4%3'vaa&t THE 9

KINGFISHER
HISTORY
ENCYCLOPEDIA
What was it like to live in the city
of Rome in 700 b.c.?

Why did Native American tribes lose their

lands at the end of the 1800s?
•

What part did Nelson Mandela play in the

ending of apartheid in South Africa?

Boston Public Library

Find the answers to these questions and many
more in this authoritative reference guide.

The Kingfisher History Encyclopedia is

written in a lively style that will stimulate a
child’s interest and bring history to life. The
thematic and chronological organization
allows young readers quick and easy access
to information, while putting history in
context and explaining how it relates to
life in the modern world.

Each section of the encyclopedia covers

a specific time period, opening with
The World At A Glance—a feature that
summarizes global events during that
period—and concluding with special
features highlighting the art, architecture,
and technology of the day. Key date boxes,
special picture features, and illustrated
biographies all provide extra information.
The Ready Reference section presents tables
of notable historical facts for quick reference,
while an extensive index makes finding
specific information easy.

With its comprehensive approach and

engaging design, The Kingfisher History
Encyclopedia encourages children to explore
the exciting world of history for themselves.
 THE
KINGFISHER

HISTORY
ENCYCLOPEDIA
 KINGFISHER
Larousse Kingfisher Chambers Inc.
95 Madison Avenue
New York, New York 10016

First published in 1999

2468 10 97531
ITR/0599/CAC/UNV/128JDA

Copyright © Kingfisher Publications Pic 1999

All rights reserved under International and

Pan-American Copyright Conventions

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGING-IN-PUBLICATION DATA

The Kingfisher history encyclopedia.—1st ed.
p. cm.
Includes index.
Summary: A reference guide to world history, featuring a timeline,
key date boxes, and biographies of historical figures.
1. World history—Juvenile literature. [ 1. World history.]
I. Kingfisher Books.
D20.K558 1999
909—dc21 98-50409 CIPAC

ISBN 0-7534-5194-8
Printed in Hong Kong

Project team
Project Director and Art Editor Julian Holland
Editorial team Julian Holland, Norman Brooke
Designers Julian Holland, Nigel White/RWS Studio
Picture Research Anne-Marie Ehrlich, Josie Bradbury
Maps Jeffrey Farrow

For Kingfisher
Managing Editor Miranda Smith
Senior Editor Aimee Johnson
Editor Dileri Johnston
Art Director Mike Davis
DTP Coordinator Nicky Studdart
DTP Operator Primrose Burton
Artwork Research Katie Puckett
Production Manager Oonagh Phelan

Contributors
Jane Birch, Teresa Chris, Neil Grant, Ken Hills, Julian Holland,
HP BR Palden Jenkins, Elizabeth Longley, Fiona Macdonald, Hazel Martell,
J Mike McGuire, Theodore Rowland-Entwhistle, Giles Sparrow
D20
. K558
 THE
KINGFISHER

HISTORY
ENCYCLOPEDIA

king/isher
NEW YORK
 Contents
Introduction vii Africa 60
What is History? viii Judea 61
The Roman Republic 62
The Roman Empire 64
Roman Life 66
The Celts 68
China: The Han Dynasty 70 The Middle Ages 145
Christianity 72 1101-1460
Parthians and Sassanids 74 The Crusades 148
The Americas 76 Knighthood 150
The Gupta Dynasty 78 Henry of Anjou 152
The Decline of Rome 80 Ireland 154
The Barbarians 82 Shoguns and Samurai 156
The Ancient World 3 Japan 84 European Trade 158
40,000-500 b.c. The Maya 86 Venice 160
The First Humans 6 The Polynesians 88 Charter and Parliament 162
The First Farmers 8 The Arts 90 Mali and Ethiopia 164
Ancient Egypt 10 Architecture 92 Benin and Zimbabwe 166
Megalithic Europe 12 Science and Technology 94 Religion in the Middle Ages 168
The Indus Valley 14 The Mongol Empire 170
Ancient Crete 16 Aztecs and Incas 172
The Myceneans 17 Medieval Explorers 174
Shang Dynasty 18 The Hundred Years’ War 176
The Hittites 20 The Black Death 178
Babylon 21 China: The Ming Dynasty 180
The Assyrians 22 Constantinople 182
The Hebrews 24 The Khmer Empire 184
Egypt, the New Kingdom 26 The Arts 186
The Phoenicians 28 Architecture 188
Africa 30 Science and Technology 190
America 32
Aryan India 33
The Founding of Rome 34
Babylon Revived 36 Early Middle Ages 97
Greek Dark Age 38 501-1100
The Zhou Dynasty 39 The Byzantine Empire 100
The Persian Empire 40 Monasticism 102
The Arts 42 Sui and Tang China 104
Architecture 44 Islam 106 The Renaissance 193
Science and Technology 46 Persecution of the Jews 108 1461-1600
North America 110 The Aztecs 196
Bulgars and Slavs 112 The Inca Empire 198
The Carolingians 114 The Reconquest of Spain 200
The Abbasid Dynasty 116 The Renaissance 202
Ghana 117 Italy 204
Fujiwara Japan 118 European Explorers 206
Magyars and Bohemians 120 The Songhay Empire 208
Anglo-Saxon Britain 122 Safavid Persia 209
The Holy Roman Empire 124 Tudor England 210
Capetian France 126 The Portuguese Empire 212
The Americas 128 The Reformation 214
The Classical World 49 The Vikings 130 The Ottoman Empire 216
499 b.c.—a.d. 500 The Normans 132 India: The Moguls 218
Classical Greece 52 The Seljuk Turks 134 The Conquistadores 220
Greek City-States 54 China: The Song Dynasty 136 The Spanish Empire 221
Alexander the Great 56 The Arts 138 The Hapsburgs 222
India: The Mauryan Empire 57 Architecture 140 The Spanish Armada 223
China: The Qin Dynasty 58 Science and Technology 142 French Wars of Religion 224
Russia 226 The End of Slavery 322 World War I: The Aftermath 396
Dutch Independence 228 The British in India 324 The Rise of Fascism 398
North America 230 Revolt in Latin America 326 U.S.A. Between the Wars 400
Japan and China 232 Unrest in Britain 327 China in Turmoil 402
The Arts 234 Westward Migration 328 The Great Depression 404
Architecture 236 The Arts 330 Weimar and Hitler 406
Science and Technology 238 Architecture 332 The Spanish Civil War 408
Science and Technology 334 China and Japan at War 410
German Expansion 412
The Start of World War II 413
War in the West 414
War in the Pacific 416
Peace in the Pacific 418
Trade and Empire 241 The United Nations 419
1601-1707 Italy and the Balkans 420
Japan in Isolation 244 Indian Independence 421
The Stuarts 246 Israel 422
Early American Settlers 248 British Commonwealth 424
The Swedish Empire 250 Communist China 425
The Thirty Years’ War 252 Unification and The Arts 426
France and Richelieu 254 Colonization 337 Architecture 428
Decline of Spain 256 1836-1913 Science and Technology 430
East India Companies 258 Industrial Revolution 340
The Dutch Empire 259 Texas and Mexico 342
English Civil War 260 South Africa 343
China: The Qing Dynasty 262 The Opium Wars 344
The Sun King 264 Europe: Year of Revolution 346
Decline of Mogul India 265 New Zealand 348
The Ottoman Empire 266 The Crimean War 350
The Age of Reason 268 Japan 352
Slavery and Pirates 270 American Civil War 354
African States 272 The End of the Civil War 356
Ireland 274 Canada 357
Russian Expansion 276 Italy 358
The Great Northern War 278 Germany 360
The Spanish Succession 279 Scramble for Africa 362
Colonial America 280 Ireland 364
The Arts 282 Southeast Asia 366
Architecture 284 The British Empire 368
Science and Technology 286 The Plains Wars 370 The Modern World 433
The Boxer Rebellion 372 1950-2000
Woman Suffrage 373 The Cold War 436
Australia 374 In Space 438
The Balkan Wars 376 China 440
The Arts 378 World Economy 442
Architecture 380 Wars in Asia 444
Revolution and
Revolution and Science and Technology 382 Civil Rights 446
Independence 289 Terrorism 448
1708-1835 Famine in Africa 449
Austria and Prussia 292 New Nations 450
Scotland: The Jacobites 293 War in the Middle East 452
Agricultural Revolution 294 The Scientific Revolution 454
Industry: Early Revolution 296 The Environment 456
India in Transition 298 Asian “Tiger” Economies 458
The Seven Years' War 300 Peacekeeping 459
North America 302 World Trouble Spots 460
Trade with China 304 South Africa 462
The Age of Logic 306 Year 2000 and Beyond 464
Africa 308
Modernizing Russia 310 The World at War 385
Exploration in Oceania 312 1914-1949 Ready Reference 465
Japan and Southeast Asia 314 The Start of World War I 388
The Birth of the U.S.A. 316 Battles of World War I 390 Index 479
The French Revolution 318 Ireland: Civil Unrest 392
The Napoleonic Wars 320 The Russian Revolution 394 Acknowledgments 492
 Introduction
O ften, fact is stranger than fiction. Your Kingfisher History
Encyclopedia is packed full of fascinating facts and real-life
stories about the people, places, and events of the past that have
shaped the colorful, but still turbulent world that we know today.
The causes and effects of the actions and events are explained in
full, giving a vivid picture of how leaders, tyrants, artists, and
scientists who lived hundreds of years ago have left a legacy
that still impinges on people’s lives at the beginning of the
twenty-first century.
Use your Kingfisher History Encyclopedia to discover past
events and find out how people have lived their lives over the
last 40,000 years—from Stone Age cave dwellers to the Anglo-
Saxons, from the Aztecs and Incas of Mesoamerica to the
Manchus in China, and from the American Revolution to
United Nations peacekeeping.
This user-friendly encyclopedia contains many features to help
you look things up easily, or just have fun browsing. The in-depth
coverage of each historical period also makes the encyclopedia
perfect for all your school projects and homework assignments.
The clear, informative text is accompanied by key date boxes,
colorful photographs, and superb illustrations and maps. At-a-
glance world maps at the beginning of each chapter highlight
the major events that happened during a particular time period.
These are arranged according to continent or area of the world.
At the end of each of the ten chapters, there are three special
feature spreads that give an overview of the arts, architecture,
and science and technology of the featured time period.Finally,
there is a Ready Reference section at the back of the book
containing lists of names and dates for quick and easy access.
Whether you use your Kingfisher History Encyclopedia for
homework, or just dip into it at random, it will add considerably
to your understanding of the past, and will stimulate you to
explore the lives of our ancestors further.

◄ Man-made structures tell us a great deal about the past. One of the largest and
most famous is the Great Wall of China. Its construction was ordered by the first
Qin emperor, Shi Huangdi, around 221 b.c., to keep out invaders from the north.
Stretching for 4,000 mi. (6,400km), the wall was built by joining together shorter
walls that had been built earlier. The wall has been rebuilt many times. Most of the
wall that can be seen today was constructed during the Ming dynasty (1368-1644'

vii
 What is history?
T he word “history” comes from the ancient Greek
word histo meaning “know this.” In Greek, “I
LOCAL HISTORY
Oral history is a good source of local history.
know” also meant “I have seen,” and historeo came to Listening to the recollections of older people,
mean “learn by inquiry.” The Greeks thought that the looking at their photographs, and sharing their
only way to know something was to either see it for memories reveals a lot about the past. Family
themselves, or ask questions about it. The Greek history is a branch of local history. Photographs
historian Thucydides wrote that too many people of family members may reach as far back as great-
often believed the first great-grandparents. Important family events were
story they heard. often recorded in the front of a family bible. Local
Ancient Greeks record offices store diaries, letters, census returns,
understood the old photographs, records of large estates, school
essence of history. textbooks, and business accounts from firms that
First, historical have long stopped trading. Church records give
knowledge must details of baptisms, marriages, and funerals.
be based on evidence.
Second, history is not
The ancient
Egyptians left one story, but several.
administrative and religious Third, everything must
records, using a writing system
be checked for mistakes.
called hieroglyphics, on paper
made from papyrus.
Historians try to find out
not only what happened,
but why it happened.
“History” has come to mean many things. It is an
account of past events, in sequence of time; it is the
study of events, their causes and results; and it is all
that is preserved or remembered about the past. For
evidence, historians use written accounts, artifacts such
as weapons and tools, and spoken [oral] accounts. To
remember something, people write it down, or mark
it in some way. This is because events, even important
ones, disappear from memory or become confused.
Our lives may seem different from people’s lives in
the past, but some things have not changed—Roman
roads are still used every day and games like chess
were played centuries ago. Buildings often tell us a lot about the past. In the early 1600s, the
great Mogul emperor Akbar was buried in this highly decorated tomb,
which still stands in the city of Fatehpur Sikri in India.

THE WORK OF HISTORIANS

The first real historian was Herodotus. He used the
Greek word historia to mean “investigation.” Although
Herodotus was writing at a time when everyone
believed their lives were controlled by the gods, he
also looked for rational explanations and was the
first person to look at the cause and effect of events.
Sometimes history is written by those who play a
major part in it. Julius Caesar wrote about the wars
Documentary evidence is very important to historians. in Gaul (France), and Winston Churchill wrote about
English families that have had a connection with one place stretching
back over 1,000 years may find a reference to their family in the
World War I and II. Not all historians witness the
Domesday Book, compiled in 1086. It records who owned land, who events they write about. Most depend on accounts
lived there, how much it was worth, and what taxes were paid. and documents produced at the time. Those who
write history should always be aware of any bias
or prejudice in themselves and in other writers. Bias
means being influenced by a particular point of view,
and prejudice literally means “judging before”—
before all the facts have been looked at. Historians
also have to avoid the mistake of writing about the
past as if all events were leading with a fixed
purpose to the present.

THE WORK OF ARCHAEOLOGISTS

Archaeology is the study of the peoples of the
past by the scientific analysis of the things they
leave behind. Archaeologists study objects (artifacts),
features (buildings), and seeds or animal bones
(ecofacts). Archaeology can tell us about societies
that existed before written records were made,
and add to our knowledge of civilized societies.
Archaeologists treat the things they find as clues
to the lives of the people who used them. They can
sometimes discover the reasons
Delicate netsuke
give an for great changes in the
insight into societies they are studying.
Japanese
Kathleen Kenyon, digging
life in the This selection of items found by archaelogists in the wreck of the ship
1700s. at the site of Jericho in
Mary Rose shows us what a sailor was likely to take to sea in 1536.
1952, found out that its They include a pouch, a whistle, a comb, and a rosary.
walls were destroyed
in biblical times, but knowledge of social and military history. Ecofacts,
by fire—not by the such as animal bones, skins, and plant seeds, help
sound of trumpetsl identify the jobs people did and what they ate.
Archaeology can often Pictures and paintings can also provide valuable
present historians with evidence information. We can tell a lot about what people
that makes them reexamine their views of looked like, and what they did, from cave paintings,
early societies. In 1939, at Sutton Hoo in England, frescoes, portraits, and pictures in stained glass.
the remains of an Anglo-Saxon treasure ship were
discovered. The artifacts found there are evidence
of a society from the so-called “Dark Ages”
that are far from primitive.
Since the 1950s, archaeologists have been
concerned with finding general theories that
explain the changes that occur in human
societies. They now try to find out why
farming developed in Mexico around
7000 B.C. or why the first cities grew
in the Near East. Computers can be
used to process the statistics and they
have made this sort of study much
faster and more efficient.
Artifacts such as coins, pottery, tools,
and weapons are sometimes found in great
abundance. Studying them can add to our

When digging, archaeologists try to avoid damaging anything.

A grid is used to locate and record the exact position, size, and
condition of finds. All earth removed from a site is collected in
pails and later sifted in case any small find has been missed. Accurate
written records are made and each level of the site is photographed.
The Ancient
World
40,000-500 b.c.

This is the earliest history of humanity, as it

evolved from cave dwellers to village-dwelling
farmers to populations in towns, up to and
including the first advanced civilizations. It was
around 40,000 B.C. that humans first built their
own homes, made music, and painted pictures on
the walls of caves. It was not until around 8000 B.C.
that the first farming and trading villages were
built, and another 5,000 years—250 generations—
passed before important civilizations
appeared in Egypt and Mesopotamia.

▲ The first peoples lived in eaves and made fire by using a bow
to spin a stick against another piece of wood to create sparks.

◄ The ancient Egyptians believed in life after death. They worshiped

many gods, including Osiris, the god of the dead, whose image is
seen here in a painting on the tomb of Horemheb.

3
The world at a glance 40,000-500 b.c.
T hough there is fossil evidence that the earliest
humans evolved at least 130,000 years ago on
It was not until 3000 B.C. that the first towns
were built, beside rivers in Egypt, Mesopotamia, and
the continent of Africa, their lives were extremely China. By 2600 B.C., large constructions such as the
simple compared to ours. By 40,000 B.C., humans pyramids in Egypt, the stone circles in eastern Europe,
had learned how to use fire to keep themselves warm, and the first temples in Peru were built. Around the
cook food, and scare away wild animals. From being same time, the people in the kingdom of Kush in East
hunters and gatherers of wild fruit, berries, and seeds, Africa were learning to work metal, and Chinese
they slowly found out how to grow crops and keep astronomers first observed an eclipse of the sun.
domestic animals. Around 8000 B.C., life became Civilization had come into being.
more complex as farming villages developed in the
Middle East. It was much later that other parts of the
world developed in this way. During the next 3,000
years, important basic activities such as building,
tilling the land, pottery, copperworking, sewing,
and animal breeding were introduced.

NORTH AMERICA mm a
In ancient times, North Americans NORTH AMERICA
hunted animals and foraged for
food on a vast continent with no
civilizations. Although these peoples
lived off the land, they still had
their beliefs, medicines, tools,
and simple homes. The first steps
toward civilization were made about
700 b.c. by the Adena people in the
woodlands of what is now Ohio. They built temple
mounds, lived in villages, and worked with copper.

MESOAMERICA
AND SOUTH
AMERICA

MESOAMERICA AND SOUTH AMERICA

Farming was established in Mexico (Mesoamerica) by 3000 B.c.,
and by 2000 B.c., the Peruvians of the Andes had also
developed farming communities. The growing population
lived in permanent villages and over hundreds of years
these gradually grew larger and became towns. By 2600
B.c., large temples had been built on the coast of Peru-
around the same time as the earliest stone circles
in eastern Europe and the pyramids in Egypt began
to appear. At the same time, the Olmec civilization
emerged in Mexico. By 500 B.c., the Maya in
Mexico were also building pyramids.

4
 EUROPE
ASIA
Farming communities sprang up in southeast Europe
There were four centers of development in Asia. In the Indus Valley
around 6000 b.c., though it was not until 4000 B.e.
(now Pakistan), an advanced civilization developed from around
that they were established in the northwest.
2600 B.c. Although farming communities flourished in northern China
On the Atlantic seaboard, an advanced culture
from 4000 b.c., Chinese tradition has
started building mounds and stone circles
it that civilization was started there
from around 4000 B.c. The oldest of these
by the Yellow Emperor around
are in Ireland, and there are many impressive
2700 b.c. The others centers were
examples in England, Scotland, and Brittany §
the Mekong Delta of southeast
in France. Later, in the period leading up
Asia, where rice-growing had
to 500 b.c., the Celts dominated Europe
developed, and New Guinea. W
though the most advanced town-building
civilizations were those of the Mycenae
in Greece and the Etruscans in Italy.

AFRICA AND AUSTRALASIA

THE MIDDLE EAST Of all the people on Earth, the
Australian Aborigines have had
perhaps the most consistent
/•A history of all. They have not seen
1L many of the dramatic changes
AUSTRALASIA
and events that other cultures
have. The Aborigines were
spread far and wide across
the Australian continent, and
survived by foraging and
hunting for thousands of years.
New Zealand was almost
unpopulated. On the Polynesian
islands, the seafaring Lapita
culture grew adventurous from
AFRICA AND THE MIDDLE EAST
around 3000 B.c., their people
The earliest known farming communities traveling long distances across
were established in Mesopotamia (now the ocean to explore remote
Iraq), at the crossroads of Europe and Asia. islands by around 1500 b.c.
In Sumer, trading towns grew into cities from
around 3400 B.c. Along the Nile River, Egypt
developed into an advanced civilization that
lasted 2,500 years. In other parts of Africa, people
lived simpler lives as nomads or hunter-gatherers.

5
 10,000 1 5000 3000 1500 500 300 100 B.C. 0 A.D. 100 200 350 ! 500 700

The first humans 40,000-10,000 b.c.

The earliest humanlike creatures evolved over a period
several million years. Our closest true human ancestors
have developed only within the last 50,000 years.

T he earliest hominids (humanlike

creatures) were the Australopithecines.
Many of their bones have been found
in East Africa. They walked upright and
made simple tools from pebbles. They
were probably not true humans because
their brains were very small in comparison.
This shelter, discovered in the Ukraine, was made of wood
covered with animal skins weighed down with mammoth
PROTOHUMANS
bones. It was built to survive harsh winters and fierce winds.
Homo habilis (handy human) appeared
about two million years ago. This hominid NEANDERTHALS
had more skills, and lived alongside the About 200,000 years ago Homo sapiens
last of the Australopithecines. The most (wise human) developed from Homo
advanced early human was Homo erectus erectus. At the same time another human
Early peoples used flints (upright human), and remains have been type, the Neanderthal, adapted to the
of different shapes for
found in Africa and Asia. By learning to colder climates of the last Ice Age,
making scrapers, knives,
arrowheads, and borers.
use fire to cook and keep warm, Homo spreading through the continent of Europe
erectus was able to move from place and the Middle East. The Neanderthals
to place. developed many different simple stone
tools, though their language was limited.
This map shows the They did not survive into modern times—
Migration routt
climate of most of the
North Pi
world around 16,000
the last known Neanderthals died out
b.c., during the last Ice in Spain around 28,000 years ago.
Age. The inset shows
Beringia, the
THE ICE AGE
Asia-North
NORTH
% America land The last Ice Age, at its height around 16,000 B.c., had a major
AMERIC
bridge at the influence on how early people developed. It was the most
Bering Strait, recent of several ice ages that have occurred over the last
across which
2.3 million years. With much water trapped in ice, the sea
the ancestors
level was about 300 ft. (90m) lower than today. As a result
of the Native
there was dry land between Siberia and Alaska, between
Americans
migrated. Australia and New Guinea, and between Britain and Europe,
that allowed people to migrate.

SAHARA
DESERT
Jm

Rain forest

Open woodland

Present day Grass, scrub

outline of
continent Desert

Sea level Tundra M

18,000 years ago
Glacier, perennial sea ice />"

AUSTRALASIA^ In places such as Lascaux in southwest France, Ice Age

people made cave paintings, possibly to honor the spirits
of the animals they hunted for food and clothing.

6
CRO-MAGNONS ▲ This is a tented encampment in eastern
The humans of today are probably Europe about 25,000 years ago. Using this
camp as their base, the hunters gathered
descended from the Cro-Magnons; a
their food, using skins for clothes and
group of hunter-gatherers who seem to shelter, and bones for tools and ornaments.
have entered Europe from the Middle This way of life demanded teamwork and
cooperation among the community.
East and eventually replaced the
Neanderthals. These people gathered
fruits, berries, and roots and hunted ◄ Using a bow to spin a stick against a
wild animals. They lived in simple piece of wood, heat was built up
by friction to create fire. This
caves and shelters. Around 40,000 could take 10-20 minutes.
years ago, they had developed
mentally to become more like
modern humans, with more
ideas and a larger vocabulary.
They began creating artworks,
including cave paintings in France,
Spain, and the Sahara. They made
jewelry, figurines, clothes, shelters,
tools, and hunting weapons.

Cave-dwelling
hunters tackled
very large animals, such
as mammoths, but they
The Cro-Magnons made also brought back a
jewelry from stones, bones, variety of smaller
ivory, shells, and teeth. It animals, including
was often buried in graves. hares and deer.

7
 10,000 5000 | 3000 i 1500 500 300 j 100 B.C. ; 0 A.D. 100 200 | 350 500 700

The first farmers 10,000-4000 b.c.

People’s lives changed greatly with the development of ANATOLIA
Caspian
agriculture. Slowly they discovered how to domesticate Qata^ Sea

animals and began to cultivate plants for crops.

T he earliest farmers settled nearly

10,000 years ago in the Fertile
Fertile Crescent

Crescent in the Middle East. Here people

grew wheat and barley. They kept goats,
sheep, pigs, and cattle that they used for Early civilizations of the Middle East grew up in the
Fertile Crescent, an ideal area for farming and settled
meat, milk, hides, wool, and to carry
village life, for trade, and later for building towns.
things. The improvement in the design of
simple tools allowed people to clear land
more effectively, build villages, and stay in IRRIGATION
one place. Later, agriculture developed in One of the most important inventions was
People first worshiped
fertile areas in China, northwest India, irrigation, a system of supplying cultivated
mother-goddesses about
25,000 years ago. They Iran, Egypt, southern Europe, and Mexico. land with water. Farmers in the Fertile
believed that, like the Earth, Crescent and Mesoamerica dug channels
these goddesses gave life to
DOMESTICATION to carry water to their crops. Using
all living things.
The first animal to be domesticated reservoirs and sluiceways, land lying far
was the dog, as early as 10,000 B.C. Dogs from rivers could be made fertile. In Egypt
were used for herding and as night guards. and China, annual floods were controlled
The horse, goat, and sheep were also to provide irrigation. In wetter climates,
domesticated. Farmers learned how to drainage was also important. After many
breed animals in order to change their generations, some farmers started bartering
characteristics. A number of species goods with neighbors and travelers, leading
spread as well—chickens and pheasants, to the growth of trade and the founding
Wheat and barley were for example, originated in the Far East. of the first towns and civilizations.
crossed with grasses to
Meanwhile, some animals,
breed new strains. They
were used to make bread, such as aurochs, were
the staple of human diet hunted to extinction.
in every early civilization.

► Nomadic peoples followed wild herds or moved from

season to season. They went where the pickings or the
weather were best. They used temporary homes and
simple tools. When tribes met they would trade
items, hold festivals, and arrange marriages.

◄ In early villages, people

thatched their houses,
kept their animals in pens
and pastures, and tended
vegetable patches. They
developed new techniques
for storing food, fertilizing
fields, and making tools.

8
900 1100. 1200 ! 1300 1400 1500 1600; 1700 1750
! 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000

Sumer and akkad 5000 -1600 b.c.

The first people to settle in Mesopotamia were the MESOPOTAMIA -A

Sumerians more than 7,000 years ago. They built a # By bios

.Mari
Crates
number of independent city-states—the first civilization. AKKAD

T he Sumerian civilization consisted

of a number of city-states—cities that Syrian Desert
Babylon • .
’Kish
Nippur*
SUMER
• Umma
Uruk*
Lagash
were also independent nations. Some of Eridu*
Ur Persian
these cities lasted for 3,000 years. They Gulf

were located on important trade routes The fertile Tigris and Euphrates river valleys acted as the
along the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. birthplace of trading cities, extending their influence far
and wide-an attractive target for marauding warriors.
Their traders traveled to Egypt and India.

SUMERIAN CITIES INTERNAL STRIFE

In 2360 b.c., Sargon of Each city-state had fine public buildings, Around 2900 B.C., with city populations
Akkad invaded Mesopotamia, markets, workshops, and water systems. growing, power shifted away from
carving out the world's
first empire.
There was a royal palace and a ziggurat, the priesthoods which had been
on top of which was a shrine dedicated all-powerful—commerce gradually
to the god of that city. Around the public becoming more important than religion.
buildings were houses. Beyond these lay Rivalry between different cities grew,
the farmers’ fields and the marshlands and they fought each other for
of the Mesopotamian rivers. supremacy. They were also invaded by
tribes from Persia, Arabia, and Turkey
READING AND WRITING who wanted to share the cities'
The Sumerians devised one of the earliest wealth and power.
Scribes and accountants writing systems, cuneiform. From about
were important, and 3200 B.c. they wrote on clay tablets, and AKKAD AND UR
involved in all aspects scribes held a key role in their society. Eventually, the city of Akkad grew
of Sumerian daily
life, including
Thousands of tablets have survived, dominant. The city was led by Sargon,
trade, law, and containing accounts, who created the world’s first empire
religion. records, sacred scripts, around 2334 B.C. His rule brought more
and letters. The contents order—but it also brought cruelty and
of their graves have violence. Around 2100 B.C., as Akkad
shown that the Sumerians declined, the city of Ur took its place,
were wealthy and their rising to prominence for a century.
craftspeople skilled. After its fall, Assyria and
Babylon grew to
dominate the
area.

This reed house was occupied by early Sumerians

before bricks were used. Reed houses were still
built by Marsh Arabs until recently.

ZIGGURATS
Built of sunbaked clay bricks, ziggurats towered
impressively over the river plains. Building them demanded
careful architecture and engineering. The shrine at the top
was dedicated to the god of the city. Here, priest-kings
performed rituals to benefit the cities and their lands
and to appease the gods.

9
 10,000 5000 3000 1500 500 300 100 B.C. A.D. 100 200 350 500 700

Ancient egypt 4000-1800 b.c.

Ancient Egypt was surrounded by deserts, but it was Mediterranean Sea
• Rosetta
• Tanis
green and fertile because of the Nile River. It flooded Heliopolis^ LOWER
every year, depositing rich, silty soil along its banks. Abusir#.Giza EGYPT
Memphis*

T he Egyptians used the Nile for

transportation and cultivated the land
• Saqqara
El-Amarna •
't-

alongside it. They grew wheat and barley Abydos Karnak

for bread and beer, and flax for linen; they Valley of the Kings'..*^
raised cattle as beasts of burden. Egyptians UPPER Edfu •
The Egyptians loved to had a highly developed religion and EGYPT
Red
wear lucky charms. Their advanced medical, astronomical, and Sea
favorites were carved
engineering knowledge.
stone scarabs. The scarab Abu Simbel •
beetle was sacred to the NUBIA
sun god, Ra. THE PHARAOHS
For most of their history, Egyptians were Egyptian civilization hugged the Nile River. The flood
plains of the delta were rich and highly populated,
united in one kingdom. Administrators
though cities stretched a long way up the Nile.
and priests ran everyday affairs, Riverboat transportation was important to traders.
but the head of society was the
pharaoh—a living god. People EGYPTIAN SOCIETY
believed that ceremonies he Most people in Egypt were farmers. They
performed kept the good will of the gave part of their produce to the local
gods, kept the Nile flowing, and kept temple as taxes. Very few people could
society in order. When the pharaoh died, read and write, and schooling was only
Papyrus is a stiff paper his body was mummified and placed for boys. Those who could write were
made from papyrus reeds. inside a stone sarcophagus in an imposing called scribes. It was they who went on
The Egyptians glued sheets
of it together to make
tomb, along with jewelry, clothing, to become the priests and administrators
scrolls. Administrative and furniture, and food—everything he would who ran the country for the pharaoh.
religious texts were written need for eternity. Sacred writings on the But at the heart of Egyptian life was
in hieroglyphs.
tomb walls were meant to protect him communication with the gods.
in the afterlife.
The Great Pyramid, the first of
PYRAMIDS three pyramids at Giza and the
tomb of the pharaoh Khufu,
From around 2630 B.c., Egyptians built many pyramids, the most famous being the Great
had many passageways
Pyramid at Giza. No one knows exactly why the shape was chosen, but the scale and
and chambers.
dimensions suggest astronomical, mathematical, and spiritual purposes. By building
such great monuments, the pharaohs sought to please the gods and to leave a
significant, permanent mark on history. Some of the long stone blocks above the
king's Chamber weighed 60 tons, and around
2.3 million of them were used. Entrance

New passage

Underground chamber

Pyramid-building involved immense skill

The largest, the Great Pyramid at
Giza, may have taken over
30 years to build.

