MODULE 4

INDUSTRIAL STEAM
 Subtopic 1
Introduction
By the end of the lecture, the students will be able to:

• Identify the industries that uses industrial or process steam

• Categorize the industries as heavy, medium or small users of industrial steam .
Process steam

a common term for water vapor that is used

directly in an industrial process
Industrial Steam Users

Three Categories
• Based on their pressure levels
• Based on the amount of steam usage
• Based on a multitude of processes that use steam as a
heating, stripping, drying and power generating source
Small Steam Users

Ø Electronics Ø Paint booths

Ø Humidification systems
Medium Steam Users

Ø Large commercial heating Ø Breweries Ø Laundries

Ø Bakeries Ø Metal Fabrication Ø Large chiller plants

Heavy Steam Users

Ø Petrochemicals Ø Refining Ø Forest Products

Ø Food & Beverage

Ø Plastics Ø Pharmaceuticals
Ø Rubber Ø Manufacturing Assembly
Ø Textiles
PROCESS STEAM AS BY-PRODUCT IN THE INDUSTRY

ØWater vapor is a suitable working medium, which is used in most

steam power processes for the generation of electric power
PROCESS STEAM AS BY-PRODUCT IN THE INDUSTRY

ü By extracting steam from the turbine (extraction turbine) or utilizing the steam past the
cogeneration
turbine (back pressure turbine) for use in industrial processes,
ü the supply of process steam and the supply of electric power can be combined.
Combined Heat & Power
ü High overall efficiencies can be achieved with the double utilization of the steam.
Advantages of Using Steam
§ Steam is an extremely efficient heating source which maintains a constant temperature and
has high heat transfer coefficients.
§ Steam has the highest amount of transferrable energy (in the form of latent heat) per unit
mass (extremely cost-effective medium of heat transfer).
§ Steam flows through the system unaided by external energy sources such as pumps and
can be controlled very accurately.
§ When saturated steam is used, temperature and pressure of steam are correlated by
thermodynamics, system temperature can be controlled very accurately by controlling the
steam pressure to the end-use.
§ Steam, by nature, is a very flexible energy transfer medium that can be used for process
heating as well as power generation.
FUNDAMENTALS OF STEAM SYSTEMS
 Generic Steam
System and
Components

Source: UNITED NATIONS INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATION - Industrial Steam System Optimization (SSO) Experts Training; October 2012
Four Major Areas of Steam System

ØGeneration
ØDistribution
ØEnd-Use and/or Cogeneration
ØCondensate Recovery
Steam Generation

Boilers
Boiler Auxiliaries (Force-Draft,
Induced-Draft fans, controls, etc.)
Economizers
Air Preheaters
Water Treatment equipment
Deaerator
Feedwater Pumps
Fuel Storage and Handling
equipment
 Steam Generation
Boiler

A pressure vessel that provides a heat transfer surface (generally a set of tubes) between the
combustion products and the water. A boiler is usually integrated into a system with many
components.
 Steam Generation
Feedwater Pumps
• A boiler feedwater pump is a specific type of
pump used to pump feedwater into a steam
boiler. The water may be freshly supplied or
returning condensate produced as a result
of the condensation of the steam produced
by the boiler.
Steam Generation
Deaerator

• A deaerator is a device that is widely used for the removal of air and
other dissolved gases from the feedwater to steam generating
boilers.
 Steam Generation
Economizers
• The economizer is a tubular
heat exchanger used to
recover heat from the
exhaust gases from boilers
or some processes.
 Steam Generation
Air Preheaters
• Air Preheaters (APH) is the Shell and tube type Heat
Exchangers used for preheating the air which is fed to
the boiler or furnaces/kilns for combustion of fuels. Air
Pre heater’s primary objective is to extract the waste
heat from the flue gases leaving the boiler.
Steam Distribution

