CHAPTER FOUR

COLUMNS
Outlines
❖ Introduction, failure of the column, and critical load
❖ Euler’s Column theory and condition of column
❖ Expression for critical load with different end conditions of column
❖ Rankine’s formula for Column
4.1 Introduction
Columns and Struts
• Any member subjected to axial compressive load is called a column or Strut.
• A vertical member subjected to axial compressive load –COLUMN (Eg: Pillars of
a building)
• An inclined member subjected to axial compressive load -STRUT
• A strut may also be a horizontal member
• Load carrying capacity of a compression member depends not only on its cross-
sectional area, but also on its length and the manner in which the ends of a column
are held.
• Equilibrium of a column –Stable, Unstable, Neutral.
• Critical or Crippling or Buckling load –Load at which buckling starts
 Failure of a Column or Strut
• It has been observed, that when a column or a strut is subjected to some compressive force then the
compressive stress induced,

where P = Compressive force and

A = Cross-sectional area of the column.

❖ A little consideration will show, that if the force or load is gradually increased the column will reach
a stage, when it will be subjected to the ultimate crushing stress. Beyond this stage, the column will
fail by crushing. The load corresponding to the crushing stress, is called crushing load.
❖ It has also been experienced that sometimes, a compression member does not fail entirely by
crushing, but also by bending i.e., buckling. This happens in the case of long columns. It has also
been observed that all the short columns fail due to their crushing.
❖ But, if a long column is subjected to a compressive load, it is subjected to a compressive stress. If
the load is gradually increased, the column will reach a stage, when it will start buckling. The load,
at which the column just buckles is called buckling load, criticial load or crippling load and the
column is said to have developed an elastic instability.
❖ A little consideration will show that for a long column, the value of buckling load will be less than
the crushing load. Moreover, the value of buckling load is low for long columns and relatively high
for short columns.
Classification of Columns
• According to the nature of failure –short, medium, and long columns
1. Short column –whose length is so related to its c/s area that failure occurs mainly due to direct
compressive stress and fail due to material failure. the role of bending stress is negligible.
2. Medium Column -whose length is so related to its c/s area that failure occurs by a combination of
direct compressive stress and bending stress
3. Long Column -whose length is so related to its c/s area that failure occurs mainly due to bending
stress/buckling and the role of direct compressive stress is negligible
4.2 Euler’s Column theory and condition of column
• The first rational attempt, to study the stability of long columns, was
made by Mr. Euler.
• He derived an equation, for the buckling load of long columns based
on the bending stress.
• While deriving this equation, the effect of direct stress is neglected.
This may be justified with the statement that the direct stress induced
in a long column is negligible as compared to the bending stress.
• It may be noted that the Euler’s formula cannot be used in the case of
short columns, because the direct stress is considerable and hence
cannot be neglected.
• Columns and struts which fail by buckling may be analyzed by Euler’s
theory.
Assumptions in the Euler’s Column Theory
The following simplifying assumptions are made in the Euler’s column
theory:
• Initially the column is perfectly straight and the load applied is truly
axial.
• The cross-section of the column is uniform throughout its length.
• The column material is perfectly elastic, homogeneous and isotropic
and thus obeys Hooke’s law.
• The length of column is very large as compared to its cross-sectional
dimensions.
• The shortening of column, due to direct compression (being very
small) is neglected.
• The failure of column occurs due to buckling alone.
Sign Conventions
Though there are different signs used for the bending of columns in different books,
yet we shall follow the following sign conventions which are commonly used and
internationally recognized.

1. A moment, which tends to bend the column with convexity towards its initial
central line as shown in Fig. (a) is taken as positive.
2. A moment, which tends to bend the column with its concavity towards its initial
central line as shown in Fig. (b) is taken as negative.
Types of End Conditions of Columns
In actual practice, there are a number of end conditions, for columns. But, we shall
study the Euler’s column theory on the following four types of end conditions,
which are important from the subject point of view:
1. Both ends hinged,
2. One end is fixed
and the other is free.
3. Both ends fixed,
3. One end is fixed
and the other hinged,
Euler’s Formula and Equivalent length of a Column
In the previous articles, we have derived the relations for the crippliing load under various end
conditions. Sometimes, all these cases are represented by a general equation called Euler’s formula

where Le is the equivalent or effective length of a column.

