sPEDistinguished

Author SERIES
Charles C. Patton, president of C.C. Patton & Assocs. Inc. and
vice president of Enviro Sciences Inc. in Dallas, offers training,
consulting, and laboratory services in oilfield water treatment
and corrosion control. Patton holds a BS degree in petroleum
engineering from the U. of Oklahoma and a PhD degree in
petroleum engineering from the U. of Texas. He was a member
of SPE's Education and Accreditation Committee during 1972-
74 and served on AIME's Rossiter W. Raymond Award
Committee during 1971-75.

Patton

Water Quality Control and Its

Importance in Waterflooding Operations
Charles C. Patton, SPE, C.C. Patton & Assocs.

Introduction
The term "water quality" has many meanings, most of which the challenge is to preserve the quality by controlling
are defined by the end use of the water in question. In oilfield contaminant generation or addition.
waterflooding, water quality is usually defined in terms of the The difficulty of preserving water quality is essentially a
plugging tendency of the water. Ideally, the quality of the direct function of the length and complexity of the injection
water should be such that there is no reservoir plugging, and system. The result is that the quality of the water reaching
hence no loss of injectivity during the life of the flood. remote injection wells in long systems is often considerably
In addition, the injection system must be protected against worse than it was at the source.
corrosion to preserve its physical integrity and to prevent the
generation of insoluble corrosion products.
Any insoluble material in water, either solid or liquid, can Water Quality Requirements
contribute to plugging. This includes formation solids (sand, When the quality of the injection water is inadequate, reservoir
silt, or clay), corrosion products, water-formed scales, plugging results. The consequence of plugging is reduced
bacterial growths and algae, oil (both crude and lubricating), sweep efficiency, which results in decreased recovery and,
and undissolved treating chemicals. ultimately, loss of revenue. In addition, operational costs are
The contaminants primarily responsible for plugging fall into increased because of workovers and system repairs required to
three categories. restore injectivity.
1. Present at the source. Some of the primary contaminants The quality required for a given reservoir will be primarily a
commonly present at the source include: in produced water- function of reservoir permeability, assuming true matrix
oil, corrosion products from the production system, bacteria; injection into the reservoir pore space. Tight, low-permeability
in water supply wells-formation solids, corrosion products, zones generally require better-quality water than higher-
bacteria; and in surface waters-dissolved oxygen, bacteria, permeability zones.
suspended inorganic solids, marine organisms. If natural fracture systems are available for fluid transport or
2. Generated within the injection system. Contaminants if injection is carried out under parting conditions, then much
generated within the system may include corrosion products, poorer quality can be tolerated with few apparent injectivity
bacterial masses, biogenic hydrogen sulfide, and scale. problems. Injection through fractures, however, offers a high
3. Added to the injection system. Sometimes, intentionally probability of reduced sweep efficiency.
added materials ultimately contribute to plugging. For Despite numerous attempts to correlate water quality
example, contaminants such as dissolved oxygen, bacteria, parameters with reservoir rock properties,2,3 we are currently
suspended solids, and usually oil are the inevitable results of unable to quantitatively predict the minimum water quality
pumping trucked water or pit water into an injectiort system. required for trouble-free injection into a given formation. On-
Improperly selected corrosion inhibitors that are not site core flow testing has been used to estimate quality
sufficiently soluble in the injection water can contribute to requirements,4 but in most cases minimum water quality
plugging. standards evolve through experience.
In addition, contaminants may inadvertently enter the system.
One of the primary problems in most injection systems is the
entry of dissolved oxygen through leaking pump seals and Formation Sensitivity
open hatches on water tanks. I Pump lubricating oil may also Some sandstones contain clays that swell upon contact with
enter the system in amounts sufficient to contribute to low-salinity water. Although not caused by suspended matter in
plugging. the injection water, reduced permeability and injectivity are the
We can either accept the water quality at the source or results. The susceptibility of sandstone formations to this type
improve it by mechanical andlor chemical processing. Next, of impairment should be assessed before the initiation of any
Copyright 1988 SOCiety of Petroleum Engineers water injection project.

