1. Define Production Process.

i. It is the process followed in a plant for converting semi- finished products or raw
materials into finished products or raw materials into finished products. The art of
converting raw material into finished goods with application of different types of
tools, equipment, machine tools, manufacturing set ups and manufacturing processes,
is known as production. Generally there are four basic types of production systems
namely;
1. Continuous-flow processes
2. Mass production of discrete products
3. Batch production
4. Job shop production
ii. Using a graph describe the relationship between 4 basic types of production systems
and quantity and product variation.

2. Identify 3 other classes of manufacturing processes giving 2 examples of each of the

classes.
Primary Shaping Processes
Primary shaping processes are manufacturing of a product from an amorphous material.
Some processes produce finished products or articles whereas others do not, and require
further working to finish component to the desired shape and size. Some of the important
primary shaping processes are: (1) Casting, (2) Powder metallurgy, (3) Plastic technology,
(4) Gas cutting, (5) Bending and (6) Forging.
Secondary or Machining Processes
As large number of components require further processing after the primary processes. These
components are subjected to one or more number of machining operations in machine shops,
to obtain the desired shape and dimensional accuracy on flat and cylindrical jobs. Thus, the
jobs undergoing these operations are the roughly finished products received through primary
shaping processes. The process of removing the undesired or unwanted material from the
workpiece or job or component to produce a required shape using a cutting tool is known as
machining. In many cases these operations are performed on rods, bars and flat surfaces in
machine shops. The example of parts produced by machining processes includes hand tools
machine tools instruments, automobile parts, nuts, bolts and gears etc. A lot of material is
wasted as scrap in the secondary or machining process. Some of the common secondary or
machining processes are (1) Turning, (2) Threading, (3) Knurling, (4) Milling, (5) Drilling,
(6) Boring, (7) Planning,
Metal Forming Processes
Forming processes encompasses a wide variety of techniques, which make use of suitable
force, pressure or stresses, like compression, tension and shear or their combination to cause
a permanent deformation of the raw material to impart required shape. These processes are
also known as mechanical working processes and are mainly classified into two major
categories i.e., hot working processes and cold working processes. In these processes, no
material is removed; however it is deformed and displaced using suitable stresses like
compression, tension, and shear or combined stresses to cause plastic deformation of the
materials to produce required shapes. Such processes lead to production of directly usable
articles which include kitchen utensils, rods, wires, rails, cold drink bottle caps, collapsible
tubes etc. Some of the important metal forming processes are:
Hot working Processes: (1) Forging, (2) Rolling, (3) Hot spinning, (4) Extrusion, (5) Hot
drawing and (6) Hot spinning.
Cold working processes: (1) Cold forging, (2) Cold rolling, (3) Cold heading, (4) Cold
drawing, (5) Wire drawing, (6) Stretch forming, (7) Sheet metal working processes such as
piercing, punching, lancing, notching, coining, squeezing, deep drawing, bending etc.
3. Differentiate hot working from cold working.
Cold working (or cold forming, as it is sometimes called) may be defined as plastic
deformation of metals and alloys at a temperature below the recrystallisation temperature for
that metal or alloy. When this happens, then the strain hardening which occurs as a result of
mechanical working, does not get relieved. In fact, as the metal or alloys gets progressively
strain hardened, more and more force is required to cause further plastic deformation. After
sometime, if the effect of strain hardening is not removed, the forces applied to cause plastic
deformation may in fact cause cracking and failure of material.
Hot working may be explained as plastic deformation of metals and alloys at such a
temperature at which recovery and recrystallisation take place simultaneously with the strain
hardening. Such a temperature is above recrystallisation temperature. Properly done hot
working will leave the metal or alloy in a fine-grained recrystallised structure. A word about
recrystallisation temperature will not be out of place here. Recrystallisation temperature is
not a fixed temperature but is actually a temperature range. Its value depends upon several
factors. Some of the important factors are: (i) Nature of metal or alloy: It is usually lower for
pure metals and higher for alloys. For pure metals, recrystallisation temperature is roughly
one third of its melting point and for alloys about half of the melting temperature. (ii)
Amount of cold work already done: The recrystallisation temperature is lowered as the
amount of strain-hardening done on the work piece increases. (iii) Strain-rate: Higher the rate
of strain hardening, lower is the recrystallisation temperature. For mild steel, recrystallisation
temperature range may be taken as 550–650°C. Recrystallisation temperature of low melting
point metals like lead, zinc and tin, may be taken as room temperature. The effects of strain
hardening can be removed by annealing above the recrystallisation temperature.