• The is another way of representing the equation, for the crippling load by an equivalent length of
effective length of a column.
• The equivalent length of a given column with given end conditions is the length of an equivalent
column of the same material and cross-section with both ends hinged and having the value of the
crippling load equal to that of the given column.
 The equivalent lengths (L) for the given end conditions are given below

NOTE. The vertical column will have two moments of inertia (viz., IXX and LYY). Since the column will tend to
buckle in the direction of the leas moment of inertia, therefore the least value of the two moments of inertia
is to be used in the relation.
Slenderness Ratio
We have already discussed in the above topic that the Euler’s formula for the crippling
load,

We know that the buckling of a column under the crippling load will take place about the axis of least
resistance. Now substituting I = Ak 2 (where A is the area and k is the least radius of gyration of the
section) in the above equation,
where e Le/k, is known as slenderness ratio. Thus slenderness ratio is
defined as ratio of equivalent (or unsupported) length of column to the
least radius of gyration of the section.
Limitation of Euler’s Formula
We have discussed that the Euler’s formula for the crippling load is,

Therefore, Euler’s crippling stress is,

A little consideration will show that the crippling stress will be high when the slenderness ratio is small. We know
that the crippling stress for a column cannot be more than the crushing stress of the column material.
It is thus obvious that Euler’s formula will give the value of the crippling stress of the column (equal to the
crushing stress of the column material) corresponding to the slenderness ratio.
Example
Now consider a mild steel column. We know that the crushing stress for the mild steel is 320 MPa or 320 N/m2 and
Young’s modulus for the mild steel is 200 GPa or 200 × 103 N/mm2.
Now equating the crippling stress to the crushing stress,

or

Thus, if the slenderness ratio is less than 80 the Euler’s formula for a mild steel column is not valid.
Sometimes, the columns, whose slenderness ratio is more than 80 are known as long columns and those whose
slenderness ratio is less than 80 are known as short columns. It is thus obvious that the Euler’s formula holds
good only for long columns.

• NOTE. In the Euler’s formula, for crippling load, we have not taken into account the direct stresses induced
in the material due to the load, (which increases gradually from zero to its crippling value). As a matter of
fact, the combined stress, due to direct load and slight bending reaches its allowable value at a load, lower
than that required for buckling; and therefore this will be the limiting value of the safe load.
Example 1
A steel rod 5 m long and of 40 mm diameter is used as a column, with on end fixed and the other free.
Determine the crippling load by Euler’s formula. Take E as 200 GPa.
Example 2
A hollow alloy tube 4 m long with external and internal diameters of 40 mm and 25 mm respectively was found
to extend 4.8 mm under a tensile load of 60 kN. Find the buckling load for the tube with both ends pinned. Also
find the safe load on the tube, taking a factor of safety as 5.
Example 2 Con’t
and modulus of elasticity for the alloy,
Example 3
Compare the ratio of the strength of a solid steel column to that of a hollow of the same cross-sectional area. The
internal diameter of the hollow column is 3/4 of the external diameter. Both the columns have the same length
and are pinned at both ends.
Dividing equation (ii) by (i),
Example 4
An I-section joist 400 mm × 200 mm × 20 mm and 6 m long is used as a strut with both ends fixed. What is
Euler’s cripping load for the column? Take Young’s modulus for the joist as 200 GPa.

= 2.91 × 106 mm4

Since IYY is less than IXX, therefore the joist will tend to buckle in Y-Y direction. Thus, we shall take the value of I
as IYY = 2.91 × 106 mm4. Moreover, as the column is fixed at its both ends, therefore the equivalent length of
the column,

Therefore, Euler’s crippling load for the column,

Rankine’s Formulae for Columns
We have already discussed that the Euler’s formula gives correct results only for very long columns. Though this
formula is applicable for columns, ranging from very long to short ones, yet it does not give reliable results.
Prof. Rankine, after a number of experiments, gave the following empirical formula for columns.
• A little consideration will show that the value of PCS will remain constant irrespective of the fact
whether the column is a long one or short one. Now, we shall study the effect of PE in short as well
as long columns one by one.
Now substituting the values of PCS and PE is the above equation.

or

where
The following table gives the values of crushing stress (σC) and Rankine’s constant (a) for various materials:

Note : The above values are only for a column with both ends
hinged. For other end conditions, the equivalent
length should be used.
Example 1
Find the Euler’s crippling load for a hollow cylindrical steel column of 38 mm external diameter and 2.5 mm
thick. Take length of the column as 2.3 m and hinged at its both ends. Take E = 205 GPa. Also, determine
crippling load by Rankine’s formula using constants as 335 MPa and 1/7500.

Therefore,
 Rankine’s crippling load
We know that the area of the column section,
Example 2
The figure below shows a built-up column consisting of 150 mm × 100 mm R.S.J. with 120 mm × 12 mm plate
riveted to each flange.

Calculate the safe load, the column can carry, if it is 4 m long having
one end fixed and the other hinged with a factor of safety 3.5. Take the
properties of the joist as Area = 2167 mm2,
IXX = 8.391 × 106 mm4, IYY = 0.948 × 106 mm4. Assume the yield stress
as 315 MPa and Rankine’s constant (a) = 1/7500.
Solution Con’t
31