5180 SENSORY EVALUATION/Taste

Further Reading Anatomy of the Tongue

Acree TE and Teranishi R (eds) (1993) Flavor Science:
Mouth
Sensible Principles and Techniques. Washington, DC:
American Chemical Society. An important role in the perception of taste is played 0002
Goodenough PW (1998) The molecular biology of olfac- by our mouth cavity and especially by the tongue.
tory perception. International Journal of Food Science Food is placed inside the mouth, where our teeth
and Technology 33: 63–77.
chew it, and the saliva makes it into a solution, and
Maarse H (ed.) (1991) Volatile Compounds in Foods and
therefore, the food comes into contact with the sur-
Beverages. New York: Marcel Dekker.
Marsili R (ed.) (1997) Techniques for Analysis of Food face of the tongue. The main role for perception of
Aroma. New York: Marcel Dekker. taste is played by taste papillae, taste buds, and taste
Meilgaard M, Civille GV and Carr BT (eds) (1991) Sensory cells.
Evaluation Techniques, 2nd edn. Boca Raton, FL: CRC
Press. Papillae
Morello M and Mussinan C (eds) (1998) Challenges in the Taste papillae are located on the tongue, soft and hard 0003
Extraction and Isolation of Food Flavors. Washington, palate, pharynx, and epiglottis. The papillae give the
DC: American Chemical Society.
tongue its bumpy appearance and can be classified,
Nijssen LM, Visscher CA, Maarse H, Willemsens LC and
according to their shape, into four types: fungiform,
Boelens MH (1996) Volatile Compounds in Food –
Qualitative and Quantitative Data, 7th edn. Zeist, The foliate, circumvallate, and filiform papillae. The first
Netherlands: TNO Nutrition and Food Research papillae appear when the human fetus is 6 weeks old,
Institute. and at around 10 weeks, the first primitive taste pores
Pawliszyn J (ed.) (1999) Applications of Solid Phase Micro- are found. Table 1 shows a description of the different
extraction. Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry. types of papillae.
Taylor AJ and Mottram DS (1996) Flavour Science: Recent
Developments. Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry. Taste Buds
In the epithelia of the papillae, there are taste buds, 0004

40–80 mm in size. Children have about 10 000 taste

buds, but the amount decreases with age. The average
number for adults is 2000–3000 buds. The taste-bud
density and placement of the taste buds among people
vary. For example, the density on the tongue tip
Taste ranges from 3–512 taste buds per square centimeter,
H Valentová and Z Panovská, Institute of Chemical with an average of around 115 buds per square centi-
Technology, Prague, Czech Republic meter. People with a higher density of buds perceive
taste stimuli more intensively. The specificity of indi-
Copyright 2003, Elsevier Science Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
vidual taste bud cells is being studied. It is still not
clear at the taste bud level whether there is modality
specificity. Some studies have confirmed that some
Taste fungiform papillae contain only one taste bud, but
0001 Taste, according to the International Standard Sens- this could not be proved. It has also been demon-
ory Analysis Vocabulary ISO 5492 (1992), is defined strated that taste buds respond differently to different
as sensations perceived by the taste organ when
stimulated by certain soluble substances. Taste is
closely related to smell. The perception of odor and Table 1 Description of papillaea tbl0001

taste, combined with trigeminal sensations, results in

Types of papillae Number of Taste buds Location
the overall flavor. Flavor influences food acceptance papillaea per papillaa
and selection of food intake, and helps us to
distinguish potentially harmful compounds. The Fungiform 100–400 0–22 Base and edges of
the tongue
taste sensation is a very complex process starting at
Foliate 8–20 10 Each side of lingual
the sensory receptor level and finishing in the central posterior
nervous system, where it is combined with informa- Circumvallate 3–13 100–250 V-shaped pattern
tion coming from other senses. The earliest work across the root of
concentrated on anatomical studies, and so we have the tongue
Filiform 1000 No taste buds All the tongue
a good deal of information about the structural taste
system on the tongue. a
Average values are given because numbers differ among authors.
 SENSORY EVALUATION/Taste 5181