Steam Piping
Pressure Reducing Stations
(Valves)
Drip legs
Steam Accumulators
Desuperheaters
 Steam Distribution
Steam Piping
• A pipe designed to carry pressurized steam
from a boiler to the working components, i.e.
the steam engine(s) or turbine(s). Such
piping usually includes valves to control the
routing of the steam, or to stop the flow
altogether.
 Steam Distribution
Pressure Reducing Stations (Valves
• Designed to withstand even the toughest
environments, the pressure reducing valve is a
hydraulically operated, diaphragm actuated
control valve that reduces higher upstream
pressure to lower constant downstream
pressure—regardless of the fluctuating demand
or the varying upstream force.
 Steam Distribution
Drip legs
• Drip Legs are vertical piping
pockets installed in steam
piping to collect condensate.
Installing drip legs in the proper
location serves the purpose of a
successful, water-hammer free,
system start-up
Water hammer
• Water hammer is a phenomenon that can
occur in any piping system where valves are
used to control the flow of liquids or steam.
Water hammer is the result of a pressure
surge, or high-pressure shockwave that
propagates through a piping system when a
fluid in motion is forced to change direction or
stop abruptly.
• Hydraulic shock is a pressure surge or wave
caused when a fluid in motion, usually a liquid
but sometimes also a gas is forced to stop or
change direction suddenly; a momentum
change.
 Steam Distribution
Steam Accumulators
• The purpose of a steam accumulator
is to release steam when the
demand is greater than the boiler's
ability to supply at that time, and to
accept steam when demand is low.
Steam accumulators are sometimes
thought of as relics of the 'steam age'
with little application in modern
industry.
 Steam Distribution
Desuperheaters
• The primary function of a desuperheater is to
lower the temperature of superheated
steam or other vapors. This temperature
reduction is accomplished as a result of the
process vapor being brought into direct
contact with another liquid such as water.
End-Use and/or Cogeneration

Heat Exchangers
Stripping columns
Evaporators
Cookers
Dryers
Live Steam Injection
Process Heating equipment
Steam Turbines
End-Use and/or Cogeneration
Heat Exchangers
• Heat exchangers are used
to transfer heat from one
medium to another. These
media may be a gas, liquid,
or a combination of both. The
media may be separated by
a solid wall to prevent mixing
or may be in direct contact
End-Use and/or Cogeneration
Stripping columns
• Stripping columns are used
to remove volatiles from
water such as volatile
hydrocarbons (e.g.,
benzene, toluene and
xylene), volatile chlorinated
hydrocarbons (e.g., per and
tri) from water.
• The water is pumped to the
top of the column. At the
bottom of the column air is
blown in countercurrent
with the water flow.
End-Use and/or Cogeneration
Evaporators
• An evaporator is a device used in a
process to turn the liquid form of a
chemical substance, such as water, into its
gaseous form - vapor
End-Use and/or Cogeneration
Steam Turbines
• A steam turbine is a
machine that extracts
thermal energy from
pressurized steam
and uses it to do
mechanical work on a
rotating output shaft.
Condensate Recovery

Steam Traps
Condensate Collection Tanks
Condensate Pumps
Condensate Piping
Condensate Recovery
Steam Traps
• The duty of a steam trap
is to discharge
condensate, air and
other incondensable
gases from a steam
system while not
permitting the escape
of live steam.
Condensate Recovery
Condensate Collection Tanks
• A condensate
tank serves
for collection,
intermediate
storage, and
return of hot
condensate
occurring in
water steam
cycles, for
Condensate Recovery
Condensate Pumps and Condensate Piping
• A condensate pump is a specific type of pump used to pump the
condensate (water) produced in heating, cooling or refrigeration
equipment – such as furnaces and air conditioners.

• Condensate piping is used to remove condensate from steam-

heated vessels, ideally for recovery and re-use in boiler feedwater.
When hot condensate under pressure is discharged from a steam
trap into a low pressure system, the resultant pressure drop causes
some of the condensate to flash into steam
References
• Manual for Industrial Steam Systems Assessment and
Optimization Copyright © United Nations Industrial
Development Organization, 2016
 Subtopic 2
Steam Generation
By the end of the lecture, the students will be able to:

Know the objectives of Steam System Optimization (SSO)

Compute for steam generation cost, boiler efficiency,
Be familiarize with shell loss
Objectives of Steam System Optimization (SSO)
q Minimize steam use
q Reduce system-wide energy losses
q Reduce GHG emissions
q Reduce steam system operating
costs
STEAM GENERATION
OPTIMIZATION OPPORTUNITIES
Ø Fuel Properties
Ø Steam Generation Cost
Ø Boiler Efficiency Calculation (Direct Method)
Ø Boiler Efficiency Calculation (Indirect Method)
Ø Steam Generation Optimization
Opportunities & Best Practices
Fuel properties
Common fuels used to produce steam in industrial plants

Ø Solid – Coal, Ø Liquid – Heavy fuel oil, Ø Gas – Natural gas,

Wood, Biomass, Light fuel oil, Paraffin, Methane gas,
Tire-Derived Waste liquids for Refinery off gas,
Fuel, etc. incineration, etc. etc.
Ø Fuel Properties
Higher Heating Value (HHV)
• also known as the Gross Heating Value
• It is the total energy provided by the fuel that is obtained after water vapor in
the flue gas stream is condensed back to its natural state (liquid water)
• it contains the latent heat of water which is recovered when the water vapor
condenses back to liquid water

Lower Heating Value (LHV)

• also known as the Net Heating Value.