10
900 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000

EGYPTIAN GODS

The funeral rites of Egyptian pharaohs were

elaborate. Here, a pharaoh's procession
reaches Abusir on the Nile River in
2450 b.c. The procession enters the
Valley Temple, and the embalmed
body is carried up a causeway
to the pyramid. Horus was the sky-god, and
his spirit entered the living
pharaoh. His eyes were
the sun and the moon.

Ptah, the creator-god,

invented the arts. He was
the local god of the
capital, Memphis.

Hathor, the goddess of

love and beauty, once
raised the sun up to
heaven on her horns.

Toward this end the Egyptians created The pharaohs reorganized the country
remarkable works of stone carving. They and again built pyramids, although not as
built enormous pyramids and temples. Tall large as those at Giza. Some of Egypt’s
obelisks were cut from one block of stone. finest art and literature was produced
No effort or expense was spared to honor during the Middle Kingdom.
the gods—or the pharaoh, who was their Egypt had been isolated from the rest of Isis, sister and wife of
Osiris, was the mother
living link with humanity. The Egyptians the world at this time. Ancient Egyptians
of Horus. She had great
developed a way to preserve the body of were not great travelers, sailors, or magical powers.
their god-king, and many building projects conquerors, but great Middle Kingdom
were undertaken to provide him with a rulers such as Amenemhat I and Senwosret
tomb for his eternal protection. In time, III expanded Egypt’s boundaries. They built
everyone who could afford it would have forts to protect the country, and created a
their preserved bodies placed in tombs, strong army. They invaded countries such
with treasures for the afterlife and sacred as Nubia to take control of gold reserves. Re-Horakhty, the sun-god
scrolls to guide them to it. and Horus joined together,
KEY DATES is shown with the sun
3300 Growth of towns in lower Nile valley and on a hawk's head.
RETURN TO GREATNESS
development of hieroglyphics
After the time of the first pharaohs and
3000 Upper and Lower Egypt united
the pyramid builders, there was a decline
2920 The first pharaohs
that lasted for over 100 years. With no 2575 Old Kingdom, capital Memphis-high point of
strong ruler, the people felt the gods Egyptian civilization
had abandoned them. Then, around 2550 The Great Pyramid is completed
2040 Middle Kingdom-expansion and
2040, Mentuhotep became pharaoh,
development Osiris was the god of
brought order, and restored Egypt’s the dead. In his realm,
1550 New Kingdom-Egypt at its largest and
greatness. This period was called the wealthiest souls were judged for
Middle Kingdom. their worthiness.

11
 ; *
10,000 5000 3000 1500 500 300: 100 B.C.i 0| A.D. 100 200; 3501 500; 700

MEGALITHIC EUROPE 4500-1200 b.c.

In Spain, France, Ireland, Britain, and Sweden there
are ancient megalithic monuments, remains of an
ancient civilization that built large stone temples.

O ne of the most impressive

monuments from this period is
Stonehenge, in southern England.
It was built in three stages from
3000 B.C. onward, forming a
circle of huge, dressed (shaped), A megalith in Portugal. No one really knows the purpose
upright stones linked by lintels of these chambers-they were possibly built as tombs,
or places for meditation or healing. They range in age
(beams). Scientists think that it from 4,000 to 6,000 years old.
was used as a temple, a place to
study the stars, and to calculate the The Ring of Brodgar in the Orkney
Stoney Littleton long calendar. Even older and larger than Islands, off northeast Scotland, is about
barrow, near Bath in Stonehenge is the Avebury stone circle, the same age as Stonehenge. The stones
southwest England, has
several small chambers
a few miles to the north. It is a much there are all tall, thin, and pointed.
that would have been larger ring of stones that have
used for ancestral not been dressed.
burial purposes over
Many other stone circles in a variety
a number of years.
of shapes and sizes are found elsewhere
in Britain, with names like the Merry
Maidens, Long Meg, and Callanish.

Iintel

Stonehenge was built in stages

Stones transported over a 1,000-year period. It is
on wooden rollers thought that the stones were
fitted and aligned precisely so
that exact sightings could be
made of sunrise and moonrise
at specific times of the year.

STONEHENGE
Stonehenge on Salisbury Plain, in England,
Ramp
is Europe's most elaborate ancient monumenl
It was laid out to mark the rising and setting
Upright Sarsen stones
points of the sun and moon, and particularly
the midsummer sunrise. Some stones were
probably transported great distances
before being erected.

12
 I
900 1100 1200 1300 | 1400 | 1500 j 1600 | 1700 | 1750 1800 : 1850 1900 1950 2000

Copper ore was laboriously dug by hand in

this deep mine near Salzburg in eastern KEY DATES
Austria, around 1200 b.c. The ore 4500 Farming develops in western Europe
was transported to the surface 4300 First megaliths built in Brittany and Ireland
in sacks and crushed with 3000 Building of Stonehenge begins
heavy stone hammers.
3200 Stone circle building period starts
2400 Copper first comes into use in western Europe
2000 Peak of megalith building period. Stonehenge
construction almost complete

MAINLAND EUROPE
Stone circles have been found
in the west of Ireland that
are even older than those in
Britain. At Carnac in Brittany, in
northwestern France, there is an
impressive series of avenues made
up of 3,000 large stones, stretching for Another remarkable collection of
several miles. Brittany also has many single megalithic monuments is in Malta. Some
standing stones, called menhirs. Standing of the oldest have walls made of massive The remains of megalithic
stones are found all over Europe from stones. Several of the temples contain homes have been found
at Skara Brae in the Orkney
Spain to Ireland and Scotland to Sweden. dressed stones carved with simple designs. Isles north of Scotland.
Many stone chambers [barrows] were The most remarkable Maltese monument These stone houses were
covered with soil to make a mound—they is the Hypogeum, an underground temple engulfed in sand and
preserved for thousands
are found in France, Ireland, and England. carved on three levels deep into the rock.
of years. They have helped
There are also “quoits,” made us to reconstruct a picture
up of three vertical stones of life in ancient
times.
with a single large slab
balanced on top.

13
 10,000 5000 3000 1500 500 300 100 B.C. A.D. 100 200 350 500 700

The INDUS VALLEY 4000-1800 b.c.

The early peoples of the Indian subcontinent lived J> • Thang
on the banks of the Ganges and Indus rivers. The first
Gumla* $
civilization sprang up in the Indus Valley, now in Pakistan. <y Harappa

T he two largest cities in the Indus

Valley around 2000 B.c. were Mohenjo-daro
Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa, each
Nindowari
with around 40,000 people. They I

were among the world’s largest cities Amri • Chanhu-daro

at the time. At the center of each /former course
lay an artificial mound which served ' of Indus river INDIA
i
i
as a citadel (stronghold). On this *Desalpur
mound stood a large granary
Ahar.
which, to the population, served
as a kind of central bank. These forgotten Lothal •
cities were only discovered in the 1920s.
Indus seals like this
were attached to bales CITY LAYOUT The climate was wetter in the Indus Valley than today. The
of merchandise. They have
Around the citadel the city buildings were rivers were used not only for trade and transportation, but
been found not only in
also for irrigation of the flat lands of the valley.
Mohenjo-Daro, but also arranged in a grid pattern—administration
as far away as Sumer. buildings, markets, storage areas, workshops,
This is evidence of a
houses, and temples. Each house was built made from mud bricks baked in wood-
wide trade network.
around a courtyard, and had fired ovens. The citadel at Mohenjo-Daro
rooms, a toilet, and a had a bathhouse, as well as private and
well. Buildings were public baths and meeting places.

Brick-lined shafts like this are found in the

courtyards of Mohenjo-Daro. They may have been
wells or used for cool storage of grains and oil.

These ruins are all that

remain of the 4,000-year-
old city of Mohenjo-Daro.

14
900 1100 1200 1300 : 1400 1500 i 1600 1700 | 1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000

FARMERS AND CRAFTWORKERS

Among other crops, the farmers of the
Indus Valley grew barley, wheat, cotton,
melons, and dates. Elephants and water
buffalo were tamed to work in the fields.
The area had many skilled potters who
used wheels for throwing pots—a new
technology at the time. Harappans used
stone tools and made knives, weapons,
bowls, and figures in bronze. They had
an advanced system of waste-disposal that
included the building of covered drains
and the installation of garbage chutes.

THE END OF A CIVILIZATION These are the excavated remains of the Great Bath at Mohenjo-Daro. The people
No one knows who the people of appear to have placed great importance on hygiene and access to water. They may
also have used the baths for sports and ceremonies.
the Indus Valley were or where they
came from. We do not understand their
writing, either. The area had similarities
to Sumer, but also major differences.
The city dwellers traded with the cities
of Sumer; they also traded with the
tribespeople of India and central Asia.
The Indus Valley civilization lasted 800
years, but came to an end about 3,700
years ago. No one knows why it ended,
but there are various possible causes:
floods; disease; a breakdown in trade, the
economy, or civil order; or immigration
and takeover by the Aryans who moved
into India from central Asia. All trace
of the cities lay buried under sand until
they were rediscovered in the 1920s.

▲ The storehouses at the

«v t V *"T t(W
'•ffrrrfff.
center of the cities were
'ffffftytf very valuable to the
inhabitants-they could
have had religious as well
as practical significance,
since grain may have
been regarded as sacred.

City granary
◄ An artist's impression
Bathhousi
shows Mohenjo-Daro
at the height of its
prosperity. Unlike
Sumerian cities, it was
built in a grid pattern,
suggesting orderly
government and planning.
The bathhouse had its
own indoor well, and
what seems to have
been a granary had a
sophisticated storage
and ventilation system.
 10,000 5000 3000; 1500, 500 300 ; 100 B.C. 0 A.D. 100 200 350 500 700

Ancient Crete 3000-1450 b.c.

Aegean
The earliest European civilization began on the island \ Sea
of Crete about 4,500 years ago. It is called the Minoan .Thebes

civilization after the legendary King Minos. Athene

S tories say that Minos built a labyrinth

(maze) in which he kept a Minotaur,
Mycenae,
Phylakopi

a creature with the head of a bull and the Thera •

Mediterranean RHODES
f body of a man. The Minoan civilization Sea

K -if- was at its height from 2200 to 1450 B.c Knossos

‘Gortyn
Itanos
’ The Minoans owed their prosperity to
Ndgssr their abilities as seafarers and traders. Crete was well placed for trading with and influencing other
areas. In the end, this was the Minoans' undoing, since the
Mycenaeans envied their civilization and eventually invaded.
MINOAN CITIES
The Minoans built several large
cities connected by paved roads, each
of them a small city-state. At the heart
of each city was a palace with a water
supply decorations, windows, and stone
seats. Minoan craftsmen were renowned
as potters and builders. They also made
beautiful silver and gold jewelry. The Minoans were expert shipbuilders. They traveled around
capital, Knossos, had the grandest palace, the Aegean Sea and to Egypt in boats like this, carrying
their pottery and other craftworks far and wide.
This figure was found at It had splendid royal apartments, rooms
Knossos. It combines the
for religious ceremonies, workshops,
snake cult of Crete and
worship of the mother-
on and a school. The internal walls of the palace were
goddess. The figure itself plastered and decorated with large,
wears the typical clothing magnificently painted pictures.
of a Minoan woman.

DOWNFALL OF A CIVILIZATION
Advanced Minoan civilization came to a
sudden and mysterious end in about 1450
B.C. A volcanic eruption on the nearby
island of Thera had already been a major
The massive royal palace
at Knossos, 500 ft. sq.
disaster, overwhelming much of Crete.
(150m sq.), was several The end came when Knossos was invaded
stories high and built by the Mycenaeans who greatly admired
from wood, stone, and
the Minoans and took their ideas to the
clay. A large courtyard,
was in the center. Royal European mainland. In Crete lay the roots
apartments were on the of the later Greek classical civilization.
east of the court, on
the first floor.

The walls of the state

rooms at Knossos were
elaborately decorated.
The wall painting shows
the sport of bull leaping.
The bull was a sacred
symbol of power, and the
ability to vault over its
horns symbolized the
mastering of its strength.

16
900: 1100; 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1750; 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000

The myceneans 2000-1200 b.c.

Mycenae was a city on the southern peninsula of Greece.
It was the center of the first Greek civilization, which
developed after that of the Minoans in Crete.

T he Mycenaeans (known as
Achaeans) migrated to Greece
from the Balkans around 2000 B.c.
Mycenaean civilization began as a
series of hillside villages occupied
by people speaking an ancient
form of the Greek language. By
about 1650 B.C., many villages had
grown into fortified towns, with The ruins of the Lion Gate at Mycenae, the main entrance
rich palaces and luxurious goods that to the city, built around 1300bc. It was one of the few
ways through the walls, which were built with huge
rivaled those made by the highly skilled
stones and were easy to defend.
Minoans. Mycenae consisted of about
This gold mask was found 20 city-states. 400 bronzesmiths and hundreds of slaves.
in a grave in Mycenae by
Wealthy Mycenaeans treasured the gold
archaeologist Heinrich
Schliemann. He thought it
MYCENAEAN TOMBS that they imported from Egypt. Skilled
was Agamemnon's mask- Before they built fortresses and cities craftworkers made gold cups, masks,
modern scholars think it the Mycenaeans buried their leaders in flowers, and jewelry; even their swords
belonged to a man who
elaborate “beehive tombs.” These were and armor were inlaid with gold.
lived 300 years earlier.
built of large stone blocks, shaped to
form a great dome. One tomb at EXPANSION AND DOWNFALL
Mycenae, the Treasury of Atreus, has Around 1450 B.C., the Mycenaeans
a doorway nearly 20 ft. [6m] high, that conquered Crete and established colonies
opens into a chamber 43 ft. (13m) high around the Aegean Sea and on the islands
and 46 ft. (14m) wide. It was once lined of Rhodes and Cyprus. They traded
with bronze plates. The richness of these throughout the Mediterranean, particularly
tombs shows that a great deal of money with Phoenicia, Egypt, and Italy. However,
This beautiful gold
and effort was spent on royalty and the around 1200 B.C., Mycenae fell to invading
goblet from Mycenae
clearly demonstrates
aristocracy. One king had as many as wandering raiders called the Sea Peoples.
the skill of the local Many Mycenaeans were forced to
craftsworkers. It shows flee to other countries.
men hunting bulls, This reconstruction shows the city of Mycenae as it
a common theme probably looked at the height of its power. The royal
at that time. palace on the hilltop was built on several levels.

17
 10,000 5000 3000 500 300; 100B.C. o A.D. 100 200 j 350 ! 500 700

SHANG DYNASTY 1766-1122 B.c.

The earliest civilizations in China from around 3200 B.C.
grew up on the banks of the three largest rivers: the
Huang He, Chang Jiang, and Xi Jiang.

ike the people of Sumer, Egypt,

and the Indus Valley, Chinese farmers
relied on the country’s rivers
for transportation and water
to grow their crops—paddy
fields needed floods in
springtime to help the rice
grow. But the Chinese also faced two
dangers: major floods and devastating
raids by tribes from the north and west. Shang civilization was based around the Huang He River
in the north, though it also influenced central China. Later,
the Zhou dynasty extended control over a larger area.
EARLY CULTURES
The first small towns appeared around
A piece of bronze Shang
money, cast in the shape 3000 B.C., during the Longshan period, The Shang people grew millet, wheat,
of a spade. This may have around the Eluang He [Yellow River) and rice, and also mulberries for feeding
been made to slot into
in the north. According to tradition, silkworms, from which they produced silk.
a case or sheath where
several coins would Huangdi, the Yellow Emperor, was the They kept cattle, pigs, sheep, dogs, and
be kept. first emperor from around 2700 B.C. The chickens, and hunted deer and wild boar.
first dynasty was that of the Xia [Hsia), The Shang used horses to draw plows,
who ruled for four centuries from 2200 carriages, and chariots. Early in their history,
B.C. Yu, its founder, is credited with taming they used cowrie shells as money, later
the rivers by building dikes to stop floods, switching to bronze. They were skilled in
and also irrigation channels. working bronze and jade, and made highly
decorated practical and religious objects.
TANG AND THE SHANG
The earliest dynasty we have evidence ▼ Tradition says that silk was discovered by Empress
Xiling Ji around 2690 b.c. She was the wife of the
for was the Shang, founded by Emperor
legendary Yellow Emperor, Huangdi, who was reputed to
Tang. The Shang ruled north China for have brought civilization, medicine, and writing to China.
more than 600 years. They lived in a The empress found that silkworms fed on mulberry leaves,
so she had mulberry groves planted. Silk was spun into
string of cities along the Huang He, with
a fine textile that was so valued it was even used as
the capital at Anyang. The city had many a form of money. Silk manufacture remained a closely
large palaces and temples, built mainly kept secret by the Chinese for about 3,000 years.
of carved wood. The Zhou dynasty
replaced the Shang in 1122 B.C.

This is an oracle bone from the 1300s B.c.

Large numbers of these have been found,
engraved with early Chinese pictograms
(picture writing): Diviners used these
to interpret the future.

18
900 1100 1200 13005 1400 1500 1600 j 1700 1750 I 1800 1850! 1900 1950 2000

KEY DATES BRONZE

3000 The first Chinese towns appear, during the Bronze is a mixture of copper and tin, which, when polished, looks like gold.
Longshan culture The Shang became strong through their bronze-working, since it was a hard metal
2700 Huangdi, the "Yellow Emperor," becomes emperor with many uses in tools, household items, and weapons. Bronze was also used for
2200 Period of Xia dynasty-Yu is the emperor adornments, artistic, and religious items. It was cast in clay molds carved with
patterns. Across the world, bronze represented a technological breakthrough.
1766 Foundation of the Shang dynasty by
Emperor Tang
1400 Peak of the Shang period
1122 Zhou dynasty displaces the Shang

CHINESE WRITING
Around 1600 B.C., the Shang developed
the earliest forms of Chinese calligraphy—
a pictorial writing in which each letter
represents a whole word. The Chinese script T When found in 1970,
this bronze vessel held well
we know today evolved from Shang writing.
over 300 pieces of jade. It
The Shang worshiped their ancestors, who was designed during the
were seen as wise guides for their way of Shang period as a vessel
for storing large amounts
life, and they used oracles to help them
of wine and was known as
make decisions. a pou. The high quality and
intricate design show that
by this time bronze casting
was a highly developed art.
Other bronze vessels, called
jue, with three legs and a
long spout, were used for
pouring wine during
ceremonies.

▲ The ancient Chinese cooked

sacrificial food in large bronze
decorated vessels like this
one. It had long legs so
that it could stand
over a coal fire.

Shang warriors fought

in cumbersome armor
made of bamboo and
wood, padded with cloth.
Early Chinese were warlike,
and tribes used to fight
long feuds. Centralized
states such as the Shang
developed to stop the
feuding between warlords.

19
 10,000 I 5000

The hittites 1600-1200B.C.

Around 1650 B.C., a number of small city-states
were united, through warfare. The result was the
rich and powerful Hittite kingdom.

T he Hittites consisted of several

tribes and they spoke as many as
six languages among them. One was
the language of the Hatti, the original
occupants of Anatolia. The Hittites
were the first use iron—a metal
that replaced the softer bronze.

THE HITTITE EMPIRE The Hittite territories at their peak, around 1300 B.c. They
fought with the Egyptians, Assyrians, and Phrygians, and
The Hittites were a warlike people.
their empire disappeared in less than a century.
They controlled the supply of iron,
and they used chariots, which gave
them a great military advantage. They The Hittites adopted civilized ways, such
worshiped around 1,000 gods, chief of as writing, from other peoples. They also
This Hittite stela (carved which was a storm-god. Early on, in 1595 introduced the horse into the Middle
standing stone) from B.C., they sacked Babylonia, plummeting East from China. Men were dominant
Anatolia (Turkey) shows
it into a dark age. Gradually they in society, and they were rich and well
a woman doing her
spinning, while she conquered Anatolia, Syria, and the Levant traveled. The Hittites reached their peak
speaks to a scribe who (Lebanon), challenging the around 1300 B.c. The Hittites survived
holds a clay tablet
hold that the Assyrians many threats until they fell to the Sea
and pen.
and Egyptians had Peoples. Finally, they were destroyed and
on the area. occupied by the Phrygians, who came
from the Balkans, to the north. The
The Hittites carved many Hittites were never heard of again,
works of art on boulders,
but they had had a strong influence
shaping only part of the
rock and leaving the rest
on their neighbors.
in its natural form. This
sphinxlike gateway
once guarded a Hittite
settlement located at
Alaca, in what is now
modern Turkey.

This Hittite rock-earved relief at Yazilikaya shows the

protector-god Sharruma with the goddess Ishtar in the
background. The relief was carved around 1250 B.c.

20
900 1100: 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1750 1 1800 1850 1 1900; 1950; 2000

Babylon 1900-700 b.c.

Ur's domination of Mesopotamia was followed by many
invasions. Around 1894 B.C. the Babylonians replaced
their rulers with a dynasty that lasted 300 years.

T he Babylonians began to dominate

southern Mesopotamia under their
sixth ruler, Hammurabi the Great
(1780-50 B.C.). He was a highly efficient
ruler, famous for the code of laws that he
laid down, and he gave the region stability
after turbulent times.
Babylon became the central power of
Mesopotamia. The armies of Babylonia Under Hammurabi and his successors, Babylon
were well-disciplined, and they conquered controlled the whole of Mesopotamia. However, it
became vulnerable to invasion from the north and west.
A local boundary stone the city-states of Isin, Elam, and Uruk,
from Babylon is carved
and the strong kingdom of Mari. But
with prayers that ask
the gods to protect
Mesopotamia had no clear boundaries, Its cities continued for 100 years under
the owner's land. making it vulnerable to attack. Trade and different foreign rulers. Then, for 500
culture thrived for 150 years, but then years, Babylon was overshadowed by
the Hittites sacked Babylon in 1595 B.c. Assyria before its next rise to greatness.

EARLY SCIENCE
The mathematicians of Babylonia devised
a system of counting based on the number
60, from which we get the number of
minutes in an hour and the degrees
(60 x 6) in a circle. Babylonian scholars
developed early sciences and astrology
from the knowledge they gained from
the Sumerians.
Hammurabi was famous
for his detailed code
of laws. Well known to
us today is "An eye for
an eye, and a tooth for
a tooth," prescribing
punishments for personal
crimes. The laws brought
all of Babylon under a
uniform legal system.
They protected the weak
from the strong, and
regulated business
and land ownership.

Skilled archers helped

This stela shows Shamash, Babylon to defend itself
the god of justice, giving against the Assyrians
Hammurabi the instruction and many other invaders-
to formulate a code of laws. Kassites, Aramaeans,
Underneath are inscribed Elamites, and Hittites. Its
the laws that Hammurabi wealth, and its location
codified, for all to see. at the meeting place of
In this way, people were roads from Asia to the
shown that the laws were Mediterranean, was
given to Hammurabi envied by jealous
by the gods. neighbors.

21
 10,000 I 5000 3000 1500 500 300 100 B.c. i A.D. 100 200 | 350 i 500 700

The ASSYRIANS 1900-612 b.c.

While Babylonia ruled southern Mesopotamia, the
warlike Assyrians dominated the north. Their kingdom
lay in the valley of the upper Tigris River.

/
K ing Adadnirari I, the country’s
first powerful ruler (1770-50 B.C.),
enlarged the Assyrian lands and took the
boastful title “King of Everything.” He
and his successors were fierce dictators,
who did not allow individual states to be
independent. Assyria grew rich through
the activities of its trading families, who
sold textiles and metals far and wide. The Assyrian Empire grew and shrank in phases. It reached
its greatest extent at the end, around 650, covering the
whole of the Fertile Crescent. When Ashurbanipal
COLLAPSE AND REBIRTH died, Egypt and Babylon broke away and the
Ashurbanipal was the last As Assyria grew in size, rebellions by its empire collapsed.
great ruler of Assyria. A conquered subjects increased. Eventually,
ruthless soldier, he was
also a patron of the arts,
Assyria fell to the Hurrians (relatives of lasted for 300 years. It reached its height
building the great library the Hittites}. The Hurrians dominated under Tiglathpileser I (1115-1093 B.C.],
at Nineveh and vast Assyria for over 250 years. As their who led many campaigns against neigh¬
gardens stocked with
overlordship dwindled, Assyria grew in boring lands. Assyria eventually dominated
plants from all over
the known world. strength again. Its next period of greatness the whole region, including Babylon.

ASHURBANIPAL’S PALACE
The Assyrian king was an absolute ruler with very active
involvement in all matters of state. In his magnificent
palace, Ashurbanipal, surrounded by his advisors, heard
the cases presented by the people. The palace was large,
with extensive gardens. As a patron of learning, the king
ordered many historic records from Babylon and Sumer
to be written down, and texts on mathematics, chemistry,
and astronomy were produced. Literary texts such as the
Epic ofGilgamesh and the story of the Flood, from
Akkadian times, were also recorded. All of these
were destroyed by invaders
after Ashurbanipal's death, ^
though many records
survived. ' Jjjlk

22
900 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 I 1700 1750 1800 1850 1 1900 I 1950 2000

ASSYRIA FLOURISHES
From about 1076 B.C., Assyria and
_KEY DATES_
Babylonia were overrun by Aramaean
2500 Assyrians settle the upper Tigris valley
tribes from Syria. But 150 years later,
1900 Growth of Old Assyria
Ashurdan II and his successors 1680 Assyria falls to the Hurrians (until 1400)
reconquered the Assyrian Empire. The 1300-1200 Assyrian expansion
capital was moved to Nineveh, and 1076 Assyria falls to the Aramaeans (until 934)

buildings were erected and irrigation 730-630 Assyrian expansion at its greatest
612 Fall of Assyria to the Babylonians and Medes
schemes undertaken. Assyrian kings
expanded their lands to control all
trade routes and suppress troublesome THE FINAL CHAPTER
neighbors. The Assyrian Empire was at The last and greatest ruler of Assyria
its greatest extent under Tiglathpileser was King Ashurbanipal. He was a scholarly
III (745-727 B.C.), when it included king and during his reign he created a
the lands of Babylon, Syria, Palestine, huge library in Nineveh, his capital.
Cyprus, northern Arabia, and Egypt. The ancient records of Sumer and
Akkad were preserved on clay tablets,
ASSYRIAN LIFE together with literature and histories,
The Assyrians were great builders and mathematics, and astronomy from ancient
erected magnificent cities, temples, and times. When Ashurbanipal died in 627
palaces. The men wore long coatlike B.C. the Assyrian empire fell to the
Ishtar was the goddess
garments and were bearded. Women Babylonians and Medes. of war to the Assyrians.
wore a sleeved tunic and a shawl over To the Babylonians she
was the mother-goddess.
their shoulders. It was not unknown
for men to sell their wives and
children into slavery to
pay off debts.

The Assyrians were »

experts at siege warfare.
Their battering-rams
knocked holes in city
walls; then scaling
ladders and mobile
towers helped the
men climb over. The
soldiers protected
themselves with
large shields.

23
 io.ooo ! 5000 3000 1500 500 : 300 100 B.c. i A.D. 100 200 350 1 500 700 i

The HEBREWS 1800-587 b.c.

—

The Hebrews first settled in Palestine about 4,000 Acco • Hazor

years ago. They came to Palestine from Ur, although no

4,
Mediterranean Sea of
Sea Galilee
one knows exactly where they came from before then. Meggido*

T heir name meant “the people

from the other side” of the
Samaria •
ISRAEL

Euphrates River. Their story is told Gezer • !

T Jericho
in the Bible. According to the Old Jerusalem PALESTINE
Testament, the leader of the first
Hebrews was Abraham, a shepherd 'ead
Sea
who lived in Ur. Abraham traveled
Gaza £?■
with his family first to Syria and
JUDAH
then to Canaan (now Palestine),
lU lv
where they finally settled.

EARLY YEARS After Solomon's death, Israel split into two different
Solomon (965-928 B.c.) states, Israel and Judah—this weakened them against
Abraham’s grandson, Jacob (also called
was one of the wiser kings outside attack and led to their downfall.
of history and he carried Israel), had twelve sons. He is said to
out his royal duties fairly. have started the twelve tribes of Israel,
His rule brought order
which were named after his sons. When THE FIRST STATE OF ISRAEL
and peace and Jerusalem
became one of the richest famine struck Canaan, Jacob led his Around 1020 B.C., the Philistines began
cities of the period. people to safety in Egypt. Later, they to threaten the Hebrews. To defend
became slaves of the Egyptians until themselves, the Hebrews banded together
Moses led them out of Egypt and took and appointed Saul their first king. His
them back to Canaan, probably around successor, David, united all the tribes,
1200 B.C. There, led by Joshua, they made Jerusalem the new nation’s capital,
fought the Philistines (Palestinians) for and added a number of other territories.
the right to settle and establish the land As defensive measures, his son Solomon
of Israel. Tradition has it that they used built several new cities and a wall around
the sound of trumpets to bring down the capital. The great temple at Jerusalem
the walls of the city of Jericho. was his most famous work. He was a
peace-loving and wise king.
SOLOMON'S TEMPLE

Solomon built an impressive temple

in Jerusalem, at great expense, to
house the Israelites' holy treasure,
the Ark of the Covenant, which
contained Moses' Ten
Commandments. The Temple
became the focus of Jewish
culture. It is said that
Solomon's temple had
walls inlaid with precious
jewels, and that it was
designed in accordance
with mathematical
principles learned
from the Egyptians.

24
 j I
900 1100 1300 1400 1500
I I
1600 1700 1750 1800 I 1850 | 1900: 1950 2000

The Judaean desert, often mentioned in the Bible,

is a landscape of astounding beauty. It was probably
H&ssffi&fisa&ss&sss
greener in ancient times because of a milder climate.

According to the Bible, Solomon was a

wise king. It is said that two women came
before him with a child, each claiming to
be its mother. Solomon suggested that he
cut the child in two, so each mother could
have half. One woman broke down and
gave up her claim. Solomon recognized
her as the true mother, and gave her the
child. His reign marked the peak of Israel's
history. After he died, his people argued
and divided into two nations: Israel
and Judah.