4. Identify 7 roles of technology in a manufacturing business.

The growth and survival of a business organization depends upon how effectively it satisfies
customer expectations and how efficiently it makes use of its resources. Therefore, the role of
technology includes:
1. To get competitive advantage in terms of technology.
2. To improve productivity.
3. To reduce cost of production.
4. To bring innovations in products.
5. To gain greater market share by virtue of superior technology and lower cost,
6. thereby improving the profitability.
7. To help sustain in business, overcoming the threat of obsolescence
5. Explain 5 reasons why a well-defined development process is useful.
Quality assurance: A development process specifies the phases a development project
will pass through and the checkpoints along the way. When these phases and checkpoints
are chosen wisely, following the development process is one way of assuring the quality
of the resulting product.
Coordination: A clearly articulated development process acts as a master plan that
defines the roles of each of the players on the development team. This plan informs the
 members of the team when their contributions will be needed and with whom they will
need to exchange information and materials.
Planning: A development process includes milestones corresponding to the completion
of each phase. The timing of these milestones anchors the schedule of the overall
development project.
Management: A development process is a benchmark for assessing the performance of
an ongoing development effort. By comparing the actual events to the established
process, a manager can identify possible problem areas.
Improvement: The careful documentation and ongoing review of an organization’s
development process and its results may help to identify opportunities for improvement

6. Show using a diagram the product cycle

7. Briefly describe 6 steps followed it the rapid prototyping techniques.

Rapid prototyping techniques share the following process steps, Fig 7 illustrates the
process:
1. Creating a CAD model either by designing a new or scanning an existing object.
2. Converting the CAD data to STL format. Because the various CAD packages apply a
number of different algorithms to represent solid objects, the STL format (Standard
Triangulation Language) has been adopted as the standard of the rapid prototyping
industry to establish consistency. This STL file is a concrete visualization of the product
geometry, built up from triangles. Using triangles to describe a surface, curved surfaces
can only be approached. Increasing the number of triangles (i.e., increasing the
resolution) yields a better approach. However, it also enlarges the STL file. So, one has to
find the optimum balance between file size and part accuracy.
3. Slicing the STL file into thin cross-sectional layers. After the STL file has been sized
and oriented, it is sliced in layers with a predefined thickness.
4. Generation of a support structure. This additional step is not required for all
techniques. Because the model is built up in layers, there may be areas that could float
away or have overhanging features, which could distort the resulting model. A base and
support structures have to be added, which can be easily removed after the building step.
 5. Producing the model layer-by-layer. The generated slices are reconstructed in the
machine by building one layer at a time. This can be fully automatic.
6. Postprocessing. This step enhances cleaning and finishing the model and (if a base or
support structure was built) removing the support structure. Some materials need to be
post cured or infiltrated to achieve optimal properties.