• It is the total energy provided by the fuel that is obtained without the
condensation of the water vapor in the flue gas stream.
 Higher Heating Values of Common Fuels

Source: UNITED NATIONS INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATION - Industrial Steam System Optimization (SSO) Experts Training; October 2012
Steam Generation Cost

�������� = ����� � �����

����� � �����
������ =
������

Kfboiler total fuel operating cost of boiler

mfuel fuel flow rate
kfuel fuel cost
ksteam steam cost indicator (or unit cost of steam production) from the boiler
msteam steam flow rate
PROBLEM 1:

Calculate the hourly natural gas boiler fuel cost that generates
steam at 20 Tph (steady – all year).

The measured natural gas flow rate is 1,693 m³/hr (28 m³/min) and
the cost of natural gas is ($1.0/m³).
PROBLEM 1: SOLUTION

mfuel 1,693 m³/hr

kfuel $1.0/m³
�������� = ����� � �����
Msteam 20 TPH
�3 $1.0
�������� = 1,693 � = $1,693 /ℎ�
ℎ� �3

����� � �����
������ =
������

�3 $1.0
1,693 �
ℎ� �3
������ = ����
20
ℎ�
Boiler Efficiency Calculation – Direct Method

hsteam the enthalpy of steam

hfeedwater the enthalpy of feedwater
PROBLEM 2:

Calculate the natural gas boiler efficiency that generates steam at 20

Tph (steady – all year). The measured natural gas flow rate is 1,693
m³/hr (28 m³/min) and the cost of natural gas is ($1.0/m³). The HHV of
the natural gas is 54,220 kJ/kg (40,144 kJ/m³).

Superheated steam is generated at 25 bars, 375°C and boiler

feedwater from the deaerator is at 30 bars, 110°C.
PROBLEM 2 SOLUTION:
Shell Loss
§ the amount of fuel energy that leaves the boiler from its outer surface.
§ The surface of the boiler is above ambient temperature and hence, there is always
a certain amount of heat lost to the ambient.
§ This heat loss occurs due to radiation and convection from the boiler surfaces.
§ It is difficult to accurately measure the shell loss from a boiler.
§ It is generally estimated from some limited field measurements.
§ The American Society of Mechanical Engineers Performance Test Code 4 (ASME-
PTC-4) provides a detailed methodology for calculating this loss from the boiler
surfaces.
 First Order Shell Loss Guide

Ø boiler shell loss magnitude is constant and is independent of the boiler load.
Ø Shell loss is expressed as a percent of fuel input energy.
Ø shell loss (%) increases as the boiler load reduces.
Ø For most well-maintained boilers, the full load shell loss is expected to be ~0.1% to 2% of total fuel input energy.
Source: UNITED NATIONS INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATION - Industrial Steam System Optimization (SSO) Experts Training; October 2012
PROBLEM 3:

An ASME type investigation of the shell loss for the 20 Tph natural gas
boiler indicates that the shell loss is ~0.5%. The measured natural gas
flow rate is 1,693 m³/hr (28 m³/min) and the cost of natural gas is
($1.0/m³). Estimate the fuel input energy cost associated with the shell
loss.
PROBLEM 3: SOLUTION
Blowdown Operation

1
Blowdown Operation
Blowdown Loss

§ Boiler feedwater is treated make-up water and condensate.

§ There are still dissolved chemicals in boiler feedwater which do not exit the boiler with steam
because they are not soluble in steam, the concentration of these chemicals increases in the
boiler.

§ Elevated concentration of chemicals in boilers can result in serious operational problems and
boiler integrity can be damaged.

