DEFINITION OF TERMS USED IN RESEARCH AND RESERCH METHODS

Different terms are used in research; these include

Research –is a systematic process of collecting and analyzing information in order to increase
understanding of a phenomena of interest or concern

Hypothesis-is researchers anticipated explanation or opinion regarding the results of the study e.g. there
is a significant relationship between sleeping and weight gain

Population- is an entire group of individuals, events or objects having a common observable

characteristic

Sample -is a subgroup obtained from the accessible population

A variable- is a characteristic or feature that varies, or changes within a study

Data-all information a researcher gathers from the study, this could be either secondary or primary data

Research methods -the various research processes, procedures, and tools i.e. techniques of gathering
information and various ways of analyzing the information

Research design -is the overall plan or structure of the research, It indicates what type of research
methods planned and what kind of results are expected from the research. It specifically focuses on the
final results of the research. E.g. descriptive research design, cross-sectional study design.

CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH
Certain terms are commonly used in research and the success of any research depends on these terms.
These terms determine whether a research is free of biases, prejudices, and subjective errors or not. They
are called the characteristics of research.

 Reliability - is the repeatability of any research, research instrument, tool or procedure. If any
research yields similar results each time it is undertaken with similar population and with similar
procedures, it is called to be a reliable research
 Validity - suitability of the research instrument to the research problem or how accurately the
instrument measures the problem. Without validity, research goes in the wrong direction.
 Accuracy - measures whether research tools have been selected in best possible manner and
research procedures suits the research problem or not. choosing the best data collection tool
improves the accuracy of research.
 Credibility- comes with the use of the best source of information and best procedures in
research. When researcher gives accurate references in the research the credibility of the research
increases but fake references also decrease the credibility of the research.
 Generalization- is the extent to which a research finding can be applied to larger population.
When a researcher conducts a study he/she chooses a target population and from this population
he takes a small sample to conduct the research. This sample is representative of the whole
population so the findings should also be. If research findings can be applied to any sample from
the population, the results of the research are said to be generalizable.
 Empirical -nature of research means that the research has been conducted following rigorous
scientific methods and procedures. Each step in the research has been tested for accuracy and is
based on real life experiences.
 Systematic approach is the only approach to carry on a research. No research can be conducted
haphazardly. Each step must follow other. There are set of procedures that have been tested over

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 a period of time and are thus suitable to use in research. Each research, therefore, should follow a
procedure.
 Controlled- in real life experience there are many factors that affect an outcome. A single event
is often a result of several factors. When similar event is tested in research, due to the broader
nature of factors that effect that event, some factors are taken as controlled factors while others
are tested for a possible effect. The controlled factors or variables should have to be controlled
rigorously. In pure sciences, it is very easy to control such elements because experiments are
conducted in the laboratory but in social sciences it becomes difficult to control these factors
because of the nature of research.

GOALS AND PURPOSE OF RESEARCH

.
A Goal- in research is the result or achievement toward which research is directed at or aims at while
purpose in research is the reason for which research is done or created or designed. These include

• To discover new knowledge or discover new facts, their interpretations and practical
implications
• To describe a phenomena or accurate identification of any event and involves thorough
description in terms of size, age, shape, color, weight and change over time
• To enable prediction or the ability to estimate a phenomena A given phenomena B
• To enable theory development which involves formulating concepts, laws and generalization
of a given phenomenon thus a research will attempt to confirm or validate existing theories
• To enable control-a research control is concerned with the ability to regulate the phenomena
under study. A phenomena is manipulated in order to exert control over another
• To enable explanations of a phenomena- explanations involves accurate observation and
measurement of a given phenomenon. In order to explain a phenomena one should be able to
describe it, predict its occurrence and observe factors that cause its occurrence with certainty
and accuracy
• Creating new methods, practices, tools and ideas e.g. new drugs, cures, products and new
machinery

IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH IN HEALTH SCIENCES

 It can provide important information about disease trends and risk factors, outcomes of treatment
or public health interventions, functional abilities, patterns of care, and health care costs and use.
 Clinic based research trials can provide important information about the efficacy and adverse
effects of medical interventions
 Significant discoveries, development of new therapies, and a remarkable improvement in health
care and public health.
 Research findings can have informed decision which influenced policy decisions at the national
level.
 Can avail Clinically rich information which can be used for quality improvement in public
health, , and can significantly contribute to improvements in health and health care for individuals
and populations

IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH IN EDUCATION

 presents more information for investigations which allows for improvements in education
systems based on greater information and study

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  is a tool for discovering new subjects, improving on methods and techniques of teaching
IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH IN BUSINESS AND MARKETING
 allows consumer and producers to become more familiar with the products, goods and
services around them
 helps to make informed decisions and wise business dealings

CLASSES AND TYPE OF RESEARCH

1. Classification by type of data
• Qualitative research –is research that does not produce numerical data, data are in form of
statements or words sounds, thoughts, feelings, and other non-quantifiable data, qualitative data is often
seen as more subjective, but at the same time, it allows a greater depth of understanding. Some of the
most common qualitative data collection techniques include open-ended surveys and questionnaires,
interviews, focus groups, observation, case studies, and so on.
• Quantitative research –is a research that produces numerical and quantifiable data eg age -
20years, height-15m. Quantitative data collection methods are often based on mathematical calculations,
the data obtained is usually seen as more objective and reliable than qualitative. Some of the most
common quantitative data collection techniques include surveys and questionnaires (with closed-ended
questions).
• Mixed method research-is a method which combines both qualitative and quantitative [Link]
ask knowledge questions and take weight and height of an individual
2. Classification by purpose
• Basic research - (satisfies intellectual curiosity) generates new knowledge. Investigates the nature
of a phenomena and the results depend on the conditions
• Applied research- generates knowledge to determine solution to practical problem to solve and
aid in decision making e.g.
Basic -why are maize yields declining over time
Applied-how can the maize yield be increased/ improved
Basic-why are citizens fighting during year of general election
Applied-how can citizens be peaceful during general elections
3. Classification by method of data analysis
• Descriptive- concentrates on findings facts to ascertain the nature of something as it exists
-determines to and report the way things are describe such things as possible behaviors, attitudes, values
and characteristics
• Analytical research- explanations or opinion regarding the results of the study and is based on
facts collected e.g. there is a significant relationship between the child’s nutritional status and mothers
nutritional status
• Correctional research -describes the terms or degree to which variables are related. It involves
collecting data in order to determine where and what extent a relationship exists between two or more
quantifiable variables e.g. a study found out that those with low levels of education had higher number of
malnourished children
4. Classification based on method of data collection
• Survey research- collects data from members in order to determine their current status with
respect to one or more variables
• Historical research-study of a problem that requires collecting information from the past.
Research involves studying, understanding and experiencing past events by seeking data that is already
available to arrive at the causes, effects or trends of past occurrences that may help explain present events
or future events

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• Observational research-the current status of phenomena is determined by observing to collect
objective information. The source of data is by observation
5. Classification of data by type of information required
• Primary research- looking for information that nobody else has found
• Secondary research- finding out what others have discovered through original research and trying
to reconcile conflicting viewpoints or conclusions, find new relationships between them and arrive at your
own conclusions based on others work

PRINCIPLES OF RESEARCH

All research is different but the following factors are common to all good pieces of research

 There is a clear statement of research objectives and research question.

 There is an information sheet for participants, which sets out clearly what the research is about, what it
will involve (consent) and consent is obtained in writing or oralllyprior to research beginning.

 The methodology is appropriate to the research question. So, if the research is into people’s perceptions,
a more qualitative, unstructured interview may be appropriate. If the research aims to identify the scale of
a problem or need, a more quantitative survey may be more appropriate. Good research can often use a
combination of methodologies, which complement one another.

 The research should be carried out in an unbiased fashion. As far as possible the researcher should not
influence the results of the research in any way. If this is likely, it needs to be addressed explicitly and
systematically.

 From the beginning, the research should have appropriate and sufficient resources in terms of people,
time, transport, money etc. allocated to it.

 The people conducting the research should be trained in research and research methods and this training
should provide:

 Knowledge around appropriate information gathering techniques,

 An understanding of research issues,
 An understanding of the research area,
 An understanding of the issues around dealing with vulnerable social care clients and housing
clients, especially regarding risk, privacy and sensitivity and the possible need for support.
 Those involved in designing, conducting, analyzing and supervising the research should have a full
understanding of the subject area.

 If applicable, the information generated from the research will inform the policy-making process.

 All research should be ethical and not harmful in any way to the participants.

RESEARCH METHODOLGY-PROPOSAL WRITING

Introduction
A typical research is a process comprising of research proposal, data collection and report writing.

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A proposal is a document that details an intended research and the procedure to be followed in conducting
the research

CHARACTERISTICS AND COMPONENTS OF A RESEARCH PROPOSAL

Characteristics of a good proposal

 Clearly organized
 Simple and presented in a logical form
 States the problem
 Identify the methodology for gathering information on the problem
 Shows procedures for analyzing the gathered information and presentation of the results

The components and outline of a research proposal

Title
Declaration
Acknowledgement
List of abbreviations and acronyms
Table of content
Abstract

1.0 CHAPTER ONE-INTRODUCTION

1.1 background of the study
1.2 Statement of the problem
1.3 Purpose of the study
1.4 Research questions
1.5 Research objectives
1.6 Research hypothesis
1.7 Significance of the study
1.8 Limitation of the study
1.9 conceptual framework
1.10 Assumptions (optional)
1.11 Definition of terms used

2.0 CHAPTER TWO-LITERATURE REVIEW

3.0 CHAPTER THREE- RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Research design
3.2 Variables
3.3 Location of the study
3.4 Target population
3.5 Inclusion and exclusion creteiria
3.6 Sampling techniques and sample sise
3.7 Construction of research instruments
3.8 Pre-testing orf research instruments
3.8.1Validity
[Link]
3.9 Data collection techniques
3.10 Data analysis
3.11 Logistical and ethical consideration if any

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 References
Appendices-work plan,budget,maps, questionneires.

RESEARCH TITLE AND TITLE PAGE

-Is the most read part of a proposal and gives the 1st impression of the proposal.
-title of a proposal can be read by many people who may not necessarily read the main proposal
-to access the information under certain title depends on the key words in the title
Characteristics of a good title
i. brief and specific but informative
ii. in line with set objectives
iii. clear and unambiguous
iv. indicating geographical area and specify the people under study
v. portray the aspects in the study (variables)

Example of title and cover page

EFFECT OF WATER, SANITATION AND HAND HYGIENE PRACTICES ON

DIARRHEAL DISEASES AMONG COMMUNITY MEMBERS IN NYERI COUNTY,
KENYA

COSMAS MWAMBURI MWASHUMBE

Q142/39240/2016
Department of Health Management and Informatics

A research Proposal submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of
the degree of Bachelor of Science, in Public Health in the School of Health Sciences of
Machakos University.

