Cytokinins, effect on fruit
in animals’ diet, effect on meat, 175 composition, 82
in meat and meat products, 195, 196
nutrient destruction by, 449-450
D
safe dietary intake of, 14
Corn Dairy products
amino acid content of, 103 drying of, nutrient loss during, 412
composition of, 102 freeze-preservation effects on, 305
milling processes for, 105 nutrients in, 8, 11, 751
products, nutrients in, 105, 107-108 processed, U.S. consumption of, 713
protein supplementation of, 629, Standards of Identity for, 696
631,632-634, 638-643 substitute products for, FDA policy
Corn flakes, nutrients in, 753 and, 703
Corn oil, nutrients in, 752 U.S. consumption of, 9
Corn-soy blends, nutritional evaluation Daminozide, effect on fruit
of, 374 composition, 82
Corn syrup sweeteners, U.S. Data banks, for nutrients, 745-764
consumption of, 10 Daucus carota, breeding for improved
Cottonseed quality in, 675-676
amino acid composition of, 133, DDE, in fish and shellfish, 252
136-137 DDT
carbohydrates of, 135 in fish and shellfish, 252
composition of, 131 residues, in animal tissue, 178-179,
fatty acid composition of, 133 193
770 Index

Deboned meat (mechanical), 180 Electrolytes, safe dietary intake of, 13

bone powder in, 196-197 ELISA technique, vitamin assay by,
nutrients in, 156 728
poultry, 231-232 “Elixir of Sulfanilamide” incident,
Dehydrated foods, storage effects on, role in passage of FFD&C Act of
500 1938, 688
Dehydration Endrin, in fish and shellfish, 252
nutrient loss during, 393-422 Energy
techniques based on, 401-406 in foods, 8, 11, 12, 25-26, 753-761
Dhals, as legume use in India, 129 fermentation effects on, 424-425
l,2-Dibromo-3-chloropropane (DBCP), Enzymatic assays, for vitamins,
effect on fruit composition, 83 728-729
Dieldrin, in fish and shellfish, 252 Ethephon, effect on fruit nutrients,
Diethylstilbestrol, former use in 85-86
animal feed, 177 Ethylene treatment, of fruits and
Disease, dietary fiber and, 25 vegetables, 56-57, 82, 91
Docosahexaenoic acid, in fish and EUROFOODS nutritional data bank,
shellfish, 248 745, 763
Dolichos lablab, breeding for better Evaporated milk, manufacture and
quality in, 667 nutritive value of, 219-220
Drippings, from meat, nutrient loss in, Evaporation, 393
527 processes based on, 399-401
Drum drying Explosion puff drying, nutrient loss
description of, 404-405 during, 418
nutrient losses during, 409-412 Extrusion processing
Dry-mix fortification, problems in, 617 amino acid loss in, 385-386
Dutch loaf, chemical composition of, of blended foods, 371-379
184-185 conditions of, 367-368
description of, 365-367
starch digestibility and, 368-371
E
textured protein made by, 387-388
Eggs vitamin stability in, 383-384
cholesterol in, 235-237, 239
cold-stored, nutrient losses in, 565
F-*
cooking effects on, 240
dehydrated, storage effects on, 500 Fat(s) (and oils)
erroneous information on, 235 animal, composition of, 156, 164
hen dietary factors affecting, 235-239 in anjmals’ diet, effect on meat, 175
management system effects on, 239 baking effects on, 363
nutrient composition of, 11, 233-234, in canned baby foods, 166-171
240, 751 in chickens, factors affecting, 227
genetic factors, 238-239 in dairy products and eggs, 751
hen’s age and, 237-238 as energy sources, 25
nutritional value of, 206 fat in, 759
processing and storage effects on, in fish and shellfish, 245, 247-248
239-240 in fruits and fruit juices, 757
production factors affecting, 235-239 irradiation effects on, 466-468
protein complementation using, in meat, 752
646-647 health problems and 191-197
U.S. consumption of, 9 nutrients in, 11, 754
Eicosapentaenoic acid, in fish and in nuts, 758
shellfish, 248 in recipes, 761
Electrical stimulation, of animal trimming of, from meat, 574
carcasses, 179 U.S. consumption of, 10
 Index 771

Fatty acids disease and, 25

in canned baby foods, 166-171 extrusion-process effects on, 379-380
degradation of, during cooking, 591 in food groups, 11
extrusion-processing effects on, 376 Figaron, effect on fruit composition,
in fats and oils, 754 * 82
in fish and shellfish, 248-249 Filberts, nutrients in, 758
in legumes, 124 Fish meal and flour
in milk fat, 203-205 nutrient loss during drying of,
moisture-removal effects on, 397 410-411
nutritional labeling for, 698-699 protein supplementation by, 632, 633
in peas and lentils, 124 Fish and shellfish, 245-265
in poultry meat, 226-227 B vitamins in, cooking effects on,
in sausage products, 183-187 295
stability of, 3,4 canning of, 259
unsaturated, in fats and oils, 754 cholesterol in, 249, 250
in various animal fats, 164, 759 contaminants in, 252
in various meats and meat products, curing of, 256-257
157-163 fast foods from, nutritional value of,
Favism, occurrence and causes of, 664 260-261
Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act fats in, 245, 247, 753
of 1938, 687 fatty acids in, 248-249
common or unusual names and, freezing of, 260
699-700 frozen, cooking effects on, 305
Food Additives Amendment of, 690 harvesting and handling of, 253-255
Food Standards Amendments of, home preparation of, nutrient losses
689 of, 562
fortification policy and, 701-702 irradiated, vitamin retention in, 481
imitation food policy and, 700-701 mechanical processing of, 255
Infant Formula Act of, 692-695 nutrients in, 753
nutritional labeling regulations of, oxidation prevention in, 257-258
697-699 preservation techniques for, 256-261
nutritional quality guidelines of, 700 proximate composition of, 8, 11,
provisions of, 689 245-252,753
Standards of Identity of, 696-697 raw, use as food, 253
Vitamin and Mineral Supplements shipboard handling of, 254-255
Amendment of, 691-692 spoilage of, 254
Federal Meat Inspection Act (March 4, U.S. consumption of, 9
1907), 687 Flour, nutrients in, 8, 11
Federal regulations for nutritional Fluoride
value of food supply, 687-705 in animal feeds, 177
history, 687-689 in mechanically deboned meat, 197
Feingold diet for hyperactivity, 32 safe dietary intake of, 14, 694
Fenoprop, effect on fruit composition, Foam-mat drying, 405
82 Foam spray-drying, 405
Fermentation, 423-446 Folacin compounds, assay of, 720,
of meat products, advantages of, 181 721, 726, 728, 732
nutrient changes during, 423-424 Folic acid
phytic acid removal by, 441-442 cooking effects on, 577
Fertile eggs, erroneous information on, in fruits, factors affecting, 81
235 fermentation effects on, 435-436
Fertilization, of fruit crops, 75-76 losses during baking, 359-361
Fiber stability of, 3, 4
in diet Food(s)
cancer and, 192 biochemical cycle of, 7, 8
772 Index