§ These problems could include, but not limited to: foaming resulting in liquid carryover, scaling on
the water-side of the tubes resulting in tube leaks and failures, loose sludge in the boiler water,
etc.
 Blowdown

Ø Blowdown is the primary mechanism that controls the

water chemistry of the boiler water.
Ø It controls the concentration of dissolved and
precipitated chemicals in the boiler and ensures that
the boiler functions reliably and doesn’t have an
unplanned shutdown or failure.
Ø It is controlled based on boiler water conductivity (a
direct measurement that can continuously provide an
indication of boiler water quality)
Ø Conductivity and the results of specific boiler water
testing aid in adjusting the blowdown rate.
Blowdown Operation Maintenance
Blowdown Loss
§ blowdown is saturated liquid at boiler pressure.
§ there is a significant amount of thermal energy associated with blowdown.
§ As blowdown is discharged from the boiler, this thermal energy (which was provided by the fuel)
is lost. The ratio of this energy lost to the total fuel input energy is the blowdown loss.
§ Utilizing conventional flow meters for measuring blowdown flow is difficult because blowdown is
saturated water which will flash at the slightest pressure drop. In order to measure blowdown, a
certain chemical composition in the feedwater and in the boiler water is measured.
§ The chemical component measured in the analysis must be of sufficient concentration to allow
an accurate measurement.
§ The ratio of that chemical’s concentration in the feedwater to it’s concentration in the boiler water
is used to establish the blowdown rate.
 where β is the blowdown flow
�������� ���� ��������� ������������
�= =
��������� ���� �������� ������������
while mblowdown is the blowdown
flow rate.
�
��������� = ������ where hblowdown and hfeedwater are
�−� the enthalpies of the blowdown
and feedwater streams,
���_������ = ��������� ��������� − ���������� respectively

���_������
%�������� = � ���
����� � �������

���_������ = ����� � ����� � % �������,

Source: UNITED NATIONS INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATION - Industrial Steam System Optimization (SSO) Experts Training; October 2012
PROBLEM 4:

Calculate the amount of blowdown (kg/s) and blowdown loss for the 20 Tph natural
gas fired boiler operating at 25 bars. Boiler feedwater is supplied at 30 bars, 110°C.
Additional information about the fuel flow rate and water chemistry is provided below.
HHV of natural gas = 54,220 kJ/kg (40,144 kJ/m³)
Fuel supply = 1,693 m³/hr (28 m³/min)
Fuel cost = $1.0/m3
Conductivity for feedwater = 100 mhos/cm
Conductivity for blowdown = 2,000 mhos/cm
Makeup water temperature: 20°C
Hblowdown = 971.8 kJ/kg
PROBLEM 4:SOLUTION
Conductivity for blowdown = 2,000 mhos/cm
Conductivity for feedwater = 100 mhos/cm
Mass of steam = 20 Tph

��������� ������������ 100

�= = = 0.5
�������� ������������ 200

�
��������� = ������
�−�

���� 1000 �� 0.5 �� ��

��������� = 20 � = 1,052 �� 0.29
ℎ� 1 ��� 1 − 0.5 ℎ� �
https://www.steamtablesonline.com/Steam97Web.aspx

Hfeedwater = 463.5 kJ/kg (from Steam table based on 30 bars, 110°C

Hblowdown = 971.8 kJ/kg
HHV of natural gas = 54,220 kJ/kg (40,144 kJ/m³)
Fuel supply = 1,693 m³/hr (28 m³/min)

���_������ = ��������� ��������� − ����������

��
���_������ = 0.29 971.8 ��/�� − 463.5 ��/�� = 148 ��
�

���_������
%�������� = � ���
����� � �������

148 ��
%�������� = �3 ℎ� ��
� 100 = 0.79%
1,693 � � 40,144 3
ℎ� 3600 � �
PROBLEM 5:

For the previous boiler blowdown system analysis, calculate the overall system
based blowdown energy loss and the equivalent fuel energy cost associated with
boiler blowdown. Assume that makeup water to the steam system is at 20°C.
���_������ = ��������� ��������� − ����� �� �����

���_������
%�������� = � ���
����� � �������
PROBLEM 5:SOLUTION
���_������ = ��������� ��������� − ������������
��
���_������ = 0.29 971.8 ��/�� − 83.5 ��/�� = 259 ��
�

���_������
%�������� = � ���
����� � �������

259 ��
%�������� = �3 ℎ� ��
� 100 = 1.37%
1,693 � � 40,144 3
ℎ� 3600 � �

���_������ = ����� � ����� � % ��������

�3 $23.2 ℎ�
���_������ = 1,693 � $1.0/m3 � 1.37% = � 8760 = $203, 180/��
ℎ� ℎ� ����
Ø the control volume for the boiler blowdown loss calculation was just the boiler.
Ø In an actual industrial steam system, feedwater is first heated in a deaerator or feedwater
heater and then sent to the boiler.
Ø From a system perspective, blowdown is actually replaced by make-up water which is at
ambient conditions (and not at feedwater conditions).