January, 2019

3.2.3 DECLARATION PAGE OF A RESEARCH PROPOSAL

Is usually the in the 2nd page

Have the following writings

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 DECLARATION

I declare that this research proposal( project) is my original work and has not been presented
for a examination at any other university

Signed ……………………………… Date ………………………………

Cosmas Mwamburi Mwashumbe
Q142/39240/2016

This research proposal has been submitted for examination with my approval as University
Supervisor.

Signed …………………………… Date ………………………………

Dr. George Otieno
Department of community and public health
School of Health Science
Machakos University
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Thank all those who participated or had input in your study
Eg
I wish to appreciate my supervisor so and for------, thank your parents, thank friends, thank
God-------

ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS IN A RESEARCH PROPOSAL

Are short hand words as used in the research proposal

GoK -Government of Kenya

KMTC- Kenya Medical Training College

MOH -Ministry of Health

NESH -National Environmental Sanitation and Hygiene

PHC- Primary Health Care

WHO- World Health Organization

WASH -Water, Sanitation and Hygiene.

NB- all should be arranged alphabetically

TABLE OF CONTENT
It is inserted automatically in the document, showing the title or subtitle and page numbers

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Declaration to abstract are paginated in Romans, introduction to the end in numbers

ABSTRACT
Is a one paragraph summary of the proposal
Should be brief, precise and to the point
Should contain background, objectives and methodology
An abstract gives the reader an overview of what the problem is and how the researcher intends
to solve the problem through the proposed research

ABSTRACT (THE INFLUENCE OF MEDIA ON ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION AMONG

YOUTHS (19 – 25 YEARS) IN MACHAKOS UNIVERSITY, MACHAKOS COUNTY.)
Alcohol is a product that people has provided a variety of functions for people. However, alcohol
consumption has been identified as a risk factor for many health problems. Today’s generation of
adolescents are growing up exposed to social media. Widespread concerns exist about the
potential effects that the media portrays of drinking alcohol product placement and alcohol
advertising may have on alcohol consumption and problems among young people. The study
aims at: determining the sources of media that are accessible to the university students,
determining the consumed alcohol brands among university students and identifying if there is
any relationship between the media sources and alcohol consumption. The study will adopt a
cross- sectional type of survey and the data will be collected at one point in time. A computer
software will be used to analyze the data collected and the information collected will be
presented in tables, charts and bar graphs.

CHAPTER ONE OF A RESEARCH PROPOSAL

Introduction
This chapter consists of: Introduction and the background of the study, problem statement, purpose,
objectives, research questions, hypothesis, and significance of the study, limitation of the study,
conceptual framework and definition of terms

4.2.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

The coverage of a background statement is

 general background of the problem

 brief overview of the problem (world wide, Africa, Kenya, region and area of interest)
 history of the problem and current status
 magnitude of the problem in numbers-world wide, Africa, Kenya, and the specific area
 explain the rational of choosing the problem
 briefly include review of other work carried on the subject matter i.e. past efforts that have been
put in place to control or maintain the problem and should specify whole efforts

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EXAMPLE ( early detection and diagnosis of cancer among cancer pateints ( 15-45
yrs ) attending Machakos Level 5 Hospital)

-According to the international agency for research on cancer today provides estimate of
incidence and mortality in 185 countries for 36 types of cancer sites combine. It is
estimated to have risen to 18.1 million new cases and 9.6 million deaths in 2018. One in 5
men and 6 women worldwide develop cancer during their lifetime and one in eight men
and one in eleven women die from the disease. Worldwide the total number of people
who are alive within 5years of cancer diagnosis, called the 5-year prevalence is estimated
to be43.8 million.
In Africa 60% of Africans die from cancer than succumb to malaria and the number of
cancer deaths is raising at an alarming rate. Estimate by 2030 the number of deaths will
have increased almost 70% based on the age demographics alone. The public health
threat is now coming to the fore, an estimated 14 million people were diagnosed with
cancer and over 8 million people died in 2012. Over half the cases and nearly 2/3 of the
death occurred in Africa and the other low middle income regions. The epidemic of
cancer has caused strains national and regional health budgets causing substantial
hardships for patients and families. (IARC 2014)

In Kenya there were an estimated 47,887 new cancer causes and 32,987 deaths in 2018. It
is the third leading cause of death after infectious and cardiovascular diseases. The
increasing cancer burden is due to several factors including population growth and aging
as well as the changing prevalence of certain causes of cancer linked to social and
economic development. Mortality from cancer in Kenya like in other developing
countries is high mainly because optimal access to timely diagnosis and effective
treatment is less common. The ministry of health aims to address this challenge via the
development of this cancer treatment protocols among other initiatives.
For centuries, infectious diseases were the main cause of death around the world and life
expectancy was often limited by uncontrolled epidemics.
Over the past decade there has been an increased concern about the impact of cancer on
the health of the developing world populations. (WHO 2014) Cancer has already

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 presented a substantial burden because its overall rates are currently higher in sub-
Saharan Africa than in developed countries. Although research is needed to guide
improvement in clinical care of cancer, prevention, early detection diagnosis remains the
main study to reduce the upcoming epidemic. There is increasing awareness that Kenya is
experiencing the epidemiological transition in which causes of death shift from primary
infectious diseases to non-communicable diseases such as cancer as the main concern.
The most types of cancer in Kenya include: breast cancer, cervical cancer, prostate
cancer, throat cancer, lung cancer, blood cancer and colorectal cancer (NCCS, 2017-
2022)

PROBLEM STATEMENT

From the activity above you would have noted the following when stating a problem in a research
proposal
Problem statement
It is a section under investigations and establishes the direction of research

States the knowledge gap the research wants to fill, researcher states factors that make the stated problem
a critical issue to warrant the study

The researcher should refer to relevant literature which describes the issues related to the problem under
investigation

Two critical things in the problem statement are

 specific problem to be addressed- indicate clearly which component you will address from the
general problem outlined in the introduction (background)
 the purpose statement at the end of this section, state briefly and clearly the purpose of the
research

PURPOSE OF A STUDY

From the activity above you would have noted the following on purpose of a study in a research proposal
It is a statement which indicate clearly the concepts and variables under study or relationship among
variables e.g. for a study title

Effect of water, sanitation and hand hygiene practices on diarrheal diseases among community members
in Nyeri County, Kenya
The study purpose will be

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The pourose of this study will be to determine the effect of water, sanitation and hand hygiene practices
on diarrheal diseases among community members in Nyeri County, Kenya
Research questions

They are questions which a researcher would like to answer by undertaking the study

They have the following functions

a. organize the research project (report) by giving it direction

b. keeps the research focused during the research period
c. provide framework for writing up the report
A good research question should posses the following

 stated clearly so that they can be understood

 relevant –connected to the topic
 interconnected-flow logically
 stated inform of a question e.g. for the above title
What is the mother’s nutritional status?
What is the child’s nutritional status?
Is there a positive or negative influence of the mothers nutritional status to the child
nutritional status

Objectives
Are those specific issues within the scope of the stated purpose that the researcher wants to focus
upon and examine in the study

Objectives should be stated clearly and should be testable

Are derived from the purpose and are more specific

Types of objectives

a) general- similar to the purpose of the study/ research

b) specific –very categorical of what the research want to do in detailed form

Importance of objectives

 determine the kind of questions which will be asked as the question asked should address
the objective stated
 determine the hypothesis formulation
 guides review of literature and organization of the reviewed literature
 determine the research design and approaches for the study
 determine the data collection and analysis procedures to be used

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  guide in selection of respondents, research instrument, study area (avoid collection of
unnecessary data)
 influence the data analysis and report writing
 serve to clarify the variables of the study
 guides in what to write in the conclusion section
 assist the researcher to precise about what to accomplish
Qualities of effective objectives

They should be SMART

1. Specific- state clearly what the researcher will do inorder to fulfil the purpose of the
study
2. Measurable- clearly phrased in operational term, specifying exactly what you are going to
do, where and for what purpose
3. Achievable-attainable and action oriented
4. Realistic-consider what is achievable under local conditions and circumstances (time and
funds) and should be aligned to problem statement
5. Time-bond-achievable within a realistic time period

NB in formulating objectives use action verbs that are specific eg to determine, to verify,
to calculate, to describe, to assess, to evaluate.
Avoid use of non-action words like to appreciate, to understand, to study

Hypothesis

According to Orodho and Kombo (2004) hypothesis is an educated guesses or prediction about
possible differences, relationships and causes of research problem. These predictions or guesses
are desired from existing theories previous research or concepts, personal observation or
experiences

A study can have one hypothesis or where the study includes several variables, multiple
hypotheses can be formulated

Each hypothesis usually expresses a predicted relationship between two or more variables

Types of hypothesis

There are two type of hypothesis a null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis

A null hypothesis states no significant relationship between the study variables while an
alternative hypothesis states a significant relationship between variables

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E.g. Ha there is a significant relationship between the intensity of an exercise and the amount of
sleep

Ho there is no significant relationship between the intensity of sleep and the amount of sleep

Importance of hypothesis

o Gives direction of focus to an investigations

o Offers explanations for the relationship between variables that can be empirically tested
o Shows that the researcher has sufficient background knowledge to enable him/her make
suggestions in order to extend existing knowledge
o Helps research collect right kind of data needed for investigations
o Structures the next phase in the investigations and therefore furnishes to the examination
of the problem
Characteristics of a good hypothesis

 Simple, specific and clear

 Reasonable explanations of the predicted outcome
 Define variables in measurable amount of time
 Consistent with the existing body of knowledge

Conceptual frame work

Is when a research conceptualizes the relationship between variables in the study and shows the
relationship graphically of diagrammatically.