Foods (cont.) Freeze preservation, 269-317

common or usual names for, effect on nutrients, 269-317,
regulations for, 699-700, 703 559-563, 566-568
family budgeting for, 189 of fruits, 287-293
fortification of, 609-764 of meat and meat products, 188,
irradiated, clearance for, 463-465 293-305
spoilage of, 15, 16-17 of vegetables, 271-287, 566-574
Food additives, effect on nutrients, Freezing, of fish and shellfish, 260
447-456 Freshness, of fruits and vegetables,
Food Additives Amendment of 1958, terminology used in, 507-509
to Federal Food, Drug, and Frozen dairy desserts, U.S.
Cosmetic Act of 1938, 690 consumption of, 9
Food consumption, in the U.S., 8 Frozen-storage effects
Food and Drug Administration (FDA), on fruits, effects on, 287-289
regulations promulgated by, on meat, 296, 559-563
687-695 on vegetables, 274-280
Food and Drugs Act (June 30, 1906), Fructose, in confectionaries and
687 sugars, 759
basic principles of, 688 Fruit juices
Food groups nutrients in, 755
nutrients in, 7-19 U.S. consumption of, 9
U.S. consumption of foods in, 9-10 vitamin-retention in, during storage,
Food habits, changing, in the U.S., 497
557-559 Fruits, 73-100
Food Label and Package Survey of 1983, agricultural practices for growing,
nutritional labeling and, 699 74-83
Food preparation methods, effect on canned storage of, nutrient loss in,
nutrients, 503-605 571-572
Food preservation, by ionizing chemical agents affecting, 82-83
radiation, 457-490 dietary importance of, 73
Food processing drying of, effect on nutrients,
necessity for, 7-8, 15 414-415
principles of, 15-18 fortification of, 615-617
Food Standards Amendments, to freeze preservation of, nutrient loss
Federal Food, Drug, and v in, 287-293, 308
Cosmetic Act of 1938, 689 fumigation of, 91-92
Foodservice, effect on nutrients, harvesting and handling of, 83-86
503-605 homei preparation of, nutrient losses
summary of variables in, 550 in,' 566-574, 582-593
Fortification of foods, 609-764 maturation of, 78-81
amino acids, 623 nutrients in, 8, 11, 73, 74, 757
dry mixes, 617 factors affecting, 78-81
minerals, 619, 621-623 harvest methods and, 85-86
technology of addition, 615-621 processing effects on, 287-293
U.S. regulations on, 698, 701-702 prefreezing treatments of, 287
vitamins, 609-614 preparation procedures for effects
Frankfurter, chemical composition of, on,574-575
162, 184-185 processed, U.S. consumption of,
Freeze concentration, nutrient loss 713-716
during, 401 refrigeration of, nutrient loss in,
Freeze drying 569-570
description of, 405 rootstock propagation of, 81
nutrient loss during, 405, 410, soil requirements for, 74-75
418 storage effects on, 86-92
 Index 773

sunlight effects on, 77-78 Headchese chemical composition of,

U.S. consumption of, 9 184-185
Frying, nutrient losses during, 512, Heart disease, dietary meat and,
541-543, 576, 590-591 191-192
Fumigation, of fruits, 91-92 Heat processing
effect on nutrients, 319-354
kinetic parameters, 324-330
G
reviews on, 322-323
Garden freshness versus market Heat treatment, as food-processing
freshness, 507-509 method, 16
Gas-concentration manipulation, High-performance liquid chroma¬
effect on fruits, 89-91 tography (HPLC), vitamin assay
Gelatin and gelatin desserts, nutrients by,725-726
in, 163 High-temperature-short-time (HTST)
Genetics, effect on animal muscle processes, 493
composition, 165 extrusion processes using, 367, 368
Geographic area, effects on vegetable nutrient retention in, 331-332, 334,
nutrients, 38-43 341-343
Gibberellins, effect on fruit Histamine, in cheese, 215, 217
composition, 82 ^ Hogs, slaughter and processing effects
Glass, as packaging material, 493 on meat of, 179-180
Glucose, in confectionaries and sugars, Home
759 food-preparation methods in, effect
Glucosinolat.es, in Brassica spp., on nutrients, 557-605
670-672 cooking, 575-595
Glutamine, stability of, 5 preparation procedures, 574-575
Goat meat, world consumption of, storage, 559-574
'153 Homogenization of milk, effects on
Goiter, iodized salt use in prevention digestibility, 212
of, 702-703 Honey
Goitrogens, in vegetables, 29, 670 consumption of, 10
Gossypol nutrients in, 759
in cottonseed, 134, 137 Hormones, in animals’ diet, effects of,
inactivation of, in extrusion 177
processing, 376 Hot boning, of meat tissue, effects of,
Grams, as legume use in India, 129 179-180
GRAS substances, regulations for, in Hot holding, nutrient loss during,
Food Additives Amendment of 549-550
1958, 690 Humidity, effect on fruit storage, 87-88
Growth regulators, effect on fruit Hyacinth bean, breeding for better
composition, 82 quality in, 667
Hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF), in
heat-treated milk, 211
H Hyperactivity, from salicylates, 32
Ham Hypobaric storage, of fruits and
baby foods containing, composition vegetables, 62-64
of, 166, 168, 169, 171 Hypochloremic metabolic alkalosis,
chemical composition of, 158, in infants fed chloride-deficient
184-185, 752 formulas, 692
cooking losses of nutrients in, 519
irradiated, effects on vitamins, 474
I
Harvest methods
fruit nutrients and, 85-86 Imitation food policy, of FDA,
vegetable nutrients and, 53-66 700-701, 703
774 Index