substances. It seems that all areas with taste buds independent channels. It seems that both types of
respond to some degree to all tastes, but there is mechanism are involved in taste perception.
usually one taste to which the response is the best.
Transmission of Taste Through Nerve
Taste Cells
Impulses
0005 The tip of the taste bud has a small opening about
The transmission of electrochemical impulse through 0009
2–5 mm in diameter, called a taste pore, where taste
the nerves is called transduction. The understanding
stimuli interact with taste receptors. Taste buds are
of this process has been the main focus of taste
aggregates of some 40–60 elongated epithelial cells.
researchers.
There are different types of cells in a taste bud: dark
Generally, the arrival of a chemical stimulant on 0010
cells, light cells, cells with dark-cored and synaptic
the surface of a receptor changes the ionic conduct-
vesicles, basal cells, and perigemmal cells. It is not
clear which of the cells serve as receptor cells or if the ance in the taste membrane and the electrochemical
impulse is produced. The transduction pathway in-
different cell types are specialized to detect different
volves a number of different receptors and different
ranges of the gustatory spectrum. The taste cells con-
cellular mechanisms.
tinually regenerate; they live for only 7–10 days and,
Taste stimuli may interact: 0011
within this period, grow to maturity and die. The
young taste receptor cells move from the periphery . directly with the ion channel – this produces recep- 0012

of the taste bud to its center, and the older taste cells tor cell depolarization either by direct permeation
in the central portion of the taste buds die away and or by blockage of the ion channel;
are then pressed out from the taste bud into the . with receptors and alter the flux of ion through the 0013

mouth through taste pores. By replacing the cells in ion channel (Kþ, Naþ, Caþ);
this way, the gustatory system is protected from . may diffuse through lipid phase and affect G pro- 0014

losing its sensitivity. All taste cells from one taste tein or the endoplasmatic reticulum.
bud are connected by basal synapses to about 50
Researchers believe that each basic taste has a par-
afferent nerve fibers. The nerve fibers from taste
ticular transduction pathway (Table 2) that varies
buds converge into different cranial nerves.
with the location of taste buds on the tongue. For
Cranial Nerves

0006 The sense of taste is mediated by three cranial nerves. Table 2 Suggested pathways for individual tastes tbl0002

The anterior (front) two-thirds of the tongue and Taste Possible pathways for transductionmechanism for different
palate is supplied by branches of facial nerves, namely stimuli
chorda tympani branch (seventh cranial nerves), the
Bitter Multiple mechanisms – depending on the structure of
back of the tongue by glossopharyngeal nerve (ninth the compounds:
cranial nerves), the base and central region, and the (a) Inhibition of apical Kþ channel (mechanism for
throat and larynx by certain branches of vagus nerve chinine, divalent salts)
(tenth cranial). All nerves subserve not only taste but (b) Blockage of Naþ amino transport system
(c) G protein-mediated activity involving
also touch, temperature, and pain sensitivity. The
phospholipases
lingual nerve is the branch of the fifth cranial nerve Sweet Specific membrane receptors are required for
and is responsible for the perception of pungency, transduction of sugars:
heat, cooling, and others. (a) Multiple sweet receptors coupled to G protein
0007 The taste fibers from all the sensory nerves from (gastducin) and second messenger system
(b) Stimulus-gated ion channel
the mouth come together in the brainstem (medulla
(c) Direct activation of G protein by sweet stimuli
oblongata). From the brain’s medulla, the gustatory Sour Does not require specific taste receptor – several
fibers ascend by a pathway to a small cluster of cells apically located ion channels may participate in sour
in the thalamus and thence to a taste-receiving area in transduction:
the anterior cerebral cortex. (a) sodium ion channel – proton enters taste cells
through amiloride-sensitive sodium channels;
0008 Two main theories try to describe how taste infor-
(b) channels are stimulated by protons that permit
mation is coded in the brain. In the pattern theory, the entry of cations into the cell
main role is played by taste receptor cells that respond Salty Does not require specific taste receptor – direct
with different sensitivities to the different tastants. permeation of Naþ ions through amiloride-sensitive
In the labeled line theory, the four tastes are sensed sodium channel
Umami Stimulus-gated ion channel: taste stimulus binds to a
in four discrete type of receptor cells, and the infor-
receptor site on a receptor–ion channel complex
mation from receptors goes to the brain through
 5182 SENSORY EVALUATION/Taste