The purpose of a conceptual framework is to help the reader

 To quickly see the proposed relationship

 Provide a link from literature to research objectives and research questions
 Is a reference point for discussion of literature methodology and analysis of data
 Contributes to trust worthiness of the study

Significance
Significance provides an explanation of who will benefit with the outcome, how they will befit
and therefore links the researcher to the end user

This section states different categories of beneficiaries and their respective benefits addressing
questions like

a) How will the results be used

b) Who will benefit from the results
c) What is the expected end product
d) Is the study worth
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 e) How does it stand to inform policy
f) How is it significant to build body of knowledge
g) Why should a donor support it

Limitations
Limitation of a study is an aspect of the study that the researcher knows may negatively affect
the results or generalization of the results but over which they have no control

Common limitation include sample size, length of the study, data collection procedures

A study should state limitations because there is no study that is perfect

Is an important fact presumes to be true but not actually varied. Stating assumptions helps the
researcher to justify the study and findings

Literature review

Involves the systematic identification, location and analysis of document containing information
related to the research problem being investigated

Purpose

1. Determine what has been done already related to the research problem being studied
2. Reveal what strategies, procedures and measuring instruments have been found useful in
investigating a problem (avoid repeating a former researcher mistake)
3. Helps to improve a research study by use of suggested approaches or other procedures
4. Researcher is made familiar with previous studies and facilitate interpretation of the study
results
5. Helps a researcher to limit the research problem and define it better
6. Determine new approaches, stimulates new ideas, alerts researcher possibilities
overlooked in the past
7. Proves approaches that are beneficial and avoid approaches found to be consistently
unproductive or unreliable
8. Gives specific suggestions and recommendations for research
9. Puts together, integrates and summarizes what is known in an area
Sources of literature

Can be classified into 2

-primary source-direct description of any occurance

-secondary sources-scholarly journals, theses and dissertations, government documents

(KDHS), papers presented at conferences, books, reference quoted in books, abstracts,

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 periodicals, Africana section of the library, grey literature (lecture notes), computer search,
microfilm, internet

Steps in carrying out literature review

1. Be familiar with the library before beginning the literature review

2. List key words or phrases to guide your literature
3. With the listed words go to the library staff to source for the literature
4. Summarize the given reference (lib staff) to easy organization

5. Outline the main topics, themes and decide on the number of headlines and sub-
headlines required
Limitations of literature review
 Do not conduct a hurried review overlooking important studies
 Do not rely too heavily on secondary sources
 When reviewing journals also read about the methodology used and measurement of
variables
 Use information from newspapers as it is educative and current
 Copy references correctly to avoid losses when retracing them

Scopes of literature review

That is how or narrow the literature review (when should one stop reviewing) and what kind of
literature is related to my topic (how do I know the relevant literature)

There is no formula for arriving at a decision but the following are useful hints

I. If the area of study has been studied for a long time read only the close studies. In the
thoroughly explored areas, the researcher can personally cover a narrower topic range to
greater depth
II. In new or little researched areas, where little depth is available, a researcher requires to
review relevant materials in order to develop frame work for the study and appropriate
hypotheses
III. Avoid inclusion of all materials but include smaller well organized

Referencing within a text

There are two common methods of referencing within a text. This refers to accrediting a
statement or finding to another author to show that the statement or finding quoted is by that
author

If the statement is paraphrased do not put quotation marks

Method 1

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The author’s last name and year of the document publications are put after a paraphrased
statement in a text, the name and year are put in brackets e.g. food is very important and
need------------------ (mwangi, 1996)

In other times the authors name and year can be quoted first i.e. at the beginning of a sentence, in
such a case only the publication year is put in brackets e.g. Mwangi (1996) found out that food is
very imported and need------------------

Method 2

Numbers representing names of authors are used e.g. community is an important planning tool
that enables a household to realize goals (1, 1996)

References and bibliography

Cited references refers to a list of references which the researcher read and cited in the text

Bibliography refers to the list of materials that were read, whether cited or not but researcher
decide to

-include only the cited references

-separate cited references and bibliography

-have bibliography only which include the references

There are various ways of writing references and bibliographies

The main referencing techniques are

o The APA- American Psychology Association

o HMLA-Harvard modern language association
o University of Chicago , press and the British standards
Eg

The APA- American Psychology Association

Using In-text Citation

 Include an in-text citation is when referring to, summarizing, paraphrasing, or quoting from
another source.
 For every in-text citation in a write up or paper, there must be a corresponding entry in the
reference list.

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  APA in-text citation style uses the author's last name and the year of publication, for example:
(Field, 2005).
 For direct quotations, include the page number as well, for example: (Field, 2005, p. 14). 
 For sources such as websites and e-books that have no page numbers, use a paragraph
number, for example: (Field, 2005, para. 1).
Example paragraph with in-text citation
A few researchers in the linguistics field have developed training programs designed to improve native
speakers' ability to understand accented speech (Derwing et al., 2002; Thomas, 2004). Their training
techniques are based on the research described above indicating that comprehension improves with
exposure to non-native speech. Derwing et al. (2002) conducted their training with students preparing to
be social workers, but note that other professionals who work with non-native speakers could benefit
from a similar program.
References
Derwing, T. M., Rossiter, M. J., & Munro, M. J. (2002). Teaching native speakers to listen to foreign-
accented speech. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 23(4), 245-259.
Thomas, H. K. (2004). Training strategies for improving listeners' comprehension of foreign-accented
speech (Doctoral dissertation). University of Colorado, Boulder.
Citing Web Pages In Text
 Cite web pages in text as you would any other source, using the author and date if known. Keep
in mind that the author may be an organization rather than a person. For sources with no author,
use the title in place of an author.
 For sources with no date use n.d. (for no date) in place of the year: (Smith, n.d.).

 Below are examples of using in-text citation with web pages.

a) Web page with author:
In-text citation
Heavy social media use can be linked to depression and other mental disorders in teens (Asmelash, 2019).
Reference entry
Asmelash, L. (2019, August 14). Social media use may harm teens' mental health by disrupting positive
activities, study says. CNN. [Link]
[Link]
b) Web page with organizational author:
In-text citation
More than 300 million people worldwide are affected by depression (World Health Organization, 2018).
Reference entry
World Health Organization. (2018, March
22). Depression. [Link]
c) Web page with no date:
In-text citation

17
 Establishing regular routines, such as exercise, can help survivors of disasters recover from trauma
(American Psychological Association [APA], n.d.).
Reference entry
American Psychological Association. (n.d.). Recovering emotionally from disaster.
[Link]
General Guidelines
In-text references should immediately follow the title, word, or phrase to which they are directly relevant,
rather than appearing at the end of long clauses or sentences. In-text references should always precede
punctuation marks. Below are examples of using in-text citation.
 Author's name in parentheses:
One study found that the most important element in comprehending non-native speech is familiarity with
the topic (Gass & Varonis, 1984).
 Author's name part of narrative:
Gass and Varonis (1984) found that the most important element in comprehending non-native speech is
familiarity with the topic.
 Group as author:
First citation: (American Psychological Association [APA], 2015)
Subsequent citation: (APA, 2015)
 Multiple works: (separate each work with semi-colons)
Research shows that listening to a particular accent improves comprehension of accented speech in
general (Gass & Varonis, 1984; Krech Thomas, 2004).
 Direct quote: (include page number and place quotation marks around the direct quote)
One study found that “the listener's familiarity with the topic of discourse greatly facilitates the
interpretation of the entire message” (Gass & Varonis, 1984, p. 85).
Gass and Varonis (1984) found that “the listener’s familiarity with the topic of discourse greatly
facilitates the interpretation of the entire message” (p. 85).
Note: For direct quotations of more than 40 words, display the quote as an indented block of text
without quotation marks and include the authors’ names, year, and page number in parentheses at the end
of the quote. For example:
This suggests that familiarity with nonnative speech in general, although it is clearly not as
important a variable as topic familiarity, may indeed have some effect. That is, prior experience
with nonnative speech, such as that gained by listening to the reading, facilitates comprehension.
(Gass & Varonis, 1984, p. 77)
 Works by Multiple Authors
APA style has specific rules for citing works by multiple authors. Use the following guidelines to
determine how to correctly cite works by multiple authors in text.
Note: When using multiple authors' names as part of narrative, rather than in parentheses, always spell
out the word and. For multiple authors' names within a parenthetic citation, use &.

18
 One author: (Field, 2005)
Two authors: (Gass & Varonis, 1984)
Three or more authors:  (Tremblay et al., 2010)

APA STYLE OF REFERENCING ARTICLES

Important Elements:

 Author (last name, initials only for first & middle names)
 Date of publication of article (year and month for monthly publications; year, month and day for
daily or weekly publications)
 Title of article (capitalize only the first word of title and subtitle, and proper nouns)
 Title of publication in italics (i.e., Journal of Abnormal Psychology, Newsweek, New York Times)
 Volume number in italics and issue number, if given
 Page numbers of article, if given
 For articles retrieved online, include DOI, if available. Includes URLs only if they will work for
readers. For articles retrieved through a database, do not include the database information or URL
in the reference.

 A DOI, or Digital Object Identifier, is a string of numbers, letters and symbols used to
permanently identify an article or document and link to it on the web . For example,
[Link] will take you directly to the information page for
the article "An Analysis of the Pricing of Traits in the U.S. Corn Seed Market."
 URL-Also known as a internet address or web address, a URL (Uniform Resource
Locator) is a form of URI and standardized naming convention for addressing documents
accessible over the Internet and Intranet. An example of a URL is
[Link] which is the URL for the Computer Hope website

 examples, APA Style and Grammar Guidelines entries for magazine, newspaper, and scholarly

journal articles. 
a) Magazine article:
Swedin, E. G.  (2006, May/June). Designing babies: A eugenics race with China? The Futurist, 40, 18-21.
Will, G. F. (2004, July 5). Waging war on Wal-Mart. Newsweek, 144, 64.
Duhigg, C. (2019, October 10). Is Amazon unstoppable? The New
Yorker.  [Link]
b) Newspaper article:
Dougherty, R. (2006, January 11). Jury convicts man in drunk driving death. Centre Daily Times, p. 1A.
Laber-Warren, E. (2019, October 17). You're only as old as you feel. The New York
Times. [Link]
c) Scholarly journal article:
Blattner, J., & Bacigalupo, A. (2007). Using emotional intelligence to develop executive leadership and team
and organizational development. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 59(3), 209-
219. [Link]

19
 d) Book Review:
Rifkind, D. (2005, April 10). Breaking their vows. [Review of the book The mermaid chair, by S.M.
Kidd]. Washington Post, p. T6.

CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Research designs

A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data

The research design is also the overall strategy to integrate the different components of a
study in a coherent and logical way, thereby, ensuring effective address of the research
problem; it constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement, and analysis of data.

 Note that the research problem determines the type of design you should use, not the other
way around!

Types of design based on method of data collection

1. Qualitative
a) Ground theory
b) Ethnographic studies
c) Phenomenology
d) Cases studies
e) Narrative research

2. Quantitative
a) Experimental
b) Non experimental
 Descriptive
 observational
 correlational studies
 casual comparative studies
 survey
i) baseline surveys
ii) cross sectional survey
iii) longitudinal survey

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS

20
A qualitative research design is concerned with establishing answers to the whys and hows of the
phenomenon in question (unlike quantitative). Due to this, qualitative research is often defined as
being subjective (not objective), and findings are gathered in a written format as opposed to
numerical.
Types of qualitative research design

a) Grounded theory- is a systematic qualitative research, that allows researchers to develop

a theory that explains a specific phenomenon. The unit of analysis in grounded theory is
a specific phenomenon or incident, not individual behaviors. The primary data
collection method is through interviews of approximately 20 – 30 participants or until
data achieves saturation.
b) Ethnographic studies- qualitative procedures that describe, analyze and interpret a
culture’s characteristics. Ethnography is used when a researcher wants to study a group
of people to gain a larger understanding of their lives or specific aspects of their lives.
The primary data collection method is through observation over an extended period of
time. It would also be appropriate to interview others who have studied the same
cultures.
c) Phenomenology- is used to identify phenomena and focus on subjective experiences and
understanding the structure of those lived experiences. Phenomenology is used to
describe, in depth, the common characteristics of the phenomena that has occurred. The
primary data collection method is through in-depth interviews.
d) Case studies- y is a comprehensive study of a unit, be it a person, a group of persons, an
institution, a community or a family, a plant species, an animal species etac. Case studies
are to be used when (1) the researcher wants to focus on how and why, (2) the behavior is
to be observed, not manipulated, (3) to further understand a given phenomenon, and (4) if
the boundaries between the context and phenomena are not clear. Multiple methods can
be used to gather data, including interviews, observation, and historical documentation.
e) Narrative research- is research in which an inquiry is made by researcher on the lives of
individuals, makes one or more individuals to provide stories about their lives the story is
the retold or restored by the researcher into a narrative form

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS

They are systematic investigation of phenomena by gathering quantifiable data and performing
statistical, mathematical, or computational techniques. Quantitative research designs are further
categorized as experimental or no experimental.

-The key difference between experimental and non-experimental research lies in the extent to
which the environment is controlled and manipulated by the researcher. In experimental studies
the researcher sets up the environment and carefully controls the variables s/he is interested in.
Non-experimental research takes place in a real-life setting, and it is not possible for the

21
researcher to control all possible variables. This means that it is harder to determine causality in
non-experimental studies, but also that they tend to be more flexible and allow for a greater
range of topics to be studied.

Experimental design- Experimental research is the type of research that uses a scientific
approach towards manipulating one or more control variables of the research subject(s) and
measuring the effect of this manipulation on the subject. It is known for the fact that it allows the
manipulation of control variables.
a researcher imposes some form of treatment, usually to compare against a control
Data collected from an experiment is quantitative

An experiment can take place in a controlled environment eg green house, an animal house,
scientific laboratory

Non-experimental/ non laboratory methods

Non-experimental research is the type of research that does not involve the manipulation of
control or independent variable. In non-experimental research, researchers measure variables as
they naturally occur without any further manipulation

Types of non-experimental study designs

1. Descriptive research- aims to accurately and systematically describe a population,

situation or phenomenon. It can answer what, where, when and how questions, but
not why questions.
2. Observational study- A type of study in which individuals are observed or certain
outcomes are measured. No attempt is made to affect the outcome (for example, no
treatment is given).

3. A correlational research design -measures a relationship between two variables without

the researcher controlling either of them. It aims to find out whether there is either:
Positive Both variables As height increases, weight also increases
correlation change in the
same direction

Negative The variables As coffee

correlation change in consumption increases, tiredness decreases
opposite
directions

22
 Zero correlation There is no
relationship
between the
variables

4. A causal-comparative design -is a research design that seeks to find relationships

between independent and dependent variables after an intervention has been put in plac.
Thus, neither can definitively state that a true cause-and-effect relationship occurred
between these variables

• Also known as “ex post facto” research. (Latin for “after the fact”).
• In this type of research investigators attempt to determine the cause or
consequences of differences that already exist between or among groups of
individuals.
• You (the researcher) observe that 2 groups differ on some put in place variable
(teaching style) and then attempt to find the reason for (or the results of) this
difference.

5. Survey study design-quantitative method for collecting information from a pool of

respondents by asking multiple survey questions.

Types of surveys

 Cross- sectional survey-also called snapshot (a point in time), A cross-sectional

study involves collecting data from a population at one specific point in time.
 Baseline survey-used for impact assessment. It involves a snapshot ‘before’ which
is the compared with an ‘after’ picture
 Longitudinal survey- carried out a snap shot of same population over a length
period e.g. monitoring the effect of introducing a certain diet. Involves taking repeated
measures over time and are useful in conducting trend analysis tracking changes in
behavior over time and monitoring long-term effects

VARIABLES
Is a measurable characteristic that assumes different values among the subjects

Types of variables

23
There many types but the most common are independent and depended variables

1. Independent variables- is a variable that a researcher manipulates in order to determine

its effect or influence on another variable. Is also called predictor variable eg

A child morbidity patterns and nutritional status

Income and housing conditions

Gender and career choice

2. Dependent variables- also called criterion variable, attempts to indicate the total
influence arising from the effect of the independent variable eg

A child morbidity patterns and nutritional status

Income and housing conditions

Gender and career choice

Location of the study

In this section state the location of the study and its description (geographical).
Common research sites include universities, hospitals, research institutes, and field research
locations.

Household Factors Influencing Child Mortality Levels in Kilifi District, Kemya

Location of Study

Kilifi District is one of the larger seven districts that constitute Coast Province of Kenya. The district
boarders, Taita -Taveta to the west, Malindi to the North West, Mombasa and Kwale to the south. It
covers an area of 4779.2 km 2. It has seven administrative divisions, namely, Bahari, Kaloleni,
Kikambala, Chonyi, Ganze, Bamba, and [Link] District has a population of 544,305 with an
urban population of 189,227 and rural population of 411,417 persons (ROK, 2008). The study area which
is accessible through tarmac road that stretches about 20 kilometers of the Mombasa-Malindi high- way
and the rural parts is accessible via network of earth roads. The main economic activities in the division
are mixed farming and fishing along the coastal strip. The main cash crop grown is coconut, which the
residents 'utilize for different purposes. In some parts the cashew nuts are also utilized for cash crop.
Some dairy farming is also done on small scale. The hotel industry thrives well because of the beaches
and provides some form of employment to the population. The district has 73 health facilities, however
most of the population (57%) live over 5 kms away to the nearest health facility

COMPARATIVE STUDY OF HEPATITIS B AND HEPATITIS C VIRUSES AMONG HIV-1

INFECTED INTRAVENOUS DRUG USERS AND NON-USERS IN MOMBASA COUNTY

24
Study Area

This study involved subjects seeking treatment, counselling, and HIV-1 comprehensive services at Bomu
Medical Centre for non-DUs and the IDUs population was from dropping points of the Mewa
rehabilitation Centre, outpatient clinics of Bomu and Port Reitz all in Mombasa County. Mombasa
County, with an estimated area of [Link] and surrounding [Link] water mass is the smallest of the
Kenyan counties located along the Indian Ocean Coast. The county straddles Mombasa Island and parts
of the mainland to the north, west and south bordering Kilifi and Kwale. To the East is the Indian
Ocean(Mombasa county Government, 2013). The island is encompassed by Tudor creek and the Kilindini
harbor and connected to the mainland through the Makupa causeway to the west and the Nyali Bridge to
the north. The Likoni ferry service connects the island to the southern mainland across the Kilindini
harbor (Mombasa county Government, 2013). The population of Mombasa is cosmopolitan with multiple
religious groups evident. The main religions include Hindu, Christian and Muslim groups (Oparanya,
2009). The predominant ethnic communities are the Mijikenda, and Swahili people. Other communities
include Akamba and Taita, Luo and the Luhya. Traders from other regions, including Asia, the Indian
subcontinent have over the centuries settled in Mombasa. The city is the center of the coastal tourism
industry. It has a total population of 939,370 and 268,700 households (Oparanya, 2009). The population
density is 4,292/km2 and 37.6% of the population live below the poverty line.

Target population

-The target population is the entire population, or group, that a researcher is interested in researching and
analysing. A sampling frame is then drawn from this target population.

-For example, if the research was to identify approximately how many parents read a particular article in
their child’s school newsletter, the target population would be all parents of children at that school. The
target units would then be the individual parents, and the school could provide a list of parent contact
details which would serve as a sampling frame.

Inclusion and exclusion criteria

Sometimes a researcher may find it necessary to exclude some subjects or individuals in a study which or
who may negatively influence the study results

Inclusion criteria:

25
 -The inclusion of the respondents in a research is dependent on the factors that help meet the goals of the
study. Respondent whose demographic, geographic or medical characteristics meet the requirement of the
study are included in the study.

Example:
For example, the researcher is studying the prevalence of the major coronary diseases in adult males in
the rural areas of the North Carolina.

The inclusion criteria for the above example would be adult male above 40 years of age, with major heart
diseases (what is considered major in this case needs to be defined as well), their geographical location
should be rural areas of North Carolina, and currently going through the disease and those who consent to
take part in the study

Exclusion criteria:
-The exclusion criteria include all the participants that meet all the requirements of the study but still the
researcher cannot include them in the study. Why? because these respondents have other emotional,
medical, or psychological conditions that can influence the results of the study; or these respondents have
lake of willingness and interest that can make the study biased and incorrect.

It is very important that the researcher clearly define what are the inclusion criteria and what are the
exclusion criteria. These criteria should be mutually exclusive so that the right respondents are selected.
By clearly defining the criteria the researcher avoid any confusion as well as bias in the study.

Possible reasons for exclusion

There can be many reasons that influence the exclusion criteria of the participants.

1. The intervention can be harmful for the respondent.

2. The respondent does not provide consent for the participation in the study.
3. The participants may lose interest and will not adhere to the study.
4. The participant is not reliable.
5. The participant has any other medical condition that can interfere with the study and can make it
incorrect or biased.
6. The participant is unwilling to provide personal information to the researcher.
7. Any chronic disease other than the one that is being studied that will impact respondents’ availability
for the study.

Sampling technique and sample size

Dealing with all members of even a smaller accessible population involves a tremendous amount of time
and resources therefore a given number of members or cases from the accessible population is selected.
The sub-group is carefully selected so as to represent the whole population with relevant characteristics.