TROUBLES AND DISPERSION

After a rebellion by the Israelites, the
Assyrians captured Israel in 721 B.C., and This copy of a wall-
then Judah in 683. The Jews scattered in painting from Beni
various directions, and many were carried Hasan in Middle
Egypt shows a group
away to Assyria as slaves. Nebuchadnezzar of Semitic, or Asiatic,
of Babylon crushed a Jewish rebellion in people, very possibly
597 and most of the Jews were taken to Hebrew, entering
Egypt to trade.
Babylon. During that exile, much of the
Old Testament of the Bible was written
down. This was the beginning of the
diaspora, the dispersion of the Jews, A Jewish man blows on a
which lasted into the 1900s. shofar, a ram's horn fitted
ripA' \\ rfcf/j with a reed to amplify
v \ the sound it makes. It is
»r Jl
»
KEY DATES mf M I possible these were used
to bring down the walls
c.1800 Abraham and the Hebrews move to Canaan
of Jericho-or at least to
c.1200 Moses and Joshua take the Jews to Canaan
frighten the inhabitants
c.1020 Saul becomes king of the Hebrews
into opening the gates.
c.1000 David becomes king of the Hebrews The shofar is one of the
965-928 Solomon, king of Israel, reigns world's oldest musical
721 Assyrians invade Israel, dispersing many Jews instruments, and it is
587 Babylonians destroy Jerusalem and deport blown on Jewish holy
most of the Jews to Babylon days. The woven prayer-
shawl is called a tallith.

25
 10,000 | 5000 3000 1500 500 300 100 B.C. | 0 A.D. 100 I 200 350 ' 500 I 700

Egypt, the new kingdom 1550-1070 b.c.

The New Kingdom is the third major division of AKHENATEN
Egyptian history. It was a time of artistic achievement, The strangest ruler was Amenhotep IV
military might, prosperity at home, and prestige abroad. (1353-35 B.C.). He attempted to change

A fter the Middle Kingdom, a weak and

divided Egypt was dominated by the
Egyptian religion by replacing its many
gods and complex traditions with worship
of only one god: Aten. He changed his
Hyksos from Canaan, for 100 years. They name to Akhenaten and built a new
ruled in Lower Egypt, the north. Around capital at El-Amarna, dedicated to Aten.
1550, an Upper Egyptian royal family His queen, Nefertiti, was not of royal birth
rose and battled to oust the Hyksos and and may not have been Egyptian. When
reunite the whole country. In 1532 they Akhenaten died, the priests of the old gods
succeeded. Ahmose established the 18th regained control, and worship of Aten was
dynasty and became the first pharaoh of discouraged. The dead king’s name was
the New Kingdom—Egypt’s Golden Age. removed from every monument and record.
His new city was abandoned and it was
THE NEW KINGDOM as if he had never existed.
One of its early pharaohs, Thutmose I,
conquered Palestine and the lands west
of the Euphrates around 1500 B.c.
During the rule of Amenhotep III, the
New Kingdom, with its capital at Thebes,
was rich and prosperous. Farmers and
workers lived simply, but the nobility had
In Ancient Egypt, the a luxurious lifestyle. By law, men and
dead were embalmed
and tightly wrapped in
women were equal, and women owned
cloth, a process called property. Women were able to follow one
mummification, so that of four main professions: priestess, midwife, Prosperous Egyptians were buried with jewelry, pottery,
they would "live" forever. and models showing activities such as baking, brewing,
dancer, or mourner. Apart from the nobles,
The mummy was put and fishing. These models provide vivid details
inside a coffin that was scribes and priests held the most important about the everyday life of the Egyptians.
often highly decorated. positions in Egyptian society.

A New Kingdom royal palace contained living quarters, but

a large part would have been used for official duties. In a hall
such as this, the pharaoh would award honors, receive
ambassadors and dignitaries, and accept tribute.

This solid gold mask lay over

the face of Tutankhamen's
mummy. His tomb was found
in the Valley of the Kings,
in 1922, and the mummy
with its sumptuous mask
was revealed to stunned
onlookers in late 1925.

26
900 I 1100 ! 1200 I 1300 ! 1400 I 1500 1600 I 1700 I 1750 I 1800 1850 i 1900 1950 I 2000

Most New Kingdom rulers were buried

in the Valley of the Kings, in tombs cut Egyptian doctors
deeply into the rock. But robbers still treated their patients
with a combination of
broke in. Only one tomb survived, almost
medical practice and
intact, to modern times, that of the boy- religious magic.
king Tutankhamen, who succeeded
Akhenaten and died not yet twenty years
of age. Egypt stayed powerful for a time,
especially under Seti I and his son
Ramses II—the Great—of the 19th
dynasty (1307-1196 B.c.]. Over time, £
rulers became weaker. Priests took
control, and finally Egypt fell to a
succession of foreign invaders. The
Greeks conquered Egypt and ruled
for around 300 years. Finally, Egypt
became a Roman territory. Her
monuments fell to ruins,
her history and writings ®
were forgotten.

◄ Early Egyptian ships were flat-bottomed,

suitable only for river transportation. Later they
began to make larger, heavier ships with deeper,
rounded bottoms that could be used for sea travel
These ships greatly increased Egypt's ability
to trade goods with the lands bordering
the Mediterranean Sea.

▲ Hatshepsut was the

daughter of the great
Thutmose I and widow
of the weak Thutmose II.
After her husband's death
she took the throne and
ruled as pharaoh in her
own right. She wore male
clothing and even the
traditional false beard
worn by the pharaohs.

◄ Kahun was an Egyptian

town built of mud bricks.
The houses had two levels,
plus a flat roof on which
people spent much of
their time. Trades and
crafts occupied different
areas in the town, as they
do in modern Eastern
cities. A pyramid was
connected to Kahun by
a causeway. On the edge
of the town was a temple.

27
 10,000 5000 3000 1500 500 300 100 B.C. A.D. 100 200 350 500 700 !

The PHOENICIANS 1500-500 B.C.

The Phoenicians were the greatest seafarers of the
ancient world. They lived along a coastal strip in the
Levant at the eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea.

T he Phoenicians, who were merchant

adventurers, lived in a string of
independent city-states with good harbors
in what is now Lebanon. Originally from
Canaan, they were not interested in
farming the land, but in seafaring,
manufacturing, and trading.

TRADE AND CRAFTS This is

The Phoenicians traded overland with a Phoenician
warship probably
The Phoenicians were the merchants carrying valuable goods from
looked. It was a
first to make transparent as far away as India and China to the galley with a ram for
glass like this perfume
bottle, on a large scale.
west. The goods were sent by sea to attacking other ships.

Egypt, Greece, Italy, and north Africa.

This trade made Phoenicians prosperous PHOENICIAN PORTS
and powerful. They saw the rise and fall of The Phoenician ports in the Levant
the Minoans and Mycenaeans, and actively were Ugarit, Sidon, Byblos, and Berytus
helped the rise of Greece and then Rome. (Beirut}. The main port was Tyre which,
The Phoenicians were skilled craftworkers, according to tradition, was founded 4,750
making glassware, metal items, jewelry, years ago. The city had close links with
and cloth. They also invented glass- Israel. Hiram, king of Tyre, supplied King
blowing. The port of Tyre was famous for Solomon with mighty beams of Lebanon
Tyrian purple dye, a rich color worn by cedarwood and with craftworkers to
Phoenicians were famous Greeks and Romans as a sign of status. build his great temple in Jerusalem.
for ivory carvings, like this
finely detailed head.

28
900 11001 1200i 1300 | 1400 1500 1600 1700 I 1750 ! 1800 1850 1900: 1950 2000

Starting in Cyprus, the Phoenicians

gradually spread westward and set up many
colonies around the Mediterranean. The
most important was Carthage in North
Africa, which became a large city. Other
colonies were in Spain, Malta, Sicily,
Morocco, and Sardinia. Later the
Phoenicians colonized Cadiz and Tangier,
founding trading posts down the coast of
West Africa. Eventually, their homeland was
invaded by the Babylonians around 570 B.C.,
so the colonies became independent, with
Carthage as their chief port.

The main Carthaginian

EXPLORATION deity was the warrior
Around 600 B.C., the Egyptians commissioned god, Baal Haamon,
connected with fertility.
the Phoenicians to sail around the coast
This is the temple of
of Africa. This voyage took three Salambo Tophet, from
years. Regular trade with distant around 700 B.c. where
worshipers sacrificed
countries rich in tin and silver, like
and buried children.
Britain, started around 450 B.c.
The Phoenicians’ downfall came
in 200-100 B.C., when Rome,
which was seeking to control
the Mediterranean, fought them
and destroyed Carthage.

The Phoenicians
sailed from port to
port throughout the
Mediterranean, trading
valuable goods and
transporting them for
others. Here a Phoenician
trading ship docks in an
Egyptian city. Phoenicians
did not control great areas
of land as other nations
sought to do, but they
were nevertheless very
influential. They connected
the different parts of the
ancient world.

The bold sailors from the

city-states of Phoenicia
founded many colonies
along the coasts of the
Mediterranean, trading
throughout that sea
and venturing into the
Atlantic, sailing to West
Africa and Britain.

29
 10,000 5000 j 3000 | 1500 | 500 | 300 j 100 B.C. 0 I A.0. 100 ! 200 | 350 | 500 | 700

Africa 6000-200 b.c.

Carthage •
Although the earliest human remains have been found
Sahara Desert
in Africa, not much was known until recently of the EGYPT'
Tassili-n-Ajjer# <5,
continent's history before 1500 B.C., except for Egypt. 'U-

® O'

T oday the Sahara forms a great desert

barrier between northern and central
Jenive Jeno
*
~7<.
^
Agadez
•

CHAD
KUSH

Meroe*
• Napata
%

Nok •
Africa, but in about 6000 B.C. that
barrier did not exist. Rock drawings
BANJU
and paintings show that the climate
was much wetter, and that more
people were able to live in the Atlantic
Sahara. The land began to dry up Ocean

after around 3500 B.C., but desert

trade towns and routes remained KHOISAN
open, providing a link between
Indian
northern and central Africa. Ocean

NUBIA AND KUSH Africa, a vast continent, has many different environments
in which many diverse cultures have grown up. North
Egyptian culture spread up the Nile
Africa was dominated by Egyptian and Mediterranean
to Nubia (now Sudan). The kingdom cultures. South of the Sahara Desert people lived
These are Masai women of Kush grew out of Nubia from 2000 B.c. without being affected directly by them.
of recent times, from onward. Kush was valuable to Egypt as a
what is now Kenya. They
are dressed in traditional
trading partner and a source of gold. Egypt This meant that Kush became an
ceremonial clothes. conquered Kush in 1500 B.C., to secure important center of ironworking,
gold deposits there but in 750 B.c. was supplying Egypt, Babylon, Arabia, and
itself conquered by the Kushites, who Ethiopia. Meroe imitated Egypt, and it
founded the 25th dynasty of pharaohs. preserved many Egyptian traditions for
These ancient rock Kush never had a Bronze Age, but went the future at a time when Egypt itself
paintings of warriors from straight from using stone to using iron. was going through cultural changes.
Oum Echna in the Sahara,
The capital was moved from Napata, its Ethiopia was also an important, though
date from before 3500 b.c.
when the Sahara was religious center, to Meroe, because Meroe self-contained, area of culture with
habitable grassland. was surrounded by rich iron ore deposits. religious traditions of its own.

30
These ruined pyramids are at Meroe, east of today's
Khartoum. The kingdom of Meroe developed from
Nubia, a kingdom once influenced by Egypt.

CENTRAL AND SOUTHERN AFRICA

Around the Niger River lived farming tribes,
with a few trading towns. Downstream, the
Nok nation of Nigeria became ironworking
and village-dwelling craftspeople. To the
east there were the nomadic shepherds
and village-dwelling people of Chad. Across
central Africa, Bantu peoples were moving
south from Nigeria, taking ironworking and
farming with them. Southern Africa was
occupied by shepherds as well as hunter-
gatherers known as the Khoisan.

KEY DATES
3000 Desertification of the Sahara begins
2750 Farming begins in West Africa
700 Nubian kingdom of Kush flourishes
600 Growth of Nok culture, Nigeria, and Meroe
200 Jenne-jeno, the first African city, is established

▲ A wall painting in the

tomb of Sobekhotep
shows foreigners bringing
tribute to the pharaoh.
Here, a group of African
► Rock paintings and peoples bring gifts prized
relief carvings are found by the Egyptians: from
across much of the Nubia,.gold in large rings;
Sahara. This cattle-herding from farther south, logs
scene was painted on rock of ebony and fly whisks
in the Tasili area in the made from giraffe's tails,
central Sahara. The artist and fruit and a small
has even recorded the monkey, and, finally,
color patterns of the a baboon.
individual cows.

31
 10,000 5000 | 3000 i 1500] 500 | 300; 100B.C. 0 A.D. 100 200 ! 350 | 500 700

America 1500-350 b.c.

The first Americans arrived in North America overland
from Asia in the Ice Age when the sea level was lower.
Over thousands of years they populated South America.

M any early Americans remained

hunters, fishers, and food gatherers,
but in two separate areas, new civilizations
developed—Mesoamerica (Mexico), and
Equador and Peru.

THE OLMECS OF MEXICO This fine stone bowl is a magnificent example of the
In Mesoamerica, some 9,000 years ago, the Chavin people's skill in stone carving. It was the work
Native Americans settled and grew crops of a sculptor living in Peru 2,500 years ago.

of Indian corn, beans, and pumpkins. Small

villages sprang up in which the people CIVILIZATION IN THE ANDES
made pottery and wove cloth. Out of this The first fishing and farming villages in
culture, around 1500 B.C., the first South America were in northern Peru.
American civilization was born. The city¬ About 2,800 years ago a more advanced
A Folsom point, a type of dwelling Olmecs built their capital at La culture appeared, called the Chavin. The
arrowhead found at Folsom Venta, in western Mexico. The Olmecs Chavin people made pottery, wove cloth
in North America, dating
from 9000 B.c.
built large earth and stone pyramids as on looms, built in stone, and made
centers for religious worship, and they elaborate carvings. The largest building in
produced huge sculptures and fine jade their capital was three stories high. Inside
carvings. Many of their sculptures mix was a maze of rooms, corridors, and stairs.
human and jaguar-like features. The
Olmecs also had their own kind KEY DATES
of writing and a sophisticated 2600 Ceremonial centers built in Peru
calendar system. Their 2200 Farming villages founded in Mexico
neighbors, the Zapotecs 1200 Olmec towns and ceremonial centers built
and Maya, also 850 Chavin culture grows
600 Earliest Maya temple-pyramids built
developed advanced
350 Decline of the Olmecs
city civilizations.

A This is one of eight enormous heads carved from basalt

by the Olmecs; some are almost 10 ft. (3m) tall. They
may represent early rulers, and each wears a distinctly
different head covering.
► Dating from around 1200 b.c., this Olmec "altar" was
probably a throne. The figure of an Olmec ruler sits
in the niche underneath.

32
 1100 1200 : 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000

Aryan india 1500-500 b.c.

About 3,500 years ago the Aryans, a band of tough
warriors and shepherds, fled south across the Hindu
Kush mountains to settle in the subcontinent of India.

A natural disaster, maybe drought or

disease, or a civil war, made the Aryans
flee from their homelands in southern
Russia. They spread out to Anatolia and
Persia as well as India. They lived in tribal
villages, probably in wooden houses, unlike
the brick cities of the Indus Valley people.

THE ARYANS IN INDIA

Aryans counted their wealth in cattle and Munda
sheep. They were not as advanced as the Dravidian
Indo-European
Gautama Siddhartha Indian peoples, but they were tougher.
(c.563-483 B.c.) was a They were warriors and gamblers, beef¬
prince. He saw the suffering
eaters and wine drinkers, and loved music,
of the people and left
his family to search for dancing, and chariot racing. Gradually, they After the Aryans invaded northern India, many of the
truth. He later attained settled down and adopted many of the ways native people, the Dravidians and the Munda, moved
enlightenment, becoming to the southern and eastern parts of India.
of the native Indians, becoming crop growers
known as Buddha. He
taught a kinder faith that and ironworkers. Among the crops was rice,
respected all living beings. unknown to the Aryans but already HINDU CULTURE
grown in the Indus Valley. The use of the plow and irrigation systems
enabled the Aryans to grow enough crops
to support large towns. By 500 B.C. there
were 16 major kingdoms in northern
India, the most prominent being Maghada.
Maghada was the birthplace of the
Mauryan Empire and of two new
religions—Jainism and Buddhism.
The Aryans had no form
of writing. Like many ancient
peoples, they passed on their
history and religious beliefs by
word of mouth. These traditions,
called the Vedas—the Books of
Knowledge—were written down
much later. The oldest of these is
the Rig-Veda, a collection of more
▲ The Aryans introduced
than 1,000 hymns, composed in their
the caste system, headed
by the educated Brahmin
language, Sanskrit. Most of what we
priests who ruled the know about the Aryans’ daily lives in
country. The Kshatriyas ancient times comes from the Vedas, the
were warriors, and the
ancient “old testament” of the Hindus.
Vaisyas were traders and
farmers. The darker skinned Unlike other faiths, Hinduism was not
native Dravidians were started by one teacher—its beliefs
servants and workers. It
accumulated gradually over time.
was impossible to change
caste or marry outside it.

◄ One of the chief Hindu deities is Shiva, the

transformer, who is both a creator and destroyer, the lord
of change. He is depicted dancing in a halo of flames.

33
 10,000 5000 3000 1500 1 500 300 100 B.C. 0 ; A.D. 100 200 350 500 700

The founding of rome 753-510 b.c.

According to tradition, the city of Rome was founded Bolobna • v W

in 753 B.C. by local tribespeople who had established

Etruria \v
(Etruscan)

their camps on Rome’s seven hills.

Perusia.

L egends say that early Rome was ruled

by local kings, of whom Romulus was 1
Volci •
Sabines
Tfr jj
Rome.
Latins
the first. The citizens were Sabines
and Latins, who united to form Naples.
N*
one town, thinking of themselves
as Romans. They were influenced
by their neighbors to the north,
- Phoenician
the Etruscans, and traders from Nora colonies
Greece and Carthage, who brought SICILY
According to legend, in new ideas about culture and society. Greek
Motya •
colonies
Rome was founded by
Syracuse.,,
twin brothers, Romulus Carthage,
and Remus, grandsons of
ETRUSCANS
King Numitor. The king's The Etruscans, whose kingdom was In its early days, Rome was surrounded by Etruscans,
wicked brother Amulius Samnites, and others. Greeks and Phoenicians also had
called Etruria, lived in a group of city-
put the babies in a basket colonies in and around Italy. As Rome expanded, it had
to float down the Tiber
states which emerged around 800 B.C. to overcome these older societies.
River to their deaths. They were farmers, metalworkers,
However, they were seafarers, and traders and liked music,
rescued and suckled by
games, and gambling. They were greatly Legend has it that seven successive
a she-wolf. They founded
Rome, but quarreled, influenced by the Greeks, adopting the kings ruled Rome for 240 years. Kings did
and Remus was killed. Greek alphabet, wearing himaton (robes), not have complete power—they had to
Romulus became the
and believing in Greek gods. Many of contend with an assembly of nobles, who
first king of Rome.
their ways were passed to the Romans, grew more influential as time passed.
who eventually took Greek-style culture
to its ultimate expression.

KINGS OF ROME
The kings of Rome wore togas with purple
This terracotta
borders. In processions, the kings were
sarcophagus of an
Etruscan husband and preceded by standard-bearers
wife was made around who carried a fasces [a bundle
510 B.c. Women had more
of rods and an ax blade), a
status in Etruscan society
than they did among symbol of power representing
Greeks or Latins, where the king’s right to rule
they were kept in over everyone else.
the background.

34
900 i noo; 1200! 1300 14001 1500 1600 1700 ! 1750 1800 1850 I 1900 1950 2000

An assembly had a say in electing the

king and what he could do, especially in
war. The kings formed armies to defend
Rome. There were arguments between
the kings and the patricians (the leading
families]. The kings represented the old
ways, and urban Rome was changing.
The new elite of patricians eventually
overthrew the monarchy in 509 B.C., and
declared Rome a republic. It was the
first republic in the history of the world.
The Romans did not plan to become
a great imperial power—at first they
wanted only to protect themselves and
fight off their interfering neighbors.
However, within 500 years, Rome was
to become the center of the Western
world, taking over from the Greeks.

KEY DATES
800 The Etruscan civilization emerges
753 Traditional date for the founding of Rome
509 Foundation of the Roman Republic
400 Decline of Etruria

▲ The Etruscans left little

writing, but their paintings
were vivid. This one from
a tomb shows lyre and
flute players.

▲ A fasces was a symbol

of power in Rome. The
wooden rods symbolized
punishment, and the ax
represented life and death.

◄ Greek art and dress

greatly influenced the
Etruscans. The figures in
the tomb of the Augurs-
diviners or soothsayers-at
Tarquinia, painted around
500 B.c., clearly show
Greek touches.

35
 5000 3000 1 1500 500 300 100 B.C. 0 A.D. 100 200 350 500 1 700

Babylon revived 626-539 b.c.

Tribespeople from the west, called Chaldeans, migrated
into Assyria and Babylonia from about 1100 B.C. Several
Chaldeans served as kings under their Assyrian overlords.
I n 626 B.C., a Chaldean king called
Nabopolassar took power, declared
Babylonia independent, and threw off
the Assyrian yoke. Nabopolassar then
crushed the Assyrians in 612 B.c. His
son Nebuchadnezzar drove the Egyptians
back into Egypt and took Syria.

NEBUCHADNEZZAR
Nebuchadnezzar reigned Nebuchadnezzar was one of the most
for 43 years and his reign famous kings of Babylonia. He came to The map shows Nebuchadnezzar's Babylonian Empire
was marked by many at its fullest extent, controlling all of the lands known
military campaigns. Twice
power in about 605 B.C. His story is told
as the Fertile Crescent.
he subdued revolts in in the Bible, in the Book of Daniel. He
Judah,and when invaded many of the former Assyrian
Phoenicia rebelled he
lands and the deserts west of Babylon. goddess Ishtar. He also built the
besieged its chief port,
Tyre, for thirteen years. Among other conquests, Nebuchadnezzar Hanging Gardens—stepped gardens
captured Jerusalem and forced thousands overlooking the city. He built a large
of Jews to live in Babylon as prisoners bridge over the Euphrates River, and
because they had been rebellious. He an enormous ziggurat, the Temple of
made Babylon the master of all the Marduk or Bel (the “tower of Babel”}.
lands within the Fertile Crescent. Nebuchadnezzar built himself a fine
palace and he also improved the other
BABYLON cities. He encouraged the worship of
Nebuchadnezzar devoted most of the old god Marduk, seeking to revive
his time to making Babylon still more Babylon’s and Sumer’s former greatness.
beautiful, a capital of the world. He Nebuchadnezzar ruled for more than
had huge walls built around the city, 40 years, but in his later years he
and he named the main gate after the suffered from spells of madness.
▲ Flanked by lions and
owls, the goddess Ishtar
wears a crown of lunar
horns. Ishtar was the
chief goddess of the
Babylonians.

► Babylon was a seafaring

nation, situated on the
Euphrates River. Great
reed boats were built
that traveled as far as
India and East Africa.
It was also the focus
of land routes from
Asia to the West.

36
900 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 | 1700 1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000

THE CITY OF BABYLON

The Greek historian, Herodotus, described Babylon as the
most splendid city in the world. It was already ancient
when Nebuchadnezzar rebuilt it with new temples,
palaces, roads, walls, gates, and a bridge across
the Euphrates. The Temple of Marduk, or Bel,
a Sumerian-style ziggurat, was very tall and
became known as the Tower of Babel. The
Greeks regarded the Hanging Gardens as
one of the wonders of the world. Babylon
was a metropolis with markets and
workshops selling and making
everything imaginable. It supplied
Greeks, Indians, Persians,
and Egyptians with all
kinds of goods.

This view of the city shows

the Ishtar Gate on the main
processional way, and the
Temple of Marduk.

At this angle, the Euphrates Bridge is

in the foreground and, behind it, the
legendary Hanging Gardens of Babylon.

DECLINE AND FALL rather than Marduk. He made Belsharusur

The Babylonian Empire survived for (Belshazzar) co-ruler.
only six years after Nebuchadnezzar died. Meanwhile, in Persia, a new young king,
His son, Awil-Marduk (given the name Cyrus II, had risen to power after taking
of “Evil Merodach” in the Bible), reigned the throne in 557 B.c. He had ambitions to
for three years before being assassinated. take over Mesopotamia and found a Persian
Two other kings, one of them a child, empire. In pursuit of this goal, he invaded
reigned for just three more years. Babylonia and captured the city of Babylon
A Syrian prince, Nabu-Na’id, then seized in 539 B.c. Nabu-Na’id was deposed and his
power in Babylon, and tried to persuade son killed by the invading forces. Cyrus the
the people to worship his own god, Sin, Great, as he became known, freed the
rebellious Jews who had been made captive
KEY DATES in 586 B.C. by the young Nebuchadnezzar.
853 Assyria takes control of Babylon Babylonia was then ruled by the Persians
626 Babylonians rebel against the Assyrians for more than two relatively peaceful and
612 Nineveh (Assyria) sacked by the Babylonians stable centuries, until the time of another
and the Medes
youthful king, Alexander the Great, who
604 Nebuchadnezzar becomes king—Babylon's peak
539 Babylon conquered by Cyrus the Great of Persia
defeated the Persians and captured Babylon
in 331 B.C., making it his capital.

37
 10,000 5000 3000 1500 500; 300 100 B.C. A.D. 100 : 200 350 ; 500 700

Greek dark age 1100-600 b.c.

When many of the Mycenaeans fled around 1200 B.C.,
ITALY ‘ THRACE Byzantium
Greece entered its "Dark Age.” This left a gap which
Troy
was filled by a new people, the Dorians. GREECE
•
• Lesbos

T here is no written history of this

period, which lasted over 500 years.
SICILY
Syracuse
Athens
Mycenae • •
Sparta
’ Miletos

CRETE
The Dorians did not have the culture Mediterranean
or the skills of the Mycenaeans. They Dorian invaders Sea
spoke a different kind of Greek, and Mycenaean refugees
they did not yet write things down.
Many of the city-dwelling Mycenaeans were scattered
HISTORIC SAGAS by wandering raiders or "Sea Peoples," and those who
remained were country dwellers. The Dorians, from the
The Dorians preserved memories of Balkans, marched in.and dominated Greece from 1100 b.c.
the Mycenaean age by telling long poetic
sagas. When they adopted writing from the
Homer was a blind
bard who, around 800 B.c., Phoenicians, they wrote down these poems.
composed the epic poems Two poems, Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey, tell
the Iliad and Odyssey,
of the siege of Troy and one of its heroes,
which described people
and events. He probably Odysseus. Objects found in Mycenaean
gathered together all the graves match Homer’s descriptions.
legends of Mycenae and
retold them. Homer would
have sung or recited his
CITY LIFE
sagas to an audience. During the Dark Age, people abandoned
town life to live in tribes ruled by warlords.
By 600 B.C. city life had revived and
overseas colonization began. Power was
held by tyrants [mayors] or oligarchies People in Greece loved listening to stories about their
(groups of leaders). Trade, population, gods and heroes. Here, a Dorian bard is telling poetic
Greek warfare developed histories to the people. The bards were not only
during the Dark Age. Heavily and prosperity grew. After times of unrest
entertainers and teachers, they also carried
armed foot soldiers, called around 500 B.C., some cities, such as news of events to people.
hoplites, fought in a close
Athens, appointed reformers to reorganize
formation known as a
phalanx. They fought as government, law, and trade. This
a unit, covering each other. was the beginning of
Classical Greece.

38
 !
900 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000

The zhou dynasty 1122-221 b.c.

The Zhou dynasty ruled China for over 800 years.
They brought China a golden age—the growth of
towns, trade, and early Chinese imperial culture.

T he Zhou (pronounced Chou] began as

a group of wandering herders who had
settled in the fertile Wei Valley in western
China. They ousted the last king of the
Shang dynasty, who was cruel and a
drunkard. The Zhou domain was not a
single kingdom, but a collection of large
estates, whose rulers owed loyalty to the
king. Society was divided into rich
nobles, common people, and slaves.
A merchant class also developed.
The Zhou introduced
ironworking to China, using the
metal for weapons, domestic
items, and farm tools such as
plows. Iron made farming easier
and gave Zhou soldiers an advantage in war.
These Zhou iron battle-
axes from around 500 b.c.
ROYAL DECLINE
were made at the
beginning of the "Period
After a few centuries, royal authority
of Warring States." declined, and China entered an unstable
“Springs and Autumns” period. The king
held official power, though he was Confucius, Lao-Tzu, and the Buddha as a child, painted
dictated to by the strongest lord of the during the 1700s. They were all alive at around the same
time, but it is thought that only Confucius and Lao-Tzu
time. Later, the “Period of Warring States”
are likely to have met.
followed, which was dominated by
warlords. During this troubled period,
early classical Chinese thought took
shape—this was the time of Confucius
and Lao-Tzu, philosophers and sages. At
The people living in this this time the idea of a centralized Chinese
ancient Chinese village of imperial state came into being.
the earlier Zhou period
would have been isolated
and self-sufficient.

This picture of an archer

on horseback was stamped
on a clay tile, made during
the Zhou dynasty. The bow
is similar to those used
later in the West.

xgr'

39
 10,000 5000 3000 I 1500 500 300 100 B.C. 0 i a.d. 100 200 350 I 500 700

THE PERSIAN EMPIRE 559-331 b.c.

Iran used to be known as Persia. Its people comprised
two groups, the Medes and the Persians, who migrated
to Persia from central Asia about 2,800 years ago.

A t first the Medes were very powerful

Then, nearly 2,550 years ago, Cyrus,
the ruler of the Persians, rebelled against
the Medes and seized control. Cyrus the
Great made Persia the center of a mighty
new empire. His capital was at Ecbatana
on the Silk Road, now buried under
the modern city of Hamadan.

CONQUERING KINGS
Darius I (548-486 B.c.) Cyrus commanded a mighty army
was a great general who of cavalry and skilled archers. Taking
extended the empire east
and west, reorganizing
advantage of the weaknesses of his This frieze was carved in low relief on a thin stone at the

neighbors, he conquered an empire Palace of Apadana, Persepolis. These works of art covered
it into 20 provinces. He
the walls and stairways of the palace.
built good roads as well extending from the Mediterranean to
as a new royal capital at
Afghanistan. His son Cambyses invaded
Persepolis. From Lydia in
Anatolia, he introduced Egypt. The Persians gained the support UNITING THE ANCIENT WORLD
gold and silver money of their subjects by ruling fairly. Darius I Darius built roads and market towns
to Persia. Darius called
eventually extended the empire into to reach all parts of his huge empire,
himself Shahanshah,
king of kings. India and Greece. He also reorganized it, and encouraged trade by introducing a
appointing satraps (governors) to each standard coinage. The Persians controlled
province. They paid him taxes in cereals, the western end of the Silk Road from
silver, and agricultural produce. China, and all trade from India to the
Mediterranean. This wealthy, cosmopolitan
empire linked most of the ancient
civilizations of the time. However,
► The tomb of Darius was
built at Pasargadae in Iran.
it relied on the strength of its
After his death, the high rulers. Eventually, the
point of the Persian Greeks brought the
Empire had passed and
it went into a steady
empire down and
decline, and the great took it over.
Persian monuments fell
to ruins. This tomb now
sits alone in a vast field.

This is a Persian
infantryman. The Persian
army was successful
because of its clever use
of strategy. It covered
tremendous distances
during its campaigns.