sweet and bitter taste, there probably exist multiple possess more hydrogen-bonded functional groups
pathways that can be common for substances with a per carbon. The molecules interact with the sweet-
similar structure. The transduction of the different taste receptor sites of a protein through hydrogen
taste stimuli has been studied on nonhuman species, bonds. The question is if there is a receptor for
and it is not still clear whether the same mechanism is sweet taste or if a different structural class has its
involved in humans. own special receptor and how they interact with the
sweet compound. It seems that this question will be
answered soon. Recently, scientists discovered a
Basic Tastes
sweet receptor gene, T1R3, thought to be the likely
0015 Over the centuries, the numbers of primary tastes basis for the tongue’s sweetness sensor. One of the
have varied from two – sweet and bitter – to more newest theories is multipoint attachment theory. This
then 10. Studies carried out to date have distinguished theory assumes the presence, probably a seven-pass
four taste categories: sweet, salty, bitter, and sour transmembrane receptor, of at least eight fundamen-
taste. Now, some of the scientists also include be- tal recognition sites. The multiple theory is supported
tween basic tastes a less-established taste, ‘umami.’ also by other findings, such as synergy effects of
International Standards ISO 5492 in paragraph 3.22, sweeteners, the adaptation of the response to some
under basic taste, states: ‘basic taste: any one of the sweeteners, but not to others, the sensitivity of differ-
distinctive tastes: acid, bitter, salty, sweet, alkaline, ent parts of the tongue to the different sweeteners,
umami, metallic.’ and human variability in sensitivity to different
sweeteners.
Sweet Taste
Studies with a new approach to studying the mech- 0019

0016 Sweet taste is one of the favorite tastes and therefore anism of sweet taste also appeared during the last
the most studied. There is evidence that prenatal decade. Schallenberger in 1993 described the role of
infants detect and like sweet in utero and that symmetry. Sweetness is elicited through a bilaterally
human infants are born with a preference for sweet symmetrical and concentrated dipolar interaction
taste. between glycophore and the receptor. Also, the role
0017 Scientists tried to solve the problem of sweet taste of partial molar and specific volumes has been ex-
through the chemical structure of sweet compounds, plored in sweet taste chemoreception. Some scientists
but substances that have a sweet taste are found in all focused on the role of water that could be the vehicle
chemical classes. They are usually associated with by which stimulus molecules are transported to the
multiple hydroxyl groups, and a- but not b- or g- receptor environment and oriented towards it. Recent
amino acids. Salts such as beryllium or lead salts, studies suggest that there is a different transduction
simple organic compounds such as chloroform, and mechanism for natural sugars and synthetic sweeten-
alcohols can have a sweet taste. The main groups ers that could be activated by different G proteins
are carbohydrates, with sweetness decreasing in a from those activated by sucrose. Although the sweet
homologous series sugars > oligosaccharides > poly- taste may be present in hundreds of compounds,
saccharides. Other sweet organic compounds include fewer than 30 are permitted for use. The sensory
amino acids, peptides, proteins, compounds with reference standard for sweet taste is sucrose. No
NH2 groups such as amides, ureas, and hydrazides. other sweetener is perceived to be identical; for
Benzene compounds with one single NO2 group are example, glucose produces moderate burning and a
often sweet, and those with more NO2 groups bitter taste. Humans are more sensitive to synthetic
are usually bitter. Small changes in the stereochemie sweeteners. A comparison of the sweet taste of
of atoms within a molecule may affect its taste. The synthetic sweeteners with that of sucrose is given in
chemical structure of the sweet compound also plays Table 3. Some synthetic sweeteners have a bitter and
an important role in the determination of the area of metallic taste, so they are used in mixtures.
the tongue, where the sweet taste is perceived. For
Bitter Taste
example, the taste of inorganic salts and nitrogen
compounds is perceived on the front of the tongue, Bitter taste is closely linked to sweet taste. Some 0020

some dihydrochalcons on the back, and some sweet compounds can have both a sweet and bitter taste,
proteins such as thaumatine and nonelline on the and slight structural modifications can alter their
sides. intensities. Bitter compounds require polar (electro-
0018 From the time when, in 1914, the need for discrete philic or nucleophilic) and hydrophobic groups and
functional groups of a sweet compound was recog- must be at least slightly soluble in water. Among
nized, several theories tried to explain the sweet taste. the best-known bitter substances are alkaloids
In Shallenberger’s hypothesis sugar molecules must (often toxic) such as quinine, caffeine, and strychnine.
 SENSORY EVALUATION/Taste 5183