Incaperina, 146 in recipes, 761

Indian chard, breeding for better Irradiation. See also Radurization
quality in, 669 as food-processing method, 16, 17
Infant Formula Act of 1980, provisions v seafood preservation by, 258-259
of, 692-695 Irrigation, effect on vegetable
INFOODS nutritional data bank, nutrients, 49
745, 749, 763 Isoleucine, stability of, 4
Infrared heating, nutrient loss during,
522, 523 J
Inositol, stability of, 3, 4
Insecticides, residues of, in animal Jam, nutrients, 759
tissue, 178-179
Intestinal flora, cultured milk products K
and, 215
Kale, breeding for improved quality in,
Invert sugar, in confectionaries and
671
sugar, 759
Kamaboko, preparation of, 255
Iodine
Kefir, lactic acid in, 215
in animals’ diet, effect on meat, 176
Kidney bean
in milk, 207-208
sugars and polysaccharides in, 124
in seafood, 251
vitamin content of, 125
Iodized table salt, FDA regulations on,
Kinetics, of moisture removal, 394
702-703
Kinetin, effect on vegetable shelf-life,
Ionizing radiation, 457-490
65
advantages of, 462
Kielbasa, chemical composition of,
definitions of terms used in, 483-484
184-185
effects on
Knackwurst, chemical composition of,
carbohydrates, 462-466
184-185
lipids, 466-468
macronutrients, 466
microbes, 460 L
proteins, 468-471 Lactalbumin, biological value of, 206
vitamins, 472-483 Lactic acid
foods cleared for, 463-465 in cultured milk products, 215
hazards of, 458-460 fermentations involving, 424
packaging materials with, 460-462 isomers, in food fermentations,
radiolytic products from, 459-460 426-427
types of, 458 Lactobacilli
Ipomoea batatas, breeding for mutation of, 443
improved quality in, 674-675 use in fermentations, 430
Iron Lactuca satiua, see Lettuce
baking effects on, 362 Lamb
in beverages, 760 baby foods containing, composition
in cereals and cereal products, 755 of, 169, 171
fortification with, 621, 622-623 heritability factors for, 172
in fruits and fruit juices, 757 nutrients in, 159
in infant formulas, regulations cooking losses, 509, 511, 521, 526
affecting, 693-694 genetic effects, 165
in meat and meat products, 752 thaw-exudate of, nutrient loss in,
availability, 190 299
mechanically deboned, 196 U.S. consumption of, 9
in nuts, 758 world consumption of, 154, 155
nutrient destruction by, 449-450 Lard and tallow
RDAs for, attainable from various composition of, 164, 754
plant foods, 677-678 U.S. consumption of, 10
 Index 775

LATINFOODS nutritional data bank, general composition of, 121

763 mineral content of, 126
Lead Linoleic acid
in animals’ diet, effect on meat^ 176 baking effects on, 363
in fish and shellfish, 252 in nuts, 758
in meat and meat products, 195, 196 in oilseed oils, 136
in milk, 208 Lipids
Leaves of vegetables, nutrients in, 30 irradiation effects on, 466-468
Leg of lamb, nutrients in, 159 in oilseeds, 132-134
Legal aspects, of regulating nutritional Liver, nutrients in, 158, 752
value of foods, 687-705 Liver sausage, chemical composition
Legumes, 119-152 of, 184-185
antinutrients in, 127 Low-cost extrusion cooking (LEC),
canning of, 128 equipment used in, 372
carbohydrates of, 121, 122 Low-temperature treatment, as food¬
composition of, 120-127 processing method, 16
edible, 119-120 Luncheon meats, chemical composition
fatty acid composition of, 124 of, 160, 186-187
fermentation of, 427 Lupines, breeding for better quality in,
flours and isolates of, 128-J.29 666
food uses of, 129 Lycopersicon esculentum, see Tomato
lipids of, 121, 122 Lysine
nutrients in, 11, 37, 38, 127 deficiency of, in cereal grains, 630
cooking losses of, 531, 532 destruction in Maillard reaction,
processing effects on, 127-129 356,593
protein complementation using, drying-method effects on, 408,
638-643 410-412
proteins of, 120-122 extrusion-processing effects on,
amino acid deficiency of, 127 385-386
quick-cooking of, 128 fermentation effects on levels of,
roasting of, 128 424-425, 429, 442
seed structure of, 120 fortification with, 623
sprouts of, 127 in legumes, 119
sugars and polysaccharides in, 124 stability of, 4, 5
vitamins and minerals in, 125 Lysinoalanine, in heated proteins, 211
Legumin, variation of amino acids inr
663
M
Lentils, 120
amino acid composition of, 123 Magnesium
composition of, 120-127 fortification with, 621-622
fatty acid composition of, 124 in meat, bioavailability of, 190
mineral content of, 126 in soil, vegetable nutrients and, 47-48
sugars and polysaccharides in, 124 in soy protein, 621
vitamin content of, 128 as vegetable preservant, 64-65
Lettuce, breeding for better quality in, in vegetables, 756
669 Maillard reaction, 397, 623
Leucine, stability of, 4 in baking, 355-356, 361, 363,
Ligand binding assays, of vitamins, 547, 593
726-728 in extrusion processing, 385-386
Light, effects on vegetable nutrients, in heated milk, 211
33-34 Maize. See also Corn
Lima beans protein complementation of,
amino acid composition of, 123 638-643, 647, 652
fatty acid composition of, 124 protein supplementation of, 629
776 Index