40
900 1100 1200 1300 1400: 1500 1600 i 1700 ! 1750 I 1800 1850 | 1900 ! 1950 2000

Mediterranean Black
RELIGIOUS TEACHING Sea ANATOLIA Sea
In religion, the Persians followed the Caspian
Sea
teachings of a Persian prophet named
SYTHIA
Zarathustra (in Greek, Zoroaster).
SYRIA
Zoroaster had adapted the ancient Persian EGYPT
tribal religion, which the Persians had
brought with them from central Asia. Ecbatana
ibylon MEDIA
They worshiped one god, Ahura Mazda,
who they believed was locked in divine tSusa
battle with Ahriman (representing sleep) PERSIA
• Pasargadae Taxila
and Satan (representing evil).
® Persepolis
Although Zoroastrianism did not become © Anshan
c.
a world religion, it later influenced many
other faiths including Christianity. This
This map shows the
influence can be clearly seen in the _KEY DATES_ Persian Empire at its
biblical Book of Revelations. c.850-750 The Medes and Persians migrate into Iran greatest extent under
c.600 Zoroaster reforms the ancient Persian religion Darius. Susa became its
administrative center
559-525 Cyrus the Great creates the Persian Empire
and Persepolis was its
521-486 Darius expands empire to its high point
center of state. The
480 Greeks halt Persian expansion at Salamis
Royal Road was built to
331 Fall of Persia to Alexander the Great speed communications.

An impression from a cylinder seal,

with cuneiform writing on the left,
shows Darius I hunting a lion from
a chariot with a bow and arrow.
The winged figure overhead is
an image of Ahura Mazda,
main god of the Persians.

Darius built himself a

grand palace in his new
capital city of Persepolis.
The staircase of the palace
was carved with this
procession of dignitaries
in ceremonial attire.

41
The arts 25,000-500
Since the earliest days, humans have decorated objects,
made adornments, and represented ideas in artistic ways
This is a crucial part of the development of culture.

T he early people who lived in

Europe some 25,000 years ago
, made little clay models of goddesses
an<^ animah- These are thought to be
f\ totems or religious objects to help
ij encourage the fertility of the land or
If# f to communicate with the spirits of
the animals. Some ancient peoples
y *2] painted vivid pictures deep inside
V y w ' jL; (^y' caves showing animals, tribal
shamans, and hunting scenes.

ARTISTIC SKILLS
Once people started leading
~ more settled lives, they began to
1 make pottery and other decorated
This delicately-
items. In China, the people of Yang carved woman's
@ Shao painted pots with geometrical head made of
patterns on them. As copper and ivory was found
in France. It may
This Olmec figure is carved bronze replaced stone for weapons and be the world's
in green jade. It represents
tools, metalworkers became important, earliest known
a jaguar spirit associated
and the tools and objects they made were portrait. It was
with Tlaloc, the god of
carved around
rain and fertility. richly decorated. They did this not just to
20,000 b.c.
make them beautiful. By carving gods or
sacred symbols on their tools As towns and cities grew and states
or weapons, they believed became wealthier, impressive temples,
that they would make palaces, and other monumental buildings
ci them more effective, were decorated with carvings and paintings
showing what life was like. From the
frescoes of Mycenae to the Egyptian tomb
paintings and from Olmec carvings to
Chinese painted pottery, the art of these
ancient people has given us an insight
into their way of life.
▲ This fish from the
Egyptian New Kingdom is
a bottle for cosmetics. It
was made around 1200 b.c.
JsjTTl
from strips of colored glass
wrapped around a core.
The ripples were made by
drawing a point across the m mWF\
glass before it hardened.

► This elaborate game

WiP & |pr
\pr~
‘■^VVV- >
■<r3£:

board was found in a

cemetery in the Sumerian
JJj u
inx. TlIJ
city of Ur. It is around
4,500 years old. Sadly,
the rules of this game
have not survived.
 v< a; nrr&yf c;v «;•*>; m ** h t >(,, *$.:' &h ■ W-'%‘mv wfimfo wmm ^
■■■-■•'•"■•■■ ■' V •- :v.-r...:.*■ ■■■■■'V y, ■■'I,";:,,— '■■■.N.y. - *H» /■A'/-' .■■' ' ^'! .: ■'

The Chinese valued jade, which they saw as a pure

material with which to work. They carved many objects
from it, like this intricate open ring which was probably
worn by a wealthy Chinese woman around 1000 b.c. ▲ A fresco is a picture
painted on damp plaster,
so that the color sinks in
WRITING deeply to last a long time.
This fresco of dogs on a
Writing was originally a work of art, made
boar hunt was painted
up of pictures representing ideas or objects. on a wall in Mycenae,
Around lOOO'B.C., the Phoenicians invented about 1500 b.c.

the world’s first alphabet. It had 22 characters;

all were consonants, none were vowel sounds.
The “pictograms” of ancient China represented
whole words—one pictogram might mean
◄ This rock painting is
“mountain” or “town.” Modem Chinese from the Tasili area of the
characters still represent concepts like Sahara Desert. It is around
this, instead of sounds. 6,000 years old, a time
when the Sahara was
greener and supported
a population of herders.

The Greeks heavily

influenced Etruscan art, as
can be seen in this picture
painted around 500 B.c. in
the Tomb of the Leopards
at Tarquinia. The reclining
banqueters at a funeral
are asking for another
jar of wine.
Architecture 40,000-1500 b.c.
The earliest humans lived in caves or any other natural shelter they could
find. Eventually, people started making more comfortable homes and
other buildings for themselves, using wood, mud, and stone.

T he first buildings people made

were tents of animal skins supported
ROOFING MATERIAL
To keep out the weather, early people
on wooden poles. In some places, they made roofs of wooden poles covered with
used mammoth bones to weight the twigs and leaves, straw or thick mats of
structure down. soil known as sods. In hot climates, roofs
The first bricks were were made flat to reflect the sun’s rays,
shaped from mud and left MUD-BRICK HOUSES keeping the buildings cool. Houses in
to harden in the hot sun.
Around 6000 B.C., people started to Jerusalem had flat roofs, each one with
build homes using dried mud and wood. a parapet, or low wall, to stop visitors
They covered the walls with fine plaster, falling over the edge. In temperate
The houses of the New
Stone Age city of Qatal on which they painted decorations with climates, roofs were made sloping so that
Huyiik in Anatolia, Turkey, pigments taken from plants. The floors rainwater would run off quickly. Around
were built in 6000 B.c.
were bare, or covered with straw or 4000 B.C. the Sumerians of Mesopotamia
They were so tightly
packed that there were
animal hides. Furniture, such as as tables built their homes entirely from marsh
no streets. People walked and beds, was also made from mud bricks. reeds. They used several layers of reeds to
along the rooftops. create large, curved roofs, but these roofs
did not survive very long; they needed
to be replaced every few years.

A ladder gave access to the

house through the roof

Wooden poles were

laid across the walls

Plaster

The builders of Qatal Hiiyuk built their houses

with a framework of wooden posts and
beams. They constructed the walls with
mud bricks and then filled in any
holes with daub-a mixture
of mud and straw.

Smooth finish of mud

on outside of walls

Sunbaked
mud bricks
Central hearth
Pyramids housed the bodies of
Egyptian kings. The stone pyramid Causeway
complex of the pharaoh Sahure at
Abusir near Memphis was built in
about 2450 B.c. A causeway led
directly from a lake formed by
the Nile floods to the mortuary
temple. The body was then
buried in the pyramid.
Mortuary temple

BUILDING WITH STONE

Around 3000 B.C., people in Europe,
Not all these early buildings were built
for people to live in. Some were made for
P
Egypt, South America, the Middle East, religious purposes, and others as tombs
and China started to use stone as building for the dead or shelters for farm animals.
material. At first they used uncut stone. They include the pyramids and temples
Then, as metal tools were developed, of Egypt and South America, the ziggurats
they cut and shaped the stone into large, of the Middle East, and monuments such
The first builders used
rectangular slabs. The blocks of stone as Stonehenge in Britain. Unlike those
stone tools. Later builders
were laid one on top of the other. Flat made from mud and wood, many stone had metal tools which
or sloping roofs spanned the walls. buildings have survived to the present day. were more efficient.

Skara Brae, in the Orkney

Around 2000 B.c. the Thatch (woven Islands off the coast of
Chinese were building straw) roof Scotland, was a small
houses with wooden farming settlement with
posts and roofs stone houses. Inside, there
of straw. were stone cupboards and
beds. The settlement was
buried by sand at the
height of a fierce storm
4,500 years ago.

VILLAGE LIFE IN EUROPE

Bare earth rloor
The first European farmers made their house walls of
hurdles of woven twigs, plastered with clay to keep
out the wind and rain. They often decorated the
walls with colorful pigments taken from plants.

r/A

45
Science and technology 25,000-500 b.c.
The early history of the world is often divided into
periods named after the materials used for the
technology of the time—stone, bronze, or iron.
T he three main divisions are Stone
Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age. These
divisions cover different periods of time
in different parts of the world, and they
represent periods of development rather
than specific historic dates. For example,
in (Jatal Hiiyiik in Turkey the use of
copper started around 6200 B.C., but
for Aboriginal Australians, the Stone Age
continued almost until the present day.

THE SPREAD OF TECHNOLOGIES

In ancient China, the Bronze Age started The Cro-Magnons of around 40,000 years ago used
implements of wood, bone, and stone. They knew how
around 2700 B.c., and it lasted for over
to prepare animal skins for clothes and shelters and
2,000 years. In other places, technologies how to shape objects into useful tools.
were introduced through foreign contact.
In Africa, ironworking started around 800 MAKING LIFE EASIER
B.C.,. when it was imported from Egypt, Many farming, domestic, and military
leading them out of the Stone Age. One implements were needed. They ranged
of the most significant inventions was from needles and eating utensils, pots and
the wheel, first used by the Sumerians furniture, spades and saws, to swords and
The first tools were
made of any available
more than 5,000 years ago; it needed flat battering rams—all invented to meet
hard stone. Flint made a surfaces such as roads to run on. Boats different needs over the centuries. Each
greater variety possible, were important, powered by paddles or of them made life easier and better.
allowing the making of
poles, then oars and sails—these were the These objects allowed urban civilizations
sharper edges. A knife¬
like blade, a borer, and best means of travel, and many early to come into being and flourish.
a sharp point are civilizations depended on rivers and
shown here.
boats for transportation.

Coracle
The first boats were dugouts,
made from a single tree
trunk. Later, more complex
boats were made, such as
the coracle, made of animal
skins fixed over a wooden
frame. These were first
built around 6,000 years
ago in Britain.

A reconstruction of a loom from Iron Age Europe of

around 500 B.c. It was used for weaving colored woolen
threads into cloth. The vertical threads, weighed down
with clay loomweights, were moved back and forth while
a shuttle was passed between them to bind the threads
together as a woven material. Such cloth was a great
step forward from the use of skins.
 j &&

No one knows when the wheel was invented. It was

probably first made from a sliced log, or it might have
developed from potters' wheels. Carts were certainly in
use in Sumer more than 5,000 years ago. These carried
large loads over longer distances. From the cart came an
important weapon of war, the chariot, which speeded up
battle charges. The wheel was also used as a pulley to
lift heavy loads. New forms of woodworking allowed the
building of lighter wheels, and metals made stronger axles.

FROM ABACUS TO COMPUTER

All of the technologies in use today
have their roots in this prehistoric period.
In modern times we use computers, but
counting systems, such as the abacus,
were invented thousands of years ago.

WHEN IT HAPPENED
c.9000 B.c. Arrowheads first made in
North America
c.8000 B.C. First farming in Mesopotamia
c.3000 B.C. The wheel is used on chariots
in Mesopotamia
c.2700 B.c. Chinese start making bronze
This bronze bucket and and weaving silk
highly decorated ax head
c.2500 B.c. Bricks are first used for building
were made in Europe
around 600 b.c. in the Indus Valley
Early smelters used bellows to heat a fire to a c.1500 B.C. Iron is smelted by the Hittites
temperature where a metal such as copper would melt m the Middle East
into liquid. This was then poured into molds. When cooled,
the metal product would be finished with polishing and
sharpening. Later, copper and tin were mixed to An iron dagger with
make the much harder bronze. its sheath from ancient
Europe, and a Roman
scythe and nails. Nails
made woodworking
much easier and quicker.
The Classical
World
499 b.c.-a.d. 500
This was the great age of ancient Greece and Rome.
These two extraordinary civilizations were
responsible for shaping much of the world we live
in today. By about 100 B.C., the ancient world was
dominated by four empires. The Roman Empire was
the most powerful, stretching from Europe to North
Africa. In the Far East, the Han dynasty controlled
almost all of what is now China, and the Middle
East was ruled by the Sassanids. In India, the
Gupta family held power. But, by about A.D. 450,
these four empires had collapsed.

▲ Sages and philosophers traditionally influenced Chinese society,

but they came under attack during the modernizing Qin period.

◄ The Temple of Olympian Zeus in Athens, Greece, was begun

in the 500s b.c., but not completed until the 100s b.c.

49
The world at a glance 499 b.c.-a.d. 500
T he classical civilizations that thrived during
this period set many trends and patterns for later
In these empires, life was mainly secure and
peaceful, with strong governments and armies.
times. Discoveries by the Greeks form the foundation But they soon came under attack from tribes of
of the modern knowledge of biology, mathematics, nomads called barbarians, and the cost of fighting
physics, literature, philosophy, and politics. Alexander these was high. By about A.D. 450 the great
the Great spread Greek ideas into much of Asia. empires had collapsed.
Later, by A.D. 100, the Romans took Greek culture At about the same time, the city of Teotihuacan
farther afield into Europe and North Africa. Farther in Mesoamerica was at its height. Its neighbors, the
east, the Han dynasty controlled large areas of Maya, built great cities and roads, and dominated
China, and the Guptas spread classical Hindu Mesoamerica until the 1400s.
culture throughout much of India.

<4
Si

NORTH AMERICA
North American tribes were spread
NORTH AMERICA
thinly across the continent. They led
simple lives—hunting, gathering, and farming \ ■-

in a variety of environments. In the Ohio area,

the Hopewell culture built towns and ceremonial M
mounds, marking the first civilization north of
Mexico. About a.d. 500, the Anasazi culture began
to develop in Utah, Arizona, and New Mexico.

MESOAMERICA
AND SOUTH
AMERICA

MESOAMERICA
AND SOUTH AMERICA
In Mexico and in Peru, a number of civilizations
grew. They had their greatest periods between
a.d. 1 and a.d. 600. In Mexico, the great trading
city of Teotihuacan, with its pyramids and
palaces led the way. The Maya were beginning
a civilization that would develop writing and
astronomy. Quite separately, in Peru, the city
of Tiahuanaco grew, high in the Andes. On the
Peruvian coast, the Chavin, Nazca, and Moche
cultures also began to establish themselves.

50
 EUROPE ASIA
Europe saw the rise of two great civilizations, first in Around 350 B.c., the Qin united China for the first time under one
Greece, then in Rome. Other cultures, such as the Celts, emperor. The Han took over, and their dynasty ruled China until a.d.
were overpowered and absorbed. By the 400s and 300s b.c., 220, creating a stable, Confucian-style imperial system. In India, the
classical Greece dominated the Mediterranean. But its Buddhist Mauryan dynasty created a remarkable culture from 320 B.c.
independent city-states regularly fought one another, to 185 b.c. In a.d. 320, a new Hindu dynasty,
which eventually led to their downfall. Meanwhile, in Italy, the Guptas, founded a city-empire in
the city of Rome absorbed Greek ways, northern India that lasted until a.d. 500.
expanding and growing until, by a.d. Elsewhere in Asia-in Japan, Thailand,
100, it had established a vast empire and Indonesia-other, more local
stretching from Arabia to Scotland. cultures were developing.
Through conquest, Rome spread a new
religion, Christianity, over its territory.
Yet, by a.d. 400, this great civilization
was starting to disintegrate.

AUSTRALASIA
In Australia, the Aborigines
lived simply and quietly
with no outside contact.
New Zealand had few
inhabitants. In
AUSTRALASIA
the Pacific Ocean,
the Polynesians
continued to
colonize islands
over a vast area.

• V-0

AFRICA
Africa was inhabited by a variety of
tribal peoples. Around 400 b.c., the
Nok culture flourished in West
The Middle East was greatly influenced by Greece and Rome.
Africa. In a.d. 350, the people
Alexander the Great made his capital at Babylon, bringing
of Aksum conquered
modernizing Greek influences into this
the kingdom of Kush. By
very ancient and traditional region. Later,
a.d. 500, the Bantu had
the Romans dominated Syria, Palestine,
reached southern Africa.
and Egypt. To the east, Persia's rich
civilization straddled the Eastern
and Western worlds.

51
 10,000 5000 3000 1500 500 300 100 B.C. A.D. 100 200 350 500 700

Classical Greece 600-337 b.c.

Ancient Greece was made up of independent city- Black
Sea
states, each with its own laws and customs. Here,
ITALY THRACE
the Greeks created a new society with new ideas. GREECE

E ach city-state or polis grew up on

the plains, and the mountains around
Thermopylia
Aegean
Sea
Marathon
\
Persian
t

Empire
P/afaea <^Athens
them provided natural limits and defenses. Peloponnese,
Salamis
Citizens built high, strong walls around 0 *
*Sparta
their cities, and an acropolis (fort) was
Mediterranean Sea
erected on a high place inside the walls. At
the heart of each city was the agora, a large The Aegean Sea was well placed for the founding of
open space used for meetings and markets. a maritime civilization, with cities dotted along both
coastlines, and easy access to the Mediterranean Sea

Athens led the way in the

CITIES AND COLONIES
development of richly The two most important city-states GREEK CULTURE
painted pottery. were Athens and Sparta. There were The Greeks created a new society
many other cities, such as Corinth, Chalcis, with new ideas. They fought hard for their
Miletos, Smyrna, and Eretria, each with its freedom, especially against the Persians who
own way of life, customs, and forms of threatened Greece. Being traders, sailors, and
government. The city-states expanded to adventurers, the Greeks influenced many
build colonies northward on the Black Sea, faraway cultures. Philosophers, doctors, and
in Cyrenaica on the coast of north Africa scientists taught a new way of thinking,
(Libya), Sicily, southern Italy, and even as based on observation and discussion. Old
far away as the southern coasts of France rural traditions died off as the cities grew
and Spain. Greek city-states were very to dominate the countryside. New art,
competitive with each other. architecture, and sciences were created.

Here, the traders of

a Greek colonizing
expedition, around
500 B.c., draw their
ships up onto the beach
to start business. The
newly built walled
city would contain a
marketplace, temples, law
courts, and government
offices as well as
houses, workshops,
and defenses.

◄ At the battle of Salamis,

c. 480 B.c., 380 Greek ships,
called triremes, faced a Persian
force of 1,200 ships. The more
mobile triremes drove the Persians
into a confused huddle. Persian
defeats on land and at sea led
them to withdraw from Greece.

52
900 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000

EDUCATION
The sons of freemen were sent to school, and girls were
taught weaving and household skills by their mothers.
Starting at the age of six or seven, the boys learned
reading, writing, dancing, music, and athletics. They
wrote on wax tablets, using a stick called a stylus.

◄ Here, Greek children T This painting shows

study a number of subjects a schoolboy being tested
with their tutors. by one of his tutors.

DISUNITY BETWEEN CITY-STATES KEY DATES

Athens, Sparta, and other city-states united 800s The first city-states founded in Greece

to fight off Persian invasions for 60 years, 594 Reform of the Athenian constitution
540s Persians conquer Ionia (eastern Aegean)
and triumphed at the battles of Marathon
480 Persian invasion ends
and Salamis around 480 B.C. However, from 431-404 Peloponnesian Wars: Athens against Sparta
431 B.C. they spent more than 25 years 404 Athens falls to Sparta
fighting each other in the Peloponnesian 371 Sparta declines-Thebes now main city-state

War because Sparta feared the growth of 337 Philip of Macedon invades Greece

Athenian power. The independent Greek

A silver four-drachma "owl"
cities, therefore, never united as one
piece was the most common
country. This disunity eventually resulted coin in the ancient Greek
in an invasion around world. Issued in Athens,
one side carried a picture
330 B.C. by Philip II of
of Athena, goddess of
Macedon, father of wisdom and patron and
Alexander the Great. protector of Athens. The
other side carried a picture
of an owl, Athena's symbol,
carrying an olive branch.

Greek philosophers
have had a great impact
on history, and their
works are still studied
today. The freethinking
atmosphere in Athens
stimulated questioning
and discussion on
many different subjects.
Herodotus and Thucydides
were famous Greek
historians, and Plato,
Socrates, and Aristotle
i’A were philosophers
aflpr--'. and scientists.

53
 1
5000 1 3000 1500 500 j 300 ! 100 B.C. 0 A.D. 100 200; 350 I 500 ! 700 |
10,000

Greek city-states 6oo-337b.c.

There were many Greek city-states. Athens and
Sparta were the leading cities, constantly fighting
each other to dominate Greece.
A thens and Sparta had very
different beliefs and ways of life.
Athens was a busy, cosmopolitan
trading city run by public debate
and decision making—a center for
new ideas and trade from all over
the known world. Athens became
great through prosperity and
invention. Sparta was steered by its
king, and had a very strictly ruled and
militaristic society. Sparta threatened
Athens’ leadership with a well-trained
and superior army. Athens was the Greek theaters were built so that everyone could see the
stage and hear the actors. Greek plays often had a strong
birthplace of democracy under the
moral message, and many Greek dramas survive to this day.
The sculpted head of a reformers Kleisthenes (around 500 B.c.)
Greek goddess. The Greeks and Pericles (around 460 B.c.}. Voting was
made their gods look very
enjoyed by freemen, but not by women, Cities such as Corinth, Thebes, Samos,
human, introducing realism
into their art. In later foreigners, or slaves. By 400 B.c. it was the and Byzantium also made up the culture
centuries, this artistic leading city-state, controlling the seas and now known as classical Greece. Being
realism reached as far as
a number of colonies abroad. Many cities smaller than Athens and Sparta, they often
India and Japan, where
statues of the Buddha paid tribute to Athens for protection and had to ally themselves with each other to
were also made in trade advantages. Its statesmen, soldiers, survive—sometimes switching sides. Each
a realistic style.
writers, architects, philosophers, artists, and made its own special contribution
mathematicians had a wide influence. to Greek culture.

▲ When a politician
became unpopular, citizens
voted to ostracize or exile
him by scratching his “
name on a piece of broken
pottery called an ostraka.

■4 In Athenian politics
there were long, heated
debates in which orators
had a great influence.
This was a new kind of
government: democracy.

54
900 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000

The Acropolis in Athens was first built as a

fort. Around 400 B.c. it was transformed into
a complex of spectacular shrines and temples.

SPARTA
Sparta had a large army, and life for
the Spartans was much harsher than for
civilized, cultured Athenians. Spartans were
renowned for their strength, dedication, and
courage. Sparta relied on a vast population
of land slaves called helots to provide food.
A helot rebellion in 464 B.C. lasted for
20 long years, until the Spartans created
an army to control the slaves—the first
dictatorial “police state.” Spartan life was
tough from birth onward: babies who
were weak or sick were left to die on the
mountainside. Boys were given strenuous
training in military skills and sports from
the age of seven until they were 20, when
they became citizens. Then they joined the
army. Even when married, Spartans ate ▼ In this Greek agricultural scene, a ▲ Greek city houses were built
shepherd is guarding his sheep, pigs are around a courtyard with a large
and slept in communal barracks until being herded, olives are being pressed, kitchen. Flat roofs provided extra
they were 30 years old. and the oil is being sold to a merchant. living space in the summer.

55
 10,000 5000 3000: 1500 500 300 100 B.C. S 0 A.D. 100 700

Alexander the great 336-323 b.c.

After the end of the disastrous Peloponnesian War, the Alexander founded many
new cities, the greatest
age of Spartan domination did not last long. By 359 B.C. of which was Alexandria in
Philip of Macedon controlled all of Greece. Egypt. Its imposing lighthouse,

P hilip of Macedon was assassinated in

336 B.C., shortly after he had invaded
the Pharos, at around 330 ft.
(100m), was one of the seven
wonders of the ancient world.

Greece. His son Alexander was only 20

years old when he became king. He set
out to destroy the Persian threat to
Greece—and to gain Persia’s wealth.
His first campaign in 334 B.C. gave him
control of Asia Minor, and he quickly took
Syria and Egypt. By 331 B.C., Persia had
fallen and Alexander had taken Babylon.
Alexander was one of He then embarked on a program of
the greatest generals exporting Greek culture and city building
of all time. In 13 years,
he united Greece, Egypt,
to the lands the Greeks invaded. He was
and Babylon, spreading a modernizer, and many people welcomed, new capital. In 323 B.C., at the age of
Greek ("hellenistic") or at least accepted, the Greeks. Alexander 32, Alexander suddenly died of fever. His
ideas and customs
then marched to central Asia and India. In generals were left to battle for shares of
far and wide.
India, his soldiers refused to go farther. the Greek Empire, which now stretched
They withdrew to Babylon, Alexander’s from Egypt to India.

Samarkand This Greek painting

MACEDONIA Route taken by Alexander shows Alexander beating
Black Sea the Persian king, Darius,
GREECE\
Caspian at the battle of Issus, in
Sea Hydaspes <^,1
Syria, in 333 b.c. Alexander
Athens eventually took over the
whole Persian Empire.

Mediterranean ◄ In just a few years,

Sea
Alexander's troops „
Ecbanta marched many thousands
of miles, building new
Babylon cities, peopling them with
EGYPT INDIA Greeks, and modernizing
whole countries with Greek
• Persepolis ideas and trade. Babylon
Persian
Gulf became the new capital
Thebes of the Greek Empire.

56
900 I 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1750 1800 | 1850 1900 1950 2000

MAURYAN
The Mauryan Empire was founded by Chandragupta.
It extended from Bengal to the Hindu Kush and
united all the lands of northern India.

C handragupta took power in Maghada

in 321 B.C., and within ten years he
had invaded most of northern India. He
was a good organizer, and India became
prosperous under his influence. His son
Bindusara (293-268 B.c.) extended the
empire far into southern India.

ASOKA THE EMPIRE BUILDER The Mauryans made sure that there was plenty of food
Chandragupta’s grandson, Asoka (268- available by developing large irrigation and farming
schemes across India, such as these rice paddies in
Asoka said, "All people are 233 B.C.), was the greatest Mauryan ruler.
the Ganges Valley of northern India.
my children." He set out
He enlarged the empire, which was
to create a kind of heaven
on Earth in Mauryan India.
inhabited by peoples of more than 60
different beliefs and languages. Asoka was MAURYAN LIFE
a Hindu, but he adopted Buddhism after On a practical level, Asoka tried to
seeing a particularly horrific battle. He improve the conditions of his people. He
adopted the Buddhist moral rules of good had reservoirs and irrigation systems built
conduct and nonviolence and brought and wells dug, and he set up rest houses
peace, culture, dignity, and prosperity to at regular intervals along the roads of the
his subjects. He built up the religion from empire, to encourage travel and trade and
a small sect, and sent out missionaries as to bring together all its different regions
far as Indonesia, central Asia, and Egypt. into one system. Asoka also employed a
He had many stone pillars erected around large secret police to help him run his
India, covered with moral and religious diverse empire. Although Asoka tried to
guidelines for his people. Asoka was unite the empire, under his rule religious
one of history’s fairest monarchs. differences between Hindus, Buddhists,
and others actually became more distinct.
The lion capital at Sarnath,
After his death the Mauryan Empire
erected by Asoka, has been soon became weak and India
adopted by modern India fragmented into small kingdoms.
as one of its national
emblems. The column
on which it stood
The Great Stupa at Sanchi, in India,
marked the place
was built later than the Mauryan
where Buddha
period. This elaborate temple
preached.
was an expression of the rich
Buddhist culture that Asoka
had established.

57
 | 1
10,000 5000 i 3000 j 150o| 500| 300: 100 B.C. i 0 A.D. 100 200: 350 500! 7001

China: the qin dynasty 221-206 b.c.

The warlike Qin tribes of western China conquered
their neighbors from 350 B.C. onward. By 221 B.C. they
had built the empire from which China takes its name.

King Zheng of Qin (pronounced

“Chin") united most of China
in just ten years, ending the
Warring States period. He
changed his name to Shi
Huangdi (meaning “First
Emperor”) and founded
the first imperial dynasty
of China.
For the first time, China was united. The Qin built the
Great Wall to protect it from tribes from the north. The
IMPERIAL CHINA Qin capital was Xianyang on the upper Yellow River,
Shi Huangdi reorganized the the area where the Qin originated.

The ancient Chinese government, bringing everything under

were great inventors. They central control. He standardized all weights THE MANDATE OF HEAVEN
invented the wheelbarrow,
and measures, Chinese writing, and even Shi Huangdi was a warrior who used
which they used to carry
both goods and people the width of wagon wheels; he made laws cavalry rather than chariots. He was used
in the 2nd century B.c.— and institutions in the Qin tradition, and to being obeyed, and some of his actions
Europe only adopted it
introduced a single currency. He was a made him very unpopular. Yet he
1,000 years later.
ruthless modernizer, abolishing the powers commanded respect and achieved results,
of the feudal aristocracy and sending out and he used his power to make changes
administrators to run the regions. He built quickly and to unite China. He also had
roads and canals, and improved farming principles. He believed that the emperor
with irrigation and drainage schemes. To had been given the “mandate of heaven”
protect China from barbarians, construction by the gods, and that he must earn the
began on the Great Wall, much of which support of the gods by governing well.
still exists today. He established imperial This principle meant that the emperor
traditions that remained consistent through could also be deposed if he misgoverned
different dynastic periods over 2,000 years. the country.
In 221 B.C., Shi Huangdi destroyed many
traditional literary works, including those of
Confucius, and even executed 400 scholars,
to ensure modernization.

Life was bustling in a typical Qin town of

a few thousand people, with its market,
buildings, and defenses.

Sages and philosophers

traditionally influenced
Chinese society and
government and also
played a religious role.
As preservers of knowledge,
they came under attack
during the modernizing
Qin period.

58
900 | 1100 I 1200 1300 ; 1400| 1500! 1600 | 1700 | 1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000

KEY DATES
350s Qin becomes a militaristic state
315 Qin becomes the leading state in China
256 Qin annexes the state of Zhou (Luoyang)
230 King Qin Zheng begins to unify China by force
221 Qin dynasty unites the country for the first time
in one empire
214 To protect China from Hun raids, construction
of the Great Wall begins
212 Shi Hunagdi burns all historical documents,
books are banned, and Chinese script standardized
209-202 Civil war between competing warlords
202 Founding of the Han dynasty by Liu Bang

THE QIN LEGACY

Shi Huangdi died in 210 B.C., and
four years later the Qin dynasty was
overthrown because the changes and laws
they made were too harsh. A civil war
broke out. The idea of a united empire, i f : Shi Huangdi's tomb
however, had become fixed in the minds fW f housed his body and
■ I |
possessions for use in
of the people. An ordinary man, named if M
the afterlife. It also
Liu Bang, who had become a Qin official, contained 7,000 larger-
founded a new dynasty and, as a result, than-life terracotta
soldiers. Each face was
gained popular support. The Han dynasty
realistic and may have
was to rule for 400 years, on the basis represented the actual
that Shi Huangdi had established. faces of a specific soldier.

THE GREAT WALL OF CHINA

The Qin used large numbers of forced laborers to build much of the Great Wall.
It was 1,400 mi. (2,250km) long and built from packed earth and rubble. Stone,
bricks, and mortar were added later. The scale of this operation shows how
important it was to the Chinese to keep the raiding tribes of the north out.
These tribes preyed on Chinese security and prosperity, and China suffered
greatly before the wall was built and the raiders beaten off.

The Great Wall,

now 2,200 years old,
is a popular tourist
attraction today. When
it was built, it protected
civilized China from
the devastating raids
carried out by the Huns
(Xiongnu) and other
tribes from the north.

59
 10,000 5000 3000 1500 500 300 | 100 B.C. 0 A.D. 100 1 200 350 I 500 700

Africa 500 b.c.-a.d. 500

Most of Africa was unaffected by outside influences.
In West Africa, new nations were being formed, and
migration was changing southern Africa.

T he introduction of the camel to the

Sahara brought major changes around
100 B.C. Caravans were able to cross the
desert carrying gold, ivory, gums, spices,
and slaves. Trading towns became
established in West Africa: Jenne-
jeno, Niani, Yelwa, and Nok were on
rivers or at the edges of deserts and
| rain forests. These towns were the
capitals of the first budding African
states. North-south trade passed
through Meroe and Aksum, bypassing
the Sahara into the regions now
known as Chad, Rwanda, and Kenya.

Africa had four main centers of cultural growth: Aksum

AKSUM (Ethiopia), the Berber north African coast, negro West
This terracotta head from
Meroe collapsed in 350 B.C., and Aksum, Africa, and the developing Bantu areas farther south.
Nok is a fine example of
sculpture that flourished
on the Red Sea coast of Ethiopia, grew
from 400 B.C. to A.D. 200. rich exporting ivory, precious stones, and BANTU EXPANSION
perfumes to Arabia, Greece, and Rome, Farming, Bantu-speaking people from
reaching its peak in A.D. 350. Around that Nigeria gradually migrated south and east,
time its king, Ezana, adopted Christianity. and by A.D. 500 they had occupied central
Cities and great monoliths were built. and southern Africa, leaving the rain
Aksum thrived until A.D. 1000. forests to the pygmies and the Kalahari
Desert to the Khoisan bushmen. On
Africa’s east coast the Bantu had
started to trade with Greeks
and Romans.

Greek trading missions

on the east African coast
bought medicinal herbs,
aromatic gums, jewels,
and gold from the Bantu¬
speaking tribespeople of
the hinterlands.

The leaders of Aksum were

very religious. They built
tall monoliths like this at
places of importance,
such as over royal tombs.

60
900 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000

Judea 600 b.c.—a.d. 135

Since their 60-year exile in Babylon, from 597 B.C., the
Jews, with their different religious beliefs, had grown
further apart from their Near-Eastern neighbors.

T he Jews worshiped
one god, Yahweh, built
synagogues, and observed
strict religious laws. On returning
from exile in Babylon in 538 B.C.,
they emphasized Jewish law and
beliefs, and set themselves apart
from non-Jews, or Gentiles. The menorah, a Jewish ceremonial candlestick, was
Palestine was under Greek rule shaped by Moses to signify the seven days of Creation.
One stood in the Temple at Jerusalem.
and many Jews fought to stop
their influence destroying travel and trade, and many left to settle
Jewish traditions. elsewhere. When Pontius Pilate became
Judea’s Roman governor in A.D. 26, life
ROMAN PALESTINE became hard for the Jews. They loathed
After Greek rule, Judea was the Romans and their taxes. After much
independent for nearly 80 years rebelliousness, the Romans forced the
before being conquered by Jews to leave Judea in A.D. 135.
The Western Wall in Rome. The Romans appointed Herod
Jerusalem is at the site as king of Judea in 37 B.C. Jewish
of the Temple that
people were free to
was destroyed by the
Romans in a.d. 70.

The ancient fortress of Masada is

where besieged Jewish rebels
committed suicide in
ad. 132 rather than
surrender to the
Romans.

61
 1
500 j 300 | 100 B.C. 0 A.0. 100 ; 200 ; 350 500 1 700 1
10,000 5000 3000 1500 :

The roman republic 509-27 b.c.

Rome was by now run by patricians (the ruling class).
They sought to expand Rome’s interests, first in Italy
and later throughout the Mediterranean.
T here followed a struggle between
the patricians and plebeians (ordinary
people), which led to the writing of a
legal code and to plebeian influence
in government. This formed the
backbone of the Republic.
Seeking protection from
attack, the Romans
entered a series of wars
m that, by 270 B.C., gave
them control of most of
Italy. Rome soon clashed
with Carthage over trade
in the Mediterranean.
The Punic Wars that
followed lasted 60 years.
During this period, the Carthaginian The central square or forum of a Roman town was
Jars like this amphora emperor, Hannibal, led his army across the where people met each other, announcements were
were used to store and made, markets were held, and where the town hall,
Alps to invade Italy. After a series of
transport olive oil and treasury, and law courts were located.
victories by Hannibal, the brilliant Roman
wine throughout the
Roman Empire. general, Scipio, set off to Africa to attack citizenship if they cooperated. By 44 B.C. the
Carthage. This forced Hannibal back to Romans ruled Spain, France, Europe south
The Colosseum in Rome,
Carthage, where he was finally defeated by of the Danube, Anatolia, and northern
an enormous stadium,
was used for gladiatorial Scipio. The Romans soon established new Africa, dominating the Mediterranean. In
contests, sports, and the cities, building order and prosperity and less than 200 years, the Romans had become
gory killing of animals, giving conquered peoples a form of Roman the controlling force in the West.
captured enemies,
and slaves.
900 1100; 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600; 1700: 1750 1800: 1850 1900 1950 2000

THE END OF THE REPUBLIC Vital to the growing

In 100 B.C., friction grew between the empire was the system
of roads built to speed up
patricians and plebeians. The army was trade, mail delivery, and
opened up to landless citizens, who were troop movements. On the
rewarded for their services with land and right, a water-carrying
aqueduct is being built
status in the colonies. Power struggles
over a road.
between generals ended in civil war, and,
in 44 B.C., Julius Caesar became dictator for
life. Alarmed Republicans assassinated him,
and the Republic soon ended.

THE PUNIC WARS Hannibal’s

route
Expanding their influence, the Romans came up against the Phoenicians in Carthage.
The Punic Wars (264-241 and 218-202 B.c.) began over a fight for Sicily, but grew to
threaten the great cities of Rome and Carthage. The Carthaginian general, Hannibal,
nearly won, after invading Italy from the Alps. The Roman general, Scipio Africanus,
avoided a head-on battle, instead attacking Spain
in 206 and then Carthage itself in 202
Carthage
B.c. The Phoenicians lost everything,
and the Romans then dominated the
AFRICA Zama
■jBSL e_<_>_
Mediterranean Sea and its trade.
Hannibal's army marched from Spain, over the Alps, and
into Italy. It was so formidable that the Romans avoided
confronting it. They attacked Carthage instead, and
forced Hannibal to rush back to defend it.

Hannibal was a brilliant

strategist and a modest
man who carried out
maneuvers no one
believed could work. The
Romans beat him only by
outwitting his strategy.
The Carthaginians used African
elephants to frighten the Roman
troops. When they crossed
Alps, most of the

63
 10,000 | 5000 3000 1500 500 300 : 100 B.c. a.d. 100 200 350 500 700 |

The ROMAN EMPIRE 27b.c.-a.d.475

After Julius Caesar's death in 44 B.C., Romans preferred
dictatorship to chaos. Octavian, his successor, gradually
took control. He became the first emperor.
O ctavian was Caesar’s nephew.
He was an able politician, getting
himself elected as Consul (president) year
after year. He called himself princeps (“first
citizen”), not king. Renamed Augustus
(“imposing one”), he reorganized the
government and empire and imposed
peace. Under him, trade extended as
far as East Africa, India, and China, The Roman Empire dominated most of the Western
world, uniting it into one economic system, under
and the empire’s towns, roads, and
one goverment.
territories grew ever larger.
Aurelius—most of whom were not
Julius Caesar was a ROMAN EMPERORS actually Roman. By A.D. 117 the empire
ruthless and ambitious Emperors relied more on the army had grown too large and Rome’s soldiers
general and politician
who conquered the Celts
than on the Roman people for support. could no longer be paid with booty, slaves,
of Gaul and later became Patricians no longer had great power. Many and land taken in conquest. The burden
Rome's first dictator for had moved to rich country estates and the on Rome grew.
life—an appointment that
far provinces. Most of the Roman emperors
angered Republicans and
led to Caesar's murder. chose their successors; some unpopular or
controversial ones were deposed by soldiers.
In A.D. 68-69, four emperors were deposed
Heavily armed Roman in one year. From A.D. 100, Rome was
legionnaires: a centurion ruled by strong emperors—Trajan,
(officer) with a ballista
(catapult), a legionary
Hadrian, Antoninus, and Marcus
(soldier), and a
standard-bearer.

When attacking a fortress,

legionnaires would form a protective
shield like this-a testudo (tortoise),
that advanced slowly under fire
from stones and arrows.

THE ROMAN ARMY ^

Soldiers joined the army to gain rewards of promotion,
land, or power-especially if they were not Roman. This
meant that soldiers dominated the empire and its colonies,
becoming landowners and the ruling class. The army was
very international, often hiring barbarians as mercenaries.
Legions fought in such faraway places as Scotland,
Morocco, and Arabia. Roads, forts, and border walls
were built to maintain security.

64
900 1100 1200 | 1300 14001 1500? 1600! 1700! 1750! 1800 1850 I 1900 ! 1950 2000

A permanent Roman army

camp was like a miniature
city, with all the services
necessary to support a
legion—the troops were,
after all, far from their
THE ROMAN EMPIRE homes in other parts of
The final conquests, in the century Hungary adopted Roman ways and the empire. These military
bases were located in the
following Augustus, had been in Britain, thought of themselves as Roman citizens.
areas that were most in
Syria, Palestine, and Egypt. The Jews and Running a huge empire was difficult, and need of permanent
British had been difficult to beat, and the it was united by business, not religious protection.
Parthians impossible. However, most of or ethnic ties. Provincial peoples were
the conquered peoples adapted. People allowed to get on with their lives,
in Gaul, North Africa, Syria, Britain, and as long as they obeyed the
rules set by the Romans.
The Appian Way, a major road from Rome to the southeast
coast, was built in 312 b.c. Soldiers, traders, and
travelers could now travel along it very quickly. KEY DATES
509 B.c. Roman republic founded
496 Romans defeat Latins at Battle of
Lake Regillus
493 Roman-Latin alliance forms the Latin
League, which fights the Etruscans
390 Rome sacked by Celts
306 Romans defeat Etruscans
300s Romans expand to dominate Italy
264-202 Punic Wars and the fall of Carthage
146 Rome takes Greece
50s Caesar conquers France
49-31 Civil War between competing generals
27 B.c. Octavian: end of republic, growth of empire
A.D. 160 Plague and crisis cut population and trade
212 Roman citizenship granted to all inhabitants
of the empire
286 Diocletian divides and reorganizes the empire
324 Founding of Constantinople
370 Barbarian attacks on the empire
410 The Visigoths sack Rome-rapid decline of
the city results
476 Fall of the last emperor, Romulus Augustus

65
 10,000 500 400 300 200100 B.C. | 0 A.D. 100 [ 200 300 400 500 | 600 j

Roman life 509 b.c .-a.d. 475

The Romans did not really invent many things to THE SENATE
advance their civilization—they took what had The Republic was ruled by an elected
Senate, a group of patricians who selected
already been invented and developed it further.
two consuls each year to act as presidents.
T he Roman way of life became known
as Romanitas—everything that had
These presidents were advised by the
Senate. Later, Roman soldiers gained
to do with being a citizen of the empire. greater power than the ordinary people,
It was not just an empire—it was a and the consuls became military dictators.
system, a single market, and a union After the death of Augustus, Rome was
of different lands, sharing a developed ruled by a succession of emperors who
way of life. held absolute power.
Everyday objects like this
key were handmade in THE POWER OF THE PEOPLE URBAN LIFE
specialized workshops. The Greeks created democracy and the The largest cities of the empire were Rome,
Romans took it further. Democracy meant Alexandria, and Antioch, with over 100,000
government by patricians, the ruling class, inhabitants in each. Other Roman cities had
although plebeians (ordinary people) had 10,000-50,000 inhabitants. Each city was
some influence in elections. Slaves— carefully laid out with its official buildings
mostly non-Roman—had no power at all. and public squares, baths, a stadium,
Roman democracy worked well for a markets, workshops, and storehouses,
time, but in the end it was misused. It was as well as living quarters for
The Romans used olive replaced by the rule of an emperor. each social class.
oil to fill lamps to light
their homes.
A ROMAN TOWN
The Romans were superb builders. They built roads across the countryside and walls
around their towns for protection. People went to the public baths to wash, relax, and
meet friends. There were temples dedicated to gods and goddesses.
Business was done in the forum, originally
the city's marketplace. A Roman emperor wore a
toga, or cloak, over a long
tunic. Beside him stands
his young slave.

Slaves did the fetching

and carrying, both in
the city and on farms
in the country.
700 800 900 1000 1100; 1200 1300 [ 1400 I 1500 j 1600 1700 | 1800; 1900; 2000

KEY DATES
200 B.c. Growth of classical Roman art, architecture,
and literature
103 Revolt by slaves in Rome
91 War between Rome and Italian cities
88 Civil war in Rome
c.30 b.c. The poet Virgil and the historian Livy at work
A.D. 64 Start of persecution of Christians in Rome,
under Nero
100 The empire reaches its greatest extent
160 Thousands of Roman citizens die from
the plague
200 The empire's road system is completed
260 Beginning of barbarian incursions
313 Constantine decrees religious tolerance
410 Fall of the empire

The Romans used

THE COUNTRYSIDE EVERYDAY LIFE chariots drawn by horses
for races and fast travel.
As Roman life developed, farms were Life in Rome was in many ways similar Races were held in sports
bought and reorganized by rich city- to city life today. High-rise houses, traffic arenas. Goods were carried
dwellers or awarded to soldiers as estates. problems, shopping, waste disposal, hustle, in carts drawn by strong,
heavy oxen.
Tenants, peasants, and slaves did the work, and bustle were all common features.
growing produce for sale in the cities. Rome was also a meeting place for people
Large quantities of food and materials from all over the empire, and the people
were transported from the farms to Rome communicated in the common tongues,
and other cities. In addition, the legions Latin and Greek. It was a money economy
required feeding, so the country estates and a very complex society with different
were prepared for large-scale and classes, belief systems, and several
profitable food production. different religions.

A COUNTRY VILLA
Wealthy Romans lived in large town houses. They also had grand villas
in the country. Some villas were run as large farms. The owner and
his family could enjoy a comfortable house and garden, with a heating
system fo; keep them warm in the winter. Many large farms used slave
labor to grow highly profitable crops of grain or olives, or to raise
sheep and goats for milk, meat, and hides.
 10,000 5000 3000 1500 500 A.D. 100 200 350 | 500 700

The celts 500 b.c.-a.d. 43

The Celts were a loose grouping of tribes living in
southern Germany from around 1500 B.C. By Roman
times, the Celts dominated much of Europe.

A round 500 B.C., the Celts were the

dominant European power. They
had expanded from a heartland in what
is now southern Germany. They were not
a nation, but more a confederation of
individual tribes with a shared culture.
Their influence eventually stretched from
Spain to Britain, Germany, and northern
Italy, and as far as central Anatolia.
This bull's head appeared on a huge bronze ceremonial
cauldron found at Gundestrup in Denmark. Animal figures,
CELTIC LIFE
like this, and geometric designs were a popular feature
The Celts were tribal farmers who on pieces of elegant Celtic metalwork.
gathered around their chiefs’ oppidae or
strongholds. These were often hill forts, POWER AND LAW
and some of them later became villages Each Celt was a free person with
or towns. Most Celts were homesteaders individual rights. Druidic justice was
and small farmers, living in a variety of famous, and bonds of loyalty within
This Celtic bronze shield tribes. Sometimes these tribes divided, each tribe were strong. The chiefs were
was made around a.d. 100. with one group moving to another place, elected by tribespeople, and the
Set with precious stones,
it was more likely to have
so that certain tribes might be spread high kings by the chiefs.
been made for ceremonial through different areas. The Celts were Both could be deposed
use than for use in battle. bound together by the Druids, who were if they did not do
learned priests, lawmakers, bards, and wise a good job.
men. They also had gifted musicians,
artists, and metalworkers. Their jewelry,
pottery, weapons, and drinking vessels
were often decorated with intricate
designs and geometric shapes. The Celts
traded with Rome, Greece, and other
countries, but they were not much
influenced by these civilizations.

Vertcingetorix was
a Gaulish chief who
organized a successful
rebellion against Julius
Caesar's invasion of Gaul
in 52 B.C., but he was
later forced to surrender.

A Celtic chief and

members of his tribe
feast in their timbered
hall while listening to
the poetic songs of a
bard. Laws, history,
stories, news, and
religious teachings
were communicated
by the druidic bard.

68
900 I 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 ! 1600 1700 I 1750 1800 1850 I 1900 1950 ! 2000

Celtic roundhouses were made of timber

and thatch, with wattle-and-daub (or
sometimes stone) walls. Smoke floated
out through the thatched roof, but rain
was unable to seep in. Sleeping space
was around the inside of the wall,
and cooking and washing were
done around the central fire.

▼ The Celtic stag-god

Cernunnos or Hum was
hammered and chiseled
into the side of this large
bronze cauldron around
1,900 years ago.

CELTIC WARRIORS
Known as fierce warriors (the women also
fought], the Celts used iron to make their
weapons and tools. In 390 B.c.; they sacked
Rome, and in 280 B.C. they raided Greece
and Anatolia, seeking booty. Sometimes
they even fought among themselves. The
Romans exploited this when conquering
Gaul (France] and Britain. The British
Celtic leader, Caradoc (Caractacus], was
betrayed by other Celts. Disunited, the
British warriors lost their independence Boudicca was the queen
in A.D. 43-80. The Celts came to accept of the Iceni of the East
Roman rule and later fought with the of England. She headed
a rebellion against the
Romans against Germanic barbarians. occupying Romans in
The Celts were also the first European Britain in a.d. 60 in which
Christians. After the fall of Rome, Celtic seventy thousand Romans
were killed. However, the
ways in Europe survived only in Ireland,
rebellion was eventually
Cornwall, Brittany, and parts of crushed, and Boudicca
Scotland and Wales. committed suicide.

69
 10,000 ■ 5000! 3000! 1500! 500 300! 100 B.C. I A.D. 100 i 200 1 350 i 500 I 700!

China: the han dynasty 202 b.c.-a.d 220

The Han was the first long-lasting dynasty of united
imperial China. Han China enjoyed stability and
greatness and was a fine example of civilization.

F or 400 years from 202 B.C.

to A.D. 220, China was ruled by
emperors of the Han dynasty. They
were more lenient and stable than
the Qin, and practiced fair Confucian
principles of law and administration.

THE EARLY HAN

The dynasty was founded by Liu
Bang, a commoner who was popular
because he relaxed the harsh laws, This bronze model of a prosperous man in his carriage
cut taxes, and favored the people. The was found in the tomb of the Han general, Wuwei.
capital was Chang’an, which, after 100 It was probably made around a.d. 100.

years, became the world’s largest city.

It was at the end of the Silk Road THE MARTIAL EMPEROR
▲ A ceramic horse and along which China traded with Persia and Wu Di, the “Martial Emperor,” reigned
rider made in Han China
Rome. Han China saw itself as the “Middle for 55 years from 141 B.c. He added
around 80 b.c. Stirrups
were not introduced into Kingdom,” the center of the world. There part of central Asia, Korea, and much
China until around a.d. 300. was a great flowering of culture, wealth, and of southern China to his empire. At great
learning. At this time, Han China was as expense, he beat back the Xiongnu [Huns]
▼ Here, Chinese soldiers large and developed as the extensive Roman of Mongolia, who often raided China. He
of the Han period engage Empire. The Han developed a system of improved the mandarin administration,
in battle. Lacking stirrups, administration by highly educated officials built schools, canals, cities, and buildings,
the horsemen on both
sides were easily knocked
called mandarins. People who wanted to and encouraged foreign contact. Buddhism
to the ground during work as public officials had to take an was introduced to China during this high
fighting at close quarters. examination on the writings of Confucius. point in the country’s long history.

70
900 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 I 1700 1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000

The emperor's many representatives were always treated with great

respect. The speedy transportation of officials from one place to
another was helped by stations where fresh horses were provided.

WANG MANG
During the following century, the Han
grew weak, while the nobles grew ever
stronger. A courtier, Wang Mang, rebelled,
took power, and ruled from A.D. 9-23.
He introduced many changes and reforms,
favoring the people against landowners
and nobles, and reforming land rights and
the judicial system. Eventually the nobles
overthrew Wang Mang, and the Han
dynasty was restored.

THE LATER HAN

The Han produced exquisite objects of were large and elegant. However,
wood, lacquer, and silk. They also replaced the population had grown, and rebellions
many of the writings that had been among landless and poor peasants became
destroyed by the Qin. Chinese inventors frequent. Barbarians again attacked the
were far ahead of the rest of the world. borders, and warlords took over the army.
Their invention of paper took centuries to The last Han emperor gave up his throne
reach the West. Many of the cities they built in A.D. 220 and the empire fell apart.

1^22531!! k Mpv ftfkl „

\V?
'T
ivWBkil ivM«l
City streets in Han China
were crowded. The muddy
roads were full of carts,
chariots, and traders.
Craftsmen, letter writers,
storytellers, and astrologers
also plied their trade
noisily in the open air.

71
 5000 3000 1500 500 300 I 100 B.C. i 0 A.D. 100 I 200 I 350 700
10,000

Christianity a.d. 30-400

Around the time that Jesus of Nazareth was born
there were many faiths and sects in the Roman Empire.
Within 400 years, Christianity became dominant.
T he Jewish people believed that a
Messiah (savior) would be bom
to lead them. At the time that Jesus
of Nazareth was born, Judea was
suffering under Roman rule. At
about the age of 30, Jesus began
publicly teaching, and it is said that
he performed many miracles, such as
healing. The Jewish authorities accused
him of blasphemy and he was tried
before the Roman governor, Pontius Pilate.
The Chi-Rho symbol, or He was crucified, but his followers reported
labarum, was adopted by seeing him alive after his death.
early Christians. Its P and
X are the first two letters
in the Greek spelling of A CHURCH IS BORN The Essenes were a Jewish sect. Their abandoned scrolls,
found in a cave at Qumran near the Dead Sea, in 1947,
Christ. The symbol Chi-Rho This “resurrection” formed the basis of a
itself is a short form of included one which deals with the Messiah and what
new faith, breaking with old Jewish was to happen after he appeared.
the word chreston, or
"good omen." traditions and founded by Jesus’ closest
disciples, the apostles. It gradually spread Christians kept their faith quietly,
among both exiled Jews and non-Jews because the Roman authorities often
throughout the Roman world. Early persecuted them, and caused many of
followers—especially Paul—taught that them to go into hiding. Many died a
Christianity was open to anyone who chose painful death in the arena. In Egypt,
to be baptized. By A.D. 300, it had spread to a group of Christians withdrew to the
Egypt, Aksum, Syria, Armenia, Anatolia, desert to live as hermits. They were the
Greece, Rome, France, Britain, and India. first Christian monks.

JESUS OF NAZARETH
Jesus was born in Bethlehem, in Judea. Around the age of 12, in
discussions with learned rabbis at the temple, Jesus showed himself to
be special. Nothing more is known about his life until he was around 30
years of age. He then began a public life of teaching. Jesus attracted
large crowds. He used parables-stories that taught lessons by
example. Love and respect for others was at the heart of
his teaching. Three years after he began his mission,
the Romans put him to death.
A painting of Jesus as he
was portrayed in the first
centuries after his death.

72
900 1100 1200! 1300 I 1400| 1500 I 1600! 1700! 1750! 1800 1850 1900 1950 ! 2000

KEY DATES
3 B.C. Probable year of the birth of Jesus of
Nazareth, in Bethlehem
30 Approximate date of the crucifixion
of Jesus Christ
45-64 The missions of Paul to Greece, Anatolia,
and Rome
65-100 The Christian Gospels are written
180 Foundation of early Church institutions
249-311 Periodic persecutions of Christians in the
Roman Empire
269 St. Anthony establishes Christian
monasticism in Egypt
313 Emperor Constantine recognizes the
Christian church
325 Church doctrine formalized
337 Constantine is baptized on his deathbed

STATE RELIGION
Religious persecution in the Roman
Empire was halted when Emperor
Constantine recognized Christianity in
A.D. 313. Later it became the official state
religion. Constantine called the first
council of all bishops, at Nicaea, urging
them to resolve their differences and write
down one doctrine—the Nicene Creed.
Politically, he saw the Church as a way
of bringing new life to his empire. His
actions defined Christianity, greatly
affecting Europe and, eventually, most who disagreed with the doctrine. The In the a.d. 300s , an
Egyptian Christian,
of the rest of the world. It also meant Gnostic (Egyptian), Celtic, and Nestorian
Anthony, traveled to the
that the ideas of some teachers were churches were examples of branches Sinai desert and began
outlawed as “heresies,” and this led to that eventually died out—although the the monastic tradition.
St. Catherine's monastery,
the disappearance of many aspects of the Nestorians journeyed to Persia and as
at the base of Mt. Sinai,
faith. It also led to death or exile for those far as China to prevent this. is one of the oldest
monasteries in the area.

Constantine changed the

church from a sect into a
powerful institution.
Legend has it thbt he
adopted the Christian
symbol after being told
in a dream to paint it on
his soldiers' shields before
a crucial battle outside
Rome in a.d. 312—a
battle he won.

73
 10,000 5000 : 3000 1500 500 : 300 100 B.C. I 01 A.D. 1001 200 1 350 1 500 !

PaRTHIANS AND SASSANIDS 238 B.C.-A.D. 637

The Parthians were Asiatic nomads who had moved
south into Persia around 1000 B.C. About 300 B.C., the
Parni tribe, later to become their rulers, joined them.

T he Parthians and the Parni lived

in northern Iran under Persian
and then Greek Seleucid rule. The
head of the Parni became the Seleucid
governor of Parthia. Then, in 238 B.C.,
he declared independence and made
himself high king over a number
of local chiefs in the land. The
Parthians adopted existing local
ways of doing things (Greek,
Persian, Babylonian), rather than
inventing their own, although in
time they adopted more and more The Parthians were famous for horseback fighting. They
Persian customs. Parthia grew prosperous would gallop away from the enemy as if fleeing, and then
through Silk Road trade from China. turn and shoot backward at their pursuers. This led to
Shapur I became the
the term "Parthian shot."
Persian shah (emperor)
in a.d. 242. Two years later
he shocked the Romans
RISE AND FALL OF THE PARTHIANS
by defeating them. Shapur The greatest Parthian leaders were two THE RISE OF THE SASSANIDS
was the greatest of the brothers, both called Mithradates. Little The Parthian wars with Rome were costly
Sassanid shahs and
is known of Parthia, except that the and unpopular. After 450 years of superiority
ruled for 30 years.
Parthians conquered Babylonia and Bactria in Persia, they became a spent force. In A.D.
(Afghanistan) and were friendly with Han 225, this made it possible for a local king
China. They fought the Romans regularly, named Ardashir to overthrow the Parthians.
stopping the Roman expansion eastward. Ardashir ruled over a Persian dynasty,
Their army was strong and well-organized. the Sassanids. He made the Parsee faith
Famous for horseback fighting, they swept (Zoroastrianism) into the state religion
into battle at great speed, behind a hail of Persia. This was a new idea, later copied
of arrows, and were able to quickly by Constantine of Rome. Ardashir led the
overwhelm all armed opposition. Persians into a new period of greatness.

fv
111
kr

it n*1 Around a.d. 275, Shapur I

built a wonderful palace
at Ctesiphon in Babylonia,

rG | of which only these ruins

remain. Ctesiphon became
a wealthy city and a major
center for the area,
communicating with the
West and with China.

74
900 1100 1200 I 1300 I 1400 1500 1600 I 1700 I 1750 I 1800 I 1850 i 1900 | 1950 2000

SHAPUR I OF PERSIA
The Sassanid shahs (emperors) wanted
to carry on in the ancient traditions of old
Persia, and they also wanted to reclaim the
lands Darius had once ruled before they
were conquered by Alexander the Great.
Their court at Ctesiphon (near Babylon)
became the focus for a brilliant culture,
and the wealthy empire became Rome’s
greatest rival. Shapur I was an outstanding
Sassanid ruler. He fought the Romans and
even captured the Roman emperor
Valerian, and had him killed. Shapur
conquered Armenia, Syria, Bactria, and
Sogdiana (Afghanistan), and the Indus
Valley (Pakistan). At home, Shapur
sponsored a cultural flowering of Persia
Parthian and Sassanid
that centered on Zoroastrian religious KEY DATES wealth came through
ideas. In 480, Persia suffered a religious trade on the Silk Road
238 B.c. Parthian Arsaces 1 declares independence
revolt and the invasion of hordes of Huns which passed through
from Seleucia
Parthia from China to the
from Mongolia. After these problems were 141 Mithradates invades Mesopotamia West. This carved life-size
dealt with, Shah Khosru II conquered 53 Parthians destroy the Roman army in Syria figure of Hercules was
Egypt and Byzantium. However, he was A.D. 225 Sassanids overthrow the Parthians placed by the Silk Road
240-272 Shapur l-Sassanid Persia at its high point to guard the route.
killed, a civil war broke out, weakening
480s Hun invasions of eastern Persia
Persia. Sassanid Persia collapsed when 616 Khosru II conquers Egypt
the newly inspired Muslim Arabs 637 Persia falls to the Muslim Arabs
conquered the area in 637, eventually
converting the Persians to Islam.

In 260, Shapur I captured the Roman emperor Valerian in

battle and forced him to submit. He then had him killed,
stuffed, and put on display. Shapur hoped to
become the world's greatest emperor,
and his capital, Ctesiphon, near
Babylon, was one of the
grandest of the time.

75
 10,000 5000 3000 1500 500^ 2001 350! 500

THE AMERICAS 500 b.c.-a.d. 500

During this period there were many different
cultures in the Americas. By A.D. 100, the city-state
Arctic hunters
of Teotihuacan had grown to dominate Mexico. Sub Arctic hunters

E xcept for visits by Pacific

Polynesians to Peru during the
NORTH
AMERICA
A.D. 300s, the Americas were isolated from
Huntefs and
the rest of the world. Even so,
gathererS Hopewell
Teotihuacan, dominated by its enormous \ ’ I Indians
Par if if' \ ' •« Atlantic
Pyramid of the Sun, was the world’s fifth Ocean MEXICO Ocean
largest city, with 200,000 people.
Teotihuacan • j Mayan culture

-/MESOAMERICA
NORTH AMERICA
Several culture groups existed here. The There were many
different cultures in the
nomadic, buffalo-hunting Plains Indians
Americas. Apart from
occupied the Midwest, and the woodland the urban civilizations,
tribal nations lived in the Northeast. In the such as Teotihuacan, Farming tribes

An eagle's claw cut from Mississippi Valley, the copper-working, there were many simpler
cultures scattered SOUTH
a sheet of mica (a flat, trading Hopewell culture was in decline
throughout the region. AMERICA
glassy mineral that forms
rock) by the Hopewell
by A.D. 500. In the Southwest, the village¬
Indians of Ohio in dwelling, com-growing Hohokam and
around a.d. 200. Mogollon peoples were thriving. On the MESOAMERICA
West Coast and in the North, simpler The Olmecs
hunting, fishing, and food-gathering societies (1200-300 b.c.} and
such as the Makah and Inuit flourished. the Zapotecs (1400-400
B.c.} were the earliest
THE GREAT SERPENT MOUND civilizations in Mexico. The Zapotecs were
No one knows exactly who built the Great Serpent Mound. It is possible that it was the noted for their learning and were the first
Adena Indians, predecessors to the Hopewell culture. It was built in what is now Ohio, Americans to develop writing (800 B.C.).
somewhere between 1000 B.c. and a.d. 700. This mound, some 1,300 ft. (400m) long, may
They also had a mathematical calendar
have been a ceremonial center depicting the cosmic serpent (a symbol of the life force
in nature) eating the cosmic egg. This would probably have symbolized the eternal cycle system, which they later taught to the Maya
of death and rebirth, or represented the incarnation of the life force. and the people of Teotihuacan.

76
900! 11001 1200 1300 1400: 1500 1600 1700 1750! 1800! 1850 1900 i 1950 2000

A carved stone
sculpture from
Teotihuacan.
Surprisingly unwarlike,
this city nevertheless
had a great influence
on all other neighboring
cultures—especially
through its crafts
and other goods.

teotihuacAn
As the Olmecs and Zapotecs declined,
the city-state of Teotihuacan, founded
around 200 B.C., grew to dominate Mexico
by A.D. 100. At its height 600 years later,
Teotihuacan was larger than ancient
Rome. It was built in a planned grid
system, with impressive temple
complexes and pyramids, many
craft workshops, trading markets,
and foreign residents’ quarters. This is one of
the stone stepped
It was the largest trading city
Mayan pyramids at Tikal,
in the Americas, linking and Guatemala. At the top of
supplying North and South the steps stands a temple.
Around 300 B.c. (possibly
America. Teotihuacan
even earlier), the Maya
influenced other Mexican began building huge
cultures such as the Maya, temple complexes. The
and it imported materials one at El Mirador covers
over 6 sq. mi. (16 sq km.)
from as far away as the Great
Lakes and Colombia. It was surrounded
by other cities, but it was unusually
peaceful. It mysteriously declined around
A.D. 600, although the Aztecs carried its
heritage on into later times. KEY DATES
350 B.c. Earliest Maya city-states appear
SOUTH AMERICA 300 B.c. Tiahuanaco, Peru, founded (peak a.d. 500,
In Ecuador, the state of Moche, at its abandoned 1000)

peak around A.D. 300, made fine pottery, 200 B.c. Teotihuacan founded (peak a.d. 500)
200 B.c. Moche culture, coastal Ecuador (peak A.D.
textiles, and metalwork. Farther south, the
300, conquered 700)
city of Tiahuanaco, 12,200 ft. (3,660m) 100 b.c. Hopewell culture (peak a.d. 300, ended
above sea level beside Lake Titicaca in the 800)
Andes, was inhabited by 40,000 people a.d. 300 Beginning of Classical period of Maya A shell carving of a priest
or official who served at
and featured enormous stone temples and civilization (until 800)
Palenque, one of the main
300 Mogollon culture, North America
palaces. Founded around 300 B.C., the city ceremonial centers of the
400 Hohokam culture, North America (until 1450)
reached its golden age around A.D. 500. Mayan civilization.

77
 5000 I 3000 1500; 500; 300 I 100 B.C. 0 A.D. 100 I 200 350 500 700
10,000

THE GUPTA DYNASTY a.d. 320-510

The Guptas became emperors of northern India in
A.D. 320 and remained in power for 200 years. The

stage was set for them by a people called the Kushans.

T he Kushans were Greek-influenced

Asian nomads in Bactria (now
northern Afghanistan). They founded a
kingdom there in A.D. 25, then moved
north into Turkestan and farther south into
Afghanistan and India, dominating the area
by 100. Their greatest king was Kanishka
(100-130), a Buddhist who supported
social tolerance and the arts. Controlling
most land trade across Asia, the wealthy
Kushans gave stability to Asian trade. Around
Krishna ("the first wise 240, however, Shapur of Persia took much of
man") is one of the ten their land, and they never recovered.
incarnations of the god
Vishnu. He is associated
The Guptas were minor princes in
with love and wisdom, Maghada. Chandragupta I married a
and is featured in the Maghada princess and became king in 320. The Guptas ruled most of India and were responsible for
Mahabharata and its golden age. Their capital, Pataliputra, was one of the
He started the Gupta tradition of aiding
Bhagavad Gita, two largest cities in the world at that time.
great Hindu holy books. the arts and religions and helped develop
Indian society.
THE GUPTA MAHARAJAHS
Chandragupta’s son Samudragupta
continued in his father’s footsteps. Ruling
from 335 for 45 years, he expanded Gupta
rule by force and diplomacy across northern
India and into southeastern India. His own
son Chandragupta II (380-414) took Gupta
India to its high point, one of the greatest
times of Indian history. Skandagupta (455-
467) beat off an invasion of India by Huns
from central Asia. However, the Gupta
Empire had been ruled through a loose
arrangement of local rajahs (kings) under
the Gupta maharajah (emperor), and after
Skandagupta died, many local kingdoms
broke away. By 510, the Guptas had been
beaten by another wave of Hun invaders,
and India broke up into rajputs (small
kingdoms). An alliance of these rajputs beat
off the Huns again in 528. India remained
divided for 650 years, except for a period
when Sri Harsha, a religious rajah of
Kanauj (606-647), succeeded in
uniting northern India for 40 years.

These large seated stone Buddhas are in Cave 17 of

the vast complex at Ajanta. Each of the images is
shown with different mudras, the symbolic hand
gestures still used in Indian dancing.

78
900 1100 1200 13001 1400 1500 1600 17001 17501 1800 i 1850] 1900 ! 1950 2000

AJANTA CAVES
The Ajanta caves were rediscovered by a group of British
officers on a tiger hunt in 1819. The 29 caves near
Bombay were created by Buddhist monks between 200
B.c. and A.o. 650, using hammers and chisels. They were
built as a monastic retreat, and the walls were covered
with fine paintings that depict stories from the life of the
Buddha. There were also many sculptures. The caves mark
the peak of the religious culture of India, in which yoga
and meditation were fully developed. Not far away, at
Ellora, other caves contain art from the Hindu, Buddhist,
and Jain religious traditions which, during the tolerant
Gupta period, thrived happily alongside one another.

A The elaborately carved

Chaitya Hall in the Ajanta
caves complex was used
as a temple and a hall
for meditation and
philosophical debates.

◄ A wall painting from

Ajanta shows musicians
and dancers entertaining
the royal household.
Actors, magicians,
acrobats, and wrestlers
would also have taken
part in this entertainment.

GUPTA CULTURE KEY DATES

The Gupta maharajahs succeeded one a.d. 75-100 The Kushan
another as good and strong rulers. Copying invasion of India
Asoka, they set up monuments inscribed 100-130 Kanishka-

with religious texts all over India. They the peak of the
Kushan period
built new villages and towns, putting Hindu
320-335 Rule by
brahmins (priests) in charge. Agriculture Chandragupta I
and trade flourished. Indians migrated as (founder of the
far as Indonesia, and Buddhism spread to Gupta Empire)

China. Both Hindu and Buddhist cultures 335-380 Rule by

Samudragupta
developed. The Hindu sacred epics, the
(conquers northern
Mahabarata and the Ramayana, were and eastern India)
written at this time. Kalidasa, India’s 380-414 Rule by
great poet and dramatist, wrote about Chandragupta II
love, adventure, and the beauty of nature. (Gupta Empire at
its peak)
The Buddhist university at Nalanda had
The Buddhist Wheel of Life. The eight main spokes 470s Decline of the
an impressive 30,000 students. This
represent the eight different states of being that Gupta Empire
was India’s golden age, its classical era of Buddhists identify in the cycle of reincarnation 505 Gupta Empire ends
music, dance, sculpture, art, and literature. of souls-only one of which is waking daily life.

79
 5000 3000 1500 500 I 300 5 100 B.c. j 0 | A.D. 100 | 200 | 350 | 500 700
10,000

The decline of rome a.d. 200-476

In 165, a plague swept through the Roman Empire and
dramatically reduced the population. Rome’s subsequent
decline lasted three hundred years.
T he plague lasted for two years
and was followed from
180 by the rule of the mad emperor
Commodus, uprisings in Africa
and Britain, and a succession of
quickly toppled and inadequate
emperors. The government at
home was falling apart, and
Rome was in chaos.

PROVINCIAL CHANGES
Power shifted to the provinces
where the people wanted to
keep their Roman status. The
Parthians in the east and the From 250-550 the Romans were constantly battling with
Germanic and Asiatic barbarians, who sought to join
British in the north created
the empire, to raid it for booty, or to bring it down.
trouble, and a new force was
appearing: the barbarians.
Marcomanni, Goths, Franks, THE EMPIRE DIVIDES
Alemanni, and Vandals were In 284, the emperor Diocletian decided
pressing in, and in 260-272 the Romans that the empire was too large for one man
The emperor Diocletian had to abandon Hungary and Bavaria to to rule and divided it into two, the Greek¬
created a tetrarchy (rule them. Parts of the empire such as Gaul, speaking East and the Latin-speaking
of four) to administer the
two halves of the empire.
Britain, and Syria, were becoming separate West. He appointed a co-emperor called
The tetrarchy consisted of and the Roman economy was also declining. Maximilian to rule the western half The
two emperors helped by army was reorganized and enlarged to
two lieutenants.
500,000 men, and taxes were changed to
Hadrian’s pay for it. Provinces were reorganized to
Wall ^
make them more governable. Romanitas
York*
was promoted by emphasizing the

The vast empire grew too

large and complex to rule,
so Diocletian divided it.
This meant that the rich
East was not inclined to
help the embattled West,
so the West ground to
a halt. High taxation
levels meant that many
Romans cared little-it
was cheaper to live
without the empire.

80
900 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1750 | 1800 18501 1900 1950: 2000

CONSTANTINE
Constantine saw himself as the savior of the Roman
Empire. He decided to use the growing strength of
Christianity to build a new culture in the empire. Calling
bishops to a number of councils, he made them settle
church doctrine and become organized. He favored the
Christians, whom he considered to be less corrupt and
self-seeking than the Romans. However, he was not a
Christian himself until he converted on his deathbed.
He was the last strong emperor of the Roman Empire.
By moving the capital to Constantinople and founding
the Byzantine Empire, however, he also weakened the
West and hastened Rome's eventual downfall. The
Constantine ruled as
Roman Catholic church continued to be a cultural
emperor from 312 to 337.
and religious force in the West long after Rome fell.

▲ Constantine's arch in
Rome was built to bring
back a spirit of victory
and supremacy to Rome,
after a century of many
disappointments. However,
Rome's real achievements
at the time were not as
great as the arch was
meant to suggest.

◄ A detail from the

arch of Constantine
shows Roman soldiers
besieging the town of
Verona in 312. This battle
was part of Constantine's
war against his coemperor
Maxentius. The arch was
dedicated in 315.

THE END OF THE EMPIRE

Emperor Constantine tried to revive KEY DATES
the empire. He favored and promoted 165-167 Plague sweeps through the Roman Empire
Christians, built churches, and held church 167-180 The Marcomanni Wars against the

councils, making Christianity a state first barbarians

250 Emperor worship made compulsory under Decius
religion. In 330 he moved the capital to
250-270 Barbarians attack the empire from
Byzantium, calling it Constantinople. This the north
city became as grand as Rome, and the 276 Emperor Tacitus killed by his troops
west grew weaker and poorer. The western 286 Diocletian divides the empire in two and rules
Emperor Justinian
half of the empire, under attack by the eastern empire; Maximilian rules western
continued the fight
324 Constantinople founded as the new
barbarians, collapsed after Rome was against the barbarians.
imperial capital This gold coin was minted
sacked in 410 and 455. The last emperor
370 Arrival of Huns in Europe: Germans seek in 535 to celebrate his
was deposed by the Goths in 476. Following refuge in empire general Belisarius' defeat
this, the western empire was replaced by 378-415 The Visigoths rebel and ravage the empire of the Vandals.
a number of Germanic kingdoms. The 406 Roman withdrawal from Britain, Gaul,
and Iberia
empire in the East, known as the Byzantine
410 The Visigoths sack Rome
Empire, lasted until 1453. Though many
441 The Huns defeat the Romans
Roman ways were adopted by the barbarians, 476 Death of the last Roman emperor
the Roman Empire was at an end.
81
 10,000 5000 3000 1500 500 300 100 B.C. | 0 A.D. 100 \ 200j 350 i 500

The barbarians a.d. 1-450

The term barbarian means “outsider"—and Romans
thought them to be uncivilized. They lived in small
farming communities and were ferocious warriors.

T he Germans living in southern

Sweden and northern Germany
moved south and pushed the Celts
west. The Romans tried to control the
Germans and were seriously beaten by
them in A.D. 9. The Romans traded
with some friendly German tribes,
and recruited some into the Roman
army. Some tribes, such as the Franks,
Alemanni, and Goths raided the empire
in 260-270, and the Romans had to A map showing the complex movements of the main barbarian
tribes around 370-450, as they occupied different parts of
make peace and settle them.
the western Roman Empire.

THE HUNS
An ornate bronze The Huns (Xiongnu) had been evicted THE NEW EUROPEANS
brooch, commonly from Mongolia by the Chinese. They As Rome collapsed, barbarians settled in
used by barbarians to
swept into Europe, settling in Hungary Germany, Italy, Spain, Britain, and France,
fasten their cloaks, is
an example of the fine around 370. The German tribes panicked, gradually adopting many Roman customs.
craftsmanship of these pushing into the empire for safety. The By 800, the Frankish king Charlemagne
people. This piece of
Romans settled many of them, though the ruled an empire spanning Germany and
jewelry was made
around 400 in a style Vandals in Greece rebelled, and by 410 France. The Visigoths settled in Spain, and
that was fashionable they sacked Rome itself. From 440-450, the Vandals took Carthage. The Huns
in Denmark and later
the Huns ravaged Greece, Germany, and retreated to Romania and the Ukraine.
in Saxon England.
Gaul, destroying everything. An alliance of The Lombards settled in Italy and founded
Romans and Germans defeated them, but a strong kingdom under King Odoacer.
the empire was then in decline. After The Burgundians settled in eastern France,
Attila the Hun attacked northern Italy, and the Saxons and Jutes took England.
the western empire finally broke down.

A scene based on a
Roman tomb carving
from around 200
shows Roman soldiers
in a fierce battle with
German barbarians.

82
 I
900 1100; 1200 1300; 1400 1500 16001 1700 1750; 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000

This relief from the

obelisk of Theodosius was
erected in Constantinople
Uppij in 390. The stone carvings
MM Wife, v show the emperor
It " JFp PPL receiving the submission
gJr • ^ - -mx
KTl xmm of the barbarian peoples.
Theodosius was the
last emperor of a united
Roman Empire (379-395),
and an enthusiastic
Christian. He was of
barbarian blood, born of
Germans who had joined
the Roman Empire.

▼ This painting shows

Attila the Hun marching
on Paris during his army's
invasion of Gaul in 452.

ATTILA THE HUN

Attila became king of the Huns (Xiongnu) in 433. He
set up a new Hun homeland in Hungary after they had
massacred, looted, and taken slaves throughout
eastern Europe (433-441). The Huns then devastated
the Balkans and Greece (447-450), forcing the
Romans to pay gold to save Constantinople. The Huns
later invaded Gaul and northern Italy, but they were
beaten by a combined Roman and Visigoth army. In
453, Attila took a German wife and died suddenly in
bed, possibly from poisoning. Attila was a military
genius and a great Hun leader. When he died, the
Huns migrated eastward to the Ukraine and caused no
more trouble in the West.

◄ Attila the Hun was

highly respected, mainly
because no one could beat
him and his soldiers. When
he died, the Huns fell.

KEY DATES
70 B.c. Germans migrate to Gaul, beating the Celts
56 Julius Caesar sends the Germans out of Gaul
A.D. 9 German rebellion against the Romans
200 Germans form a confederation
260 Barbarians move into the Roman Empire
367 Scots, Piets, and Saxons attack Roman Britain
451-454 Huns devastate Gaul and northern Italy

83
 500 300 | 100 B.C. I A.D. 100 200 350 500 700
10,000 5000 3000 1500

Japan 300 b.c.-a.d. 800

Japan is one of the oldest nations in the world.
People have been living there from around 30,000 B.C.
Classical Japan took shape from around 300 B.C.
I n ancient times, Japan was occupied by
the Ainu people. The Ainu were unique,
and not related to any other tribe. Today’s
Japanese people moved onto the islands
in prehistoric times, from Korea and
Manchuria on the mainland.
They forced the Ainu onto the
northernmost island, Hokkaido.

THE YAYOI
Around 300 B.C., the Yayoi were
beginning the rise that would make
them Japan’s predominant tribe. They
introduced bronze and iron and also
rice and barley from Korea and China.
They shaped Japanese culture and
the Shinto religion, in which nature spirits
The Ainu, or Ezo, did (kami) and tribal ancestors were worshiped.
not look like modern-day Tradition says that Jimmu, the legendary Japan is made up of four main islands, and the biggest,
Japanese-they had lighter Honshu, has always been the dominant one. In early
complexions and much
first emperor (tenno), great-grandson of
times, the indigenous Ainu people were squeezed out
more hair, like these two Ameratsu, “Goddess of the Sun,” appeared of Honshu and north onto the island of Hokkaido.
tribal elders. The Ainu had in 660 B.C. In fact, if he existed at all, it was
no written language, and,
because they were looked
probably several hundred years after this. THE YAMATO
down on by the Japanese, Around A.D. 167, an elderly priestess
there are few records of called Himiko of the Yamato tribe became
their history.
ruler. She used her religious influence to
unite about 30 of the Japanese tribes.
Himiko sent ambassadors to China, and
from that time Chinese culture and, later,
Buddhism, influenced the Japanese. The
Yamato increased in power during the A.D.
200s. Today’s Japanese emperors can trace
their ancestry to the Yamato, who claimed
Ifjirf p-g#|r M.
descent from the sun goddess. During this
period, until 646, much of Japan was
united as one state, and it invaded
southern Korea. With the establishment
of Buddhism during the 500s, Shinto was
threatened. Around 600, Prince Shotoku
reformed the Yamato state, centralizing it
in the Chinese style and reducing the
power of the tribal lords. Temples and
towns were built, and there was great
A painted scroll from cultural development. The 700s saw
the a.d. 300s shows Japan’s golden age. Rivalry between
a Yamato court lady
being dressed by her
Shinto and Buddhism was also resolved
servant. The boxes by merging both into a common
are for cosmetics. Japanese religious culture.
84
900: 1100 1200 1300' 1400’ 15001 1600 i 1700 1750 1800 1850: 1900 19501 2000

THE SHINTO RELIGION

Shinto is the ancient nature religion of Japan. Its mythology was written down in the
700s, in the Kojiki and the Nihongi. Shinto worshipers believed in the power of natural
energies and spirits, or kami. Shinto priests sought to please the spirits, attracting their
support and protection. In Shinto, it is believed that all life began in a cosmic egg that
formed in the primordial chaos. The egg separated and became the gods (kamis), and the
union of two kamis brought the Earth into being,
with Japan as their special home. The sun goddess
also came from this marriage, and the emperor
was thought to descend from her. Many
influences entered Shinto from Buddhism,
and both religions coexisted throughout
Japanese history, although there
were periods of rivalry.

► This is a reconstruction of a Shinto

shrine at Izumo, an area known for its
places of Shinto worship. The priests
held ceremonies of renewal and
purification there at special times of
the year to appeal to the kami to send
them bumper crops and give the
▲ Shinto priests were people good health and fertility,
originally tribal shamans.
In later times, their
traditions, dress, and
temples became more
formal, in response
to the challenge
from Buddhism.

► This is the main gate

of the Shinto Kasuga
shrine at Heian. These
gates not only served
the usual purpose, they
also marked the energy
lines along which the
spirits traveled to reach
the temple, which was
carefully placed in
a special location.

In Shinto, small clay figures

THE NARA PERIOD KEY DATES were used as totems
A permanent capital was established to bring good fortune nj
300 b.c. Beginning of the Yayoi culture to places or to the I
at Nara around 710. Gradually, the
a.d. 239 Queen Himiko sends an embassy souls of the dead
emperor became a ceremonial figure, to China in the afterlife.
serving as the representative of the gods. 300 The Yamato period-farming,
Government was controlled by officials towns, ironworking
and monks and there were greater political 366 The Japanese invade southern
Korea (until 562)
struggles. In 794, the emperor moved the
552 Full introduction of Buddhism
capital to Heian (Kyoto), where a new
593-622 Prince Shotoku creates a
phase of Japanese history began. Japan Chinese-style centralized state
had developed from a tribal land to 646 Yamato period ends
become a strong state. Little has been 710 Nara becomes permanent
capital (the Nara period)
recorded about the life of ordinary
794 Emperor Kammu moves his court
people, because records were only kept
to Heian (Kyoto)
about the imperial court and temples.
85
 10,000 5000 3000 1500 500: 300 100 B.c. I A.D. 100 200: 350 i 500 7001

THE MAYA 300 b.c.-a.d. 800

The Maya lived in what is now southern Mexico and
Guatemala. They created a civilization that was at
its peak while the Roman Empire was crumbling.
T he Maya existed as far back as 2000 B.C.
Over the centuries, by draining marshy
land and building irrigation systems, they
became successful farmers, able to support
a large population. In the early phase, from
300 B.c. to A.D. 300, they built many cities
in Guatemala, Belize, and southern Yucatan, The Mayan heartland moved from the south in early

each with its own character and artistic style. times to the center around Tikal. After a.d. 800 the
Maya lived in the north of Yucatan.
Their cities had temple pyramids, a fortified
palace, marketplaces, workshops, and
living quarters. THE CLASSIC PERIOD
Between 300 and 800, Mayan civilization
MAYAN CLASS SYSTEM reached its peak. Many new cities were
The Maya had a class system: the nobles, built in Yucatan. The dominant city was
priests, rulers, officials, and their servants Tikal, although Palenque, Yaxchilan, Copan,
lived in the cities while ordinary people and Calakmul were also important.
lived on the land, going into the cities for
markets and religious festivals. There was r~

an alphabet of 800 hieroglyphs, and the O CD S3

0
Maya studied advanced mathematics, Qti0 ■l& V rh
The engraved figures astronomy, and calendar systems. As — ;v: =?= S
©itfipf©
found in Mayan ruins in ancient Greece, each city was an Qj t(©-©
often show richly dressed
independent city-state, and there was 0 101©
people, such as this priest
Gk£>!' O
with his ornate headdress.
feuding between them, usually to demand
: «©; © • Q
He appears to be holding tribute and take prisoners. Around A.D. = \ & iO \0 ;0
a knife in his left hand. 230, a violent volcanic eruptiorublew^ -i-ii • €> I© tO < &
apart Mount Ilopango in the south, and
covered a large area with ash. The Of23©
230$Gg
S6^«3®i©«8
souThenTcItres had ro belibandoned, and
tills mafkedTKe~end~oftEe^“pre^classic,, » • •

period~ofMayan civilisation. oiintjp - • •

The Maya wrote in

hieroglyphs (picture
writing), which are
found carved on huge
stone monuments and
written in books made
of bark paper.

The Maya played a ball

game which may have
had religious importance /
to them as a kind of
oracle. In vast courts they
bounced a solid rubber
ball back and forth using
their hips, thighs, and
elbows, aiming for a
hoop in the side wall.
The ball probably
represented the sun.

86
900 1100' 1200! 1300 1400; 1500: 1600 I 1700 1750 1800 1850! 1900 1950 2000

These were the four kinds of people at

The Maya were skilled craftspeople, the top of the Mayan social pyramid:
an official, a warrior, a noble,
making stone sculptures, jade carvings,
and a priest.
decorated pottery, paintings, advanced
tools, and gold and copper objects. They
built roads and shipping lanes to encourage
trade. Their mathematical system counted
in 20s, and used three symbols: a bar for
“five,” a dot for “one,” and a shell for “zero.”

HUMAN SACRIFICE
The Maya practiced blood sacrifice. They
viewed this life and the afterlife as equal
worlds, and killing people for religious
purposes, to please the gods and ancestors
and to bring fertility and prosperity, was
an acceptable thing to do. In later times,
ambitious building projects meant that
peasants had to supply ever more food MAYAN CITIES
and labor, and hostage-taking wars to In the early days of Mayan city building, the largest city was El Mirador, founded in
capture sacrificial victims drastically cut 150 B.c., and had a population of 80,000 people by a.d. 100. It was abandoned around
the population. The agricultural system a.d. 150. Tikal, ruled by its king Stormy Sky, later became the largest city, with some
100,000 people around 450. Most cities were impressive and planned in grids. They were
collapsed, and with it the cities. By 950,
built around the ceremonial centers, and often oriented to astronomical events such as
most central Mayan cities lay in ruins—
the rising and setting points of the sun. The religious basis of Mayan cities and their use
though a later phase followed. The Maya of pyramids resembled that of the ancient Egyptians 2,000 years earlier.
still live in the uplands of Central America.

Mayan cities were carefully laid out, with numerous sacred

shrines and temples covering many acres of land, and
large open spaces, platforms, and meeting places.

87
 10,000 5000 3000 1500 500 300 200 350 500 I 700

The POLYNESIANS 2000 B.C.-A.D. 1000

The Polynesians were a unique people of the Pacific _KEY DATES_
islands. They were remarkable sailors, venturing far 2000 b.c. Growth of the Lapita culture in Melanesia
into the Pacific Ocean in search of new homelands. 1300 b.c. Migration to the "Polynesian triangle"

I n their mythology, the Polynesians say

they came from the heavens, through a
200 b.c.
a.d. 300
around Fiji
Migration to Tahiti and the Marquesas
Migration to Rapa Nui-visits to
America
mystical land often thought to be Hawaii.
400 Migration to the Hawaiian islands
Historians and language experts believe 850 Occupation of Aotearoa-birth of the
they may originate in Taiwan, migrating in Maori culture
open canoes to the Philippines around
3000 B.C., then to the Bismarck archipelago
off New Guinea around 2000 B.C. They MIGRATION
carried with them pigs, dogs, and chickens, The Polynesians embarked on planned
as well as fruit and vegetables (coconuts, journeys of discovery. They were great
taros, yams, breadfruit, and bananas]. From navigators, and had advanced knowledge
these people, the Lapita culture developed. of the stars, ocean currents, winds, and
Its people used shells to make tools and wildlife. Around 1300-1000 B.C. the
they also made pottery which had Polynesians moved to New Caledonia,
intricate and beautiful patterns. Vanuatu, Fiji, Samoa, and Tonga, and
then to Tahiti and the Marquesas Islands
A carved effigy of the by 200 B.C. They reached Easter Island by
god Tangaroa Upao Vahu,
POLYNESIAN TRAVELS A.D. 300, and Hawaii by 400. Some of
the first of the Polynesian
gods. Polynesians believed The Polynesians developed large oceangoing canoes that them migrated to Aotearoa (New Zealand]
that Tangaroa created the could be sailed or paddled at great speed. They made use by 850, where they settled and became
world and brought them of the winds and ocean currents to help them on their
known as the Maori. On the islands they
to it from the heavens. way. These were stabilized boats, built with outriggers or
doubled up like catamarans, so that they could withstand bred animals and used the vegetables and
the wind and waves of the open sea. With these boats fruit they carried to plant new crops that
they were able to move between the many island
are now found throughout the islands.
groups of the Pacific.

These are two of the main types of oceangoing

Polynesian canoes. On the left, the outrigger canoe,
with carrying racks, would have been useful for
island hopping; the double canoe, with shelters
and a larger capacity, would have been
valuable for longer journeys.

88
900 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1750 I 1800 1850 1950 I 2000

CHINA The Pacific Ocean was

Pacific Ocean
NORTH occupied by different
AMERICA
cultures-Polynesians
HAWAII in the east, Melanesians
A.D. 400 (related to Indonesians)
MICRONESIA
in the west, and
Micronesians (related
POLYNESIA more to Asians) in the
1500 b.c. • north. The distance from
MELANESIA
Samoa to Easter Island
SAMOA 300 B.c. \
is 5,000 mi. (8,000km).
.MARQUESAS
• * \
TONGA TAHITI a.d. 300 \
AUSTRALIA

EASTER ISLAND
NEW
A.D. 400
ZEALAND
a.d. 1000^

TASMANIA

Coconut

Breadfruit

Some Pacific
travelers took fruit
and vegetables from
the Asian mainland
to the islands they
settled. One type of
yam (sweet potato)
was brought from
the Americas. Today,
these are still
important crops
for the Polynesian
islanders.

OCEAN TRAVELERS On Easter Island there

The Polynesians sailed to the Americas, are a number of
bringing back the sweet potato, and they remarkable and unique
traded with some of the Aborigines in stone sculptures of heads
Australia. They crossed thousands of measuring up to 40 ft. (12m) high. On Easter Island (Rapa Nui)
miles of open sea in their explorations They are thought to have been built by there are over 500 of these
enormous stone sculptures.
and migrations. On the Pacific islands, the Polynesians. However, Polynesians
They are carved from soft
they lived in tribal societies ruled by did no stone carving elsewhere, and it is volcanic rock; each head
chiefs, and they became experts in wood probable that the carvings are much weighs more than 50 tons.
The statues were placed at
carving. They were isolated from Asia and more ancient, possibly built by an earlier
ahu sites-areas in
Indonesia, where towns and nations were people for unknown reasons. Meanwhile, the open air that were
developing. It was only when European in Aotearoa, the Maori developed their intended for religious
worship. About 200 years
explorers such as Captain Cook arrived own separate tribal culture, growing in
ago, every Easter Island
in the region in the 1700s that they number to 250,000 and splitting into statue was pushed face
began to be influenced by outsiders. village farmers and warrior societies. down-no one knows why.

89
 A- ..... .... i

The arts 500 b.c.-a.d. 500

During this period, the arts were developed increasingly
for their own sake, and less for the religious, royal, or
traditional purposes of previous millennia.

T he arts were gradually being

developed to express creativity and
decorate houses, streets, and everyday
objects. The wealth accumulated by
empires and urban traders was used to
sponsor and support artists, leading to
major advances in artistic creation.
There was more realism—the Greeks and
Romans made statues and paintings which
directly and accurately represented people
This pot was made in Roman Britain around a.d. 200, the
and life around them in a new way. In
time of Britain's first "industrial revolution." It shows a
Greece, the finest art was produced in gladiator yielding in battle and asking for mercy.
the classical period, and this reached its
height about 400-300 B.C. Through the Throughout the empires of this period,
campaigns of Alexander the Great, Greek the houses of the rich were decorated
ideas about artistic realism reached as far with bright paintings on the walls, statues,
as India; and the spread of Buddhism took reliefs, and mosaics. Buildings were
them farther east to China, Japan, and adorned with elaborate carvings and
southeast Asia. Roman artists copied the paintings. In Africa and the Americas,
work of the Greeks, and developed their artistic styles developed separately from
own, sometimes harshly realistic style. elsewhere, and China too had its own
styles, which were unique.
This figure of the goddess
Aphrodite, now known as
the Venus de Milo, was
sculpted in 130 b.c. by
Alexandras of Antioch in
the Greek style. Though a ◄ This vase was owned ◄ This intricate brooch of
goddess, she is portrayed by a man named gilded bronze and garnets
as a person in realistic Leandros, whose name was made by an Ostrogoth
form, showing human is written across the in Spain in the late a.d.
feelings or "pathos." top. The vase itself, in 400s. The eagle may have
the shape of the head symbolized the spirit, with
of an African woman, the eight calendar points
may be from one of of the year at the center.
the Greek colonies
in northern Africa.

A sculpture from the tomb

of a Roman blacksmith,
shows his assistant using
a bellows to heat up
metals in a furnace, the
smith at his anvil, and
the tools of his trade.
 THE EMERGENCE OF NEW IDEAS
In China and Mexico, writing was
composed of pictures rather than letters,
mixing ideas with artistic expression. The
Chinese made objects from wood coated
with lacquer, and they also painted on
silk. During the same period, the Greeks
pioneered the theater, portraying real-life
situations. They were the first to represent
moods and emotions in their art. Since
creativity is natural to humans, every
culture, whether simple or sophisticated,
had its own art forms, carved in wood or
This head from a shrine stone, written or painted on papyrus or These Chinese cranes
at Taxila in northern bark, sewn into clothing and tapestries, or from the late Zhou
India was fashioned in dynasty (around 300
cast in metals. New ideas emerged through
the Greek style, although B.c.), were coated with
it is Buddhist in origin. the arts, and during this important period lacquer, a natural
many different styles were established, varnish, which was
some continuing up to the present day. painted on in layers,
and set until it became
hard. Cranes were seen
as the bringers of good
news and grace.

This Mayan stone

carving shows a
shaman in ceremonial
dress entering a
A pottery model of a watchtower mystical world.
made in later Han China around a.d.
100. Such towers were built A copper raven made by the Hopewell people
to guard noblemen's estates from of eastern North America around 100 b.c. The
unwanted visitors-they may also Hopewell controlled rich reserves of very pure
have had religious significance. copper, which they exported as far as Mexico.
Architecture 500 b.c.-a.d. 500
The growth of empires and cities led to the
construction of many public buildings. The most
magnificent were the ones for state and religious use.

I n the cities of the developed

world of the time, buildings were
constructed from stone for strength
and durability, and often faced with
a decorative stone such as marble to
make them look impressive. They were
built by hand, although tools and devices The Romans developed a technique to build vaulted
passageways. They found that one vault could cross
such as scaffolding had been developed
another and still support a heavy building on top.
that made construction of large buildings
and sophisticated arches possible. Many
buildings today are not much more ROMAN DEVELOPMENTS
advanced than they were 2,000 years The Romans adopted many Greek ideas,
Greek, Roman, Indian, ago. The Greeks were skilled architects. but also discovered new techniques. One
and Chinese builders The study of mathematics helped them was how to make concrete in around 200
had virtually the same
design well-proportioned buildings that B.C. At first they used it in foundations, but
hand tools used today.
These included saws, suited their surroundings. By 300 B.C., the soon it was also used in the construction
chisels, pincers, planes, Greeks had also developed town planning, of walls and huge domed roofs. They also
and hammers.
designing whole cities in detail and arranging developed arches for buildings, bridges, and
the streets in a grid pattern. The city builders aqueducts. By A.D. 200, Roman cities had
of Mesoamerica also used urban planning. apartment buildings, called insulae, that
The Parthenon in Athens, In other places, cities evolved from their were four or five stories high. Roman
completed in 432 B.C., former origins as villages, forts, harbors, or cities were a foretaste of the densely
was one of the finest
of all Greek temples. The
road junctions with a more random packed cities of today—Rome had an
columns were developed pattern of design. enormous traffic problem.
from the idea of tree-
trunk supports. Stone¬
dressing became an
advanced art, and complex
scaffolding was used to
allow the building of
enormous structures.

92
LARGE-SCALE BUILDING The specialized construction trades that These are the ruins of
Engineering works became much more Gaochang, a city built by
we know today developed from this time.
the Han Chinese on the
ambitious and sophisticated. Paved, All over the world, building techniques Silk Road to the West.
drained, and raised roads were built in improved gradually, even in simpler The Silk Road cities were
the Roman Empire, Persia, India, China, societies and villages—although their Use rich and cosmopolitan, and
accommodated travelers
and Mexico. They allowed much faster of wood, which rots and falls apart, means from many different lands.
transportation and the use of carts to carry that few traces of their buildings remain.
bigger loads. Water was channeled into In cold climates, new methods of dealing
canals or along raised aqueducts to supply with cold and damp were developed. In
the cities. In Mesoamerica, enormous hot climates, cool and shady buildings
pyramids and other structures were built were built, with arches, good light, and
in impressively large religious centers. ventilation. The Maya built high pyramids
All this engineering work involved the to be able to reach above the tree level of
assembling and organization of large the jungles around them. Construction
numbers of people, as well as food supplies principles remain the same today.
and building materials. Architects, surveyors,
and engineers were in demand, to select
materials and supervise construction.
This represented a tremendous growth
practical skills, as well Mayan pyramids were built without cranes and
as knowledge of mathematics bulldozers. Millions of blocks of stone were prepared
and engineering principles. and erected, and when building the upper parts,
everything was carried up by hand. This must have
been a work of tremendous coordination.
 jGm>
WW' * H;/;/ i:.

i}t:\
_ _ _

Science and technology 5oob.c.-a.d.5oo

Rapid progress was made in China
and Europe because of greater
Ik investment, more sophisticated
ideas, and larger-scale projects.
T he wealth and security found
in the growing empires
meant that great advances could
e made. Some advances were made
as solutions to practical problems or as the
result of newly available materials. Others
were made by urban people who had the
The abacus was widely
used in China at the leisure to study. The Greek philosopher
beginning of this period. Aristotle (384-322 B.c.) is considered to
It was an early calculator
be one of the founders of Western
tihj that allowed the
T computation of difficult science. He, and several other
sums. Modern computers scientists, philosophers,
became faster only in geographers, and doctors of his
the early 1980s.
time, pioneered a rational
approach to the world, based
on observation. They questioned
how and why things worked
the way they did. China, too,
was the source of many
inventions, from gunpowder In acupuncture, the Chinese used the tips of needles
to magnetic compasses and to stimulate nerves to treat illnesses. This chart shows
the parts of the body where the needles are placed.
calculators (abacuses).
Acupuncture is still practiced today and has become
widely used in the West in modern times.

The Archimedes screw is a

device for lifting water
from one level to another.
It takes its name from the
Greek inventor Archimedes
(287-212 B.c.) who lived
in Syracuse on the
island of Sicily.

Papermaking was first developed

in Han China around a.d. 105, and
paper documents soon became
common. It took over 1,000 years
A TIME OF PROGRESS
All cultures had their scientists, doctors
and researchers—they were distancing
themselves from the past and adopting
new ideas. Businessmen were interested
in investing in these ideas to make money.
Knowledge and sophisticated technologies
were gradually improving: new strains
of plants, new medicines, mathematical
systems, ways of piping water, recording
information, and forging metals were
developed. This was a time of progress
that slowed down as the world became A Greek doctor examines a young This coin-operated machine was used
patient. The Greeks adopted a scientific to sell sacred water at a Greek temple.
more insecure from the A.D. 300s onward.
approach to medicine and made extensive A falling coin triggered the mechanism
studies of human anatomy. They laid the to release a measure of the sacred
WHEN IT HAPPENED foundations of Western medicine. water into a container.

450 B.C. In Nigeria, people of the Nok

culture smelt iron in furnaces
A specially built kiln for
250 B.C. Greek mathematician and
firing large numbers of
inventor Archimedes active pots. Though styles
200 B.C. The Romans first use concrete varied, kilns were
found in every
10 B.C. The Romans start using cranes
culture.
in construction
A.D. 78 Chang Heng, inventor of the
seismograph, is born in China
100 Paper-making invented in
This cubit rule and
Han China curved calipers were
127 Ptolemy (Egypt) writes about used by Han scientists
in China to accurately
music, astronomy, mathematics,
measure the width and
and geography thickness of objects.
270 Magnetic compass used in China

This Roman water mill was built

around a.d. 100. The waterwheel's
rotation was transferred through
wooden shafts and gearwheels to
the millstones which ground the
grain. Large mills had six or more
waterwheels arranged in a line
along a riverbank. Waterwheels
were also used in China to raise
water from rivers into irrigation
channels to water the fields.
Early Middle
Ages
501-1100
This period used to be called the Dark Ages because
historians thought that civilization ended when the Roman
Empire fell. Many people now call these years the Early
Middle Ages because they mark the start of the period that
separates ancient and modern history. The former Roman
Empire split into two: the western part peopled by farmers,
skilled metalworkers, and shipbuilders; the eastern part
became the Byzantine Empire. The Chinese and Arabs still
led the way in science and technology. Buddhist and
Christian religions were spread through trade, while
Islam was spread through military conquest.

▲ The Carolingian Renaissance inspired this ivory carving, from

the 800s, of St. Gregory and other scholars at work.

◄ This Mayan stone carving from the 900s was found in the ruins
of the city of Chichen-ltza on the Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico.

97
The world at a glance 501-1100
A fter the fall of the Roman Empire, new countries
and peoples emerged in Europe. The lives of
In North America, the first towns were being built,
and the Toltec civilization developed in Mexico. In
these people were governed by the Christian Church South America, huge independent empires, such
and a rigid social system, later called feudalism. as the Huari Empire, were forming.
Between Europe and the Far East, there was a huge Contact between the civilizations of the world was
area containing many different people who all shared very limited. Only a few countries traded with each
the same religion, Islam. Farther north, Slavic countries other. But Islam was gradually spreading over the
such as Russia and Bulgaria were also forming. whole of northern Africa through conquest and trade.
China was still culturally and scientifically far ahead
of the rest of the world. Its influence spread all over
Asia, and to Japan, where the arts flourished.

Mb
NORTH AMERICA
fw*
In about 700, two separate town cultures began
to develop in North America. One was the Temple
Mound culture around the Mississippi area-a
culture that traded far across the continent in
copper and goods. Another was the Anasazi pueblo
(village) culture in the Southwest, where people
lived in stone pueblos connected by roads. The
Anasazi had an advanced religion. Elsewhere, many
Native American tribes grew bigger
and stronger, though they were
still mainly farming and
hunting peoples, living either
in permanent villages or as
nomads. Far to the northeast,
in Newfoundland, the first
white men arrived-the Vikings
settled there for a short time
around the year 1000.

MESOAMERICA
AND SOUTH
AMERICA

MESOAMERICA AND SOUTH AMERICA

Around 600-700, the great Mexican city of Teotihuacan
was at its greatest. Decline began around 750, both
there and among the Maya farther south. But the
Mayan Empire of city-states survived this whole period.
From 900 to 1100, the warlike Toltecs flourished in
Mexico. In Peru, in South America, the city-states of
Tiahuanaco in the Andes and the Huari near the coast
grew larger and more developed. Tiahuanaco preceded
f
the Inca Empire. By 1000, the Huari Empire was replaced
by the Chimu Empire, which was developing around
Chan Chan in northern Peru.
 EUROPE
Europe was busy finding its feet during the period known as the Dark Ages. ASIA
The Byzantine Empire acted as a stable focus for Christendom, though its
In India, the Gupta Empire
fortunes rose and fell. In the 700s, the Muslims invaded Spain, setting up an
collapsed in 535 and the country
advanced culture there that lasted 700 years. At the same time, farther north,
was disunited. Both Hindu and
the Carolingians created the first European empire, though it declined in the
Buddhist influences expanded into
800s after Charlemagne's death. In the rest of Europe, nations were slowly
Southeast Asia. Around 775, the
taking shape, overseen by the Catholic Church in Rome. This process was
kingdom of Srivijaya in Sumatra
accelerated by threats from the Magyars and Vikings, and by the Muslims
conquered the Malayan peninsula,
in Spain and Anatolia. By 1100, some European nations were growing
and in Cambodia, the Khmer
strong, stable, and prosperous. Universities were founded, churchbuilding
dynasty established the kingdom
flourished, and towns grew in size and importance. Medieval leaders
of Angkor in 802. In China, one
started overseas military adventures and conquests-for example,
of its greatest dynasties, the Tang,
the European Crusades to win land in Palestine.
lasted for 300 years, producing
some of the finest works of art in
Chinese history. From 960, it was
replaced by the Song dynasty for
a further 300 years. Elsewhere, a
strong Tibetan kingdom rose and
fell, and rich states grew up in
Thailand, Vietnam, Japan, and
Indonesia. In Central Asia, Turkic
and Mongol nomads were
growing in strength.

AUSTRALASIA
Polynesians occupied new Pacific
islands, moving to New Zealand
around 900. In Australia, the
Aborigines were untouched
by outside
influences.

AFRICA
By 700, the whole of northern Africa was
part of the Islamic Empire. In West I—|—|—|—i—m ———|——
Africa, gold-rich Ghana grew wealthy
MIDDLE EAST
and strong, and other trading
kingdoms such as Mali and The Sassanid Empire reached its greatest extent in
Kanem-Bornu began 579. On the death of Muhammad in 632, the Islamic
to develop on the Empire began to expand. In 634, the Arabs conquered
fertile southern edge Persia and overthrew the Sassanid Empire. But by 756,
of the Sahara Desert. the Islamic Empire started to break up. At the end of
the 1000s, Jerusalem was captured by crusaders.

99
 10,000 5000 3000 1500 500 300 100 B.C. A.D. 100 200 350 500 700

The BYZANTINE EMPIRE 476-1453

Byzantium inherited the eastern half of the Roman
Empire, surviving nearly a thousand years until,
finally, it was taken over by the Ottoman Turks.

C onstantinople, the eastern Roman

capital, had been built by Emperor
Constantine on the site of the ancient Greek
port of Byzantium. When the Roman Empire
collapsed in 476, the city became the capital
of the new Byzantine Empire. The edges of
the Roman Empire’s territories had been Centered on the strategic city of Constantinople, Byzantium
captured by barbarians, so the early emperors controlled east-west trade and for long periods dominated
the Mediterranean Sea and the Black Sea.
of Byzantium, Anastasius (491-518) and
Justinian (527-565), fought to reclaim
Justinian ruled Byzantium Rome’s former territories. During Justinian’s
for 38 years with his wife long reign, he sent able generals—Belisarius,
Theodora. They were
Narses, and Liberius—to add North Africa,
lawmakers and reformers,
and they restored the
much of Italy, and southern Spain to its list
empire's power and lands. of reclaimed territories. However, many of
They gave shape to the these gains were soon lost under his
sophisticated culture successors.
of Byzantium, building
A revival followed when Emperor Heraclius
great churches and
acting as patrons of
(610-641) reorganized the empire and
art and literature. brought state and church closer together. He
beat back the Sassanid Persians, who had
occupied Syria, Palestine, and Egypt. Under
his rule, Constantinople became a rich center
▼ Byzantium was often of learning, high culture, and religion. The
under attack. Its navy had ▲ This pictorial map shows
city was well placed for controlling trade
a secret weapon invented Constantinople in 1422,
between Asia and Europe. The empire not long before it fell to
by Kallinikos in 677 called
"Greek Fire," a mixture produced gold, grain, olives, silk, and wine, the Ottomans. It became
a Muslim city, and was
that burst into flames which were traded for spices, precious stones,
when it touched water. renamed Istanbul in
furs, and ivory from Asia and Africa. 1453. The city stood on
It was made from lime,
sulfur, and petroleum. a promontory called

100
900 1100 1200: 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 17501 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000 I

This classic Byzantine Orthodox

mosaic is on the inside of
a church dome in Ravenna,
Italy. It shows Jesus being
baptized by John the
Baptist. The presence
of the god of the Jordan
River identifies the
place of the baptism.

▼ Saint Sophia, the

Church of the Holy
Wisdom, was built in
Constantinople for
Justinian around 530.
It took 10,000 people
to build it. Later it
became a mosque, and
it is now a museum.

KEY DATES
476 Fall of the last Roman emperor
491-518 Emperor Anastasius in Constantinople
527-565 Emperor Justinian's generals reconquer
former territories
610-641 Emperor Heraclius expands Byzantium The Byzantine basilica
633-640 Arabs take Syria, Egypt, and North Africa of St. Apollinare was
679 Bulgars overrun Balkan territories built near Ravenna in
976-1026 Basil II rebuilds the empire Italy during the 500s.
107 Seljuk Turks take Anatolia In this period, Byzantine
architecture was gradually
1204-61 Norman Crusaders capture Constantinople
steering away from the
1453 Fall of Byzantium to the Ottoman Turks
old Roman styles.

The Byzantine Empire declined during

the 700s—the Arabs twice tried to take
Constantinople itself. However, under Basil
II (976-1025), the empire flourished again.
Then, soon after Basil died, Anatolia was
lost to the Turks, and the empire again
declined. It was taken over by the Crusaders
for 50 years during the 1200s, but it was
reclaimed again by Michael VIII in 1261.
Finally, the city of Constantinople was
taken by the Ottoman Turks in 1453. The
sophisticated Byzantine culture had been
the most lively and creative in Europe,
and the Orthodox faith had spread as
far as Russia and eastern Europe.
101
 10,000 I 5000 I 3000 I 1500 ! 500 I 300 I 100 B.C. I 0 A.D. 100 200 | 350 i 500 1 700

MONASTICISM 269-1216
To escape the busy city of Alexandria, a group of
Christians formed a community in the Egyptian desert.
This marked the beginning of the monastic tradition.

I n the first 200 years of Christianity,

some Christians had lived as hermits on
remote islands or in deserts, spending their
time in prayer. In 269, an Egyptian hermit,
Anthony of Thebes, brought several
hermits together to form a community—
the first monastery. This idea spread to
other countries, where other monasteries
and convents were established. Some of
these communities were linked by a
shared set of guidelines. The most famous
was the rule of St. Benedict, founder of
Monks and nuns led
the Monte Cassino monastery in Italy, A page from the Book of Durrow, written and illustrated
simple lives, studying,
around 529. In the Benedictine order, around 675 by Irish monks. Beautifully decorated
praying, and caring
manuscripts were meticulously produced by hand.
for the sick. monks worked and worshiped together.

By 900, other orders had appeared. The

Cluniacs in France followed strict rules
of poverty and chastity, reacting against
growing corruption in the Church. The
Cistercians, founded around 1115, were
even stricter, with some monks spending
all their time in prayer and administration
while “lay” brothers did the heavy work.
St. Francis of Assisi founded the
Franciscans to preach and care for the
poor, and St. Dominic founded an order
devoted to preaching and teaching.

An early monastery was

like a village, with a church or
abbey at its center. There were also kitchens,
stables, living quarters, and gardens, as well as a library
and hospital. Well-organized monasteries contributed much to
ordinary society in return for tithes-money, land, or livestock given
for the support of the Church and clergy.

102
900 1100 1 1200 i 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1750 I 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000

Many monasteries had schools and libraries where

specially trained monks copied out books by hand.
Some learned monks wrote new books on history,
medicine, and philosophy, as well as religious doctrine.

MONASTERIES AND SOCIETY

Life in a monastery was spent praying,
sleeping, and working. Each monk or nun
received food, a room or cell, and a habit,
or clothing, and they were provided for all
their lives. This was more than most
ordinary people had, so there was no
shortage of new members. Although
monks and nuns lived apart from the
world, monasteries still played an
important role in everyday life.

SEATS OF LEARNING
The best way to get an education was by
joining a monastery. Monasteries had
libraries of classical and biblical texts—the The Book of Kells is a book
of Gospels begun on the island
basis for much of the learning of the time.
of Iona off the coast of Scotland
Great works were written by monks such and completed in Ireland. The
as the Venerable Bede, famous for his pages were illuminated (decorated)
history of England, completed in 731. in the Celtic style between 650
and 690. This page from the
Some monks stayed in monasteries, and book features St. Matthew.
some became parish priests, while others
became clerks to kings and bishops. Most
monasteries provided shelter for travelers
and pilgrims. They also cared for the poor
and treated the sick, with medicines made
with herbs from the monastery gardens.

KEY DATES The Venerable Bede

was a monk who lived
269 St. Anthony founds the first monastic in Jarrow in northeast
community in Egypt England. He is known
as the "father of English
c.540 St. Benedict writes his Benedictine monastic
history" because he wrote
rule
The Ecclesiastical History
c.930 Cluniac monastic reform movement
of the English People. Bede
c.960 Byzantine Orthodox monastic orders set up
was the first historian to
1054 Orthodox and Catholic churches split apart date events from the time
1115 Founding of Cistercian monastery of Clairvaux of the birth of Jesus-most
1209 Franciscan order receives papal approval other writers of the time
1216 Dominican order founded related dates to reigns
or notable events.

103
 10,000 5000 3000 1500 500 300 100 B.C. A.D. 100 200 350

SUI AND TANG CHINA 589-907

The Sui dynasty reunited China after 370 years of
division, but it lasted only 30 years. It was followed
by the Tang dynasty, which lasted nearly 300 years.

F rom the fall of the Han to the rise

of the Sui; China was divided into
three kingdoms—Wei in the north, Shu
in the west, and Wu in the south. There
was constant warfare, as well as nomad
invasions from Mongolia and Tibet. Many
towns were ruined, and the population
fell. Devastation in the north led to
migrations southward, making the south
more politically important. During this
time, Buddhism became more widespread
in China, bringing in many foreign ideas. China grew in size during the Tang period. It expanded
Finally, in 581, Yang Jian, a general from into central Asia, and many large projects were started,
such as the canal system and irrigation schemes.
Wei, overthrew his rulers and founded the
Sui dynasty. By 589 he had unified China.

SUI DYNASTY The second Sui emperor was Yang Di.

Yang Jian renamed himself Emperor Wen. Under Yang Di’s rule, China’s Grand
Before he came to power, taxes were high Canal was rebuilt so that it linked the
The Tang people believed and people were drafted into the army main rivers of China. He also had palaces
that dragons symbolized
for long periods of time. As emperor, he and pleasure parks built. The money for
the energies of the Earth
and that all things should
cut taxes and abolished compulsory them was raised by ordering people to pay
be in harmony with one military service, governing firmly from ten years’ tax in advance. The peasants
another. These beliefs even his capital, Chang’an. He also encouraged rebelled and, in 618,Yang Di was killed.
influenced their thinking
the development of agriculture by setting
about building practices.
up irrigation schemes and redistributing TANG DYNASTY
land. All these things helped make the The second Tang emperor, Taizong
country wealthy. (626-649), reorganized government,
cut taxes, and redistributed land. The
reorganization of this united empire
was far in advance of anything found

Rice paddies need

controlled watering and
large-scale drainage works.
The Tang dynasty created
conditions in which such
large-scale projects
became possible.
104
900 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1700 1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000

in other parts of the world. This stable

period marked the beginning of nearly
300 years which promoted Chinese
excellence in the arts, science, and
technology. Between 640 and 660, Tang
China expanded into central Asia, seeking
to keep troublesome nomads from
controlling the Silk Road. The Chinese
went as far as modern-day Korea,
Afghanistan, and Thailand. After Taizong’s
time, a rebellion by An Lushan in Beijing
in 755 challenged Tang rule, and the
Tang never fully recovered. Imperial rule
became a formality, and power shifted
to regional governors and courtiers. The
Tibetans also defeated the Chinese in
central Asia and there were more
This wall painting from a tomb shows the Tang princess rebellions during the 800s. By 907 the
Yung Tai, who was forced to commit suicide at the age of
Tang dynasty had collapsed and there
17 for criticizing her grandmother, Empress Yu. In China, These ceramic ornaments
obeying and submitting to one's parents and elders was
followed a period of civil wars that
are examples of the
considered to be very important. lasted until 960. foreign animals that
would have been seen in
THE GRAND CANAL _KEY DATES_ the Tang capital, Chang'an
589 Yang Jian unites China, founding Sui dynasty The camel carried silk, and
Started by the Sui and completed by the Tang, the Grand the horse, larger than the
602-610 Military actions in Taiwan, Vietnam, Korea,
Canal was an enormous undertaking. It stretched over 500 Chinese variety, originated
and central Asia
mi. (800km) from the Huangho River to the Yangtze, and in central Asia. Chang'an
618 Tang dynasty founded by Li Yuan
linked the major cities and capitals of the north with the lay at the Chinese end of
626-649 Emperor Taizong-expansion of Tang China the Silk Road and was the
rice-growing and craft-producing areas of the south. Road
travel from north to south was difficult, and sea travel 640-660 Chinese expansion in central Asia and Korea world's largest city, with
was hampered by typhoons and pirates. The canal allowed 755-763 An Lushan's rebellion—Tang power declines two million people.
safe, long-distance, freight-carrying transportation, to 870s Major peasant rebellions throughout China
bind China's northern and central regions closer together. 907 Tang dynasty collapses

IP' PV;,‘!
wttiiH.i

105
 10,000 5000 3000 1500 500 300 100 B.C. o A.D. 100 200 350 : 500 700

Islam 622-750
Islam established itself very quickly and influenced
many other civilizations. Within 150 years it had grown
into a huge empire guided by religious principles.

T he prophet Muhammad,
who founded the religion
called Islam, was born in Mecca
in 570. At the time, the Arab peoples
worshiped many different gods.
Muhammad became a successful,
widely-traveled trader, and was
influenced by the Judeo-Christian This page from the Koran was written in early Arabic

belief in just one God. When he was lettering style during the 800s. One aspect of the new
Islamic culture was its artistic and cultural creativity.
40 years old, his life changed: he saw
the Archangel Gabriel in a series of
visions. Muhammad then wrote ISLAMIC EXPANSION
down the Koran, the Muslim holy The new Muslim caliph (leader), called for
This is a Muslim portrayal book, under dictation from Gabriel. a jihad, or holy war. Within ten years, under
of the Archangel Gabriel He was instructed to teach about prayer, Caliph Umar, the Arabs conquered Syria
(Jizreel). Gabriel is
recognized by Muslims
purification, and Allah, the one God. The and Palestine (defeating the Byzantines),
as the messenger of word Islam means “surrender to Allah.” Mesopotamia and Persia (bringing down
Allah to the prophet When Muhammad started teaching, the the Sassanids), as well as Egypt and Libya.
Muhammad.
rulers of Mecca felt threatened by his ideas. After the death of Caliph Uthman, there
Muhammad and his followers had were disputes between his successor,
to flee to Medina in 622 and the Muslim Muawiya, and Ali, Muhammad’s son-in-law.
calendar counts its dates from this flight— Ali’s murder in 661 led Muslims to split
the Hegira. In Medina, Muhammad permanently into two factions—the Sunnis,
organized a Muslim society, building a and the Shiites, who were followers of Ah.
mosque. His following grew quickly—
many Arabs were poor and Islam preached
The Dome of the Rock, the a fairer society. In 630, Muhammad
important Muslim shrine recaptured Mecca and became its ruler.
known as al Aqsa, in
Jerusalem, was completed
He kept nonbelievers out
in 691 on the site of and banned idol-worship.
Solomon's Temple. It was Muhammad died in 632.
built where Muhammad
had experienced an
important vision in a
dream. Decorated with
complex geometrical
patterns, this mosque
shows an early Islamic
architectural style.

Muslims traveled widely, as explorers and traders, and

carried ideas about Islam with them. Their faith decreed
that they should make at least one pilgrimage to Mecca.

106
900 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 I 1750 I 1800 1850 : 1900 1950 2000

◄ At the battle of
Yarmuk, in Syria, in 636,
Muslim forces defeated a
Byzantine army twice their
size. This was a major loss
for Byzantium, and the
Muslims captured Syria
and Palestine, the most
prosperous part of the
Byzantine Empire. They
took Jerusalem and
established the beginnings
of a large empire.

▼ Arabic knowledge
of medicine, healing,
and surgical technique
was well advanced for
this time. This picture
shows doctors setting
a broken limb.

THE UMAYYAD DYNASTY

In 661, the Arabs established a capital at
Damascus, and Muawiya became the first
Umayyad caliph. Territorial expansion
followed—Muslim armies invaded central
Asia, Afghanistan, Armenia, northern Africa,
and even Spain. They twice attacked
Constantinople, without success. When they
invaded Europe, they were defeated by the
Franks in France in 732 and had to retreat.
The Umayyads organized their empire in
the Byzantine style. They were tolerant and
did not force conversion to Islam. Many
people converted because Muslims were
seen as genuine liberators, bringing an end to
the old order, establishing clear laws, and
increasing trade. Arabic became a universal
language across Islam, except in Persia
which was mainly Shiite and retained its
distinct culture. This common language
helped ideas and knowledge to spread
quickly from one place to another.

KEY DATES
610 Muhammad experiences his first vision
622 The Hegira-the flight from Mecca to Medina-
takes place
Arabs were good
630 Muhammed takes Mecca and forms an
astronomers. The astrolabe
Islamic state allowed them to navigate
636-642 Muslims take Palestine, Syria, Persia, at sea-and in the desert.
and Egypt
656-661 Caliphate of Ali-dispute between factions
661-680 Founding of Umayyad dynasty The Arabs sailed in
dhows. These wooden
711 Arabs invade Spain
boats had large triangular
732 Franks defeat the Arabs at Poitiers, France
sails and carried cargo
750 Umayyad dynasty overthrown by the Abbasids
and passengers.

107
 10,000 5000 3000 1500 500 300, 100 B.C. o A.D. 100 200 350 | 500 : 700 :

Persecution of the JEWS 70-1300

After rebelling against Roman rule, the Jewish
people went into exile. Toleration in their new
lands was often followed by severe persecution.