tbl0003 Table 3 Relative sweetnesses for several artificial sweeteners The degree of saltiness decreases in the following
compared with 3% sucrose solution
order: ammonium (most salty), potassium, calcium,
Sweetener Date of discovery Relative sweetness (sucrose ¼1) sodium, lithium, and magnesium salts (least salty).
This order can vary for different animals. Some salts
Saccharin 1879 300–500
Dulcin 1883 70–350 in low concentration can taste sweet, NaCl tastes
Cyclamate 1937 30–60 sweet in concentrations below 0.04 M, KCl below
Aspartame 1965 100–200 0.02 M, and in some salts, especially lead acetate
Acesulfame-K 1967 130–200 and beryllium chloride, the sweet taste dominates. It
Sucralose 1974 600
was found that people are more sensitive to NaCl at
Alitame 1979 2900
the tip than on the more posterior region of the
tongue and that NaCl taste thresholds are system-
atically related to the size and region of tongue
Alkaloids are often found in many plants, and so stimulated.
bitter taste is thought to be a mechanism for poison Although sodium chloride is essential for life and is 0023
avoidance by animals. Also, salts that contain the the second most-used additive, it is believed to
cesium or rubidium cation or the iodide anion are contribute to hypertension and some cardiovascular
bitter. Other bitter-tasting compounds include pep- diseases. Therefore, scientists are looking for possible
tides, amino acids, ureas, thioureas, terpenoids, and substitutes. Other chlorides have a salty taste but
polyphenols. The ability to perceive bitter substances cannot be used as a good substitute because of their
has been related to their lipid solubility, which can be bitter and sour taste or toxic effects. Recently, pep-
altered by pH. Bitterness is perceived towards the tides with a salty taste (l-ornithyltaurine, glycine
back of the tongue, but some compounds are per- methyl, or ethylester hydrochloride) and also differ-
ceived also on the tip. Transduction of bitter tastants ent dipeptides were examined. The food industry tries
can involve multiple mechanisms, depending on the to avoid using salt by replacing it with herbs, spices,
structure of the bitter compound. One group of bitter and organic acids.
compounds may be detected by several different
mechanisms. The existence of more bitter receptors Sour Taste
is confirmed by a single Mendelian gene, which
affects the ability to taste one particular class of bitter Sour taste is acceptable when mild but becomes un- 0024

compounds. Recently, remarkable progress has been pleasant when strong. It helps us to avoid unripe fruit
made in establishing the nature of bitter taste. Two and damage our tissue with acids. In humans, acids
groups of scientists have confirmed the existence of induce salivation, which increases bicarbonate secre-
bitter taste receptors. They identified a large family of tions, the major buffering agent in saliva.
G-protein-linked receptors (40–80 members). These From a chemical point of view, acids can be distin- 0025

receptors are organized in clusters. guished by their pH index (describes the activity of
0021 One of the most interesting bitter compounds that protons in a solution) as a weak pH 3–7 and strong
has been studied in the past decade is 6-n-propyl- pH 1–3. We cannot use this distinction when we look
2-thiouracil (PROP). Individuals detect this com- at sour taste. Weak organic acids (e.g., the acetic acid
pound with very different sensitivities that could be in vinegar) taste more sour than mineral acid at the
inherited. same pH.
The perception of sour taste is influenced not only 0026

Salty Taste by the activity of the proton, but also by the quality
and character of the anion. The role of anion has not
0022 Salty taste is the last of the basic tastes that a newborn
been studied in detail at receptor level. Sour taste in
child perceives (at approximately 4 months). It is
food is mainly connected with citric, malic, oxalic,
mainly associated with the taste of NaCl. At first, it
and tartaric acids in fruits and lactic acid in yogurt
was thought that the saltiness of NaCl is caused by
and other dairy and meat products. Propionic acid is
Cl anions, but later, scientists preferred the theory
found in Emmental cheese, and acetic acid is used in
that saltiness is produced by Naþ cations and that
the canning industry.
anions modulate the intensity of the saltiness (larger
anions reducing saltiness more than smaller anions).
Umami
The molecular weight of the cation does not influence
the saltiness, but anions with a low molecular weight In 1909, the Japanese scientist Ikeda described a 0027

are predominantly salty, whereas those of a higher special delicious or savory taste and used the Japanese
molecular weight tend to be bitter. The salts of word ‘umami.’ This taste is familiar in the East, where
heavy metals such as mercury have a metallic taste. seaweed and mushroom are used as ingredients,
 5184 SENSORY EVALUATION/Taste

because they have a high content of glutamate. This Pungency The trigeminal nerve is stimulated by 0034