7. Explain 3 applications of rapid prototyping.

[Link] Prototyping: As stated before, RP models improve communication to ensure
that all parties in a design process have a complete understanding of the design. So RP
models provide the ability to manage, control, and detect changes and required
modifications. However, RP techniques can also be applied to the needs of disciplines
outside of design engineering. Scanned human parts (bones, tissue) can easily be
reproduced using additive RP processes. In 1998, the head of a 16-year-old Egyptian girl
named Sensaos, who died in 109 AD, was reconstructed after researchers scanned
Sensaos’ mummy with a tomographic scanner. The computerized model was used to
reproduce the skull using RP at TNO Science and Industry (The Netherlands). Realistic
facial features could then be added to the skull to reconstruct the girl’s head.
2. Rapid Tooling: The automated production of hard and wear-resistant parts with low
surface roughness using rapid prototyping techniques is referred to as (direct) rapid
tooling. Metal moulds and dies can be produced by layered manufacturing, which in turn
can be used in limited mass production. The use of conformal-cooling channels is a
method of rapid tooling that offers the potential benefit of improved thermal properties
which cannot be realized with conventional machine tools. Because the mold (or mold
insert) is produced in layers, cooling channels that closely follow the contours of the part
can be incorporated into the mold. So, conformal cooling removes heat from the mold or
die faster than the straight-line channels in machined tools, thereby reducing molding
cycle time and tool distortion and improving tool life. Rapid prototyping models can be
indirectly used for reproduction. Vacuum casting is the simplest and oldest indirect rapid
tooling technique. Using this technique, a model is submerged in a bath of liquid silicone.
When the silicone hardens, it is cut open and the model is removed. Reassembling the
silicone parts leaves a gap that has the exact shape of the original model. By filling this
gap with a two-component resin under vacuum, a reproduction can be created. Silicone
moulds can last for as many as 20 reproductions. Investment casting is another indirect
rapid tooling process. A wax model is placed in a bed of ceramic powder. When heated,
the ceramic forms a hard shell as the model melts. The remaining gap can be filled with
liquid metal. After cooling, the shell has to be removed.
3 Rapid Manufacturing: In general, there are two types of models in free-form
fabrication:
• Shape (or concept) model, when using the model to evaluate the shape and dimensions
of a product.
• Functional model. If the mechanical behaviour of the model suits the designer’s wishes
for its application, the model is called a functional model. Combining both types, as in
producing fully functional end-use products, is termed rapid manufacturing (RM). The
 time to market and product expense can be further decreased when using RP to produce
finished manufactured parts. RM has the ability to create enduse products with almost
unlimited complexity. Furthermore, the techniques are suitable for mass customization.

8. Identify three guidelines that are followed in the application of DFMA.

i. Minimize part count by incorporating multiple functions into single parts. Several parts
could be fabricated by using different manufacturing processes (sheet metal forming,
injection moulding). Can a part function can be performed by a neighbouring part?
ii. Modularize multiple parts into single sub -assemblies.
iii. Design to allow assembly in open spaces, not confined spaces. Do not bury important
components.
iv. Parts should easily indicate orientation for insertion. Parts should have selflocking
features so that the precise alignment during assembly is not required. Or, Provide marks
(indentation) to make orientation easier.
v. Use standardized products, and Standardize parts to reduce variety of operations,
choices, and inventory burden.
vi. Design parts so they do not tangle or stick to each other.
vii. Distinguish ‘apparently similar apparently similar’ parts. Distinguish different parts
that are shaped similarly, or hard to distinguish, by non-geometric means, such as colour
coding.
viii. Design parts with orienting features to make-to-make alignment easier.

9. Describe Value Engineering

Value is the ratio of function to cost. Value Engineering is systematic method to improve
the value of goods or products and services by using an examination of function. It is and
organisational creative approach for the purpose of identifying of unnecessary cost.
Unnecessary cost are that which provides neither quality, nor use, nor appearance, nor
life and customer features. It includes:
1. Cost cutting
2. Design review
3. Project elimination
4. Scope reduction
5. Quality reduction
6. Detailed cost estimating
7. Redesign
10. Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM) is a controlled metal-removal process that is
used to remove metal by means of electric spark erosion.
i. Describe the wire-cut EDM process, illustrating it in a diagram.
ii. Explain how Wire-cut EDM differs from conventional EDM.
There are two main types of EDM: conventional and wire. Conventional EDM, as
described above, uses a tool to disperse the electric current. This tool, the cathode, runs
along the metal piece, the anode, and the electrical current reacts to melt or vaporize the
 metal. As a result of the dielectric fluid, what little debris produced washes away from
the piece. Wire cut EDM (or WCEDM) discharges the electrified current by means of a
taut thin wire, which acts as the cathode and is guided alongside the desired cutting path,
or kerf. A dielectric fluid submerges the wire and workpiece, filtering and directing the
sparks. The thin wire allows precision cuts, with kerfs as wide as three inches and a
positioning accuracy of +/- 0.0002”. This heightened precision allows for complex, three
dimensional cuts, and produces highly accurate punches, dies, and stripper plates.