The total system loss for blowdown is calculated as follows:

Stack Loss

Ø stack loss is almost always the largest component of boiler efficiency loss.
Ø Stack loss has two components — temperature and combustion (or excess air).
Ø Managing the stack loss is a critical factor in optimizing boiler operations and
increasing boiler efficiency.
Boiler Stack
Boiler Stack
Flue Gas Temperature

Ø A significant amount of fuel energy resides in the boiler flue gases.

Ø The temperature of the exhausting flue gas represents the amount of energy in the stack gas.
Ø The difference between the flue gas temperature and the combustion chamber inlet
temperature (typically, ambient air temperature) is known as “Net Stack Temperature” and
represents the amount of fuel energy that is lost in the stack.
Ø Assuming that the inlet air temperature is constant for a boiler, a higher flue gas temperature
implies a higher stack loss that leads to lower boiler efficiency.
Ø Boiler flue gas temperature is a critical parameter and should be carefully monitored and
trended.
Factors which affect the flue
gas exhaust temperature

Ø Boiler design
Ø Heat recovery equipment
Ø Boiler load
Ø Fire side fouling
Ø Water side fouling
Combustion

§ The combustion component of the stack loss depends on the unburned components of the fuel
and amount of excess air (or flue gas oxygen).
§ The first principle of combustion management is to ensure that there is enough oxygen in the
combustion process to ensure that all the fuel is combusted and there are no (minimal)
combustibles in the stack.
§ The second principle of combustion management aims to restrain the amount of oxygen (air) in
the combustion process. All the combustion air is heated up by fuel. The extra air (oxygen) added
to the combustion zone enters the boiler at ambient temperature and exits the boiler at flue gas
temperature. Ambient air contains ~4 parts nitrogen for every 1 part of oxygen. As a result, a
large amount of nitrogen enters the combustion zone with excess air (oxygen) and a significant
amount of fuel energy is spent on heating this excess air.
Combustion Component

§ There are different methodologies available to calculate stack losses but every method is based on
some form of the combustion model.
§ The ASME Power Test Code 4 clearly defines all the parameters, equations, measurements and
instruments required to accurately calculate stack loss. That methodology is very detailed and
instead of users having to use a detailed combustion model, this training manual provides two
sources of calculating stack losses based on a combustion model developed by Dr. Greg Harrell for
the US Department of Energy. They include:
○ Stack loss tables (see Table)
○ Stack Loss calculator in the US DOE SSAT software
 Stack Loss Table for Natural Gas

Source: UNITED NATIONS INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATION - Industrial Steam System Optimization (SSO) Experts Training; October 2012
PROBLEM 6:
Estimate the stack loss on the 20 Tph operating boiler having the following conditions:
HHV of natural gas = 54,220 kJ/kg (40,144 kJ/m³)
Fuel supply = 1,693 m³/hr (28 m³/min)
Fuel cost = $1.0/m3
Stack temperature: 200°C
Flue gas oxygen: 5%
Negligible combustibles were found in stack gas analysis
Ambient air temperature: 20°C
PROBLEM 6: SOLUTION
 Boiler Efficiency Calculation –
Indirect Method

Indirect Method” has significant advantages over

the “Direct Method” including:
○ Lesser uncertainty (higher accuracy)
○ Ability to pinpoint and quantify the areas of
energy losses

Source: UNITED NATIONS INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATION - Industrial Steam System Optimization (SSO) Experts Training; October 2012
Where:
λshell represents the Shell loss (%);
λblowdown represents the Blowdown loss (%);
λstack represents the Stack loss (%); and
λmiscellaneous represents the other losses (%).
PROBLEM 7:

Estimate the boiler efficiency (Indirect Efficiency Calculation) based

on the different losses calculated in the previous sections on the 20
Tph natural gas operating boiler.
PROBLEM 7: SOLUTION
������ = �. �� % from problem 3
��������� = �. �� % from problem 4
������ = ��. � % from problem 6
How to save fuel during the
production of steam?
References
• Manual for Industrial Steam Systems Assessment and
Optimization Copyright © United Nations Industrial
Development Organization, 2016