taste is sometimes called a savory or meat-like taste, chemical-induced sensations such as pungency. A
because meat also has a high content of glutamate. pungent taste is characterized by spices such as hot
Extensive scientific tests carried out in the twentieth pepper (in which the pungency substance is the alkal-
century indicated that the umami taste is different oid piperine), ginger, Spanish red pepper (capsaicine),
from the four classical tastes and that it is connected and clove (eugenol). Vegetables from the Brassicaceae
with the l form of monosodium glutamate (MSG). family such as horse-radish, black and white mustard,
Later, nucleotides such as guanosine-50 -monopho- and cabbage have a pungent taste owing to their
sphate (GMP) and inosine-50 -monophosphate (IMP) isothiocyanates content. Pungency is also the main
were also considered to have umami flavor. sensory attribute of benzoic acid (3–36 mM). Some-
0028 The occurrence of peptides (around 30), usually times, other sensations are described, such as the bite
dipeptides and tripeptides, with a possible umami of carbon dioxide, the sting of horseradish, and other
taste has also been reported, but this has not been sensations derived from spices.
confirmed by other scientists. Some dipeptides have a
salty or bitter taste, or their taste is described as a
salty/umami or sour/umami taste. Factors Influencing Perception of Taste
0029 Faurion in 1991 found that the MSG taste is recog-
nized by more than one type of glutamate receptor. Color
Recently, the genes for proteins that serve as the Several studies have examined the effect of color on 0035

molecular receptors for umami taste were identified. taste perception. The results depend on conditions,
concentration of taste substances, and intensity of
Other Tastes color. Generally, red and orange increase the thresh-
0030 Other tastes such as metallic, soapy, alkaline, and old for bitter, sour, and sweet taste, and green and
astringent are described for the use of sensory evalu- yellow increase the threshold for sour. The effect of
ation but have not been studied at the receptors level. color on salty taste has not been studied.

Viscosity
0031 Astringency taste Astringency is a tactile taste felt as
a dry, rough feeling in the mouth and contraction of The influence of viscosity has been studied mainly for 0036

the tongue tissue. It usually involves the formation of sweet compounds, but it is clear that it depends on the
aggregated precipitates between tannins or poly- taste substances and thickening agents. Viscous solu-
phenols and proteins in the saliva. Tannins positively tions can suppress taste because of a lower diffusion
influence the taste of tea, coffee, cocoa, wine, and rate and poorer access to the receptors, but they can
beer but have a negative effect in immature fruit enhance the taste because the time during which the
(bananas). Lawless and co-workers developed a vo- compounds bind to the receptors is longer. For
cabulary for astringency taste to describe its multiple example, in a chocolate drink, sweetness increases
perception characteristics. They defined astringency with increasing concentrations of lecithin. Usually,
as a combination of three tastes: drying (the lack the sweetness of sucrose is lower in liquid than in
of lubrication or moistness), roughing (the rough aqueous solutions. The threshold of pure substances
texture in the mouth) and puckery (the drawing or in aqueous solutions is different from the threshold
tightening sensation). There are also specific terms values in other liquids.
such as sappy, harsh, woody, powdery, and gritty
that are used for describing astringency taste in wine Temperature
and beer.
Temperature effects must be studied separately for 0037

every taste and in a wide range of temperatures.

0032 Metallic taste Metallic taste is elicited by some Sweet and bitter tastes are more affected by tempera-
metal salts, as a standard is used iron (II) sulfate ture than salty or sour tastes. Increasing the tempera-
heptahydrate in concentration 0.00475 g l1. The ture usually increases the sweetness of the solution.
taste threshold for copper (using copper sulfate and For some compounds, a V-shaped function has been
copper chloride) in different types of drinking water is described, meaning that the minimum is near the
2.4–3.8 mg l1, depending on the type of water. center of the temperature range. For example, the
sensitivity for NaCl was greatest in the range of
0033 Alkaline taste An alkaline, soapy taste is associated 22–37
C and lower at 0 and 55
C. The optimum
with potassium carbonate (potash), a substance that temperature for the perception of bitter taste is
was used for the production of soap. 10
C, and the bitter aftertaste is longer than for
 SENSORY EVALUATION/Taste 5185

other tastes. The sweetness of sugars is reduced in . umami substances in water solution do not influ- 0048

cool solutions and the optimum is 35–50
C. ence basic taste: there is only synergism between
umami substances.
Odors
Examples of Some Interesting Compounds
0038 Smell and taste are closely related. Therefore, sev-
eral studies have concentrated on the relation- Caffeine and other methylxanthines can enhance 0049

ship between perception of an odor and the taste some sweeteners with a bitter component (acesul-
of the solution to which the odor is added. It has fam-K, thaumatin, steviosid, sodium saccharin), but
been confirmed that flavorings added to a solution not compounds such as aspartame, sucrose, fructose,
of sucrose increase or suppress the perception of and calcium cyclamate.
sweet taste. For example, the flavor of caramel, mar- Certain amino acids, including d-phenylalanine, l- 0050

ajuca, and strawberry enhance sweetness, whereas and d-histidine, and l-arginine are also enhanced by
angelica oil and damascone suppress sweetness. caffeine. Sweetness is inhibited, for example, by
Also, caramel odor suppresses the sourness of citric sodium (þ)-2-(methylphenoxy)phenoxy propionate,
acid. triterpene saponins (gymnemic acid, holodulcin, zizi-
phens), cyclohexyl acetic acid, indole acetic acid, and
a-naphthol sulfate.
Interactions Between Basic Compounds Molecules that inhibit more than one taste are 0051

0039 Food is a complex of chemical substances, and there- called multisaphoric molecules. The glycoproteins
fore, it is important to study not only the individual miraculin (without taste) and curculin (sweet taste)
responses of the basic taste but also the responses and have a special property, because they convert the taste
interactions in a mixture. Although this problem has of acids from sour to sweet.
been studied extensively and in a previous review, it is
difficult to summarize general conclusions. Usually, Cause of the Differences in Feeling Taste
only binary mixtures in aqueous solutions are stud-
There are more reasons why people differ in their 0052
ied, and their results cannot be extrapolated directly
perception of taste. Some can be explained by differ-
to food.
ences in anatomy and psychology among people,
0040 Moreover, the interaction between specific chem-
others by some illnesses or by the process of aging.
icals in a binary mixture must be studied also, because
The most-studied factor that influences taste percep-
compounds from one taste group, such as bitter
tion is aging. Among older people at about the age of
compounds, do not behave in the same way. Also, all
60, there is normally a decline in the sense of taste,
interactions must be studied over different concen-
especially sour and bitter.
tration ranges. An important role is played not only
Disorders associated with taste are less common 0053
by the type of mixture, but also by the type of experi-
than with smell, because taste is innervated by three
mental work and differences in human sensitivities.
cranial nerves compared with a single cranial nerve
The interactions in mixtures can be linear – suppres-
for olfaction. Ninety per cent of patients complaining
sion (perceived as less intensive), enhancement (per-
of a reduction or loss of taste had a reduction or loss
ceived as more intensive) – and non-linear – masking
of smell. This was confirmed by findings that people
and synergism.
who had lost their sense of smell (anosmic) can dis-
0041 The results can be summarized as follows:
tinguish between four basic tastes. Changes in the
0042 . salts and acids enhance each other at moderate sense of taste can be either temporary or permanent.
concentrations but suppress each other at higher Decreased perception of taste is called hypogen- 0054

concentrations; eusia. This loss was initially thought to be due to a

0043 . some salts enhance the sweet taste (potassium acet- reduced number of taste buds, but recent data indi-
ate, potassium chloride, sodium chloride); cate that a decline in the number of receptors may be
0044 . sour substances inhibit sweetness and vice versa; responsible. A persistent taste in the mouth in the
0045 . bitter compounds and acids can either enhance or absence of stimulation is called dysgeusia, and com-
suppress each other, depending on the concentra- plete loss of the sense of taste is called ageusia (gusta-
tion; tory anesthesia).
0046 . bitter taste is generally suppressed by sodium salts, Loss of the sense of taste can be due to acute and 0055

and saltiness is unaffected; subacute diseases: seasonal allergies, head injury,

0047 . bitter and sour tastes are suppressed by nucleo- acute viral illness, idiopathic causes, and also the
tides, and salty and sweet tastes are enhanced by case of hormonal disorder, tumors in the brain,
nucleotides; cancer, disease of the gums or teeth, nerve damage,
 5186 SENSORY EVALUATION/Taste

tbl0004 Table 4 Values of detection thresholds for individual tastes

Sweet Threshold Salt Threshold Sour Threshold Bittera Threshold

(moldm3) (moldm3) (moldm3) (mol dm3)

Saccharose 0.011–0.017 Sodium chloride 0.03 Citric acid 0.00078 Caffeine 0.00002–0.002
Lactose 0.065–0.072 Calcium chloride 0.017 Acetic acid 0.00183 Quinine 0.0000001–0.00001
Maltose 0.038 Ammonium chloride 0.004 Tartaric acid 0.00053 (þ)-Catechin 0.002
D-glucose 0.065–0.08 Sodium fluoride 0.005 Malic acid 0.00082 L-Leucine 0.015
Saccharin 0.000000023 Magnesium chloride 0.015 Hydrochloric acid 0.0078 Magnesium sulfate 0.005
a
A range is given because the values for bitter taste differ between authors.

and so on. Burning mouth syndrome is an oral pain from different studies differ between authors, but the
disorder occurring primarily in women who have results also vary between individuals and the results
difficulties with identifying salty and sour tastes. from one individual can vary, depending on their
The intake of certain drugs (for example anesthetics health condition and mood, and so on. Among all
such as pantocaine and novocaine) and exposure to tastes, bitter generally has the lowest detection
chemical substances can also influence our perception threshold for naturally occurring compounds (see
of taste. For example, chlorhexidine, an antiseptic, Table 4). The threshold is usually measured by using
can decrease the bitterness of quinine, and it is the pure substances in aqueous solutions. The tempera-
only known blocker of the human salty taste. ture of solutions and aqua used must be specified,
0056 Some people cannot taste the bitter substance because there are differences between values obtained
phenyl thiocarbamide (taste blindness), and people from distilled water, tap water, and deionized water.
with congenital idiopathic hypoparathyroidism
cannot recognize sweetness. Time–intensity Technique (TI)
The time–intensity technique is the only technique to 0059

Methods of Sensory Analysis measure changes in perceptual characteristics with

time. The idea of measuring sensation intensity ori-
0057 The basis of sensory analysis is the perception of food ginated in the 1960s but now has become widely used
attributes through the direct use of human senses. The with the development of computerized systems for
main tool, therefore, is an assessor, who must be data collection.
selected and trained. There are standardizing methods The concept of TI is founded on the assumption 0060

for training, but it is necessary to check, refresh that intensity and time are two independent dimen-
and update the performance of assessors. Sensory sions of sensory space. During measurement, curves
methods must be standardized on international, re- are produced, with time on the horizontal axis and
gional, or national scales. Of all the sensory methods, sensation on the vertical axis, and these curves can
the most useful for studying taste are detailed below. indicate how long it takes to reach the maximum
intensity for that taste, the overall maximum
Methods for Investigating Sensitivity of Taste
intensity, the total duration of sensation, the rate of
0058 Taste is studied by different methods of sensory extinction, and the rate of appearance.
analysis that require good methodological and ex-
perimental control. The International Standard ISO
New Analytical Methods for
3972 describes the method of investigating sensitivity
Determination of the Taste
of taste. First, the assessors identify the taste of
reference substances (for example, the concentration Sensory analysis is a time-consuming and expensive 0061

for reference sucrose is 5.76 g l1, and for caffeine method that requires trained assessors or experts.
0.195 g l1). It has been proven by practical tests Attempts have been made to replace this method by
that these concentrations are detected by 50% of various chemical and instrumental methods. An ‘elec-
novice assessors. Another approach is to determine tronic tongue’ has recently been developed to meas-
the threshold. We recognize three types: detection ure taste (based on pulsed voltametry). The Japanese
threshold (stimulus threshold) is the minimum value electric tongue is composed of several lipid/polymer
of a sensory stimulus needed to bring about a sensa- membranes that transform the information of taste
tion. In a recognition threshold, accessors must iden- substances into an electric signal.
tify this sensation, and the difference threshold is a Analytical methods can be useful but still are less 0062

value of the smallest perceptible difference in the objective than sensory analyses, because the former
physical intensity of a stimulus. The threshold values measure only stimuli and not sensations.
 SEPARATION AND CLARIFICATION 5187