Journal of Petroleum Technology, September 1988 1123

 TABLE 1-COMMON OILFIELD SCALES

Name Chemical Formula

20
Calcium carbonate CaC0 3
Calcium sulfate

.. I
--
•••••
................. . Gypsum
Hem i-hydrate
Anhydrite
Barium sulfate
CaS0 4 ·2H 20
CaS04' 'hH 20
CaS04
BaS0 4
Strontium sulfate SrS0 4
Iron compounds
Ferrous carbonate FeC0 3
Ferrous sulfide FeS
Ferrous hydroxide Fe(OHh
Ferric hydroxide Fe(OHh
Ferric oxide Fe203
3

2 corrosion products, particularly iron oxides and iron sulfides,

are not very soluble in water and are frequently major
contributors to plugging of both surface facilities and injection
wells.
The primary characteristic that makes a water corrosive is
the presence of one or more of the following dissolved gases:
o 0.2 OA 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 lA 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2A carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, and oxygen. 7
CtmJIative [Link] (Liters) Carbon dioxide is naturally present in virtually all waters,
both surface and subsurface. The amount in surface waters is
RATE vs CUMULATIVE VOLUME CURVE
very small, while the concentration in low-pH subsurface
waters can be extremely high.
Fig. l-Rate vs. cumulative volume. Hydrogen sulfide can be naturally present in well waters or
can be generated by sulfate-reducing bacteria, either downhole
or in the surface system. Hydrogen sulfide in surface waters is
Carbonate formations are seldom clay-bearing, and when the result of bacterial activity, and typically occurs downstream
clays are present they are incorporated into the matrix. Hence, of deaeration.
carbonate reservoirs are seldom subject to permeability Oxygen is naturally present in all surface waters and may
reduction resulting from interactions between clays and injected also be found in water from shallow aquifers such as the
fluids. 5 Ogalallah, which is a common water source in western
Oklahoma, Texas, and Kansas. In either case, it is usually
Factors Affecting Water Quality
removed by mechanical and/or chemical means before the
Suspended Solids. The concentration and composition of water is pumped into the injection system. Produced water
suspended solids are fundamental indicators of water quality. and water from water supply wells is oxygen-free unless
Suspended solids are collected by flowing water directly from contaminated by leakage of atmospheric oxygen into the
the sample point through a membrane filter with a nominal system.
pore size of 0.45 /-tm. The membrane is then sent to a It is extremely important to realize that in bare steel
laboratory for determination of the amount and composition of systems, successful corrosion control begins with oxygen
the solids. exclusion because most corrosion inhibitors cannot effectively
While the solids are collecting on the membrane filter, inhibit oxygen corrosion. The presence of even trace amounts
simultaneous measurement of the relative degree of plugging of dissolved oxygen can cause drastic increases in corrosion
caused by the suspended solids is possible. Called a "water rates, as illustrated in Fig. 2 for Pacific Ocean water. 8 It also
quality test," the water is flowed through the membrane at a results in the precipitation of dissolved iron from the water.
constant pressure differential (typically 20 psi [138 kPa]) and Of equal importance, the generation of hydrogen sulfide by
the cumulative water throughput is recorded in increments as a sulfate-reducing bacteria in initially sweet systems should be
function of time. The logarithm of the average incremental prevented or controlled.
flow rate is plotted vs. the cumulative volume through the If a water is free of both dissolved oxygen and bacteria, and
filter. 6 The steeper the slope, the poorer the water qUality. A is still corrosive, the corrosion rate can be reduced by the use
typical plot is shown in Fig. 1. of corrosion inhibitors.
This test provides a measure of the permeability of the filter Coatings, linings, or corrosion-resistant materials can be
cake formed on the membrane and is therefore a function of used to control corrosion by any water, oxygen-free or not.
the size, shape, conc~!lltration, and deformability of the solid From a practical standpoint, however, this approach has an
particles in the wate~. Although not classified as a solid, a Achilles' heel: the casings in the injection wells are inevitably
portion of any dispersed oil or undissolved treating chemicals bare steel and will suffer serious damage if the water is
in the water is trapped in the filter cake and usually results in corrosive. Therefore, even when the surface system is
decreased cake permeabilities and, thus, reduced quality. protected from corrosion by coatings, linings, or corrosion-
Particle size measurements may also be used to characterize resistant materials, controlling the corrosivity of the injection
suspended solids. However, their utility is limited because the water is still advisable if one wishes to preserve the injection
results obtained are a function of both the particle shape and well casing.
the measurement method, and are therefore relative
measurements at best. In addition, oil droplets and gas bubbles
are counted as particles, which further reduces the usefulness Scale Formation. The formation of scale in an injection
of particle counts in produced water systems. system is detrimental in a number of ways.
1. Scale formation restricts flow through gathering lines,
Corrosion. Corrosion presents two problems in water injection injection lines, and tubing strings.
systems. The first one is obvious: it can destroy your system. 2. Corrosion is often more severe under a scale deposit.
However, the second problem can be equally catastrophic. The 3. Formation plugging can occur by filtration of suspended

1124 Journal of Petroleum Technology, September 1988

 scale particles from the water, or by the formation of a solid
scale on the formation face. Corrosion Rate ~y)
Of the many possible water-formed scales, only a few are
commonly found in oilfield waters. 9 These scales are listed in o 50 100 150 200 250
70
Table 1. If a single water proves to precipitate carbonate or
sulfate scales, the problem can normally be controlled by the
addition of a scale inhibitor.
Precipitation of iron compounds in an injection system
usually indicates a corrosion problem. If so, the correct
60 /
approach to prevention is a corrosion-control program. The
formation of iron oxides and hydroxides, caused by oxygen
entry, or iron sulfide, caused by the presence of naturally
......
-R
.sc: 50 /
-~ /
occurring or bacterially generated hydrogen sulfide, are the
most frequent problems. .Q
Precipitates can also form because two or more waters, 40
/~
which mayor may not individually form scale, mix. This is Q)

called incompatibility. There are three areas where g

0
incompatibility can create problems in a water injection ()
system. c: 30
~
1. Downhole in water supply wells where two or more zones
are open or when communication between zones occurs behind
>-
x (
0
the pipe because of a faulty cement job.
2. In surface facilities or injection wells because of mixing
-g
.2:
20 /
two or more waters on the surface before injection.

I
0
Cf)
3. In producing wells in the zone being flooded because of
mixing between the injection water and the connate water in
~
10
the reservoir rock. Curiously enough, there is no problem in
the injection wellbore when the two waters are incompatible.
This is because there is little mixing between the two waters at
that point. However, serious problems can occur in the o
f
producing wells after breakthrough. o 2 4 6 8 10
Elimination of incompatibility in water supply wells usually
involves a workover to eliminate the mixing. Corrosion Rate (mpy)
Carbonate or sulfate scale formation caused by mixing of
two or more waters on the surface can often be controlled by Fig. 2-Effect of oxygen concentration on corrosion of mild
continuous injection of a scale inhibitor upstream of the point steel in Pacific Ocean water.
of mixing. Scale inhibitors cannot be used to prevent the
precipitation of iron compounds.
Incompatibility between the injection water and the connate Aerobic bacterial growth can be eliminated by maintaining
water in the producing well bores can be prevented only by an air-free system. However, anaerobic bacteria can thrive in
squeezing a scale inhibitor into the producing wells. systems containing dissolved oxygen with the assistance of
Incompatibility of any kind can be avoided by simply not aerobic bacteria. The aerobes establish themselves on the walls
mixing the waters. This can be accomplished by (1) injecting of the system and consume oxygen as they grow. An anaerobic
the waters into separate groups of wells through separate environment is created beneath the aerobic bacteria, thereby
injection systems or (2) alternating the injection of the waters providing an ideal breeding ground for anaerobes.
through the same injection system-the mixing zone between In most sweet systems, the primary bacterial concern is the
waters is so small that a negligible volume of precipitate is control of sulfate-reducing bacteria. The generation of
formed. hydrogen sulfide increases corrosion rates, generates insoluble
iron sulfide, and creates the possibilities of sulfide stress
Microbiological Problems. Bacterial control is important in cracking and hydrogen blistering. In addition, the conversion
water injection operations because bacteria contribute to both of a sweet system to a sour one can pose health hazards and
corrosion and the generation of plugging solids. 10 The additional environmental concerns in the event of a leak.
majority of bacteria live in colonies on solid surfaces, such as Successful bacterial control is easiest to attain in systems
pipe walls or tank bottoms, or within the formation. with good flow velocities and a minimum of stagnant areas. If
Bacteria apparently can effect the corrosion process in solids deposition can be minimized, chemical treatment is
several ways. In oilfield systems, bacteria commonly can considerably more effective. Regularly scheduled pigging of
(I) generate hydrogen sulfide, thereby increasing the lines is extremely beneficial.
corrosivity of the water; (2) produce organic acids that initiate Systems should be carefully monitored for the presence of
or accelerate corrosion on the metal surface beneath the bacteria. Because of their ability to multiply rapidly, early
colonies; (3) produce enzymes that can increase the corrosion detection is extremely important.
rate by direct participation in the electrochemical corrosion
process; and (4) oxidize soluble iron in water, causing it to Oil Content. The presence of dispersed or emulsified oil in
precipitate and form deposits (called "tubercles") that water decreases its quality. This problem is usually associated
accelerate corrosion through the formation of concentration with produced waters, but may also occur in other types of
cells. waters. For example, lubricating oil from pumps can
Bacteria can be classified according to their oxygen contaminate otherwise oil-free injection water. Seawater can
requirements. contain significant oil concentrations resulting from natural oil
I. Aerobic bacteria require oxygen to live. seeps on the ocean floor or heavy boat traffic.
2. Anaerobic bacteria grow best in the absence of oxygen. Oil in water can cause decreased injectivity in several ways.
The bacteria that cause the majority of microbial problems in It can cause "emulsion blocks" in the formation. It serves as
water injection systems are anaerobic bacteria that produce an excellent glue for certain solids, such as iron sulfide,
hydrogen sulfide, called sulfate-reducing bacteria. thereby increasing their plugging efficiencies.
3. Facultative bacteria grow in either the presence or Where water is being injected into an aquifer with no initial
absence of oxygen. oil saturation, oil in the water can be trapped in the pores of
Journal of Petroleum Technology, September 1988 1125
the formation rock around the wellbore. This creates an through the injection system so that it will still be acceptable
immobile oil saturation, which reduces injectivity. when it reaches the injection wellbore.
3. The creation and preservation of water quality requires
Monitoring careful attention to the control of corrosion, bacterial growth,
System monitoring is extremely important, but is often scale formation, oil carryover, and oxygen entry.
minimized or ignored until serious problems arise. 4. The cost of obtaining and preserving good-quality water
Monitoring should be done on a regularly scheduled, must be balanced against the loss of revenue sustained as a
systematic basis beginning immediately after the injection result of decreased oil recovery and increased workover and
system is installed. II The objective is to detect any remedial operations requirements.
deterioration in water quality quickly so that corrections can be 5. Regularly scheduled system monitoring is essential to the
made before serious damage to either the system or any of the efficient" operation of any water injection system. This enables
injection wellbores results. the early detection of any deterioration in water quality so that
Certain analyses and measurements are required to analyze corrections can be made before serious damage to either the
water injection system performance. Some analyses must be system or any of the injection wellbores results.
performed on site, while others can be carried out only in a
laboratory. Data should be gathered at the water source(s), the References
water injection wells, and appropriate points in between where 1. Byars, H.G. and Gallop, B.R.: "Injection Water +Oxygen = Corrosion
water composition and/or properties are likely to change. In andlor Well Plugging Solids," Materials Peifomumce (March 1979)
general, samples should be taken upstream and downstream of 41-50.
every major piece of equipment. . 2. Barkman, J.H. and Davidson, D.H.: "Measuring Water Quality and
The following data should be gathered. Predicting Well Impairment," JPT(July 1972) 865-70; Trans., AIME,
253.
1. Water composition. Water samples should be taken for ion 3. EI-Hattab, M.I.: "GUPCO'S Experience in Treating Gulf of Suez Sea-
analysis. Accurate measurement of pH values, carbonate ion, water for Waterflooding the El Morgan Oil Field," JPT (July 1982)
bicarbonate ion, dissolved oxygen, and dissolved hydrogen 1449-60.
sulfide concentrations can be made only at the time of 4. McCune, C.c.: "On-Site Testing to Define Injection-Water Quality
sampling. 12 Requirements," JPT (Jan. 1977) 17-24.
2. Suspended solids. Both the concentration and composition 5. Gray, G.R. and Darley, H.C.H.: Composition and Properties o/Oil
should be determined. In addition, water quality testing should Well Drilling Fluids, Gulf Publishing Co., Houston (1980).
be performed. 6. "Test Method for Determining Water Quality for Subsurface Injection
3. Injection water corrosivity. Corrosion coupons, linear Using Membrane Filters," Nat!. Assn. of Corrosion Engineers, NACE
Standard TM-01-73, Houston (1984).
polarization probes, and electrical resistance probes are 7. "Corrosion Control in Petroleum Production," Natl. Assn. of Cor-
commonly used to monitor corrosion rates. rosion Engineers, NACE Group Committee T-l, Houston (1979).
4. Bacterial population. Bacterial cultures, adenosine 8. Wheeler, D.: "Treating and Monitoring 450,000 bid Injection Water,"
triphosphate analysis, and microscopic examination techniques Pet. Eng. (Nov. 1975) 68.
are used, either singly or in combination, to monitor bacterial 9. Cowan, J.C. and Weintritt, D.J.: Water-Formed Scale Deposits, Gulf
activity. The appearance of hydrogen sulfide in a sweet system Publishing Co., Houston (1976).
is another indicator of bacterial activity. If dissolved oxygen is 10. Patton, C.C.: Applied Water Technology, Campbell Petroleum Series,
present, aerobic bacterial growth is possible. Norman, OK (1986).
11. BilhaI1z, H.L.: "A Standardized Method of Monitoring Water Quality
5. Oil content. Water samples should be collected in glass in Sub-Surface Injection Systems," paper SPE 1793 presented at the
containers and transmitted to a laboratory for analysis. The 1967 Permian Basin Oil & Gas Conference, Midland, May 7-9.
concentrations measured are a function of the method used to 12. Ostroff, A.G.: Introduction to Oilfield Water Technology, Natl. Assn.
make the determination. of Corrosion Engineers, Houston (1979).
6. System parameters. Temperatures, pressures, and flow
velocities should be measured.
In addition, the system should be opened at several locations SI Metric Conversion Factor
and inspected for scale, deposits, and corrosion. Samples of mil x 2.54* E+Ol JLm
any deposits should be taken for analyses to determine their
origins. '" Conversion factor is exact. JPT

Conclusions This paper is SPE 18459. Distinguished Author Series articles are general, descriptive
1. The inevitable result of poor water quality is reduced oil presentations that summarize the state of the art in an area of technology by describing
recent developments for readers who are not specialists in the topics discussed. Written
recovery and increased workover and remedial operating costs. by individuals recognized as experts in the area, these articles provide key references to
2. Good-quality water may be available at the source, or more definitive work and present specific details only to illustrate the technology. Purpose:
To inform the general readership of recent advances in various areas of petroleum engi·
processing may be required to obtain acceptable water quality. neering. A softbound anthology, SPE Distinguished Author Series: Dec. 1981-Dec. 1983,
In either case, quality must be preserved as the water travels is available from SPE's Book Order Dept.

1126 Journal of Petroleum Technology, September 1988