HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER

MENG4103

Chapter 2. CONDUCTION HEAT TRANSFER

2.1 INTRODUCTION…
❑ The heat flux given in equation (1.4)
.
Q dT
q= = −k (1.4)
A dx

❑ Can be written in a more general (three

dimensional) form as
 T T T 
q = −kT = −k  i +j +k 
 x y z  (2.1)

❑ or
q = −(iqx + jq y + kqz )
(2.2)
2.1 INTRODUCTION…

Comparison of one dimensional and three dimensional heat flow

2.1 INTRODUCTION…
Major objectives in a conduction analysis is
 Determine the temperature field,

 Determine the conduction heat flux,

 For a solid, to ascertain structural integrity through

 determination of thermal stresses,

 expansions, and

 deflections.

 Optimize the thickness of an insulating material.

 2.1 INTRODUCTION…
❑Derivation of heat equation in rectangular coordinate

Fig. 2.1 Differential control volume, dx.dy.dz, for conduction analysis in Cartesian coordinates
2.1 INTRODUCTION…
❑ The conservation of energy principle is used to find
the conduction (energy diffusion) equation.
Referring to Fig. 2.1,
.
E in = rateof energy
 enteringto thecontrolvolume
.
E out = rateof energy
 leavingthe controlvolume
.
E gen = rateof energy
 generated in
 the control
 volume
.
= q dxdydz
.
E st = rateof energy stored
  thecontrolvolume
in
T
= ρc p dxdydz
t
2.1 INTRODUCTION…
❑ Applying the energy balance equation to the control volume,
. . . .

(2.3) E in + E gen − E out = E st

.
 (q x dydz + q y dxdz + q z dxdy) + q dxdydz−
T
(2.4) (q x+dx dydz + q y +dy dxdz + q z +dz dxdy) = c p dxdydz
t

❑ But from Taylor series approximation,

q x q y q z
(2.5) q x + dx = q x + dx, q y + dy = q y + dy, q z + dz = q z +
x y z

❑ And from Fourier’s law

T T T
(2.6) q x = −k , q y = −k , q z = −k
x y z
2.1 INTRODUCTION…
❑ Substituting equations (2.5) and (2.6) in to equation
(2.4) and dividing by dxdydz gives
.
  T    T    T  T
(2.7) q+ k  +  k  +  k  = c p
x  x  y  y  z  z  t
.
❑ Where q = energy generated per unit volume ( W / m ) 3

ρ = density ( kg / m ) 3

c p = specific heat capacity (J/kg.K)

❑ Equation (2.7) is a general transient three dimensional
diffusion equation in rectangular coordinate system with
energy generation.
2.1 INTRODUCTION…
❑ For materials with constant thermal conductivity k,
equation (2.7) can be written as
.
q  2T  2T  2T c p T 1 T
+ 2 + 2 + 2 = =
k x y z k t  t
k
❑  =
c pis called thermal diffusivity (m2/s ). It is
clear from the above equation that the ability of a
material to let heat pass through it increases with
increasing thermal diffusivity. This can be due to a
high thermal conductivity k or a low heat capacity
of the material.
2.1 INTRODUCTION…
 2.1 INTRODUCTION…
❑ Derivation of heat equation in cylindrical coordinate

Fig. 2.2 Differential control volume, dr.rdf.dz, for conduction analysis in cylindrical coordinates
2.1 INTRODUCTION…
❑ The heat flux in cylindrical coordinates is

 T 1 T T 
(2.8) q = − kT = −k  i + j +k 
 r r f z 
❑ Where
T k T T
(2.9) q r = −k , qf = − , q z = −k
r r f z

❑ Applying the principle of conservation of energy, the energy diffusion

equation can be obtained as

(2.10)
2.1 INTRODUCTION…
❑ For constant thermal conductivity,
.
q 1 T  2 T 1  2 T  2 T ρc p T 1 T
+ + 2 + 2 + 2 = =
(2.11) k r r r r φ 2
z k t α t

❑ Following similar procedure, the heat diffusion

equation can be obtained in spherical coordinate
system (Fig. 2.3).