See also: Elderly: Nutritionally Related Problems; Halpern BP (1997) Psychophysics of taste. In: Beau-
Sensory Evaluation: Sensory Characteristics of Human champ GK and Bartoshuk L (eds) Tasting and Smell-
Foods; Food Acceptability and Sensory Evaluation; ing, pp. 77–123. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Practical Considerations; Sensory Difference Testing; Kawamura Z and Kare MR (1987) Umami. A Basic Taste.
Sensory Rating and Scoring Methods; Descriptive New York: Marcel Dekker.
Analysis; Appearance; Texture; Aroma; Taste; Spices Lawless HT and Lee CH (1993) Taste. In: Acree TE and
and Flavoring (Flavouring) Crops: Properties and Teranishi R (eds) Flavour Science, Sensible Principles
Analysis; Sucrose: Properties and Determination; and Techniques, pp. 23–131. Washington, DC: Ameri-
Sweeteners: Intensive; Taste Enhancers can Chemical Society.
Mistretta CM and Hill DL (1995) Development of the taste
system: basic neurology. In: Doty RL (ed.) Handbook of
Oflaction and Gustation, pp. 635–668. New York:
Further Reading
Marcel Dekker.
Breslin PAS (1996) Interaction among salty, sour and bitter Nabors LB and Gelardi RC (eds) (1991) Alternative Sweet-
compounds. Trends in Food Science & Technology eners, pp. 1–459. New York: Marcel Dekker.
7(Special Issue on Flavour Perception). Pangborn RM (1987) Selected factors influencing sensory
Cardello AV (1996) The role of the human senses in food perception of sweetness. In: Dobbing J (ed.) Sweetness,
acceptance. In: Meiselman HL and MacFile HJH (eds) pp. 49–66. London: Springer.
Food Choice, Acceptance and Consumption, pp. 1–82. Piggott JR (1988) Sensory Analysis of Foods, 2nd edn.,
London: Blackie Academic. pp. 1–425. London: Elsevier Science.
DuBois GE, Walters DE and Kellogg MS (1993) Mechan- Rouseff RL (1990) Bitterness in Foods and Beverages,
ism of human sweet taste and implication for rational pp. 1–356. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
sweetener design. In: Chi-Tang Ho and Manley CHH Shallenberger RS (1993) Taste Chemistry, pp. 1–570.
(eds) Flavour Measurement, Basic Symposium Series, pp. Glasgow: Blackie Academic & Professional.
240–266. Chicago, IL: Institute of Food Technologists. Walters DE, Orthoefer FT and Dubois GE (1991) Sweeten-
Erickson RP (2000) The evaluation of neural coding ideas ers: Discovery, Molecular Design and Chemoreception,
in the chemical senses. In: Physiology and Behavior, pp. 1–333. Washington, DC: American Chemical
vol. 69, Issues 1, 3–13. New York: ElsevierScience. Society.
Grenby TH (1989) Progress in Sweeteners, pp. 1–394. Wendin K (1999) Chemical Senses and Food Quality Per-
London: Elsevier Applied Science. ception, pp. 1–52. Gothenburg, Sweden: The Swedish
Institute for Food and Biotechnology.

SEPARATION AND CLARIFICATION

J E Lozano, Plapiqui (Uns-Conicet), Bahı́a Blanca, 1. Flow of fluid – when a fluid is moved from one 0004

Argentina point to another by pumping, gravity, etc.

Copyright 2003, Elsevier Science Ltd. All Rights Reserved. 2. Heat transfer – in which heat is either removed or 0005

added (heating; cooling; refrigeration and freez-

ing).
3. Mass transfer – whether or not this requires a 0006

Background change in state. Processes that use mass transfer

include drying, distillation, evaporation, crystal-
0001 Every year thousands of different processed food
lization, and membrane processes.
products are introduced in supermarkets. Food pro-
4. Other operations requiring energy, such as mech- 0007
cessing has three major aims: (1) to make food
anical separation (filtration, centrifugation, sedi-
toxically and microbiologically safe; (2) to provide
mentation, and sieving); size adjustment by size
products of the highest nutritional and organoleptic
reductions (slicing, dicing, cutting, grinding) or
quality; and (3) to make foods with ease of use.
size increase (aggregation, agglomeration, gel-
0002 Most food-processing comprise a series of physical
ation); and mixing, which may include solubiliz-
processes, or unit processes, that can be separated
ing solids, preparing emulsions or foams, and dry
into a number of basic operations, or unit operations,
blending of dry powders (flour, sugar, etc.).
which depend upon coherent physical principles.
0003 The main unit operations usually present in a For example, the manufacture of concentrated 0008

typical food-processing line, including: clarified apple juice includes several unit operations