Wire cut EDM equipment is run by computer numerically controlled (CNC) instruments,
which can control the wire on a three-dimensional axis to provide greater flexibility.
Whereas conventional EDM cannot always produce tight corners or very intricate
patterns, wire EDM’s increased precision allows for intricate patterns and cuts.
Additionally, wire EDM is able to cut metals as thin as 0.004”. At a certain thickness,
wire EDM will simply cause the metal to evaporate, thereby eliminating potential debris.
The wire of a WCEDM unit emits sparks on all sides, which means the cut must be
thicker than the wire itself. In other words, because the wire is surrounded by a ring of
current, the smallest and most precise cutting path possible is the added diameter of the
ring and wire; technicians easily account for this added dimension. Manufacturers
continue to produce thinner and thinner wires to allow for smaller kerfs and even finer
precision

11. Describe Water Jet Machining (WJM) and Abrasive Jet Machining(AJM),
including a diagrams.

12. Nanomanufacturing techniques are generally classified as either top-down or

bottom-up.
i. Explain these 2 approaches.
In general, nanomanufacturing techniques are classified as either top-down or bottom-up.
In the top-down approaches, materials are removed with low volumes and sizes down to
the scale of dozens of nanometers. In the bottom-up approaches, materials are assembled
under the guidance of nano-scale templates, either physically or chemically.
ii. Describe three Top-Down Approaches.