(2.12)
2.1 INTRODUCTION…
❑ Derivation of heat equation in spherical coordinate

Fig. 2.3 Differential control volume, dr.rsinθdf.rdθ, for conduction

analysis in spherical coordinates
2.1 INTRODUCTION…
2.1.1 Boundary and Initial Conditions
❑A heat equation solution depends on the physical conditions
existing at the boundaries of the medium and, if the situation is
time dependent, on conditions existing in the medium at some
initial time.
❑The mathematical expressions of the thermal conditions at the
boundaries are called the boundary conditions
❑To describe a heat transfer problem completely, two boundary
conditions must be given for each direction along which heat
transfer is significant.
❑Therefore, we need to specify two boundary conditions for 1D
one dimensional problems, four boundary conditions for 2D
two-dimensional problems, and six boundary conditions for 3D
three-dimensional problems.
Cont…

❑Boundary
conditions for the
heat diffusion
equation at the
surface (x =0)
2.1 INTRODUCTION…
Example 2.1
❑ Passage of an electric current through a long conducting
rod of radius ri and thermal conductivity
.
kr results in a
uniform volumetric heating at rate of q . The conducting
rod is wrapped in an electrically non-conducting
cladding material of outer radius ro and thermal
conductivity kc, and convection cooling is provided an
adjoining flow. For steady state conditions, write
appropriate forms of the heat equations for the rod
and cladding. Express appropriate boundary conditions
for the solution of these equations.
2.1 INTRODUCTION…

Fig. Example 2.1

2.1 INTRODUCTION…
Solution
❑ From Equation 2.10, the appropriate . forms of the heat equation are:

In the Conducting Rod, q d  dT 

+ r =0
k dr  dr 
In the Cladding, d  dT 
r =0
dr  dr 

❑ Appropriate boundary conditions are:

dTr symmetry
=0
dr r =0
Tr (ri ) = Tc (ri ) common temperature at interface
dTr dTc
kr = kc
dr ri dr ri
heat flux crossing interface area

= hTc (ro ) − T 
dTc
kc
dr convection heat transfer at outer surface
ro
2.1 INTRODUCTION…
Consider the south wall of a house that is L = 0.2 m thick. The outer
surface of the wall is exposed to solar radiation and has an absorptivity
of a = 0.5 for solar energy. The interior of the house is maintained at
T1=20°C, while the ambient air temperature outside remains at
T2=5°C. The sky, the ground, and the surfaces of the surrounding
structures at this location can be modeled as a surface at an effective
temperature of Tsky=255 K for radiation exchange on the outer surface.
The radiation exchange between the inner surface of the wall and the
surfaces of the walls, floor, and ceiling it faces is negligible. The
convection heat transfer coefficients on the inner and the outer surfaces
of the wall are h1=6W/m2·K and h2=25 W/m2·K, respectively. The
thermal conductivity of the wall material is k= 0.7 W/m·K, and the
emissivity of the outer surface is e2=0.9. Assuming the heat transfer
through the wall to be steady and one-dimensional, express the
boundary conditions on the inner and the outer surfaces of the wall.
2.1 INTRODUCTION…
2.2 STEADY STATE CONDUCTION

2.2.1 One Dimensional Steady State Conduction

In "one-dimensional“ system:
 Only one coordinate is needed to describe the spatial
variation of the dependent variables.
 Temperature gradients exist along only a single
coordinate direction and heat transfer occurs exclusively in
that direction.
 Equation (2.7) for one dimensional steady state heat
conduction with no energy generation in rectangular
coordinate system reduces to
d  dT 
(2.14) k =0
dx  dx 
2.2 STEADY STATE CONDUCTION…

▪ Integration of equation (2.14) gives us

dT C
= = C1 constant slope (2.15)
dx k
and
T ( x) = C1 x + C2 linear variation (2.16)
▪ The constants C1 and C2 are obtained from boundary conditions.
▪ Similarly for cylindrical coordinate system (equation (2.11)) reduces
to
1 d  dT 
 kr =0
(2.17) r dr  dr 

▪ Integration of equation (2.17) gives

(2.18) T (r ) = C1 ln(r ) + C2
2.2 STEADY STATE CONDUCTION…

2.2.2 Thermal Resistance Concept

▪ Consider equation (2.16) applied to the slab shown in
Fig.2.4. Applying boundary conditions
T2 − T1 dT T −T
C1 = , C 2 = T1 and = C1 = 2 1
L dx L
▪ The heat transfer rate in the slab becomes
. dT T −T T −T T −T T −T L
Q = −kA = −kA 2 1 = kA 1 2 = 1 2 = 1 2
dx L L L R
kA
. T −T L
Q= 1 2 , R=
R kA (2.19)
▪ Where R is called thermal resistance.
Fig. 2.4 Thermal Resistance Concept
2.2 STEADY STATE CONDUCTION…