26
SAMPLE is a Unit that selected from population , it’s a Representive of the population

Population is the entire group of people of interest from whom the researcher needs to obtain information

Sampling –is the process of selecting a number of individuals for a study in such a way that the
individuals selected represent the large group from which they were selected

The purpose of sampling is to secure a representative group which will enable the researcher to gain
information about a population

The various methods used to get a sample from a population are refered to as sampling techniques

The sample size depends on

 Number of variables in the study

 Type of research design
 Method of data analysis
 Size of accessible population
E.g. for correlational research 30 cases or more, for descriptive studies 10% of the accessible
population and for experimental studies 30 cases are required

A more accurate calculation can also be used. It a formula for social sciences, using Fisher et al., 1998
formula

n = Z2 [p×q]
d2
Where; n = The desired sample size (if target population is more than 10,000).

z = The standard normal deviation at the required confidence level of 1.96.

d = The level of statistical significance set.

p = The proportion in the characteristics being measured.

q = 1- p

If there is no estimate available of the proportion in the target population assumed to have the same
characteristics, the researcher may use 50% of the given sample as recommended by Fisher et al., 1998
for example, if the proportion of a target population is 50, and the Z-statistic is 1.96, and we desire
accuracy at the 0.05 level statistical significance, then the sample will be determined as; n = (1.96)2
×[(0.5) (0.5)]
(0.05)2
= 384

If the the sample size in the study is less than 10,000 therefore the formula for infinite population used.

27
therefore the formula for infinite population used is .

nf = n/(1 +n/N)

Where;

nf = The desired sample size, when the population is less than 10,000.

n = The desired sample when population is more than

10,000.

N = The estimated population eg 120

Therefore;

nf = 384/(1 + 384/120)

Sample size is 92 respondents.

Sampling procedures

To select a representative sample a researcher must first have sampling frame. A sampling frame is a list,
directory or index of cases from which a sample can be selected e.g. national census

In cases where sampling frame does not exist the researcher should take time and resources to compile
one and in other times the target population is so small then the researcher takes whole population.

28
Sampling techniques

1. Probability sampling

-simple random sampling

-systematic random sampling

-Stratified random

-cluster sampling

2. Biased or non-probability sampling

29
-purposive

-snow ball sampling

-quota sampling

-convenient sampling/accidental sampling

Probability sampling

i) Cluster sampling –used when the population is so big or scattered over a large geographical

area and involves selection of an intact group and members of the intact group are included in the

sample and each member of the group becomes a unit of observation

ii) Simple random- sampling involves giving numbers to every subject or member of the

accessible population, placing the numbers in a container and then picking any number at random

iii)Stratified sampling – Population is divided into two or more groups called strata, according to

some criterion, such as geographic location, grade level, age, or income, and subsamples are

randomly selected from each strata.

IV) Systematic random sampling-every nth case in the population frame is selected for inclusion

in the sample. A list of all the members in the sampling frame must be randomized then the

researcher decides on the sampling interval.

iv) Multi stage sampling – to sampling plans where the sampling is carried out in stages

using smaller and smaller sampling units at each. stage. Eg. Select all schools; then

sample within schools

Biased or non-probability sampling

1) Purposive sampling or judgement sampling-is a technique that allows a researcher to use cases

that have the required information with respect to the objectives of the study. Subjects /

respondents are picked because they are informative or posses the required characteristics.

2) -Snowball sampling-is where that initial subjects with the desired characteristics are identified

using purposive sampling then the few identified subject’s names others that they know have the

30
 required characteristics until the researcher gets the number that possess the characteristics under

study. Useful when the population that possesses the characteristics under study is not well

known and there is need to find subjects

3) Quota sampling- the population is divided into more groups using a given criteria and a given
number of cases are selected depending on the characteristics of every group or quota.
4) Convenient sampling- also called as Accidental / Incidental Sampling-Selecting haphazardly
those cases that are easiest to obtain to the researcher e.g. a researcher selects a neighbor or a
classmate as they are Convenient to answer a given question.

Sampling and non-sampling errors

Sampling errors

These errors have their origin in sampling and arise due to the fact that only a

part of the population is enumerated. These errors do not occur in a complete population

survey. Sampling errors can be due to one of following reasons.

(a) Defective sample design: This kind of error arises due to a faulty selection of sampling technique.
Using simple random sampling where stratified sampling is required can bring a lot of errors in the
research findings. Similarly, biases creep in when a researcher adopts purposive or judgment sampling in
which he deliberately selects a representative sample to obtain certain results of his choice. It is therefore
necessary to consult an expert statistician in choosing a proper sample design.

(b) Substitution of units: Researchers sometimes substitute one convenient unit of the population when
difficulties arise in observing another. This will necessarily lead to some error since the characteristics
possessed by substituted unit will usually be different from those possessed by the unit originally
selected.

(c) Faulty demarcation of sampling units: In area surveys like agricultural experiments in the field or crop
cutting surveys etc., the demarcation of sampling units is at the discretion of the investigator. In such
survey, while dealing with border line cases steps should be taken to minimize the investigator’s bias.
This kind of error decreases if we take larger sampling units.

(d) Improper choice of estimates: If an improper choice of the statistic for estimating the population
characteristics is made a constant error creeps in the results of the survey. Exact statistical estimates, in
consultation with experts should be used in drawing inferences about the population.

Non –sampling errors

There are errors which can arise in collecting, processing and analyzing the data .

These errors can occur at any stage of planning or execution of a sample

31
 (a) Faulty definitions of objectives: In the beginning of a survey, its objectives should be clearly stated. If
the specifications about the data to be collected are inadequate and inconsistent with respect to the
objectives of the survey, it will obviously result in errors.

(b) Response- bias: The respondent may provide wrong information due to (i)misunderstanding of a
question (ii) his prestige or status (iii) his self –interest (iv) failure of his memory (v) beliefs and
prejudices of the respondent.

(c) Non- response bias: In all the surveys researchers face the problem of non- response.

Non- response bias occurs of full information is not collected on all the units in the sample. If a
respondent is not traceable or does not respond, even after many reminders, or he is not able to give
information on all the questions, then there arise errors due to non-response. In such cases some portion
of sampling units is excluded from the sample and this brings in bias in the results of the surveys.

(d) Errors due to interviewers: For a scientific investigation, trained and experienced personnel are
required to carry out a survey. An ill-trained interviewer may ask a question in such a way that the
response of the respondent may be affected. He may also record the answers incorrectly. Sometimes
beliefs and prejudices of the interviewer also influence the results of the survey.

(e) Errors in measurement and publication: The observations made in an experiment may be erroneous if
the measuring tool is defective. A careless recording on the part of investigator also causes this kind of
error. In the processing of data errors may incur during compilation, editing and coding. Printing and
publication errors are also found in the survey reports.

Research instruments/ Tools and techniques

1. Observation-is a basic technique of data collection where the researcher prepares an
observation checklist based on the variables under study then moves to the field and
observes the respondent as he/she attends to daily activities
-It can be undertaken in different ways:
o Participant observation: The observer takes part in the situation he or she
observes. (For example, a doctor hospitalized with a broken hip, who
now observes hospital procedures ‘from within’.)
o Non-participant observation: The observer watches the situation, openly
or concealed, but does not participate.
advantages:

 Due to disguised form of observation, behavior is naturally studied and data is not distorted.
 The subjects behave in the desired natural manner and do not get influenced by what the observer
wants to listen.
 Observation techniques are cost effective and produce valid results.
 People are observed and their willingness to participate is not taken into account as in case of focus
group discussions or personal interviews.

32
Disadvantages:

 Time consuming and may involve large amount of inactivity.

 Observations may lack depth and qualitative richness.
 If the ethics are not handled well, legal action can be taken.

2. Questionnaires-are commonly used to obtain important information about the

population. Each item in the questionnaire is developed to address a specific
objective, research question or hypothesis of the study. There are two types
questionnaires

a) structured or closed questionnaire- these refers to questions which are

accompanied by a list of all possible alternatives from which respondents select
the answer that best describes their situation eg

What type of a house do you live in ?

1. Bangalow ..2flat 3 maisonette 4. Others
Advantages of closed-ended questionnaire

 are easy to analyze since are in immediate usable form

 Easy to administer because each item is followed by alternative answers

Disadvantages of closed-ended questionnaire

 more difficult to construct as categories must be well thought out

 response is limited and respondent is compelled to answer questions according to the
researchers choices
b) Unstructured or open-ended questionnaire- this refers to questions that give the
respondent complete freedom of response i.e. they permit the respondent to
respond in his/her own words. The amount of space provided is however an
indicator of whether an indicator of whether brief or lengthy answer is desired

E.g. how do you keep record of your monthly expenditure in your

household--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------

Advantages

 -permit greater depth of response

 -simpler to construct as the researcher does not have to labour to come up with
appropriate response categories

33
  -the respondents’ responses may give an insight into their feeling, background, hidden
motivation, interest and decision.
 -can stimulate a person to think about his feeling or motives and to express what he
considers to be most important.

Disadvantages

 -tendency to provide information which does not answer the stipulated research questions
or objectives
 -response given may be difficult to categorize and hence difficulty to analyze
quantitatively

 -responding to open-ended questions is time consuming and this may put off some
respondents

Ways of administering a questionnaire

 Self administered questionnaires-respondents are asked to complete the questionnaire

themselves. The questionnaire are sent through the mail or hand delivered
 Researcher administered questionnaire-the researcher may decide to use the questionnaire
to interview the respondents. Is mostly done when the subjects may not have the ability to
easily interpret the questions probably due to their education level
 Use of internet-people who are sampled for research are sent questionnaire and sent their
responses via email

3. Interviews ( key informant interviews)- is a oral administration of a set of

questions specific to a set objective in an interview schedule or face to face
encounters. To obtain accurate information a researcher needs to obtain the
maximum co-operation from the respondents. The researcher must therefore
establish a friendly relationship with the respondent prior to conducting the
interview. The respondent response can be recorded through note taking and /or
tape recording

Advantages of interview

 -provide in-depth data which is not possible to get using a questionnaire

 -make it possible to obtain data required to meet specific objectives of the study
 -guard against confusing the question since the interviewer can clarify the
question

34
  -more flexible than questionnaire as the interviewer can adapt to the situation
and get as much information as possible
 -very sensitive and personal information can be gotten from the respondent by
honest and personal interaction between interviewer and the respondent
 -interviews yield higher response rates mainly because it is difficult for a
subject to completely refuse to answer question or to ignore the interviewer

Disadvantages

-more expensive as the researcher has to travel to meet respondents

-requires a high level of communication and interpersonal skills
-interviewers have to be trained to avoid bias
-can often introduce bias and subjectivity into the study for the subject may
be too eager to please the interviewer or the interviewer may ask questions
which tend to support his or her perceived notions
-interviews generally involve a smaller sample because they are time
consuming, if one is interest in using a large sample, interview becomes a
constraint.