Manganese home, 559-565

in animals’ diet, effect on meat, 175 thaw-exudate of, nutrient loss in,
safe dietary intake of, 14 297-303
as vegetable preservant, 64-65 thawing of, effects on, 297
Manihot esculenta, breeding for trimming effects on, 574
improved quality in, 675 U.S. consumption of, 9, 153-154
Margarine vitamins in, factors affecting, 175
freeze preservation of, 305 world consumption and production
nutrients in, 754 of, 153-155
U.S. consumption of, 10 contribution to calorie levels, 154
Marmalade, nutrients in, 759 Meat loaf
Maturity, effect on vegetable nutrients, nutrients in, 761
51-53 recipe ingredients for, 762
Mayonnaise, nutrients in, 754 MEDIFOODS nutritional data bank,
Meat(s), 153-202. See also individual 763
types of meat Melengestrol acetate (MGA),
animals used for, human food as animal growth promoter,
resources and, 154-155 177
cooking effects on nutrients in, Melons, nutrients in, 30
303-305, 509-526, 575-582 Membrane processes, for moisture
cut size, effects on nutrient loss, removal, 401
579-580 Mercury
dietary effects on quality of, 174-179 in fish and shellfish, 252-253
fat and cholesterol in, 156 in meat and meat products, 176,
fat in diet related to quality of, 195, 196
174,175-176 in milk, 208
freeze preservation of, effect on Metals and metal foils, use in food
nutrients, 270, 293-305, packaging, 493-494
559-563 Methionine
frozen-storage effects on, 296 deficiency of, in soybeans, 137
health problems and, 191-197 detrimental interactions involving,
cancer, 192-193 451
heart disease, 191-192 extrusion-processing effects on, 385
minerals, 194-197 fortification with, 623
mycotoxin residues, 193 stability of, 4, 5
pesticide residues, 193-194 Microbiology assays, of vitamins,
home canning of, effects on nutrients, 722-723
582 Microorganisms, in intestine, cultured
home cooking of, effect on nutrients, milk products and, 215
575-582, 595 Microwave cooking, nutrient losses
nutrients in, 8, 11, 155-165, 750 during, 522, 524-526, 543-547,
bioavailability, 190 580-582, 588-591
genetic effects, 165, 172 Milk, 203-224
nutritional needs met by, 188-190 biological value of, 206
nutrition of animal related to, 174 cultured products from, 213-214
prefreezing treatment effects on, dried, 220
293-294 nutrient loss in, 411-412, 417
processing of, 197 evaporated, 219-220
refrigerated, nutrient losses in, freeze preservation of, 305
563-565 heat effects on, 209-212
salting and curing of, 180-181 heavy metal contaminants in, 208
slaughter and processing effects on, homogenization of, 212
179-180 minerals and trace elements in,
storage of, 181, 188 207-208
 Index 777

nutrients in, loss during processing, Molybdenum

340, 341 in animals’ diet, effect on meat, 175
processed foods based on U.S. safe dietary intake of, 14
consumption of, 713 t - Momordica charantia, breeding for
processing effects on, 209-212 better quality in, 668-669
refrigerated, nutrient losses in, 564 Mortadella, chemical composition of,
Standards of Identity for, 696 186-187
storage effects on, 212-213 Mung bean
U.S. consumption of, 9 amino acid composition of, 123
vitamins in, 208-209, 212 breeding for better quality of,
Milk-fat composition, factors affecting, 665—666
203-205 sugars and polysaccharides in, 124
Milk powder, manufacture and vitamin content of, 125
nutritive value of, 220 Mushrooms, toxins in, 32
Milk protein Mustard, breeding for improved
biological value of, 205-206 quality in, 672
composition of, factors affecting, Mutton
205-206 heritability factors for, 173
Millet tallow, composition of, 164
amino acid content of, 103* world comsumption of, 155
composition of, 102 Mycotoxin(s)
Minerals cheese and, 217
in animals’ diet, effect on meat, residues, originating in animal feed,
175-177 193
baking effects on, 360-362
in canned baby foods, 166-171
N
cooking losses of, 523, 531-533, 540
in eggs, 234 National Health and Nutrition
federal regulations affecting sale and Examination Survey (NHANES),
use of, 691-692 of nutrients in U.S. diet, 708-709,
in fish and shellfish, 250-252 746
in food groups, 11 National Nutrient Data Bank (NDB),
fortification with, 619, 621-623 747
in home-cooked foods, 587-588 Nationwide Food Consumption
Josses, 560 Survey (NFCS), 746
in legumes, 125, 126 “Natural” food products, 506
in meat, retention in cooking, 580 Navy bean
in milk, 207-208 composition of, 121
RDAs of, 13 mineral content of, 127
residues of, in meats and meat sugars and polysaccharides in, 124
products, 194-197 Nemagon, as vegetable soil fumigant, 66
in sausages, 182-187 Nematodes, in fish, 253
stability of, 4, 5 Niacin
in vegetables, 23-24, 27, 29 in beverages, 760
cooking effects on, 284 in cereals and cereal products, 755
Mirex, in fish and shellfish, 252 cooking losses of, 512, 518,
Miso, preparation of, 145 534-539, 543, 576
Moisture removal. See also individual detrimental interactions of, 451
methods fermentation effects on, 432-434
chemical kinetics of, 394 food storage conditions effect on,
as food processing method, 16 497-498
nutrient loss during, 393-422 in home-prepared foods, losses of,
temperature factors in, 394-395 560, 561
water effects on, 395-398 in meat and meat products, 752
778 Index