▪ Defining resistance as the ratio of a driving potential to the corresponding transfer

rate, the conduction thermal resistance can be written as,

(2.20) T1 − T2 L
Rcond = .
=
Q kA
▪ For electrical conduction in the same system, Ohm’s law provides an electrical
resistance of the form

(2.21)
E1 − E 2 L
Relect = =
I A
▪ We can also write a thermal resistance for convection heat transfer from Newton’s Law of
cooling . . (T − T ) (Ts − T )
Q conv = hA(Ts − T ) or Q conv = s =
1 R
hA
▪ And the convection thermal resistance is

Ts − T 1
(2.22)
Rconv = .
=
Qconv hA
 2.2 STEADY STATE CONDUCTION…

▪ The thermal resistance concept is more appropriate

for heat transfer problems with composite materials
in series or parallel as shown in Fig. 2.5.
2.2 STEADY STATE CONDUCTION…

▪ The heat transfer rate for this system may be expressed as

. T ,1 − T , 4 T
Q= = (2.23
R R
. T ,1 − T , 4
Q=
1 L L L 1
(2.24) + A + B + C +
h1 A k A A k B A k C A h4 A
❑ Alternatively,
. T,1 − Ts ,1 Ts ,1 − T2 T2 − T3 T3 − Ts , 4 Ts , 4 − T, 4
(2.25) Q= = = = =
1 LA LB LC 1
h1 A kA A kB A kC A h4 A

▪ In terms of an overall heat transfer coefficient,

.
(2.26) Q = UAT

▪ Where ΔT is the overall temperature difference.

2.2 STEADY STATE CONDUCTION…

▪ From equations (2.23) and (2.26) we see that UA = 1 /ΣR. Hence, for the composite
wall of Fig. 2.5,
1 1
U = =
AR 1 L A LB LC 1
(2.27)
+ + + +
h1 k A k B k C h4
▪ In general, we may write 1 T
Rtot = R = = .
(2.28) AU Q
▪ The thermal resistance concept can be applied to radial systems too
(Fig.2.6). Assuming heat transfer only in the radial direction, equation (2.18)
can be used to obtain an expression for the thermal resistance.
T (r ) = C1 ln(r ) + C2

▪ Introducing the boundary conditions T(r1)=Ts,1and T(r2)=Ts,2 , the constants

C1 and C2 can be obtained and equation (2.18) becomes
T −T r (2.29)
T (r ) = s ,1 s , 2 ln  + T
r 
r 
s,2

ln 1   2
 r2 
2.2 STEADY STATE CONDUCTION…

▪ The conduction heat transfer rate in the cylinder will be

obtained from Fourier’s law,
. dT dT T −T T −T
Q = −kA = − k 2rL = −k 2rL s ,1 s , 2 = 2kL s ,1 s , 2
dr dr r  r 
r ln 1  ln 2 
 r2   r1 
. Ts ,1 − Ts , 2 T
Q= =
r  R
ln 2 
(2.30)  r1 
2kL

▪ Equation (2.30) shows that conduction thermal resistance in

cylindrical coordinate system is given by
r 
ln 2 
(2.31)
R=  1
r
2kL
2.2 STEADY STATE CONDUCTION…

▪ For the hollow cylinder shown in Fig. 2.6, the total

thermal resistance can be written as
 r2 
ln
 

Rtot =
1
+  r1 
+
1
h1 2r1 L 2 kL h2 2r2 L
(2.32) = RConv,in + RCond + RConv,out

Fig. 2.6 Thermal

resistance of a
hollow cylinder
2.2 STEADY STATE CONDUCTION

▪ The conduction heat transfer rate in the cylinder will be

obtained from Fourier’s law,

▪Equation (2.30) shows that conduction thermal resistance in spherical

coordinate coordinate system is given by
2.2 STEADY STATE CONDUCTION…

Example 2.2
❑ Uninsulated thin-walled pipe of 100mm diameter is
used to transport water to equipment that operates
outdoors and uses the water as a coolant. During
particularly harsh winter conditions the pipe wall
achieves a temperature of -150C and a cylindrical
layer of ice forms on the inner surface of the wall. If the
mean water temperature is 30C and a convection
coefficient of 2000W/m2K is maintained at the inner
surface of the ice (k1.94W/mK), which is at 00C, what
is the thickness of the ice layer?
2.2 STEADY STATE CONDUCTION…