4. Focus group discussions ( FGDs)

Is group of 6-12 respondents to be guided by a skilled moderator into increasing
levels of focus and depth on the key issues of the research topic. FGD should be
used or the following reasons
-Group interaction- interaction between respondents will generally stimulate
richer responses and allow new and valuable thoughts to emerge
-Observation-the researcher can observe the discussion and gain first hand
insights into the respondent’s behaviors, attitude, language and feeling
-cost and timing-FGD can be completed more quickly and generally less
expensive than a series of in-depth interviews

5. USING AVAILABLE INFORMATION- Usually there is a large amount of data that

has already been collected by others, although it may not necessarily have been analyzed
or published. Locating these sources and retrieving the information is a good starting
point in any data collection effort.

Pretesting
Once the questionnaire has been finalized, it should be tried out in the field, this is called
pretesting/ piloting the questionnaire

35
 It should be pretested to a selected sample which is similar to the actual sample to be
studied and samples should not be in the pretest

Procedures in the pretest should be identical to those which will be used in the actual data
collection to make meanful observation

The number to be pretested should be 1-10% of the sample size

Importance of pretesting
1. Vague questions are revealed as respondents interpret them differently hence the
researcher can rephrase them to convey the meaning to respondents
2. Comment and suggestions from respondents once incoparated can help improve
the questionnaire
3. Reveals deficiencies in the questionnaire (unclear directions, insufficient space to
write responses, clustered questions, wrong numbers)
4. Helps in analysis as the researcher can pick a few questions and analyze

RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY IN A RESEARCH

Reliability and validity measures relevance and correctness of the collected data

Reliability

Measure degree to which a research instrument yields consistent results or data after repeated
trials

Different methods are used to test reliability

a) Test-retest technique- involves administering the same instrument twice to the same
group of subjects, there is usually a time lapse between the first test and the second test
Steps
-select an appropriate group of respondent / subgroup
-administer the test the test to the subjects
-keeping all initial conditions constant administers the same test to the same subject
(4weeks for the second administration)
-correlate the scores from both testing periods
NB-the correction co-efficient obtained is referred to as co-efficient of reliability and if it is high
the instrument is said to be of a high reliability

b) Equivalent –form technique-uses two equivalent instruments, specific items in each from
are different but are designed to measure the same concept, they are the same in number,
structure and level of difficulty

36
 Steps
-Sample different items
-divide the items into two groups/ forms
-administer one form to a randomly selected group
-after a period of time, the other form of items is administered the same subjects, keeping
all other conditions constant
-correlate the scores obtained from the two forms of the instruments

NB-if the correlation co-efficient is high the instrument is said to yield data that have
high equivalent form reliability

c) Split half technique-subjects scores from one part are corrected with scores from the
second part
Steps
-sample items
-administer the total test to an appropriate group
-randomly divide the scored items into two groups (odds/even numbers)
-compute each subjects total score from the two groups of item
-correlate the scores from the two groups of items for all the subjects
NB-If the correlation co-efficient is high the instrument is said to yield data that have
high split half reliability
d) Internal consistency technique- a score obtained in one item is correlated with scores
obtained from other items. The cronbach’s co-efficient Alpha is computed to determine
how items correlates among themselves
NB-a high co-efficient implies that items correlate highly among themselves

Validity
Degree to which result obtained from analysis of the data actually represent the
phenomena understudy
Types
a) Construct validity-measures the degree to which data obtained from an instrument
meaningfully and accurately reflect or represent a theoretical concept
-to assess construct validity there must exist a theoretical framework regarding the
concept to be measured where the measurements must conform to the theoretical
expectations and if the measurements are consistent with theoretical expectations
then the data have construct validity
-Two different instrument measuring same concept are used and the validity co-
efficient computed correlating the measurement of the two
b) Content validity- measures of degree to which data collected using a particular
instrument represents a specific domain of indicators or content of that particular
concept
37
 -the procedure in assessing the consistent validity of a measure is to use
professionals or experts in that particular field where the data collection
instrument is given to one or more groups of experts to establish what the
instrument is trying to measure i.e. if the set items or checklist accurately
represent the concept understudy

c) Criterion –related validity- use of a measure in assessing subject behavior in

specific situations. It can either be predictive validity i.e. degree to which
obtained data predict future behavior of the subjects or con current validity i.e. the
degree to which data are able to predict the behavior of subjects in the present and
not in the future

What is data analysis in research?

The data analysis process helps in reducing a large chunk of data into smaller fragments, which makes
sense. 

Data analysis in qualitative research

 This is data made up of words, descriptions, images, objects, and sometimes symbols. Getting
insight from such complicated information is a complicated process.

Methods used for data analysis in qualitative research

There are several techniques to analyze the data in qualitative research, but the common one include
Thematic content analysis
It’s the most common method used in qualitative research. It aims to find common patterns across a data
set. It usually follows these steps:

 Getting familiar with the data (reading and re-reading).

 Coding (labeling) the whole text.
 Searching for themes with broader patterns of meaning.
 Reviewing themes to make sure they fit the data.
 Defining and naming themes.
 The write-up (creating a coherent narrative that includes quotes from the interviewees).

Using computer software for data analysis

- with increasing number of researchers computer programs such as [Link] or NVivo  can help
manage qualitative data.
- This does not mean the computer simply performs the analysis — that is still the job of the
researcher.
- These software programs can nevertheless help us organize, retrieve and present our data in an
effective and more coherent way.

Data analysis in quantitative research

Methods used for data analysis in quantitative research

 After the data is prepared for analysis, researchers are open to using different research and data
analysis methods to derive meaningful insights.

38
  Statistical techniques are the most favored to analyze numerical data.
 The method is classified into two groups.
a)Descriptive Statistics’ used to describe data.
b) Inferential statistics’ that helps in comparing the data.

Descriptive statistics
 This method is used to describe the basic features of data in research.
 It presents the data in such a meaningful way that pattern in the data starts making sense.
 Major types of descriptive analysis methods.
a) Measures of Frequency-Count, Percent, Frequency,.Researchers use it when they
want to showcase how often a response is given
b) Measures of Central Tendency-Mean, Median, Mode,The method is widely used to
demonstrate distribution by various [Link] use this method when they want
to showcase the most commonly or averagely indicated response
c) Measures of Dispersion or Variation,Range, Variance, Standard deviation,
Researchers use this method to showcase data spread out. It helps them identify the
depth until which the data is spread out that it directly affects the mean.
d) Measures of Position-Percentile ranks, Quartile [Link] relies on standardized
scores helping researchers to identify the relationship between different [Link] is
often used when researchers want to compare scores with the average count.
Descriptive analysis is also called a ‘univariate analysis’ since it is commonly used to analyze a single
variable.

Inferential statistics
  trying to reach conclusions that extend beyond the immediate data alone.
 Inferential statistics takes data from a sample and makes inferences about the larger population
from which the sample was drawn
 There are times, when one may want to draw conclusions about the data.
 This may include making comparisons across time, comparing different groups, or trying to make
predictions based on data that has been collected. 
 Inferential statistics are used when you want to move beyond simple description or
characterization of the data and draw conclusions based on the data.
 There are several kinds of inferential statistics that you can calculate; here are a few of the more
common types:

a) t-tests

A t-test is a statistical test that can be used to compare means. For  t-tests, one is simply looking at the
difference between the means

o Example: Suppose you are interested in knowing whether students who are utilizing the Career
Services office are generally the students with higher average grades in 4 th year. You would take the
mean average grades of the sampled students in 4 th year and who use Career Services and compare it
to the mean average grades of all 4 th year students at the institution, taken from the registrar’s
records. 
o Example: Suppose you are interested in knowing how your institution compares to other institutions
in terms of hours of community service per capita. You would take your students’ mean community

39
 service hours per person and compare it to other institutions’ mean community service hours per
person.
o Example: Suppose you are interested in determining whether there is a difference between students
in Greek organizations and students who are not in Greek organizations on a measure of satisfaction
with weekend programming. You could issue a survey to students and then compare the mean
satisfaction of Greeks with the mean satisfaction of non-Greeks.
o Example: You want to know whether students’ attitudes toward diversity changes from their fresher
years to senior years. You could ask incoming freshers to indicate their level of agreement with
various statements related to diversity and then administer the same survey to them again in their
senior year and compare their answers.

b) ANOVA (Analysis of Variance)

- An ANOVA is a statistical test that is also used to compare means.

- The difference between a t-test and an ANOVA is that a t-test can only compare two means at a
time, whereas with an ANOVA, can compare multiple means at the same time.
- ANOVAs also allow one to compare the effects of different factors on the same measure.
- ANOVAs can become very complicated, and the analysis should only be done by someone who
has been trained in statistics

a) Example: Suppose you want to know whether leadership skills differ when one is a first
year student, 2nd and 3rd year students. You would take the mean for each group and
compare them to each other
b) Example: Suppose you want to track the development of leadership skills over time. You
would administer your instrument a group of students during their first year students. The
same group of student would be taking the survey each year. then compare the means of
this group as first year students, 2nd and 3rd year students 
c) Regression
- A regression analysis is a statistical procedure that allows one to make a prediction about an
outcome (or criterion) variable based on knowledge of some predictor variable.
 Example: You want to try to predict whether a student will come back for a second year
based on how many on-campus activities s/he attended. You would have to collect data on
how many activities students attended and then whether or not those students returned for a
second year. If activity attendance and retention are significantly related to each other, then
you can generate a regression model where you could identify at-risk students (in terms of
retention) based on how many activities they have attended
 Example: You want to try to identify students who are at risk of failing College Algebra
based on their scores on a math assessment so you can direct them to special services on
campus. You would administer the math assessment at the start of the semester and then
match each student’s score on the math assessment to their final grade in the course.
Eventually, your data may show that the math assessment is significantly correlated to their
final grade, and you can create a regression model to identify those at-risk students so you
can direct them to tutors and other resources on campus.

     TOOLS FOR ANALYZING SURVEY DATA

 Excel
 R (open source)
 SAS

40
  SPSS
 Stata
 DataCracker (free up to 100 responses per survey)
 SurveyMonkey (free up to 100 responses per survey)

DATA PRESENTATION
This refers to the organization of data into tables, graphs or charts, so that logical and statistical
conclusions can be derived from the collected data
Methods of data presentation
1. Text presentation
2. Tables
3. Charts
4. Graphs

1. Text presentation
Text is the main method of conveying information as it is used to explain results and trends and provide
contextual information. Using text to present data, is fundamentally the use of paragraphs or sentences.
Text can be used to provide interpretation or emphasize certain data.
For instance, explaining the change in the value of Naira from April 2019 to April 2020. A text
presentation can go like this – ‘The value of Naira has depreciated overtime and has seen a difference of
about ₦60. In April 2019, the value of Naira was officially, ₦360/$1 but as at April 2020, this has
changed drastically to ₦410/$1. This was caused by…’

2. Tables
A table shows the raw data presented in rows and columns. It is designed to simplify the presentation and
to facilitate quick comparison. A table shows all data at once and is Precise too. However, when using a
table for data presentation, it can be hard to interpret or see patterns.
For example, the table below shows the number of Bowenites that responded to a questionnaire on saving
money according to their levels.

LEVEL FREQUENCY PERCENTAGE (%)

100 26 5.6
200 88 19.0
300 140 30.3
400 171 37.0
500 36 7.8
Missing 1 0.2
TOTAL 462 100

3. Charts
There are various types of charts used in the presentation of data.

41
a. Pie Chart
A pie chart is one which essentially displays the relative figures (proportions or
percentages) of classes or strata of a given sample or population. The pie chart follows
the principle that the angle of each of its sectors should be proportional to the frequency
of the class that it represents.
A pie chart is used to represent nominal data (in other words, data classified in different
categories), of a distribution of categories visually. It is generally the most appropriate
format for representing information grouped into a small number of categories. It is also
used for data that have no other way of being represented aside from a table.
It gives a simple pictorial display of the relative sizes of classes.
For example, representing the table above on a pie chart, we have

Example

100 200 300 400 500 Missing

To use Microsoft Excel to create a pie chart,

i. select the data to be created – the label and the frequency only,
ii. go to Insert,
iii. click on Recommended Charts/All Charts/Charts, iv. click on Pie chart,
v. select the type of pie chart you want.

b. Bar Chart
A bar chart shows data in separate columns. It consists a group of equally spaced
rectangular bars, one for each category (or class) of given statistical data. The rectangular
bars are differentiated by different shades or colors. The bars starting from a common
baseline must be of equal width and their length represents the values of statistical data.
Bar charts may be of two types: vertical and horizontal. The bar chart is one of the most
common methods of presenting data in a visual form. Its main purpose is to display
quantities in the form of bars. For example, representing the tabular illustration in a bar
chart,

42
 FREQUENCY
200

150

100

50

To use Microsoft Excel to create a bar chart,

i. select the data to be created – the label and the frequency only,
ii. go to Insert,
iii. click on Recommended Charts/All Charts/Charts, iv. click on bar chart,
v. select the type of bar chart you want.

4. Graphs
To be clear, due to the presence of the x and y axis on a bar chart, it is sometimes called a graph
as well.
Graphs to be considered here include:

a. Histogram
A histogram is a set of vertical bars whose areas are proportional to the frequencies of the
classes that they represent. It shows continuous data with no gaps between the columns. It
shows continuity of data categories. It can be vertical or horizontal. However, the
histogram should be clearly distinguished from the bar chart. The most striking physical
difference between these two diagrams is that, unlike the bar chart, there are no ‘gaps’
between successive rectangles of a histogram. A bar chart is one-dimensional since only
the length, and not the width, matters whereas a histogram is two-dimensional since both
length and width are important. For instance, using our tabular example again,

43
 To use Microsoft Excel to create a histogram,
i. select the data to be created – the label and the frequency only,
ii. go to Insert,
iii. click on Recommended Charts/All Charts/Charts, iv. click on histogram,
v. select the type of histogram you want.

Note, please study further on Frequency Polygon and Ogive.

b. Line Graph
A line graph is usually meant for showing the frequencies for various values of a
variable. Successive points are joined by means of line segments so that a glance at the
graph is enough for the reader to understand the distribution of the variable. It shows all
data points very is simple to look at. It can show multiple data sets.

For example, from the data being used earlier,

To use Microsoft Excel to create a line graph,

i. select the data to be created – the label and the frequency only,
ii. go to Insert,
iii. click on Recommended Charts/All Charts/Charts, iv. click on line graph,
v. select the type of line graph you want.

The other types of graph include scatter diagram, box and whisker, etc can also be used to
represent data and are used similarly to the above explained.

44
 LOGISTICAL AND ETHICAL ISSUES IN RESEARCH
Pre-field logistics
-encompasses those activities that a researcher must carry out before embarking on data collection in the
field
-at this point it is assumed that the researcher has finalized proposal, an instrument for data collection and
funding for the project
-the main items to consider in pre-field work logistics are
 Terms of reference, if required
 Establishing a work plan or research protocol
 Obtaining a research permit
 Training enumerators
 Pretesting the data collection instrument
 Sampling
 Distributing the instrument
Terms of reference-defines the scope of the research and itemize in details what the client expects the
consultant to do, the first section of the terms of reference describe the research project, background,
purpose and objectives, 2nd part enumerates specific activities that the consultant must call out

Obtaining research permit-as soon as the research proposal is ready a formal agreement between the
research and the client is drawn and the research must obtain authority to conduct research from office of
the president. To obtain a research permit a researcher presents to the office president a copy of final
proposal, two passport size photographs and an application form dully completely. In Kenya a research
permit is granted by Kenya national council of science and technology
Establishing a work plan- gives a detail of various tasks that need to be done in the whole of the
research process and the time-frame for each task- example
Training research assistants-since it is impossible for one person to collect all the data required in a
research, research assistants are deployed and trained to help standardize data collection procedures. No
specific number of enumerators but depends on size of the study, they are paid, must be experienced or in
the same field of study, they are trained in 3-5 days on the following
 Purpose of the study
 Objectives of the study
 Methods and instruments of data collection
 Administration of the research/ data collection (establishing rapport with reapondents, checking
through completed questionnaires for errors/ omissions
 How to complete instruments and avoid losses and misplacements

Pretesting the instrument-pretesting helps to ensure that items in the instrument are stated
clearly and have the same meaning to all respondents

45
 Sampling-list all the respondents in the population from which then one draw a random sample
using either technique. Sample affects the degree to which results from the sample can be
generalized to the population

Distributing the instrument- once the instrument is pretested and revised, enumerators trained
and sample selected the researcher is ready to go the field and so should make arrangements for
printing enough copies of the instrument and care must be taken to ensure that all the pages are
properly stapled

Field work logistics

1. Researcher and research assistants should familiarize themselves with the geographical areas in
which the research is to take place by severally visiting the sites where data will be collected
2. Enumerators should create a rapport with the respondents especially during the 1 st introduction,
explaining purpose of the study and usefulness of the information collected
3. Researcher should take precautions against common disease like malaria and typhoid
4. Researcher enumerators should be courteous
5. Should not be over inquisitive to avoid suspicion
6. Enumerators must be familiar with the instrument so that they do not appear unsure or confused

Post-field work logistics

1. Get the completed instruments from the field to the office for data coding and analysis
2. Ensure that all the instruments are completed properly before handing them over to the office
3. Data coding and entry should start as soon as completed instruments start coming into the office
to save time
4. Once data has been transferred from the instrument to the computer the instruments should be
kept in a safe place for future reference

Ethical issues related to research

Ethical issues relating to individual research
a) Research plagiarism and fraud-a researcher should not refer to another persons work as
theirs without acknowledging the author (plagiarism) and a researcher should not fake
data that has not actually been collected (faud)
b) Misuse of privilege- since a researcher has some power over the subjects owing to the
training they have, their expertise, legal authority to undertake the research it would be
unethical for a researcher to abuse this trust, like it would be wrong to use collected data
to get somebody into trouble or stigmatize them
Ethical issues concerning research subjects/respondents
c) Confidentiality and privacy-respondents should be protected by keeping the information
to avoid physical and psychological harm
d) Anonymity-individuals should be protected by use of numbers, third parties or pseudo
names ( not disclosing ones name). a researcher can disclose information about a partner
individual but protect identity and privacy of that individual

46
 e) Physical and psychological harm- a research should not undertake a research that may
cause physical harm. Preliminary tests and background information should be obtained to
avoid imparting any harm to subjects (embarrassing questions, expressing shock
threatening statements)
f) Voluntary and informed consent- a researcher must confirm to the principle of voluntary
consent where the respondents willingly participate in the research. A subject must be
told the truth and be given all the fact about reaserch inorder to make an informed
decision abou participating or not. Informed concent should be based on
 Purpose of the research study
 Any foreseen risks
 A guarantee of anonymity and confidentiality
 Identity of researcher
 Indication of number of subjects
 Benefits and composition or lack of them
g) Use of vulnerable and/ or special population-permission from those who care for special
population (children, mentally disabled, sick people, poor, street children) must be sought
and must be based on the principle of informed consent
h) Financial issues and sponsored research- a researcher should not compromise a study by
reporting distorted results for own selfish reasons, divert research funds to other purposes
as this affects the quality of research and may also yield misleading data
i) Dissemination of findings- a research should not conceal finding after completion of a
research. If the finding are sensitive modalities should be agreed upon as it is a waste of
time, money and energy to undertake a research and conceal findings
j) Academic freedom-e researcher should be free to discuss and publish findings without
the fear of intimidation, losing jobs or being victimized

REFERENCES
Every proposal should have a list of cited references or bibliography, this list will show the sources of the
literature reviewed
The bibliography should be up-to-date showing the researcher or the donor that one is aware of new
information in that particular disciple
Example of references

APPENDIX

It is necessary to enclose a document that the researcher may find important like the

 budget notes,
 work plan,
 questionnaires
 raw data
 maps (foldout type especially),
 photographs

47
  explanation of formulas, either already known ones, or especially if you have "invented"
some statistical or other mathematical procedures for data analysis,
 specialized computer programs for a particular procedure
 full generic names of chemicals or compounds that you have referred to

BUDGET
A budget is list of items that will be required to carry out the research and approximate cost. Should be
well thought of to avoid asking too little ot too much

Basic Elements of a Consent Form

1. A statement that the study involves research, an explanation of the purposes of the research, the
expected duration of a subject's participation, a description of the procedures to be followed, and if
applicable identification of any experimental procedures.
2. A description of any foreseeable risks or discomforts to the subject
3. A description of any benefits to the subject, or society, that may reasonably be expected from the
research.
4. If appropriate, a disclosure of appropriate alternative procedures or treatments, if any, that might be
advantageous to the subject.
5. A statement describing the extent to which confidentiality of records identifying the subject will be
maintained.
6. For research involving more than minimal risk, an explanation of the compensation and medical
treatments available if injury occurs, and where further information may be obtained.
7. Explanation of whom to contact for answers to pertinent questions about the research and subjects'
rights, and whom to contact in the event of a research-related injury. 
8. A statement that taking part in the study is voluntary, refusal to participate will involve no penalty or loss of
benefits the subject is otherwise entitled to and the subject may discontinue participation at any time with
no penalty or loss of benefits
9. One of the following statements about any research that involves the collection of identifiable information
or identifiable biospecimens:
(i) A statement that identifiers might be removed from the identifiable private information or identifiable
biospecimens and that, after such removal, the information or biospecimens could be used for future
research studies or distributed to another investigator for future research studies without additional
informed consent from the subject or the legally authorized representative, if this might be a possibility; or

(ii) A statement that the subject's information or biospecimens collected as part of the research, even if
identifiers are removed, will not be used or distributed for future research studies.

In some cases you may need to provide additional elements when appropriate:

(1) A statement that the particular treatment or procedure may involve risks to the subject (or to the
embryo or fetus, if the subject is or may become pregnant) that are currently unforeseeable;

(2) Anticipated circumstances under which the subject's participation may be terminated by the
investigator without regard to the subject's or the legally authorized representative's consent;

(3) Any additional costs to the subject that may result from participation in the research;

48
(4) The consequences of a subject's decision to withdraw from the research and procedures for orderly
termination of participation by the subject;

(5) A statement that significant new findings developed during the course of the research that may relate
to the subject's willingness to continue participation will be provided to the subject;

(6) The approximate number of subjects involved in the study;

(7) A statement that the subject's biospecimens (even if identifiers are removed) may be used for
commercial profit and whether the subject will or will not share in this commercial profit;

(8) A statement regarding whether clinically relevant research results, including individual research
results, will be disclosed to subjects, and if so, under what conditions; and

(9) For research involving biospecimens, whether the research will (if known) or might include whole
genome sequencing (i.e., sequencing of a human germline or somatic specimen with the intent to
generate the genome or exome sequence of that specimen).

The IRB may impose additional requirements that are not specifically listed in the regulations to ensure
that adequate information is presented in accordance with institutional policy and local law.

The words you use should be appropriate for the subject population so they can easily understand what
you wrote, and you should explain any complex ideas or large words.

Unless otherwise requested, Exempt category research does not require a signature line. All other
research categories should include a line for the subject to sign, and a line for the date.

A copy of the form MUST be given to the subject (or representative).

Problems Encountered by Researchers

1. Lack of skilled researchers
2. Lack of code of conduct
3. Insufficient interaction
4. Overlapping research studies
5. Lack of confidence
6. Lack of funds and facilities
7. Lack of literature

Report writing
The components and outline of a research proposal

Title
Declaration
Acknowledgement
List of abbreviations and acronyms
Table of content
Abstract

49
 4.0 CHAPTER ONE-INTRODUCTION
4.1 background of the study
4.2 Statement of the problem
4.3 Purpose of the study
4.4 Research questions
4.5 Research objectives
4.6 Research hypothesis
4.7 Significance of the study
4.8 Limitation of the study
4.9 conceptual framework
4.10 Assumptions (optional)
4.11 Definition of terms used

5.0 CHAPTER TWO-LITERATURE REVIEW

6.0 CHAPTER THREE- RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

6.1 Research design
6.2 Variables
6.3 Location of the study
6.4 Target population
6.5 Inclusion and exclusion creteiria
6.6 Sampling techniques and sample sise
6.7 Construction of research instruments
6.8 Pre-testing orf research instruments
3.8.1Validity
[Link]
6.9 Data collection techniques
6.10 Data analysis
6.11 Logistical and ethical consideration if any
4.0 CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS
- The function of the Results section is to objectively present key results, without interpretation, in
an orderly and logical sequence using both text and illustrative materials (Tables and Figures).
- The results section always begins with text, reporting the key results and referring to figures and
tables as one proceed. 
- The Results section should be organized around Tables and/or Figures that should be sequenced
to present key findings in a logical order.
- The text of the Results section should be crafted to follow this sequence and highlight the
evidence needed to answer the questions/hypotheses you investigated.

NB

 Use the past tense.

 Each Table or Figure must include a brief description of the results being presented

eg.

The duration of exposure to running water had a pronounced effect on cumulative seed germination
percentages (Fig. 2). Seeds exposed to the 2-day treatment had the highest cumulative germination (84%),
1.25 times that of the 12-h or 5-day groups and 4 times that of controls. 

50
 4.0 CHAPTER FOUR : RESULTS

- The results section is where one reports the findings of the study based upon the methodology [or
methodologies] applied to gather information. The results section should state the findings of the research
arranged in a logical sequence
-make sure you include details about your data analysis and interpretation, as well as statistical
significance tests. Report the statistical insignificant research findings for your academic article's
credibility. Use the past tense when describing to your research results.
-The Results section should include the findings of your study and ONLY the findings of your study. The
findings include: Data presented in tables, charts, graphs, and other figures (may be placed into the text or
on separate pages at the end of the manuscript)

5.0 CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION

- The discussion is to interpret your results in light of what was already known about the
subject of the investigation, and to explain our new understanding of the problem after
taking your results into consideration.
- Discussion relate the current study to the findings of other studies - including
previous studies one may have done and those of other investigators.
-  As stated previously, you may find crucial information in someone else's study that helps
you interpret your own data, or perhaps you will be able to reinterpret others' findings in
light of yours.
- In either case you should discuss reasons for similarities and differences between yours
and others' findings.
- Consider how the results of other studies may be combined with yours to derive a new or
perhaps better substantiated understanding of the problem. –
- Be sure to state the conclusions that can be drawn from the study results in light of these
considerations.
- briefly mention further studies needed to clarify the current research.
- reference any outside sources .

- six basic rules can be applied to every discussion section to create a framework
- ● First, summarize the key findings from the research and link them to the initial
research question. Seek to answer this question: What should readers take away from this
paper?
- ● Second, place the findings in context. This step will involve going back to the
literature review section and analyzing how the results fit in with previous research.
- ● Third, mention and discuss any unexpected results. Describe the results and provide a
reasonable interpretation of why they may have appeared. Additionally, if an unexpected
result is significant to the research question, be sure to explain that connection.
Discussion Section for Research Papers, Fall 2021. 1 of 5
- ● Fourth, address limitations or weaknesses in the research. Addressing limitations helps
build your credibility as a writer, because the reader sees that you have thought critically
about what your study does and does not cover.

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 - ● Fifth, provide a brief look at potential follow-up research studies. Recommend a few
areas where further investigation may be crucial. However, don’t go overboard with the
suggestions, as they can leave a reader thinking more about the gaps in the paper rather
than the actual findings
- ● Sixth (and finally), conclude with a restatement of the most significant findings and
their implications. Explain why the research is important and remind readers of the
connections it has to outside material, such as existing literature or an aspect of the field
that is affected by the study.
-
- Sample Discussion Sections These two sample discussion sections will help demonstrate
the six basic parts outlined above. [Key finding] Our 20-year analysis of snakebites in
California showed a well-correlated inverse relationship between snakebite incidence and
severe drought phases, with a predictable increase of snakebites following precipitation.
[Placing findings in context] This is in contrast to popular press reports of increased
snakebites with drought conditions [29,30], and Central American research that reported
increased incidence of snakebite during high temperatures of El Niño Southern
Oscillation (ELSO) [9]. This study also analyzed the effect of altitude and precipitation
on the periodicity of regional snakebites, and [Key finding] found that while climate
changes had a predictable effect on incidence, snakebites clustered in regions with the
highest precipitation [9] [...] After accounting for seasonal trends, [Restating a key
finding] we observed that prior precipitation was a strong predictor of snakebites, with
incidence peaks following the heavy precipitation years of 2006 and 2011 […]
[Limitation] We cannot exclude the possibility that changes in the medical culture or
technology of snakebite reporting may be a confounding variable. [Recommendation for
follow-up research] While we believe these limitations have not impacted the primary
outcome of the study, future work could seek to include additional controls. Source:
Phillips et al., “Snakebites and climate change in California, 1997-2017,” Clinical
Toxicology, 2019.
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6.0 CHAPTER SIX: SUMMARY, RECOMMENDATION AND CONCLUSION
example of summary
- The purpose of this study was to show how gesture can enhance math performance. It
was an experimental research study that looked at how gesture effects children’s
learning of math, particularly addition. The independent variable was gesture with
three different conditions; gesture, no gesture, and partial gesture. The dependent
variable of the study was the difference between pre- and post- test scores on a math
task. The mediator variable was the speech being used during the lesson.
- The lesson was where the independent variable changed. Participants
What were brought in for the study and were first given a demographics
the worksheet. Once their demographics were determined, they were given a
article pre-test to be aware of prior knowledge. Once the pre-test was graded, a
was
about
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 lesson was given either with gesture that was grouping through two fingers, no gesture
or a partial gesture which was just pointing. Once the lesson on the math was given,
the post-test was given. The experimenters then determined a difference from pre- to
post- tests scores.
What - The major conclusion to this study was that the gesturing condition
the showed higher math scores
study - than the partially correct which was higher than the no gesture condition,
found showing that the gesturing actually aided in the child remembering the
math task by using their body to perform it.
Your
- However in this study there was no speech within the lesson. The only
speech used was “This side is equal to the other side.” This was the only
opinion
speech used within the lesson. Since this was the only speech, the lesson
of the was highly dependent on the use of the gestures, which in my opinion
study could be questionable. The questions arise, should gesture be tested with
more verbal instruction. Does the gesture give the same effect? One may
also ask, does this relate to older or younger kids who are learning a different
type of math?

Conclusion
- The conclusion section focuses on discussing the essential features and the significant outcomes
of the research.
- It highlights the importance of the research and also serves as a round off to the story in the whole
research.
- The conclusion should be written in such a way that it relates to the objectives of the research
paper.
Recommendation
- Recommendations are used to call for action or solutions to the problems identified by the study

- recommendations highlight specific solutions and measures to be implemented based on the

findings of the research.

References

Appendices-work plan,budget,maps, questionneires.

DISSAMINATION OR RESEARCH
Dissemination refers to the process of sharing research findings with stakeholders and wider audiences.
PURPOSE

 Raise awareness-let others know what you are doing

 Inform—educate the community
 Engage—get input/feedback from the community
 Promote—‘sell’ your outputs and results
Methods of Dissemination

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Once the dissemination objective and the audience are identified, there are a variety of ways to share the
developed content.
Common methods of dissemination include:
 Publishing program or policy briefs
 Publishing project findings in national journals and statewide publications
 Presenting at national conferences and meetings of professional associations
 Presenting program results to local community groups and other local stakeholders
 Creating and distributing program materials, such as flyers, guides, pamphlets and DVDs
 Creating toolkits of training materials and curricula for other communities
 Sharing information through social media or on an organization's website
 Summarizing findings in progress reports for funders
 Disseminating information on an organization's website
 Discussing project activities on the local radio
 Publishing information in the local newspaper
 Issuing a press release
 Hosting health promotion events at health fairs and school functions
Key audiences may include:
 county health officials
 State ministries/ national government
 Hospital associations
 Public health associations
 Universities and charitable foundations
 Federal agencies
 Community groups
 Faith-based organizations
 Schools
 Local government
 Health care providers/centers

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