Niacin (cont.) optimization of thermal processes for

radiosensitivity of, 474 retention of, 330-334
stability of, 4 pasteurization effects on, 335,
Nitrite 339-340
effect on nutrients, 449 preparation procedure effects on,
formation in cheese ripening, 217 574
in meat and meat products, 180 in processed foods, U.S. intake of,
in smoked fish, 257 707-718
in vegetables, 31 processing and storage effects on,
Nitrogen, in soil, vegetable nutrients 267-501
and, 43-45 in raw and processed foods, 21-265
Nitrogen fertilizer, for fruit crops, Recommended Daily Dietary
75-76 Allowances (RDA) of, 10, 698
Nitrosamines stability of, 3-5
formation of, 217-218 sterilization effects on, 341-343
in meat, cancer and, 192-193 in U.S. food supply, 10-12
NOAFOODS nutritional data bank, in vegetables, 8, 11, 23-32, 271-287
763 improvement by breeding, 659-686
NORFOODS nutritional data bank, Nutrition, of animals, effect on meat
745, 763 quality, 174
Nutrient Data Bank Directory, 745 Nutrition evaluation, nutrient data
Nutrients analysis and, 748
additives beneficial to, 451-453 Nutrition labeling, regulations on,
analysis methodology for, 719-792 697-699
biological activity and bioavail¬ Nutritional quality guidelines, FDA
ability, 729-735 provision of, 700
vitamins, 720-729 Nuts
baking effects on, 355-364 nutrients in, 758
blanching effects on, 334-338 U.S. consumption of, 9
in canned baby foods, 166-171
in canned food, retention of, 344-347
O
in cereals, 8, 11, 155-165
cooking losses of, 509-526 Oat(s)
in dairy products, 8, 11 amino acid content of, 103
data banks for, 745-764 composition of, 102
drying-process effects on, 393-422 milling processes of, 110-111
extrusion process effects on, 365-391 products, nutrients in, 112, 113
fermentation effects on, 423-446 Oatmeal, nutrients in, 755
in fish and shellfish, 8, 11, 245-252 Obesity, dietary fat and, 192
food additive effects on, 447-456 OCEANIAFOODS nutritional data
in food groups, 7-19 bank, 763
food-processing effects on, 15-18 Oils, see Fat(s) (and oils)
in foods, U.S. governmental regula¬ Oilseed proteins, protein
tions for, 687-705 complementation of, 643-644
foodservice effects on, 503-605 Oilseeds, 119-152
freeze-preservation effects on, amino acid composition of, 133
269-317 carbohydrates of, 134, 135
in fruits, 8, 11, 73, 74, 287-293 composition of, 131-136
heat processing effects on, 319-354 edible oils from, 139
home food preparation effects on, edible protein products from, 139,
557-605 141
in meat and meat products, 8, 11, fatty acid composition of, 134
155-165, 293-305 food uses of, 143-147
cooking losses of, 509-526 nutritional properties of, 136
 Index 779

processing effects on, 138-145 composition of, 131

protein content of, 131 fatty acid composition of, 133
vitamins and minerals of, 134-136 food uses of, 146
Opaque-2 corn, high protein quality vitamins and minerals of, 135, 758
of, 101, 107 * Peas, 120
Orange, nutrients in, 757 amino acid composition of, 123
Orange juice, nutrients in, 757 breeding for better quality in,
Organic eggs, erroneous information 662-663
on, 235 composition of, 120-127, 756
Oxalates fatty acid composition of, 124
detrimental interactions involving, mineral content of, 126, 756
451 sugars and polysaccharides in, 124
in vegetables, 31, 32 vitamin content of, 125
Oysters, zinc in, 252 Penicillium spp., use in cheese making,
217
Pepperoni, chemical composition of,
P
186-187
Packaged foods, nutrient retention in, Pesticide(s)
491-493 limits of, in meat products, 193-194
Packaging t residues, in foods, freezing effects
of fruits and vegetables, 61-62 on, 306
materials used for, 493-496 Petroselinum hortense, breeding for
stabilization of foods by, 491 better quality in, 669-670
tests on, 492 Phaseolus vulgaris, breeding for better
Packaging materials, for use with quality of, 660-662
ionizing radiation, 460-462 Phenolic antioxidants, interaction with
Pancake food additives, 450
nutrients in, 761 Phenylalanine, stability of, 4, 5
recipe ingredients for, 762 Phosmet, limits of, in meat products,
Pantothenic acid 193
cooking losses of, 518, 560, 577 Phosphate, in cheese, 218
fermentation effects on, 439 Phosphorus
fortification with, 619 in animals’ diet, effect on meat, 175
safe dietary intake of, 14 in confectionaries and sugars, 759
stability of, 4 fertilizers, for fruit crops, 76
Paper, use in food packaging, 494-495 in legumes, 125
Parasites, in and on fish, 253, 254 in meat, bioavailability of, 190
Parsley, breeding for better quality in, in soil, vegetable nutrients and,
669-670 45-46
Pasta Phytates, 623
nutrients in, 753 detrimental reactions involving, 451
cooking losses of, 532-533 hydrolysis of, during breadmaking,
Pasteurization 360-361
definition of, 320 in legumes, 125
effect on nutrient retention, 335, in oilseeds, 134
339-340 removal by fermentation, 441-442
in milk, 209-212, 213 Phytohormones, effect on fruit
in stored foods, 341 composition, 82
Patulin, cheese molds and, 217 Pigeon pea, breeding for better quality
Peanut flour, extrusion texturization in, 666
of, 388 Pigs, see Hogs
Peanuts Pisum sativum, breeding for better
amino acid composition of, 133, 137 quality in, 662-663
carbohydrates of, 135 Plaice, nutrients in, 753
780 Index

Plant breeding, for improved vegetable solanine in, 31, 32, 57-60
nutrients, 659-686 U.S. consumption of, 9
Plant foods, U.S. consumption of, 9 Potato flakes, dehydrated and
Plastics, use in food packaging, 495 fortified, 617-618
Pneumatic drying, 405 Potato salad
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), nutrients in, 761
in fish and shellfish, 252 recipe ingredients for, 762
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons Poultry, 225-233
(PAHs) age effects on, 228
in fish and shellfish, 252 breed and strain of, 228-229
in smoke, 193, 449 cooking effects on, 232-233
in smoked fish, 257 diet effects on, 225-228
Polymeric packaging films, for use fat in, factors affecting, 226-227, 229
with ionizing radiation, 461 management systems for, 230-231
Polyolefins, as food packaging mechanically deboned meat of,
materials, 496 231-232
Polyunsaturated fats nutrients in, 8, 11, 225
in diet, heart disease and, 191-192 cooking losses of, 509-526, 579
in fats and oils, 759 processing and storage of, 229-230
Polyunsaturated fatty acids production factors affecting,
in fats and oils, 754 225-228
in fish, 247-248 products, proximate composition of,
in milk fat, factors affecting, 203-205 230
Pork and pork products U.S. consumption of, 9
heritability factors for, 173 world consumption of, 154, 155
hog diet related to meat quality of, Poultry Products Inspection Act
173-175 (August 28, 1957), 687
hog slaughter and processing effects PR toxin, cheese and, 217
on,179-180 Preparation procedures, for food,
irradiated, effects on vitamins, 474, nutrient losses in, 574-594
475, 476, 479 Prepared foods, reheating of, nutrient
nutrients in, 160, 750 loss in, 594-595
cooking losses of, 510, 511, Pressure cooking, nutrient loss during,
513-516, 523, 526, 560, 563, 522, 536-537, 540-541
570 Primicarb, limits of, in meat products,
thaw-exudate of, nutrient loss in, 193
298, 299 Processed foods, U.S. intake of
U.S. consumption of, 9 nutrients in, 707-718
world consumption of, 154, 155 Processing, effect on nutrients,
Potassium 267-501
fertilizer, for fruit crops, 76 Protamine, in poultry diet, effects of,
in nuts, 757 227-228
safe dietary intake of, 14 Protein(s)
in soil, vegetable nutrients and, 46-47 baking effects on, 355-356
as vegetable preservant, 65 bioavailability of, freeze preservation
in vegetables, 756 effects on, 306-307
Potato(es) biological value of, 26, 28
breeding for improved quality in, cooking effects on quality of, 527
672-674 in dairy products and eggs, 751
drying of, nutrient losses in, 406-407 drying-method effects on, 408-412
nutrients in, 11, 30, 756 extrusion processing effects on,
cooking losses of, 533, 536, 371-375
541-543, 546, 594 fermentation effects on, 427-431
protein, biological value of, 206 in fish and shellfish, 753
 Index 781

in fruits and fruit juices, 757 Radurization, of fruits and vegetables,

in legumes, 120, 122 64
in meat, 752 Rapeseed, breeding for improved
bioavailability of, 190 quality of, 672
in nuts, 758 Recommended Dietary Allowances
in oilseeds, 131-132, 136 (RDAs)
quality improvement of, 628-638 contributed to U.S. diet by break¬
RDAs for, attainable from various fast cereals, 711
plant foods, 677-678 of nutrients, 10, 12, 13, 698
in recipes, 761 for various plant foods, 677-678
utilization of, in blended foods, 375 Refrigerated storage
vegetables as sources of, 26, 28, 756 of vegetables, 57-60
Protein complementation of foods, nutrient losses in, 569-570
627- 657 Reheating of foods, nutrient losses
amino acid patterns in, 648 during, 547-549, 594-595
applications of, 651-652 Reverse osmosis
human studies on, 646-648 description of, 401
supplementation compared to, nutrient retention in, 418
636-638 Rhubarb, toxicants in, 31-32
Protein concentrates, storage effects Riboflavin
on, 499 in cereals and cereal products, 755
Protein efficiency ratio (PER), of in cheese, 216, 751
optimum protein quality cooking losses of, 509-512, 515,
mixtures, 648-650 516, 518, 534-537, 549, 550,
Protein products, micronutrient 576
requirements for, 620 in dairy products and eggs, 751
Protein supplementation of foods fermentation effects on, 431-432
applications of, 650-651 radiosensitivity of, 474
complementation compared to, stability of, 4, 5
636-638 Rice
protein quality improvement by, amino acid content of, 108
628- 638 milling processes for, 108
PSE condition of pork, 179 nutrients in, 102, 109-111, 755
Psophocarpus tetragonolobus, breed¬ protein, biological value of, 206
ing for better quality in, 667 as protein complement, 642, 643
Pyridoxine U.S. consumption of, 9
assay of, 720, 721, 726, 728, 731, 733 Roast beef, nutrients in, 157
biological availability studies on, Roasting, nutrient losses during,
729, 734 517-519, 576
in cereals and cereal products, 755 Rootstocks, fruit propagation by,
cooking losses of, 543, 550 effect on quality, 81
fermentation effects on, 437-438 Roquefortin, in blue cheese, 217
fortification with, stability of, 610, Rutabaga, breeding for improved
611 quality in, 671
in home-prepared foods, losses of, Rye
560-564,577-578 amino acid content of, 103
in meat and meat products, 752 composition of, 102
radiosensitivity of, 474
stability of, 4, 5 S

Salami, chemical composition of,

R 162,186-187
Radiolytic products, from irradiated Salicylates, in vegetables, 31,32
foods, 459 Salmon, nutrients in, 753
 782 Index

Salt, see Sodium and sodium chloride Sorghum

Salting, of meat, 180-181 amino acid content of, 103
Sausage composition of, 102
chemical composition of, 162, processing effects on, 114-115
182-187 Soups, canned, nutrients in, 163
manufacture of, 180-181 Soy-based infant formulas, chloride
Seafood, see Fish and shellfish deficiency in early products,
Season, effects on vegetable nutrients, 692-693
36-38 Soy milk, preparation of, 145
Seawater, use for icing fish, 254-255 Soy sauce, preparation of, 145
Secondary elements, in fertilizers, Soybean(s)
for fruit crops, 76 amino acid composition of, 133,
Selenium 137-138, 142
in animals’ diet, effect on meat, 176 carbohydrates of, 135
in fish and shellfish, 251-252 composition of, 131
safe dietary intake of, 14, 694 extruded, processing effects on,
Serine, stability of, 5 380-383
Sesame flour, protein complementa¬ fatty acid composition of, 133
tion using, 643, 644 flours and grits from, 141
Sheep, heritability factors for, 172, food uses of, 146-147
173 oil and meal from, 139-141
Shelf life, of retail food products, 573 Oriental foods from, 143, 145
Shell-DD®, effect on fruit composi¬ products
tion, 83 drying-method effects on, 408-409
Shellfish, see Fish and shellfish effect on nutrient loss during
Shortening, U.S. consumption of, 10 cooking, 526-528
Shrimp, nutrients in, 753 protein
Sinigrin, in cruciferous vegetables, biological value, 206
29, 31 fortification of, 619-621
Smoke, carcinogens in, 449 textured, extrusion-processing
Smoked meat, cancer and, 193 effects on, 387-388
Smoking as protein complement, 640-641,
effect on nutrients, 449 647, 651
of fish, 256-257 protein concentrates and isolates
of meat products, 181 from, 142-144
Sodium and sodium chloride as protein supplement, 632, 637, 638
in meat products, levels of, 196 vitamins and minerals in, 135
nutritional labeling for, 699 Soybean oil, in dairy cow diet, effect
in poultry diet, effects of, 228 on milk fat, 204
in recipes, 761 Spaghetti
safe dietary intake of, 14 with meat sauce, hot holding effects
as vegetable preservant, 65 on nutrients in, 549-550
Sodium tripolyphosphate, as dip for nutrient loss during cooking of, 593
fish fillets, 255, 294 Species/varieties, of vegetables, nutrient
Soil, for fruit cultivation, 74-75 levels in, 49-50
Soil fertility, effect on vegetable Spectrophotometric assays, of
nutrients, 43-49 vitamins, 723-725
Soil fumigants, effect on fruit Spices and herbs, U.S. consumption of, 9
composition, 82-83 Spinach
Solamarine, in potatoes, 673-674 breeding for better quality in, 669
Solanine, in potatoes, 31, 32, 57-60 detrimental interactions among
Solanum spp., breeding for improved chemicals in, 451
quality in, 672-674 Spray drying
Solvent extraction, of moisture, 405 description of, 404
 Index 783