Fig. Example 2.2

2.2 STEADY STATE CONDUCTION…

Solution
▪ Performing an energy balance for a control surface
about the ice/water interface, it follows that, for a unit
length of pipe,
qconv = qcond
Ts , i − Ts , o
hi (2r1 )(T.i − Ts ,i ) =
ln(r2 / r1 ) / 2k
▪ Dividing both sides of the equation by r2,
ln(r2 / r1 ) k Ts , i − Ts, o 1.94 15
= =  = 0.097
(r2 / r1 ) hi r2 T.i − Ts ,i 2000x0.05 3
▪ The equation is satisfied by r2/r1=1.114, in which case
r1=0.05m/1.114=0.045m, and the ice layer thickness
is
 = r2 − r1 = 0.005m = 5mm
Example 2.3
Example 2.3
2.2 STEADY STATE CONDUCTION…
2.2.3 Thermal Contact Resistance
❑ Surfaces of solids are practically rough with numerous picks and valleys.
When two or more such surfaces are pressed together, the picks form good
contact(conductor) and the valleys form voids filled with air(insulator), Fig.
2.7(b).

Fig. 2.7 Thermal Contact Resistance

2.2 STEADY STATE CONDUCTION…

❑ Thus, an interface offers some resistance to heat transfer, and this resistance per unit
interface area is called the thermal contact resistance, Rc, given as
. . .
(2.33) Q = Q contact + Q gap
❑ It can also be expressed in the form of Newton’s law of cooling as
.

(2.34) Q = hc ATint erface

❑ Where hc = thermal contact conductance
A =apparent interface area
∆Tinterface=effective temperature difference at interface
❑ The thermal contact resistance is given by

(2.35) 1 Tint erface

Rc = = .
hc Q/ A
2.2 STEADY STATE CONDUCTION…

Table 2.2 Thermal contact conductance of some metal surfaces in air

2.2 STEADY STATE CONDUCTION…

2.2.4 Critical Thickness of Insulation

❑ When a plane surface is covered with insulation, the rate of heat
transfer always decreases.
❑ However, the addition of insulation to a cylindrical or spherical
surface increases the conduction resistance but reduces the convection
resistance because of the increased surface area.
❑ The critical thickness of insulation corresponds to the condition when
the sum of conduction and convection resistances is a minimum. The
rate of heat transfer from the insulated pipe to the surrounding air
can be expressed as (Fig. 2.8)
. T1 − T
Q=
r 
(2.36) ln 2 
 r1  + 1
2kL 2hr2 L
2.2 STEADY STATE CONDUCTION…
.

❑ The variation of Q with the outer radius of the

insulation r2 is plotted in Fig. 2.9. The value of r2 at
.
which Q reaches a maximum is determined from the
requirement that d Q/ dr = 0 . Solving this for r2 yields
.

the critical radius of insulation for a cylinder to be

k
rcr =
(2.37) h
❑ Similarly the critical radius of insulation for a sphere
is given by
2k
rcr =
h
(2.38)
2.2 STEADY STATE CONDUCTION…

❑ From Fig. 2.8 it can be seen that insulating the pipe

may actually increase the rate of heat transfer from
the pipe instead of decreasing it when r2<rcr .