14 Identify the basic laws of robotics.

Three “Laws of Robotics were proposed” and later added the “zeroth law”.
• Law 0: A robot may not injure humanity or through inaction, allow humanity to come to harm
• Law 1: A robot may not injure a human being or through inaction, allow a human being to
come to harm, unless this would violate a higher order law
• Law 2: A robot must obey orders given to it by human beings, except where such orders would
conflict, with a higher order law
• Law 3: A robot must protect its own existence as long as such protection does not conflict with
a higher order law
15 Describe 5 types of robots
Manipulator - A robot manipulator is constructed using rigid links connected by joints with one
fixed end and one free end to perform a given task, such as moving a box from one location to
the next. The joints to this robotic manipulator are the movable components, which enables
relative motion between the adjoining links
Wheeled Robot - Wheeled robots are robots that move on the ground with the use of their
wheels. This design is frequently preferred because it is much simpler than legged designs and
design, production and programming processes for moving on flat terrain is easier. Another
advantage of wheeled robots is their being easy to control than other robot types. These robots
cannot pass obstacles and this is the main disadvantage of this type. Because of that these robots
are almost useless in terrains that are not flat and have low friction coefficient. Wheeled robots
can have various numbers of wheels, but for static and dynamic stability, three wheels are
enough.
Legged Robot - Legged robots are a type of mobile robot, which use articulated limbs, such as
leg mechanisms, to provide locomotion. They are more versatile than wheeled robots and can
traverse many different terrains, though these advantages require increased complexity and
power consumption.
Autonomous Underwater Vehicle - An autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV) is a robot that
travels underwater without requiring input from an operator according to pre-programmed
instructions
Unmanned Aerial Vehicle - An unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) (or uncrewed aerial vehicle,
commonly known as a drone) is an aircraft without a human pilot on board and a type of
unmanned vehicle
15 State 3 robot uses.
1. Jobs that are dangerous for humans e.g. Decontaminating Robot Cleaning the main circulating
pump housing in the nuclear power plant
2. Repetitive jobs that are boring, stressful, or labor intensive for humans e.g. Welding Robot
3. Menial tasks that human don’t want to do e.g. The SCRUBMATE Robot
16 Define metrology and state its main 3 tasks.
Metrology is “the science of measurement and its application” embracing both experimental and
theoretical determinations at any level of uncertainty in any field of science and technology.
Metrology consists of three main tasks:
• The definition of internationally accepted units of measurement
• The realization of the units of measurement by scientific methods in measurement standards
• Traceability, linking measurements made in practice to measurement standards In a broader
sense metrology is not limited to length and angle measurement but also concerned with
numerous problems theoretical as well as practical related with measurement such as:
1. Units of measurement and their standards, which is concerned with the establishment,
reproduction, conservation and transfer of units of measurement and their standards.
2. Methods of measurement based on agreed units and standards.
3. Errors of measurement.
4. Measuring instruments and devices.
5. Accuracy of measuring instruments and their care.
6. Industrial inspection and its various techniques.
7. Design, manufacturing and testing of gauges of all kinds.
17. State 8 objectives of metrology.
1. Thorough evaluation of newly developed products, to ensure that components designed is
within the process and measuring instrument capabilities available in the plant.
2. To determine the process capabilities and ensure that these are better than the relevant
component tolerance.
3. To determine the measuring instrument capabilities and ensure that these are adequate for their
respective measurements.
4. To minimize the cost of inspection by effective and efficient use of available facilities and to
reduce the cost of rejects and rework through application of Statistical Quality Control
Techniques
5. Standardization of measuring methods. This is achieved by laying down inspection methods
for any product right at the time when production technology is prepared.
6. Maintenance of the accuracies of measurement. This is achieved by periodical calibration of
the metrological instruments used in the plant.
7. Arbitration and solution of problems arising on the shop floor regarding methods of
measurement.
8. Preparation of designs for all gauges and special inspection fixtures
18. There are four main areas in which metrology has important economic effects. State
them.
• Metrology can increase the productivity of organizations - The use of precise measurement
revolutionized interchangeable manufacture because it enabled an effective and efficient division
of labour. Later, measurement became one of the integral parts of process control and continues
to be integral to advanced manufacturing. The more precise the measurement and the faster the
feedback from measurement to control, the greater the effects on efficiency, quality, and
productivity. In modern industries, metrology is considered to represent about 10–15 percent of
production costs
• Metrology supports innovation - Measurement is also important to the innovator because it
offers an objective way to demonstrate to customers that an innovative product is indeed superior
to the competition. In the absence of any such measurements, the skeptical customer may be
unconvinced, but if the superior product’s characteristics can be measured in an objective (and
independently verifiable) way, this supports the marketing effort of the innovative producer. In
this way, measurement can play an important role in avoiding market failure for innovative new
products.
• Metrology helps to reduce the transaction costs between suppliers and customers in a
market economy - One of the most common sources of market failure is asymmetric