nutrient losses during, 409-412 Surimi, as minced fish product, 255

Sprouts, of legumes, nutritional Sweet potato
value of, 127 breeding for improved quality in,
Stability 674-675
of nutrients, 3-5 nutrients in, 30
of vitamins in fortified foods, Sweeteners
609-614 nutrients in, 11
Standards of Identity, for foods, U.S. consumption of, 10
enrichment provisions on, Synovex S & H, as animal growth
696-697 promoters, 177
Starch, digestibility of, extrusion
effects on, 368-371
T
Steak, nutrients in, 157
Steam cooking, vitamin loss during, Tallow, composition of, 164
536-537,540 Tannins, in legumes, 125, 127
Steam tables, nutrient losses of foods Tapeworms, in fish, 253
on, 549-550 Tea
Sterilization fortification of, 618-619
definition of, 320-321 nutrients in, 760
effect on nutrients, 341-343 U.S. consumption of, 10
of milk, effect on nutrients in, Telone, as vegetable soil fumigant, 66
209-212 Tempeh
storage following, 343-347 nutrient changes in production of,
Storage effects on nutrients, 267-501 424, 427, 428, 432, 436, 437,
fruits, 86-92 442
home storage, 559-574 preparation of, 145
meats, 559-565 Temperature
vegetables, 53-66 effects on fruit storage, 88
Strawberries, nutrients in, 508, 755 effects on moisture removal, 394-395
Sucrose effects on vegetable nutrients, 34-36
in confectionaries and sugars, 759 of home cooking, effects on
nutrients in, 11 nutrients, 578-579
U.S. consumption of, 10 Thaw-exudate, of meat, nutrient loss
Sugar, nutrients in, 759 in, 297-303
Sugars, in legumes, 124 Thawing
Sulfate, in animals’ diet, effect on of frozen fruits, nutrient loss during,
meat, 175 290, 308
Sulfites of frozen meat, nutrient loss during,
as beneficial food additives, 451 308, 562
effect on nutrients, 447-448 of frozen vegetables, nutrient loss
Summer sausage, chemical composi¬ during, 280, 308
tion of, 186-187 microwave use for, 522
Sun drying Thiamin
description of, 403 baking losses of, 356, 358-359
nutrients retained in foods prepared in cereals and cereal products, 755
by, 591 cooking losses of, 509-526,
Sunflower seed 534-537, 549, 550
amino acid composition of, 133, 138 in home-prepared foods, 560-574,
carbohydrates of, 135 575
composition of, 131 detrimental interactions of, 450, 453
fatty acid composition of, 133 drying-process effects on, 415,
food uses of, 147 416-417
vitamins and minerals of, 135 fermentation effects on, 436
Sunlight flavor, of milk, 213 food processing effects on, 17, 18
784 Index

Thiamin (cont.) U.S. consumption of, 9

food-storage conditions effect on, Turnip, breeding for better quality
497-498, 500 in, 671
fortification with, stability of, 610 ' Tyramine, in cheese, 215, 217
in fruits, factors affecting, 80-81
loss during curing, 449
U
as marker vitamin for nutrient loss,
269-270 Ultrafiltration
in meat and meat products, 752 description of, 401
radiosensitivity of, 473-480 nutrient loss during, 417
stability of, 4, 5 Ultrahigh temperature (UHT)-
sulfite effect on, 447-448 treatment of milk, 210-212
Thiaminase, in fresh fish, 253 USDA Agriculture Handbook No. 8
Thioglucosides, in cruciferous Series, nutrient information in,
vegetables, 29, 31 15, 747
Threonine, stability of, 4, 5 Usual names, for foods, regulations
Tin, use in food packaging, 494 for, 699-700, 703
Tocopherol, see Vitamin E
Tofu, preparation of, 145
V
Tomalley, contaminants in, 252, 253
Tomato(es) Vacuum cooling, of vegetables, 56
breeding for better quality in, Vacuum packaging, of meat and meat
667-668 products, 181
nutrients in, 756 Valine, stability of, 4
Tortilla, food additive effects on Veal
nutrients in, 448 baby foods containing, composition
Toxaphene, in fish and shellfish, 252 of, 171
Toxins, in vegetables, 29-32 nutrients in, 161
Trace elements cooking losses of, 513-515, 526
in fertilizers, for fruit crops, 76 U.S. consumption of, 9
in milk, 207-208 world consumption of, 155
safe dietary intake of, 13 Vegetable juices, vitamin retention
Tray air drying, nutrient loss during, during storage of, 497
418 Vegetables, 23-71
s-Triazines, effects on vegetables, 65 blanching and cooling effects on,
Trichlorfon, limits of, in meat 271-273, 336-337, 583-585
products, 193 canned storage of, nutrient loss in,
Triticale 5,71-572
amino acid content of, 103 flavor and consumer preferences for,
composition of, 102 29
processing effects on, 115 fortification of, 615-617
Trypsin inhibitor, in soybeans, 137 freeze preservation effects on,
Tryptophan 271-287, 308, 566-568
in dairy products and eggs, 751 frozen storage of, effects of, 274-280
stability of, 4, 5 home preparation of, nutrient losses
Tumbling and massaging process, in, 566-574, 582-593, 595
for meat, 180 nutrients in, 8, 11, 23-32, 756
Tuna, canned, nutrients in, 753 agricultural practices and, 32-53
Tunnel drying, description of, 403-404 cooking effects on, 281-287,
Turkey 528-532, 534-547
cholesterol in, 225 harvesting, handling, and storage
composition of, 226 effects on, 53-66
cooking losses of nutrients in, nutritional quality improvement of,
522, 523, 526 by plant breeding, 659-686
 Index 785

preparation procedures for, effects special additives for, 453

on, 574-575 stability of, 4, 5
prestorage treatment of, 56-57 Vitamin B6, see Pyridoxine
processed, U.S. consumption of, Vitamin Bi2
713-716 assays for, 727, 728
refrigeration of, nutrient losses in, in cheese, 217
569-570 detrimental interactions involving,
reheating of, nutrient loss in, 570-571 450
thawing effects on, 280 fermentation effects on, 436-437
toxins and antinutrients in, 29-32 fortification with, 619, 620
U.S. consumption of, 9, 25, 26 in meat and meat products, 190,
world consumption of, contribution 752
to calorie levels, 154 radiosensitivity of, 473
Vicia faba, breeding for better quality stability of, 4, 5
in, 663-665 stabilizers for, 453
Vigna spp., breeding for better quality Vitamin C, see Ascorbic acid
in, 665-666 Vitamin D
Vinyl derivatives, as food packaging antioxidants for, 452
materials, 496 in dairy products and eggs, 751
Vitamin A * in fish and shellfish, 753
antioxidants for, 452 fortification with, 618-619
biological availability of, 729 irradiation effects on, 482
in dairy products and eggs, 209, stability of, 3, 4
212, 216, 751 Vitamin E
detrimental interactions involving, biological availability of, 729,
451 731
in fats and oils, 754 dry products containing, 453
in fish and shellfish, 753 in fats and oils, 755
fortification with, 617-619 food additive destruction of, 450
bioavailability, 615 fortification with, stability of, 610
stability, 610-611 irradiation effects on, 482
in home-prepared foods, losses of, in poultry diet, effects of, 228
560, 563 stability of, 4, 5
irradiation effects on, 481-482 Vitamin flakes, use for fortification,
retention in stored foods, 500 618
stability of, 3, 4 Vitamin K
Vitamin B complex. See also Biotin, safe dietary intake of, 14
Niacin, Riboflavin, Thiamin stability of, 4
assay of, 720-724, 726, 728, 733-734 Vitamin K3, irradiation effects on,
baking effects on, 360 482-483
in canned fish, 259 Vitamin and Mineral Supplements
in cheese, 215-216 Amendment of 1976, to Federal
drying effects on, 415 Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act of
extrusion-processing effects on, 1938, 691-692
383-384 Vitamins
fortification with, stability of, in animals’ diet, effect on meat,
609-610, 616, 617, 619 175-177
freeze preservation effects on, 269, assay methods for, 720-729
271-283, 295, 296, 307 method selection, 720-722
in home-prepared foods, losses of, in canned baby foods, 166-171
560-595 in cereals, 110, 113
as marker vitamins for nutrient cooking losses of, 509-551
loss, 269-270 in eggs, 234, 240
in meat, 190 enzymatic assays for, 728-729
786 Index

Vitamins (cont.) W
fat-soluble
Walnuts, nutrients in, 758
loss during drying, 418
Water, effect on nutrient loss in
loss during irradiation, 481-483 v
moisture removal, 395-398
federal regulations affecting sale and
Water solubilizers, food additives as,
use of, 691-692
452-453
fermentation effects on levels of,
Waterless cooking, nutrient loss during,
431-441
528, 530
in fish and shellfish, 250-252
Wheat
food additive effects on, 447-456
amino acid content of, 103
in food groups, 11
composition of, 102
food-processing effects on, 17, 18
milling processes for, 101, 104
food-storage conditions effect on,
protein, biological value of, 206
497-501
Wheat flour
in fortified foods
nutrients in, 104-105, 106
bioavailability, 614-615
U.S. consumption of, 9
stability, 609-614
Whey
in fruits, factors affecting, 78-81
nutritive value of, 218-219
high-performance liquid
protein, amino acids in, 206
chromatography of, 725-726
Wine, nutrients in, 760
in home-prepared foods, losses of,
Winged bean, breeding for better
559-595
quality in, 667
ionizing radiation effects on, 462-483
irradiation effects on, 472-481
ligand binding assays of, 726-728
loss during processing Y
baking, 356-360
Yardlong bean, breeding for better
extrusion, 365-391
quality in, 665
freeze preservation, 269-317
Yeast
moisture removal, 393-422
in breadmaking, as vitamin B
in meats and meat products, 157-163
complex source, 592
microbiological assays of, 722-723
protein complementation of, 643,
in milk, 208-209, 212
644
processing effects on, 340, 341
^Yogurt, preparation and nutrient value
need for, 28
of, 213-215
in oilseeds, 134-136
in peas and beans, 125
in poultry meat, 225
Z '
RDAs of, 13
safe dietary intakes of, 14 Zeranol, as animal growth promoter,
in sausages, 182-187 177
spectrophotometric assays of, Zinc
723-725 in animals’ diet, effect on meat, 176
stability of, 3-5 baking effects on, 362
in vegetables, 23-24, 27, 28-29 in cereals and cereal products, 755
water solubilizers for, 452-453 high levels of, in oysters, 252
water-soluble meat as good source of, 190
drying effects on, 413-418 retention of, during cooking, 588
irradiation effects on, 472-481 in vegetables, 756