Fig. 2.8 Insulated pipe exposed

Fig. 2.9 Variation of heat transfer
rate with insulation thickness
to convection from external
2.2 STEADY STATE CONDUCTION…

2.2.5 Optimum Thickness of Insulation

 Insulation does not eliminate heat transfer but it merely reduces it.
 The thicker the insulation, the lower the rate of heat transfer but the
higher the cost of insulation.
 Therefore, there should be an optimum thickness of insulation
corresponding to a minimum combined cost of insulation and heat
lost (Fig. 2.10).
 The total cost, which is the sum of insulation cost and lost heat cost,
decreases first, reaches a minimum, and then increases.
 The thickness corresponding to the minimum total cost is the
optimum thickness of insulation, and this is the recommended
thickness of insulation to be installed.
2.2 STEADY STATE CONDUCTION…

Fig. 2.10 Optimum Insulation Thickness

2.3 EXTENDED SURFACES
• The term extended surface is used to describe a system
in which the area of a surface is increased by the
attachment of fins.
• A fin accommodates energy transfer by conduction
within its boundaries, while its exposed surfaces transfer
energy to the surroundings by convection or radiation or
both.
• Fins are commonly used to augment heat transfer from
electronic components, automobile radiators, engine
and compressor cylinders, control devices, and a host of
other applications.
2.3 EXTENDED SURFACES …

Fig. 2.11 Use of fin to enhance heat transfer from a plane wall
2.3 EXTENDED SURFACES …
▪ To determine the heat transfer rate associated with a fin,
we must first obtain the temperature distribution along
the fin.
▪ The following assumptions in determining the
temperature distribution:
• one-dimensional conduction in the x direction,
• Steady-state conditions,
• Constant thermal conductivity,
• Negligible radiation from the surface,
• heat generation effects are absent, and
• Convection heat transfer coefficient h is uniform over the
surface.
2.3 EXTENDED SURFACES …

Fig. 2.12 Fin element used for analysis

2.3 EXTENDED SURFACES …
Applying the conservation of energy requirement to the differential element of
Fig.2.12, we obtain
. . .
Q x = Q x + dx + d Q conv (2.39)
But from Fourier’ Law, . dT
Q x = −kAc
dx (2.40)
The conduction heat transfer at x+dx can be expressed as
.
. d Qx
.
Q x + dx = Q x +
dx (2.41)
dx
Inserting equation (2.40) in to equation (2.41)
. d (−kAc
dT
) (2.42)
dT dx dx
Q x + dx = −kAc +
dx dx
The convection heat transfer will be expressed as
.
d Q conv = h(dAs )(T − T ) (2.43)
2.3 EXTENDED SURFACES …
Then equation (2.36) becomes,
dT
d (−kAc )
dT dT dx dx + h(dA )(T − T )
− kAc = −kAc + s 
dx dx dx
Or
d  dT  h dAs
− ( )(T − T ) = 0
 Ac
dx  dx  k dx (2.44)
For fins with constant cross-section Ac, the element
surface area dAs=Pdx (where P is fin perimeter)
and equation (2.44) becomes,
d 2T hP
− (T − T ) = 0
dx 2
kAc (2.45)
2.3 EXTENDED SURFACES …
Let (x)=(T(x)-T∞)then since T∞ is constant. Equation (2.45) becomes,
d 2 hP
−  =0
dx 2 kAc
Or d 2
− m 2 = 0
dx 2 (2.46)
hP
Where m=
kAc
. The general solution of differential equation (2.46) is

 ( x) = C1e mx + C2 e − mx
(2.47)
The constants C1 and C2 are obtained from boundary conditions.
2.3 EXTENDED SURFACES …
The boundary conditions used occur at fin base and tip.
A. Boundary condition at fin base is specified
temperature condition. This temperature is usually
assumed to be known.
 ( x = 0) =  b = Tb − T (2.48)
From equation (2.47),
(2.49)
 b = C1 + C 2
2.3 EXTENDED SURFACES …
B. The boundary condition at fin tip has three options
I. Infinitely long fin(L→∞,Ttip=T∞)
(x=L)=Ttip-T∞=0=C1emL+C2e-mL
But as L→∞, e-mL=0 and C1=0 and C2=b (from
equation (2.49))
So, for an infinitely long fin equation (2.47)
becomes
−
hP
x or
 ( x) =  b e − mx
= be c kA

 ( x) −
hP
x (2.50)
=e
kAc

b
2.3 EXTENDED SURFACES …
The heat removed by the fin at base is
. dT d
Q base = −kAc = −kAc
dx x =0 dx x =0

. hP
Q base = kAc b m = kAc b
kAc
(2.51)
.
Q base =  b hPkAc
2.3 EXTENDED SURFACES …
 d 
II. Negligible heat loss from fin tip 
 dx = 0

 x=L 
d
= m(C e − C e
1
mL
)= 0
2 (2.52)
− mL

dxx= L

Combining equations (2.49) and (2.52), and solving for

the constants C1 and C2,
 ( x) coshm( L − x)

=
cosh(mL )
(2.53)
b

The heat loss from fin base is

.
Q =  hPkA tanh( mL)
(2.54)
base b c
2.3 EXTENDED SURFACES …
III. Convection from fin tip
.
Q = hAc (T x=L
− T ) = −kAc
dT (2.55)
dx x=L
Or
d
hAc  = −kAc
x=L
dx x= L
(2.56)
Solving for the constants C1 and C2
 ( x) coshm( L − x) + (h / mk )sinhm( L − x)
b
= (2.57)
cosh(mL ) + (h / mk )sinh( mL )

The corresponding heat loss from fin base will be,

.
Q =  hPkA
sinh( mL) + (h / mK ) cosh(mL) (2.58)
cosh(mL) + (h / mk ) sinh( mL)
base b c
2.3 EXTENDED SURFACES …
Example 2.3
A brass rod 100mm long and 5mm in diameter
extends horizontally from a casting at . The rod is in
an air environment with and . What is the
temperature of the rod 25, 50 and 100mm from
the casting? Take thermal conductivity of brass to
be k=133W/m.K.
2.3 EXTENDED SURFACES …
2.3 EXTENDED SURFACES …
Solution
Based on the assumption of convection heat loss from
fin tip, the temperature distribution, from equation
(2.57), has the form
coshm( L − x) + (h / mk )sinhm( L − x)
 ( x) =  b
cosh(mL) + (h / mk )sinh( mL)

The temperatures at the prescribed location are

tabulated below
x(m)
T(0C)
0.025 156.5
0.05 128.9
0.10 107.0
2.3 EXTENDED SURFACES …
2.3.1 Fin Effectiveness
The performance of fins is judged on the basis of the
enhancement in the heat transfer relative to the no-fin
case. The performance of fins expressed in terms of the
fin effectiveness efin is defined as (Fig. 2.13)
Heat transfer rate from
Q
.
Q
(2.59).
the fin of base area Ab
ε fin = = . =
fin fin

Heat transfer rate from Q hAb(Tb − T )

no fin
the surface of area Ab
In any rational design the value of efin should be as
large as possible, and in general, the use of fins may
rarely be justified unless efin 2.
2.3 EXTENDED SURFACES …

Fig. 2.13 Fin Effectiveness

 2.3 EXTENDED SURFACES …
2.3.2 Fin Efficiency
• Another measure of fin thermal performance is provided by the fin efficiency, fin.
• The maximum driving potential for convection is the temperature difference between
the base (x = 0) and the fluid, b=Tb-T∞.
• Hence the maximum rate at which a fin could dissipate energy is the rate that would
exist if the entire fin surface were at the base temperature.
• However, since any fin is characterized by a finite conduction resistance, a
temperature gradient must exist along the fin and the above condition is an
idealization.
• A logical definition of fin
. efficiency is therefore
.
Q fin Q fin
 fin = =
.
Q max hA fin(Tb − T ) (2.60)

Where Afin is the surface area of the fin.

2.3 EXTENDED SURFACES …
2.3.3 Proper Length of Fin
• The temperature of a fin drops along the fin
exponentially and reaches the environment
temperature at some length.
• The part of the fin beyond this length does not
contribute to the heat transfer.
• Designing such an extra long fin results in material
waste, excessive weight and increased size and cost.
 2.3 EXTENDED SURFACES …

Fig. 2.15 Variation of heat

Fig. 2.14 Proper length of fin
transfer from a fin relative to that
from relatively long fin
2.3 EXTENDED SURFACES …
To get the sense of the proper length of a fin, we
compare the heat transfer from a fin of finite length to
the heat transfer from an infinitely long fin with the
same conditions.
.
Q fin hpkAc (Tb − T ) tanh( mL)
(2.61) Heat Transfer Ratio = .
=
hpkAc (Tb − T )
= tanh( mL)
Q long fin

This ratio becomes unity for mL2.5 as can be seen from

Fig. 2.15. Therefore,
L=
2 .5 gives proper length of a fin
and the designer shouldm
make proper compromise
between heat transfer performance and fin size.