information between buyers and sellers, where the buyer cannot distinguish good products from
bad and therefore does not buy. Often this arises because measurement is difficult or expensive.
As measurement improves and becomes cheaper, buyers can measure any product characteristics
they wish, which eliminates asymmetric information and reduces transaction costs. In fact, many
producers now use measurements of product characteristics to advertise their products.
Metrology also ensures fair trade. Both the supplier and the purchaser are protected by
measuring equipment that is accurate—the purchaser by getting what is paid for, and the supplier
by avoiding oversupplying or undersupplying the stated quantity of the product purchased, which
in the United States amounts to about US$5 trillion in sales per year.
• Metrology helps societal groups - Many consumers are interested in careful measurement of
product characteristics to ensure quality, safety, purity, dosage accuracy, and so on. These could
include food composition data, the alcohol content of drinks, the sun protection factor of
sunblock, the speed of a car and the temperature of its cooling system, the performance
characteristics of a hi-fi stereo system, or the accurate and early detection of carbon monoxide in
the home.
19. State 6 drivers of Advanced Manufacturing Technology evolution.
1. Innovation and speed to market Innovation is the process and outcome of creating something
new, which is also of value. Innovation involves the whole process from opportunity
identification, ideation or invention to development, prototyping, production marketing and
sales, while entrepreneurship only needs to involve commercialization. Today it is said to
involve the capacity to quickly adapt by adopting new innovations (products, processes,
strategies, organization, etc). Also, traditionally the focus has been on new products or processes,
but recently new business models have come into focus, i.e. the way a firm delivers value and
secures profits. It is argued that innovation comes about through new combinations made by an
entrepreneur, resulting in:
• a new product,
• a new process,
• opening of new market,
• new way of organizing the business
• new sources of supply Drivers for innovation - Financial pressures to reduce costs, increase
efficiency, do more with less, etc, Increased competition, Shorter product life cycles, Value
migration, Stricter regulation, Industry and community needs for sustainable development,
Increased demend for accountability, Demographic, social and maket changes, Rising customer
expectations regarding service and quality, Changing economy, Greater availability of
potentially useful technologies coupled with a need to exceed the competition in these
technologies. New conditions for innovation Small start-up entrepreneurs increasingly depend on
large firms:
• as suppliers or customers
• for venture finance,
• for exit opportunites,
• for knowledge (production, markets and R&D)
• and for opening new markets. Large firms increasingly depend on small start-ups
• for NPD,
• as suppliers of new knowledge (which they cannot develop themselves),
• or organizational renewal, for experimentation with busienss models,
• for opening new markets, etc
2. Technology convergence Technological convergence is the tendency that as technology
changes different technological system sometimes evolve toward performing similar tasks.
3. Supply chain servitization and optimisation Servitization in manufacturing is the process of
expanding the capabilities of a company to deliver a greater experience for the end consumer.
According to research, there are different levels of servitization within manufacturing — and the
greater the level, the better companies are servicing the end customer. The three levels are:
• Level 1: Product provision only — all manufacturers are currently doing this, as it is the basics
of manufacturing.
• Level 2: Aftersales services — this can include everything from field service to product repairs
and condition monitoring.
• Level 3: Advanced services — building on level 2, these advanced services can include pay-
per-use contracts and integrated solutions. The associated risk increases as the levels advance.
Servitization is defined by: Collaboration, Control, Connectivity and Consistency.
4. Near shoring Extending business outward an indefinite but usually short distance from shore
nearshore sediments.
5. 3D Value chains & Distributed factories
• Digitalisation of product design, production control, demand and supply integration, that enable
effective quality control at multiple and remote locations
• Localisation of products, point of manufacture, material use enabling quick response, just-in-
time production
• Personalisation of products tailored for individual users to support mass product customisation
and user-friendly enhanced product functionality
• New production technologies that enable product variety at multiple scales of production, and
as they mature, promise resource efficiency and improved environmental sustainability
• Enhanced designer/producer/user participation enabling democratisation across the
manufacturing value chain
• Enabling local production - can capture value locally and provide tradable goods
• Easy access to product and manufacturing knowledge - can enable appropriate industrial
structures and ‘business models’ • Work will be needed to tailor approaches - for different
contexts and the availability of local resources
• Principles are scalable - and not advanced technology dependent (apart from internet access)
• An effective ecosystem - requires clear business models for all the actors
6. Sustainability. Sustainability generally looks at: Energy Independence, Preservation of
Rainforests, Green jobs, livable cities, renewables, clean water and air, health etc. Sustainability
and Competitiveness Economic Benefits: Sustainable manufacturing practices have a number of
potential business benefits: The importance of technologies varies by industry: spray-on circuit
production holds great potential for the electronics industry, and composite adhesive bonding
remains a focus for aerospace and defense. However, research has shown that additive
manufacturing and metal injection molding are the technologies with the most potential to
further improve manufacturing across a broad span of industries and geographic areas: