Basic Principles of Eddy Current Inspection

WHAT IS EDDY CURRENT TESTING?

Eddy current testing is an electromagnetic technique and can only be used on
conductive materials. Its applications range from crack detection, to the rapid sorting
of small components for either flaws, size variations, or material variation. Commonly
it is used in the aerospace, automotive, marine and manufacturing industries.

When an energised coil is brought near to the surface of a metal component, eddy
currents are induced into the specimen. These currents set-up magnetic fields that
tend to oppose the original magnetic field.

The impedance of a coil in close proximity to the specimen is effected by the

presence of the induced eddy currents in the specimen. When the eddy currents in
the specimen are distorted by the presence of the flaws or material variations, the
impedance in the coil is altered.

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Eddy current inspection is one of several NDT methods that use the principal of
“electromagnetism” as the basis for conducting examinations. Several other methods
such as Remote Field Testing (RFT), Flux Leakage and Barkhausen Noise also use
this principle.

Eddy Current Testing (ECT) is an electromagnetic testing method in which

electromagnetic induction is utilised to detect any discontinuities. The basic
requirement for eddy current testing therefore is that the material being tested or in
the case of paint thickness measurement the substrate, should be electrically
conductive. ECT can be regarded as both a surface as well as subsurface testing
method since the depth to which the inspection can effectively be performed
depends on the frequency of the excitation current, the electrical conductivity as well
as magnetic properties of the material being tested.

Eddy currents are created through a process called electromagnetic induction.

When alternating current is applied to the conductor, such as copper wire,
a magnetic field develops in and around the conductor. This magnetic field expands
as the alternating current rises to maximum and collapses as the current is reduced
to zero. If another electrical conductor is brought into the close proximity to this
changing magnetic field, current will be induced in this second conductor. Eddy
currents are induced electrical currents that flow in a circular path. They get their
name from “eddies” that are formed when a liquid or gas flows in a circular path
around obstacles when conditions are right.

One of the major advantages of eddy current as an NDT tool is the variety of
inspections and measurements that can be performed. In the proper circumstances,
eddy currents can be used for:

 Crack detection
 Material thickness measurements
 Coating thickness measurements
 Conductivity measurements for:
 Material identification
 Heat damage detection
 Case depth determination
 Heat treatment
 Monitoring
Figure 1: Applications Types for Eddy Current Inspection. Source: Ether NDE

History of Eddy Current Testing

Eddy current testing has its origins with Michael Faraday's discovery of electromagnetic
induction in 1831. Faraday was a chemist in England during the early 1800's and is credited
with the discovery of electromagnetic induction, electromagnetic rotations, the magneto-
optical effect, diamagnetism, and other phenomena. In 1879, another scientist named Hughes
recorded changes in the properties of a coil when placed in contact with metals of
different conductivity and permeability. However, it was not until the Second World War that
these effects were put to practical use for testing materials. Much work was done in the
1950's and 60's, particularly in the aircraft and nuclear industries. Eddy current testing is now
a widely used and well-understood inspection technique.

Coil Design
The most important feature in eddy current testing is the way in which the eddy currents are
induced and detected in the material under test. This depends on the design of the probe. As
discussed in the previous pages, probes can contain one or more coils, a core and shielding.
All have an important effect on the probe, but the coil requires the most design consideration.

A coil consists of a length of wire wound in a helical manner around the length of a former.
The main purpose of the former is to provide a sufficient amount of rigidity in the coil to
prevent distortion. Formers used for coils with diameters greater than a few millimetres (i.e.,
encircling and pancake coils), generally take the form of tubes or rings made from dielectric
materials. Small-diameter coils are usually wound directly onto a solid former. The region
inside the former is called the core, which can consist of either a solid material or just air.
When the core is air or a nonconductive material, the probe is often referred to as an air-core
probe. Some coils are wound around a ferrite core which concentrates the coil's magnetic
field into a smaller area. These coils are referred to as "loaded" coils.

The wire used in an eddy current probe is typically made from copper or other nonferrous
metal to avoid magnetic hysteresis effects. The winding usually has more than one layer so as
to increase the value of inductance for a given length of coil. The higher the inductance (L)
of a coil, at a given frequency, the greater the sensitivity of eddy current testing.

It is essential that the current through the coil is as low as possible. Too high a current may
produce:

 a rise in temperature, hence an expansion of the coil, which increases the value of L.
 magnetic hysteresis, which is small but detectable when a ferrite core is used.
The value of L is given by:

π [ ( r o−r c ) −μr r c ]
2 2 2
2
L=K n . . μo l
l

 r 0 is the mean radius of the coil.

 r c is the radius of the core.

 l is the length of the coil.

 n is the number of turns.
 μr is the relative magnetic permeability of the core.

 μo is the permeability of free space (i.e. 4 π × 10−7 H /m).

 K is a dimensionless constant characteristic of the length and the external and internal
radii.

What Is Eddy Current Testing?

Eddy current testing is one of several non-destructive testing methods that uses the
electromagnetism principle for flaw detection in conductive materials. A specially
designed coil energised with an alternating-current is placed in proximity to the test
surface, generating a changing magnetic field that interacts with the test-part and
produces eddy currents in the vicinity.

Variations in the changing phases and magnitude of these eddy currents are then
monitored through the use of a receiver-coil or by measuring changes to the
alternate current flowing in the primary excitation-coil.

The electrical conductivity variations, the magnetic permeability of the test-part, or

the presence of any discontinuities, will cause a change in the eddy current and a
corresponding change in phases and amplitude of the measured current. The
changes are shown on a screen and are interpreted to identify defects.

How Does Eddy Current Testing Work?

The process relies upon a material characteristic known as electromagnetic

induction. When an alternating current is passed through a conductor – a copper coil
for example – an alternating magnetic field is developed around the coil and the field
expands and contracts as the alternating current rises and falls. If the coil is then
brought close to another electrical conductor, the fluctuating magnetic field
surrounding the coil permeates the material and, by Lenz’s Law, induces an eddy
current to flow in the conductor. This eddy current, in turn, develops its own magnetic
field. This ‘secondary’ magnetic field opposes the ‘primary’ magnetic field and thus
affects the current and voltage flowing in the coil.

Any changes in the conductivity of the material being examined, such as near-
surface defects or differences in thickness, will affect the magnitude of the eddy
current. This change is detected using either the primary coil or the secondary
detector coil, forming the basis of the eddy current testing inspection technique.

Permeability is the ease in which a material can be magnetised. The greater the
permeability the smaller the depth of penetration. Non-magnetic metals such as
austenitic stainless steels, aluminium and copper have very low permeability,
whereas ferritic steels have a magnetic permeability several hundred times greater.

Eddy current density is higher, and defect sensitivity is greatest, at the surface and
this decreases with depth. The rate of the decrease depends on the “conductivity”
and “permeability” of the metal. The conductivity of the material affects the depth of
penetration. There is a greater flow of eddy current at the surface in high conductivity
metals and a decrease in penetration in metals such as copper and aluminium.

The depth of penetration may be varied by changing the frequency of the alternation
current – the lower the frequency, the greater depth of penetration. Therefore, high
frequencies can be used to detect near-surface defects and low-frequencies to
detect deeper defects. Unfortunately, as the frequency is decreased to give greater
penetration, the defect detection sensitivity is also reduced. There is therefore, for
each test, an optimum frequency to give the required depth of penetration and
sensitivity.

Figure 1. Signal from a defect-free sample.

Standards and Calibration

All of the systems must be calibrated using appropriate reference standards – as for
any NDT method and is an essential part of any eddy current testing procedure. The
calibration blocks must be of the same material, heat treatment condition, shape and
size of the item to be tested.

For defect detection, the calibration block contains artificial defects that simulate
defects, whereas, for corrosion detection, the calibration block has different
thicknesses. The eddy current method requires a highly-skilled operator - training is
essential.

Figure 2. Checking the eddy current sensitivity.

Advantages

 Able to detect surface and near-surface cracks as small as 0.5mm

 Able to detect defects through several layers, including non-conductive
surface coatings, without interference from planar defects
 Non-contact method making it possible to inspect high-temperature surfaces
and underwater surfaces
 Effective on test objects with physically complex geometries
 Provides immediate feedback
 Portable and light equipment
 Quick preparation time – surfaces require little pre-cleaning and couplant is
not required
 Able to the measure electrical conductivity of test objects
 Can be automated for inspecting uniform parts such as wheels, boiler tubes,
or aero-engine disks
Limitations

 Can only be used on conductive materials

 The depth of penetration is variable
 Very susceptible to magnetic permeability changes – making testing of welds
in ferromagnetic materials difficult – but with modern digital flaw detectors and
probe design, not impossible
 Unable to detect defects that are parallel to the test object’s surface
 Careful signal interpretation is required to differentiate between relevant and
non-relevant indications

Applications

 Inspection of parts or components including:

Welded joints
Bores of in-service tubes
Bores of bolt holes
Metal tubes
Friction stir welds
Gas turbine blades
Nozzle welds in nuclear reactors
Hurricane propeller hubs
Cast iron bridges
Gas turbine blades

 Detection of defects including:

Surface-breaking defects
Linear defects (as small as 0.5mm deep and 5mm long)
Cracks
Lack of fusion
Generalised corrosion (particularly in the aircraft industry for the examination
of aircraft skins)
 Other applications

Identification of both ferrous and non-ferrous metals and with certain alloys –
in particular the aluminium alloys
Establishing the heat treatment condition
Determining whether a coating is non-conductive
Heat treat verification of metals

Eddy Current Array

Eddy current array (ECA) is an assembly of single eddy current sensors or coils that
are multiplexed in a certain order to obtain the required sensitivity. There are many
different designs of eddy current probes, including flexible probes, padded probes or
spring-loaded fingers.

The phenomenon of eddy currents was discovered by French physicist Leon

Foucault in 1851, and for this reason eddy currents are sometimes called Foucault
currents. Foucault built a device that used a copper disk moving in a strong magnetic
field to show that eddy currents (magnetic fields) are generated when a material
moves within an applied magnetic field.

Eddy current testing began largely as a result of the English scientist Michael
Faraday's discovery of electromagnetic induction in 1831. Faraday discovered that
when a magnetic field passes through a conductor (a material in which electrons
move easily)-or when a conductor passes through a magnetic field-an electric
current will flow through the conductor if there is a closed path through which the
current can circulate. In 1879, another breakthrough was made when another
English scientist, David Hughes, demonstrated how the properties of a coil change
when placed in contact with metals of different conductivity and permeability.
However, it was not until the Second World War that these developments in the
transmitting and receiving of electromagnetic waves were put to practical use for
materials testing.

Beginning in 1933, in Germany, while working for the Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institute,

Professor Friedrich Förster adapted eddy current technology to industrial use,
developing instruments for measuring conductivity and for sorting mixed-up ferrous
components. In 1948, Förster founded his own company in Reutlingen, a business
based on eddy current testing that continues to this day. Other companies soon
followed. Many advances were made throughout the 1950s and 1960s, especially in
the aircraft and nuclear industries. There have been many recent developments in
eddy current testing, leading to improved performance and the development of new
applications. Eddy current testing is now a widely used and well-understood
inspection technique for flaw detection as well as for thickness and conductivity
measurements.
 Figure 3. Calibrating eddy current array equipment.

Advantages of Eddy Current Array

 Reduction in inspection time, as:

The coils in the probe have been specifically arranged to cover a particular
area
The scanning speed can be adjusted
A wider range of samples of can be inspected due to a wider range of probe
types that are available

 Multi-frequency approach – possible to inspect a test object with several

central frequencies simultaneously – allowing the user to assess the most
optimised central frequency for the inspection
 Post analysis of results – the equipment’s built-in software enables the use of
filters and other process to highlight or hide certain features

Limitations of Eddy Current Array

 Eddy current array inspections use advanced equipment that requires

additional operator training
 Longer set-up time than a conventional eddy current inspection

Types of Eddy Current Flaw Detectors

Eddy current testing (ECT) is a nondestructive testing (NDT) inspection method used for a range
of applications. These include flaw detection, material and coating thickness measurement, testing
conductivity, and more. Flaw detection involves identifying surface and subsurface defects, linear
defects, cracks, lack of fusion, or general corrosion on partially ferromagnetic materials, such as
nickel alloys, and thin-ferromagnetic materials, such as stainless steel. There is a range of different
ECT flaw detection technology available to users, and each has its strengths and weaknesses
depending on the application. In this article, we will discuss the different types of eddy current flaw
detectors and help you decide which is best for your industry. 
 

What Is an Eddy Current Flaw Detector?

Eddy current flaw detectors are used to inspect metallic parts and perform highly reliable flaw
detection of surface and subsurface defects. They do this by generating a magnetic field using an
alternating current flowing through a wire coil. When the eddy current flaw detector is moved close to
a test material it creates a circular flow of electrons known as an eddy current that will begin to move
through the test material. The eddy current flow generates its own magnetic field, which then interacts
with the coil in the flaw detector and its field through mutual inductance. Surface or subsurface defects
will interrupt the amplitude and pattern of the eddy current flow and the resulting magnetic field. Eddy
current flaw detectors recognize changes in the impedance amplitude, which can be used by trained
operators to identify these defects.
 

Depth of Penetration
Depth of Penetration

Eddy current density does not remain constant across the depth of a material. The density is greatest
at the surface and decreases exponentially with depth (the "skin effect"). The standard depth of
penetration equation (shown to the right) is used to explain the penetration capability of eddy current
testing, which decreases with increasing frequency, conductivity, or permeability. For a material that is
both thick and uniform, the standard depth of penetration is the depth at which the eddy current
density is 37% of the material surface value. To detect very shallow defects in a material, and also to
measure the thickness of thin sheets, very high frequencies are used. Similarly, in order to detect
subsurface defects, and to test highly conductive, magnetic, or thick materials, lower frequencies must
be used.

Where:
d= Standard depth of penetration (mm)
f= Test frequency (Hz)
mr= Relative magnetic permeability (dimensionless)
s= Electrical conductivity (% IACS)

What does Eddy Current Inspection

mean?

Eddy current testing (also known as eddy current inspection) is a method

used in non-destructive testing, employing electromagnetism to detect
surface breaking and slightly sub-surface flaws in materials. The main areas
where eddy current testing (ECT) is used include crack and corrosion
detection, non-conductive coating thickness measurement, material
identification and heat treatment condition.

How is Eddy Current Testing Done?

Eddy current testing is carried out using a specially designed coil that is
energised with an alternating current that creates a changing magnetic field
surrounding the coil. The coil is placed within the proximity of a test surface
where the changing magnetic field permeates the conductive material. This
changing magnetic field in turn induces local electrical currents in the test
surface that are known as eddy currents. These eddy currents create their
own magnetic field that opposes and modifies the coil’s magnetic field, thus
affecting the electrical properties of the test coil. The measurement of the
changing phase and magnitude of the current flowing through the primary
test coil or separate receiver-coil(s) provides the ability to determine the
condition of the test sample.

Electrical conductivity and permeability variations, or the presence of

discontinuities within the test-material cause a change in the eddy currents
and thus a corresponding change to the phase and amplitude of the
measured coil current. These changes can be displayed either individually by
a needle meter or in combination on a 2D impedance plane display.

The eddy current inspection method can be used to detect degradation as well
as determine the test part’s conductivity, and the thickness of coatings applied
to conductive materials. 
How Do Eddy Currents Work?

Eddy currents are formed by an alternating magnetic field as an energized A/C

coil nears a conductive material.

When there is a defect in the material, the flow of the currents changes and
can be detected by measuring the impedance changes that occur in the A/C
coil. This method of testing is a very efficient non-destructive method for
finding defects in the heat exchanger and condenser tubing.

What Is Eddy Current Tube Inspection?

A common application for eddy current testing is tubing inspection in heat

exchangers and condensers.

Eddy current testing uses electromagnetic induction to identify defects in the

tubing. A probe is inserted into the tube and traverses the entire length of the
tube. Eddy currents are generated by the electromagnetic coils in the probe
and monitored simultaneously by measuring probe electrical impedance.

Eddy current tube inspection is a non-destructive method for discovering

defects in tubing, is effective on a number of different tubing materials, and
can detect defects that can create larger issues for the heat exchangers and
condensers.

What Are Some Types of Non-Destructive Testing?

Other NDT techniques include visual testing, liquid penetrant examination,

ultrasonic testing, magnetic flux leakage, and magnetic particle testing.
Several types of defects can be detected in tubing with the eddy current
test method:

 Inner-diameter (ID) and Outer-diameter (OD) pitting

 Cracking
 Wear (from support structures, other tubes, and loose parts)
 OD and ID Erosion
What Kinds of Materials Can Be Tested With Eddy Current Testing?

Eddy current testing can successfully test any conductive, non-magnetic, or

mildly ferromagnetic materials. This would include materials such as nickel
alloys and ferritic chromium-molybdenum stainless steel.

What Kind of Inspections Can Be Performed Using Eddy Currents?

Eddy current inspection techniques include, but are not limited to:
  Eddy current test of heat exchanger tubing
 Inspecting the integrity of welds and bolts
 Checking heat-treated materials by testing conductivity
 Inspecting metal surfaces for defects
 Determining whether the metal has corroded

This is very useful for testing the integrity of structures made of conductive
materials like copper, steel, and aluminium because the results are immediate
and you do not need to touch the actual metal. If you need to verify that a
conductive material like a pipe is not cracked, pitted, or corroded, these
testing techniques will get the job done. You can use them to determine the
thickness of a non-conductive coating, such as paint, is and determine metal
hardness. Verifying that heat exchanger tubing is not degraded is an example
where current testing eddy is often used.