D uring A.D. 66-73, the Jews of Judea

fought against their Roman rulers.
The Romans massacred many, and in
A.D. 70, destroyed the Great Temple of
Jerusalem. Jews were barred from entering
Jerusalem under penalty of death. In
A.D. 116, Jewish rebellions in Roman-
controlled Egypt, Cyrene, and Cyprus
were also crushed. There was continual
unrest in Judea. During the Second Jewish
of David), is an ancient
Revolt, A.D. 132-135, hundreds of The arrows show the approximate movement of Jewish
symbol. It first appeared
thousands of Jews were massacred or sold people during the Diaspora (dispersal) and the early
as a symbol of Judaism
stages of persecution during the 1100s.
around 960 B.c. as slaves. Jerusalem was razed to the
ground and the Romans built a new city
▼ A rabbi teaches his
on the site, naming it Aelia Capitolina. Africa.The Diaspora, or dispersal of
pupil "Hillers Golden
Rule" during the late On the mount where the Great Temple the Jewish people, that began with the
1300s in Germany. There had stood was a new temple, dedicated Babylonian exile in 586 B.C., grew
was a strong emphasis
to Jupiter. Survivors were driven from in momentum.
on education to preserve
Jewish culture and to Judea to join established communities in After Constantine, Christian Romans
ensure survival. Babylon, Anatolia, Greece, and northern became increasingly intolerant. They
expected Jews to become Christians,
and in the 400s downgraded their
citizenship. Some Jews moved even
farther away, to Germany and Spain.
iM ^ } tv
ft x, ar A J®rjp' BCy ij xLMt They established small, close communities
[41 fraM in cities, keeping to their own traditions
and maintaining contact through
international networks. As a result, the
two great Jewish traditions arose—the
Ashkenazic Jews in Germany, whose
popular language is Yiddish, and the
Sephardic Jews, whose language is Ladino.

In the Near East, Spain, and northern Africa, Jewish

communities prospered. Under Islamic rule, they
enjoyed security and protection from their enemies.

108
900 iiooj 1200 1300 1400 1500| 1600 1700! 1750 1800 ! 1850! 1900 1950 2000

EUROPEAN ANTI-SEMITISM
In medieval Europe, Jews could not own
property or join armies. Instead, they
became skilled craftworkers, doctors, and
traders. Eventually they were allowed to
be moneylenders, which was forbidden to
Christians, who considered lending money
for interest a sin. Kings and traders
xmm
protected the Jews who provided this
service. Ordinary people, however,
resented what they saw as affluence
during generally hard times.
By 1100, the Crusades had begun, and
feelings towards non-Christians had
hardened. Across Europe, people turned
against some Jews, and forced them to
live in particular areas of cities called
“ghettos.” Many others were persecuted
or expelled from their homes. Thousands
of Jews were killed during the Crusades A In medieval times, Jewish moneylenders ▼ After about 1000, German
were heavily involved in financing the Christians began to blame the Jews
[1092-1215]. Jews were also expelled
economic growth of Europe, particularly for the death of Jesus. Many were
from England in 1209 and from France in in Venice and Genoa in Italy. persecuted, tortured, and killed.
1306. Many fled from Spain and Germany
to eastern European countries.

KEY DATES
66-132 Jewish revolts and the Roman expulsion
of the Jews
700s Jews find refuge in the new Arabic Empire
1100s Persecutions in France and Germany
1189 Jewish massacre in York, England
1215 Lateran Council allows Jews to lend money
1290 Expulsion of Jews from England
1280 Early Jewish ghetto in Morocco

Accused of being the killers of Christ and other

crimes, many Jews were tortured and killed by
Christian medieval knights during the 1200s.

109
 10,000 i 5000 i 3000 | 1500 500 300 . 100 B.C. 0 > A.D. 100 | 200 ! 350 ! 500 f 700 |

North America 500-1492

Great
The first North American towns appeared in the Lakes
Aztalan •
Mississippi valley during the 700s. In Colorado, the
• Cahokia
Anasazi were building villages called pueblos.

rT~1he first true North American towns Mesa Verde

Fa -L appeared along the Mississippi • Macon

and Ohio Rivers. Now known as the

SmM 11 jiflQ Temple Mound culture, each town had a Gulf of
central plaza with up to 20 rectangular Mexico

earth mounds around it. On top of these

were temples for the dead. A palisade
(wooden wall) surrounded the plaza.
Outside, up to 10,000 people lived in Across North America there were very different cultures,
ranging from town dwellers along the Mississippi and-0hio
longhouses with adobe (dried mud) walls
Rivers to self-sufficient, village-dwelling people on the
and thatched roofs. The people traded Pacific coast and the nomadic tribes of the Plains.
The Iroquois were a along the rivers, possibly taking copper
confederation of hunting from Wisconsin to Mexico. They hunted The Plains Tribes, who were usually
tribes who lived in the
woodlands of what is
for meat and were also farmers. They grew nomadic buffalo hunters, began building
now New York State. corn, sunflowers, beans, and pumpkins. riverside farming villages around 900. On
They lived in village They made war with tribes such as the the Pacific coast, there were many food¬
communities, AI
Algonquin and first used bows and collecting, hunting, and fishing peoples.
gathering food,
hunting, and k N arrows around 800. The Temple Some of them already lived in permanent
trading with - ' I Mound culture reached its peak villages and had well-developed societies.
other tribes. a
/ during the 1100s, but mysteriously In the far north, the hunting Inuit were
k I disappeared by 1450. Elsewhere, even trading with Vikings around 1000.
juf \ permanent village cultures were The Cree, Chippewa, and Algonquin
I developing. The Woodland tribes of Canada lived their lives close
f|$|- , \ Americans of the east were to nature and had little contact with
■), V wy farmers, hunters, and traders. foreigners and traders.

The Sioux or Dakota

peoples followed the
buffalo herds as they
migrated across the
midwestern plains. The
Sioux tepees were built
of buffalo skins draped
around a framework L*
ET0 B
of sloping poles. They f- - V* Ws1
could be dismantled
easily and carried by the
Sioux as they traveled.

The Mohawk lived in longhouses

in permanent villages in what is
now New England. Villag es were
surrounded by a ditch and stockade
for protection. The Mohawk grew
food in plots around their houses,
and hunted for meat and skins.

110
900 1100 1200! 1300 i 1400 1500: 1600 ! 1700 ] 1750 1800: 1850 I 1900 1950 I 2000

PUEBLO CULTURES THE ANASAZI PEOPLE

In the Southwest, several cultures thrived Anasazi, a Navajo word, means "ancient ones who are not us." The Anasazi grew
between 700 and 1300. These were the corn, beans, squash, and cotton, and lived in pueblos (tribal towns) with unique buildings
Anasazi, Hohokam, and Mogollon, the nestling high up in canyons. They were known for their pottery, textiles, and artwork.
Around Chaco Canyon, a network of 125 villages was linked by 250 mi. (400km) of
predecessors to today’s Hopi. They were roads. The Anasazi had advanced shamanic religious rituals, with large tribal trance
trader-farmers living in small towns. After dances. They had unique knowledge and legends, and constructed underground
700, these people moved from pit ceremonial chambers called kivas.

houses—large roofed-over holes—into

◄ Religious ceremonies
large, multistory communal buildings,
played an important
some housing up to 250 people. They role in pueblo life.
used irrigation systems and relied on These masked men are
performing a ceremony
“skywatchers”—knowledgeable shamans
to make rain fall on the
who predicted the rains. By 1300, these desert so that their
unique cultures had disappeared. crops will grow.

KEY DATES ▼ The Cliff Palace,

300 Growth of Anasazi, Mogollon, Hohokam cultures sheltering under a cliff
800 Agricultural growth in many cultures at Mesa Verde, Colorado,
800 Founding of the first Mississippi towns was built by the Anasazi.
It housed around 250
1000-1200 Southwestern and Mississippi cultures
people, who lived as a
at their peak
closely knit community.
1300 Decline of Anasazi, Mogollon, and Hohokam
In front of the ruined
cultures palace are ceremonial
1450 Mississippi towns depopulated kivas (without their roofs),
1500 Europeans arrive on East coast which were originally used
for religious purposes.

B,'•- J-*“ .

111
 10,000 5000! 3000 : 1500! 500! 300 100 B.c. j 0 ! A.D. 100 200 350

BULGARS AND SLAVS 600-1453

Bulgaria and Kiev had a significant influence on eastern
Europe. Their adoption of Orthodox Christianity affected
both their peoples and the Orthodox church.

The Bulgars were the descendants

of the Huns, who settled beside
the Volga River in Russia, and During the mid-800s, Cyril and his brother Methodius
devised the Cyrillic alphabet, based on Greek letters,
reached the height of their power
for use in writing the Slavonic languages.
around 650. Then the Khazars
from lower down the Volga
destroyed their kingdom. As a ORTHODOX DIPLOMACY
result, many Bulgars migrated to In Byzantium, the state and the
the Danube area, dominating the church were closely linked. Religious
local Slavs and founding a Bulgar and diplomatic missions were sent out
state. Byzantium took action and, in this way, Byzantium converted the
against them, especially when Bulgars to Christianity. Catholic Rome and
the Bulgars killed their emperor Orthodox Constantinople competed for
in battle in 811. In the 860s, two influence in eastern Europe. Kiev adopted
missionaries, Cyril and Methodius, the Orthodox beliefs, and a Russian
were sent to convert the Bulgars and Orthodox culture was born there. Cyrillic
Vladimir, Grand Prince draw them into Byzantium’s influence. lettering, still used today by Russians and
of Kiev (c.906-1015), This helped, but the quarrels did not end Bulgarians, was invented by Cyril the
interviewed Catholic
and Orthodox Christians,
until the Bulgars were beaten in 1014. To missionary and his brother Methodius.
Muslims, and Jews, and punish them, Basil II had 14,000 Bulgars By the time Byzantium fell in 1453, Russia
opted for the Orthodox blinded, and the Bulgar khan died of shock. had become the home of Orthodoxy.
faith, probably for political
as much as religious
advantages. He also
conducted campaigns to
secure Kiev's territories.
He brought down the
Khazars, but he also
stirred up the Pecheneg
and Polovtsy nomads,
who eventually
destroyed Kiev.

When the Bulgars killed

the Byzantine emperor
Nicephorus in 811, they
made his skull into a
goblet to take to their
khan, Krum. The Byzantine
emperors called the Bulgar
khans czars-a name that
was adopted later by
Russian rulers.

112
9001 1100: 1200 1300 1400 1500! 1600 1700 1750 I 1800 1850: 1900 1950 2000

The Church of Intercession, an example of early A central theme of

Orthodox church construction in Russia, was built Churches were built, and the first Russian Orthodox culture was
at Bogolyubovo in 1165. the icon, or holy image,
laws were written, as well as the first
which was believed to
works of Russian art and literature. have spiritual and healing
Kiev was on the steppes (plains) of the powers. Icon painting
THE RISE AND FALL OF KIEV spread from Byzantium,
Ukraine, and vulnerable to nomadic
through Kiev, into
The Slavs came from what is now warriors such as the Pechenegi who later Russian
Belarus. The first states in Russia were threatened, and the Polovtsy culture.
Slavic, and led by Swedish Viking traders who sacked, the city. After
[Ros, or “oarsmen”). The greatest Ros Jaroslav died, the state of
leader was Rurik, who founded Novgorod, Kiev broke up, and the
Smolensk, and Kiev. The Vikings traded Russians retreated into
with Baghdad and Constantinople, and safer northern areas.
Kiev grew rich as a trading city. The Vikings Here a new Russia was
considered themselves a superior class, being established,
mixing only gradually with the Slavs. In centered around
988, the Kievan prince Vladimir converted the growing city
to Christianity, marrying a Byzantine of Moscow.
princess. He then made the nobility and
people adopt Christianity. This brought
Kiev new trade, culture, and respectability
abroad. Under Jaroslav the Wise (1019-54)
Kiev was a center of splendor and influence
This helmet from the 1200s belonged to the
that rivaled Constantinople, with prince of a small principality called Suzdal,
diplomatic connections across Europe. once part of Kievan Russia.

113
 700

The carolingians 751-843

The Carolingian dynasty established Europe’s first rich ■i Frankish Empire in a.d. 771
and powerful empire. These people were the former Land conquered by Charlemagne
— Divisions of Charlemagne’s empire in a.d. n7n
Germanic “barbarians” known as the Franks.

T he Franks had settled in what is now

Belgium and northern France. Their
Atlantic
Ocean
SAXONY
Aachen
Tours
leader, Clovis (481-511), of the Merovingian Poitiers • BAVARIA
dynasty established a capital at Paris. FRANCE Avars
Clovis became a Christian and earned LOMBARDY
Rome’s support. Fie united the Frankish Narbonne
SPAIN
tribes, defeated the Gauls, the Alemanni
Muslim
(a confederation of Germans), and the Empire
Visigoths, and created a kingdom resembling Mediterranean Sea

today’s France. His sons consolidated this,

but quarrels broke out. Power fell to Charlemagne's empire unified most of western Europe.
Its capital, Aachen, lay not far from the capital
Charles Martel, who led the Franks
of today's European Union in Brussels.
against the invading Muslims at Poitiers
This gold image of in 732. Charles founded the Carolingian
Charlemagne, inset dynasty, and in 751, under his son Pepin, conquered the rest of France, and
with precious stones
the Carolingians replaced the Merovingians then what is now Germany, Italy, and
and known as a reliquary,
was made in Germany as Frankish rulers. In 768, Pepin’s sons, the Netherlands, creating an enormous
around 1350, to hold parts Carloman and Charlemagne, inherited European empire. In central Europe he
of Charlemagne's skull.
his kingdom. Carloman died in 771, and quelled the Saxons and the Avars, forcing
Charlemagne took full control. He first them both to accept Christianity.

CHARLEMAGNE'S CORONATION
Obtaining the blessing of the Church gave a nation greater
respectability. For the pope, Charlemagne's grand coronation
in 800 was a political move against Constantinople-there was
now a Christian empire in the West as well as in the East.
Charlemagne offered to marry the Byzantine empress Irene, but
this was unacceptable to many people. Missions were sent to
Charlemagne from Persia and the Baghdad Caliphate, as well as
from the rulers of Europe. Had Charlemagne's empire remained
intact, European history might have been very different.

Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne Holy Roman emperor in 800. Holy Roman emperors were crowned in the Palatine Chapel, Aachen.

114
900 1100 1200 1300 1400; 1500 1600 1700 1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000

THE CAROLINGIAN RENAISSANCE

Charlemagne supported the Roman church,
favoring its influence in his kingdom. In
return, in 800, the pope crowned
Charlemagne as the first Holy Roman
emperor. Charlemagne was a lawmaker and
founded schools, cathedrals, and monasteries
run by Irish, British, and Italian monks. He
also invited scholars, scribes, architects, and
philosophers to his court. His capital at
Aachen became the chief center of learning
in western Christendom. Charlemagne died
in 814. His successor Louis the Pious ruled
successfully but, on his death in 843, the
empire was divided between his three sons.
The empire later became two countries:
Germany and France. The Carolingians ruled
Germany until 911 and France until 987.

P 6ATJSSICOO pA.p7vet>i\OD7CSO
bieROWionos
A The Carolingian
KEY DATES
Renaissance inspired
this ivory carving of St. 486-510 France united by Merovingian king, Clovis
Gregory and other scholars
732 Charles Martel beats the Arabs at Poitiers
at work, in 850-875. The
751 Pepin, the first Carolingian king
Aachen scholars created
761 Charlemagne becomes Carolingian king
a new script called
782 Charlemagne defeats the Saxons
minuscule, with clear,
rounded letters, but 790s Charlemagne defeats the Avars in Austria
Charlemagne never 800 Pope crowns Charlemagne
learned to write. 814 Charlemagne dies
843 Carolingian Empire divided into three

115
 10,000 5000 3000 1500 500 300 100 B.C. A.D. 100 200 ! 350 ] 500 700

The abbasid dynasty 750-1258

During the 500 years of rule by the Abbasid dynasty,
the Islamic Empire was unified, its culture flourished,
and Baghdad became one of the world's greatest cities.

I n 750, there were disagreements between

the Arabs as well as dissent among the
invaded peoples. The Umayyads were
overthrown by the Abbasid family who
then ruled the Islamic world for 500 years.
The Abbasids were descended from
Muhammad’s uncle, al-Abbas. Under
al-Mansur, their first caliph, they moved
their capital to the new city of Baghdad
in 762, and adopted many Persian and
Greek traditions. Their most famous ruler
was Harun al-Rashid (786-809), the fifth
caliph. From 791 until 806, he fought a The stories for The Thousand and One Nights came from
long war with the Byzantine Empire, which many different countries, including India, Syria, and Egypt.
The stories feature Ali Baba, Sinbad the Sailor, and Aladdin.
he eventually won. Parts of the empire
sought independence, but Harun al-Rashid
managed to suppress them. In spite of these enjoyed today. Under later caliphs, various
wars he found time to encourage learning provinces became independent, but they
and the arts, bringing together Persian, still followed Islam, its law, and culture. The
Greek, Arab, and Indian influences. Abbasid caliphs increasingly lost power and
Baghdad became a world center for became spiritual figureheads. The Muslim
astronomy, mathematics, geography, empire separated into emirates, whose
medicine, law, and philosophy. The court fortunes rose and fell at different times. Yet
in Baghdad was the setting for much of The the Muslim world acted as one civilization
Thousand and One Nights, a book still with many different centers.
When Harun al-Rashid
became caliph in 786,
he ended a decade of
uncertainty and rivalry
in the Islamic Empire.

This decorated Persian

bowl was made during
the Abbasid dynasty. It
shows how Muslim artists
created new styles with
intricate designs.

This elaborately decorated

tile, made in Persia during
the 1100s, shows that
Islamic art in the Abbasid
period which was very
rich and sophisticated.

People came to the Abbasid court in Baghdad

from all over the empire, even from as far
away as central Asia and Spain.

116
900 1100 1200 1300 1400: 1500 1600 1700 i 1750 1800 1850 I 1900 I 1950 ! 2000

Ghana 700-1240
Ghana was the first truly African state. Most Africans Wf
Tangier
t
still lived in tribal village societies, but Ghana, a center Sahara Desert
EGYPT
of the gold trade, opened up new possibilities.

T he medieval kingdom of Ghana lay

farther north, inland from today’s
nation of Ghana. Its roots lay in the Saleh
300s, when the African Soninke tribes
were ruled by the Maga, a Berber clan
from Morocco. The Berbers had mastered
Kilwa
transsaharan camel travel, and traded salt
for gold from the Soninke. When the South
Atlantic
Arabic Muslims invaded northern Africa Ocean
there was an upsurge in the gold trade,
and by 700, Ghana was rich and important
as a trading center. In 770, the Soninke
ousted the Maga, and built a nation under
Kaya Maghan Sisse, who became Soninke Ghana grew rich on gold, making it the first African nation.
king around 790. Ghana’s capital was Its capital, Koumbi Saleh, was very cosmopolitan. Gold was
transported north to Morocco, Tunisia, the Nile, and Arabia.
the city of Koumbi Saleh, where
Africans and Berbers met and traded.
Prester John was a
legendary king who During the 800s, Arab traders described Ghana reached its peak during the 900s,
was said to rule over Ghana as “the land of gold.” The gold came controlling both the gold and salt trades.
a Christian empire in
from Ashanti and Senegal to the south and Other goods that passed through Ghana
the heart of Africa.
west, and trade routes led north and east included woolen cloth and luxury items
to Morocco, Libya, and Aksum, and from Europe, and leather goods and slaves
so on to Europe and Asia. from the south. In 990, Ghana took over
the neighboring Berber kingdom of
Audagost—making Ghana 500 mi. (800km)
across. In 1076, however, it fell to the
Almoravids, a puritanical Berber Muslim sect.
The Almoravids ruled Morocco and Spain,
but they fell in 1147, and power returned to
Ghana until, in 1240, the country became
part of a new African nation, Mali.

Berber and Arab traders transported goods

hundreds of miles across the Sahara Desert
with camel caravans. Without traders,
Ghana and its successors, Mali
and Songhai, would not have
become rich nations.

117
 10,000 i 5000 3000 1500! 500! 300; 100 B.C. I 0 A.D. 100 200 350 I 500 !

FUJIWARA JAPAN 800-1200

During the late 800s, the Fujiwara clan became the
rulers of Japan on behalf of the emperor. During the
Fujiwara period, art and literature flourished in Japan.

F rom the early 300s, Japan had been

ruled by an emperor. If an emperor
died while his eldest son was still young,
a regent, usually someone in the emperor’s
family, was chosen to rule until the new
emperor grew up. In the 800s the Fujiwara
clan gained importance at the
Japanese court when Fujiwara
Japanese horses were Yoshifusa’s daughter married
dressed with many the emperor. By tradition,
ornaments on their
harnesses. This horse
children were brought up by
bell would probably their mother’s family, and so the
have been worn on the Fujiwaras brought up the next emperor.
horse's hindquarters. An illustration from the The Tale ofGenji, a novel about the
complexities of Fujiwara court life. It was written by Lady
Murasaki Shikibu, a lady-in-waiting to the empress.

This meant that Fujiwara Yoshifusa was the

first regent from outside the imperial family,
marking the start of the Fujiwara period.
More Fujiwara daughters were married to
future emperors and the Fujiwara family
grew powerful. Soon, every emperor had a
Court life was very formal,
with rules for everything. permanent Fujiwara regent, who controlled
This man is reading a the running of the country while the
letter. Even the color of
emperor spent his time on religious and
the letter paper and the
way it was folded were court matters. For 300 years, the Fujiwara
considered important. family dominated Japan.

The Great Torii Gate, at

Itsukushima or Miyajima-
Shrine Island was built
during the 800s. It is part
of a classic Shinto shrine.
The torii stood as a kind
of divider, to separate
the sacred areas of
the temple from the
nonreligious parts.

118
900 ; 1100: 1200: 1300 1400 1500 1600- 1700' 1750 1800 1850! 1900 1950 2000

FUJIWARA CULTURE
During the Fujiwara period Japanese art This clay figure of a
and literature flourished. This happened protector-god stood outside
Shinto temples to protect
at the imperial court in Kyoto, among
them from demons. The
nobles on their estates, and in the temples, clothing worn by this figure
so ordinary people saw little of it. The rich is typical of a Japanese
warrior of the 700s.
and powerful were very insulated from the
rest of society. Great works of art were
painted, and literature was written in a new
style—notably, Lady Murasaki Shikibu’s
classic The Tale of Genji. Until that time,
the Japanese had tended to imitate Chinese
styles. Clans favored by the Fujiwaras
prospered. Then other clans, largely of
military families, began to grow more
powerful, and the provinces and clan estates
started to act increasingly on their own
behalf. They fought among themselves until
the Fujiwaras could no longer control the
country. During the 1100s, there were The hondo or main hall
many rebellions until, finally, the of Kiyumizudera Temple
at Kyoto (Heian) was built
Gempei civil war broke out in 1180,
during the 700s. Japanese
and the Fujiwara were replaced by the buildings were usually
powerful Minamoto shoguns. made of wood so that they
could survive earthquakes.
Sadly, many of these fine
KEY DATES wooden buildings were
destroyed by fire instead.
794 Japanese court moves to a new capital at
Heian (Kyoto)
858 Fujiwara Yorifusa becomes regent
930 Fujiwara gain full dominance: economic
reforms
c.1000 Peak of artistic and literary expression
in Japan
1180-85 Gempei civil war: rise of the Minamoto
shoguns

119
 10,000 5000 3000 ! 1500 1 500 300 I 100 B.C. o| a.d. ioo 200 I 350 500 700

Magyars and bohemians 896-1273

During this period, central Europe had no real nations.
Bohemia and Poland were Slavic heartlands, and
Hungary was occupied by Asiatic Magyars.

T he Magyars were Asian horse-riding

nomads from the steppes (plains)
of today's Kazakstan. Seeking a new
homeland, they raided central Europe
and, under prince Arpad in the late 800s,
they occupied Hungary. Just 25,000
Magyars defeated all the Slavs by using
speed and shock tactics. Then they started
raiding Germany, Italy, and France for
slaves and riches. For decades, they sacked
monasteries and ruined farms, torturing In the forests of central Europe, various new states
developed among the Slavonic tribes from about 800
Duke Wenceslas, prince and killing people in the process. They
of Bohemia in the 920s, to the late 1200s: Hungary, Bohemia and Moravia (now
were so fast, they could be attacked only the Czech Republic), and Poland.
tried to modernize his
country and convert it
when weighed down with their booty.
to Christianity. He was Eventually, the German emperor Otto I
famous for his charity defeated them in 955. Under Prince Geiza
and fairness. His pagan
(972-997) the Magyars made peace,
brother, Boleslav, opposed
him and had him killed adopted Christianity, and settled down
in 929. Later, Wenceslas as nobles ruling the Slavs. In 1000, Pope
was made a saint, and
Sylvester II crowned Stephen I Magyar
he is the patron saint
of Czechoslovakia. king of Hungary. Stephen's reign brought
peace and prosperity—he was later
canonized. By 1200, Hungary was a strong
nation. But in 1241 the Mongols swept
in, devasting the country just as
The Magyars rode strong the Magyars had once done.
Asiatic horses, and they
could cover long distances
very quickly. This helped
them become the scourge
of Europe for 55 years,
raiding Germany, France,
and Italy, weakening Prince Arpad, a Magyar, led his people from Asia into
many states and killing Europe, founding the Magyar Arpad dynasty and the
many people. nation of Hungary. This is his statue in Budapest,
the Magyar capital, which straddles the Danube River.

POLAND
The Polish tribes were united by Miesko I
around 960, and became Christian. His
son Boleslav Chrobry tried to unite all
Slavic lands, including Bohemia, Moravia,
and Kiev, but later the Poles had to
retreat. Though the church and German
influences brought the Poles together,
the provinces were disunited, and this
weakness was to prove significant when
other countries tried to take parts of
Poland. Nevertheless, Poland as a Slavic
nation became established at this time.
120
900 ™^^^^^200^^^^300 ' 1400 : 1500 1600 | 1700 1750 1800 1850i 1900: 1950 j 2000 j

MORAVIA AND BOHEMIA

Northwest of Hungary and southwest
of Poland were the Slavonic states of
Moravia and Bohemia (now the Czech
Republic). Moravia was established by
Duke Moymir in 830, who freed it from
Carolingian domination. During the 800s,
Bohemia was part of the Moravian
Empire. The Germans tried to reclaim
Bohemia from the Moravians, but there
was a Slav revolt in 874. Moravia was
reunited under Sviatopluk, who made
peace and expanded the country. In 906,
the Magyars destroyed Moravia.
Meanwhile, around Prague, a new
Bohemian state was developing. One
national character of this time was
Duke (“good king”) Wenceslas, noted for
his charity. Bohemia took over Moravia in King Stephen, later
1029, gaining recognition from the Holy canonized, receives the
crown of Hungary from
Roman Empire by 1086. Many German Pope Sylvester II, making
traders moved in, and expanded the local him Apostolic King. This
economy. The peak of Bohemian power alliance helped Hungary
become respectable,
came under Ottokar II, who took over
and it helped the pope
Austria in 1251. He lost it to Rudolf gain influence in
the Hapsburg in 1273. Bohemia was central Europe.

overrun by the Germans in 1300, but

it remained a distinct country
linked with Moravia.
Each country
has its national
hero. For Hungary,
it is St. Stephen.
This statue of
Stephen on his
horse was erected
in 1902.

nation recognition and to bind it into

the European order of the time.

KEY DATES
830 Moymir establishes the Moravian state
896-907 Prince Arpad, leader of the Magyars
906 Moravia falls to the Magyars
920 Wenceslas tries to modernize Bohemia
955 Defeat of the Magyars, ending Magyar
raids on Europe
960 Unification of Poland under Miesko I
997-1038 St. Stephen, king of Hungary
1241 Collapse of Hungary after Mongol raids
1260 Peak of Bohemian power and prosperity
1308 Bohemia and Moravia come under
German control

121
 10,000 5000! 3000 | 1500! 500! 3001 100 B.C.! 0 A.D. 100 I 200 | 350 I 500

Anglo-saxon BRITAIN c.600-1066

The arrival of the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes in Britain
during the 400s and 500s created a new people,
the English, who were to dominate Britain.

T he Romans left Britain around 410.

There was a brief revival of power
for the now romanized British. In 446,
the British high king, Vortigern, invited
German Saxons from the Rhineland to
enter Britain as mercenaries to support
in his struggle with the Piets. The Saxons
gained a foothold in the southeast, but
were held off between 500 and 539,
by the now legendary British leader
Arthur. After a battle in 552, the Saxons
started taking over southern and central
England. Many Britons were killed or lost
their lands; many emigrated to Wales,
Cornwall, Ireland, Scotland, Brittany, England was divided into seven kingdoms. From 878
Northumbria, East Anglia, and much of Mercia came
and northwest Spain.
under Viking control and formed the Danelaw.

The Angles buried THE BIRTH OF ENGLAND

their kings, with their In the wake of the German invaders, many In 597, the pope sent Augustine to
possessions, in ships, to
take them to the afterlife.
of their countrymen emigrated to England. convert the English. These converts
This gold clasp comes During the 500s and 600s, they slowly coexisted with the pagans, but there
from a famous burial populated the country. British towns, were disputes with Celtic Christians.
ship of the early 600s,
villages, and farms were abandoned, and These were settled at the Synod of
discovered at Sutton
Hoo, in eastern England. the Celtic Christian church retreated with Whitby in 664, where the Celts agreed
them. The Germans brought new farming to submit to papal authority. The seven
Vortigern, the British and ownership patterns, and their pagan kingdoms often fought to claim the title
high king, hired German
tribal groupings gradually took the shape “Bretwalda” (lord of Britain). In the 600s,
mercenaries, but failed
to pay them. In revenge, of kingdoms. Seven kingdoms were the Northumbrian kings Edwin, Oswald,
they set out to conquer eventually formed: East Anglia, Mercia, and Oswy, and in the 700s, the Mercian
Britain. Settlers soon
and Northumbria (ruled by the Angles); kings Ethelbald and Offa, gained
followed, beaching their
boats and wading ashore Essex, Sussex, and Wessex (ruled by the supremacy. Egbert of Wessex was the
with cattle and sheep. Saxons); and Kent (ruled by the Jutes). first king of a united England, in 829.

122
900 | 1100 i 1200 1300 1400 1500 ! 1600 1700 1750 1800 j 1850 1900 | 1950 ’ 2000

STRUGGLES FOR POWER

▼ This statue of King
In 789, the first Vikings appeared in
Alfred the Great stands
at Wantage, his birthplace. England, and by the middle of the 800s
Alfred was one of England's they had started to settle. When Alfred
great leaders. He created the Great was king of Wessex in 871,
laws based on justice and
encouraged education.
the Vikings were threatening to overrun
his kingdom. Alfred fought nine battles
against them in one year alone. He finally
defeated them in 878 and made them sign
the Treaty of Wedmore. which divided
England in two—the Saxon west and
Danelaw in the east. Alfred was a
lawmaker, a scholar, and a just king. In
his time, texts were translated into early
English, and The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle,
an important history book, was begun. By
940, Danelaw had been won back from
the Danes. England was reunified under
Edgar (959-75), but in 1013 the Danes
returned, and England was ruled until
1035 by the Danish king, Canute the
Great. There was better cooperation
between the Danes and Saxons under
Edward the Confessor but, in 1066, his
son Harold, having just fought invading
Norwegians in Yorkshire, was beaten by
invading Normans, under Duke William.

A The Ruthwell Cross,

KEY DATES carved in a Celtic style
by Saxon monks during
446 Arrival of Jutish mercenaries led by Hengist the 700s, was richly
and Horsa decorated with scenes
560 onward Large-scale immigration of English from the Gospels.
Saxons
597 Augustine arrives to convert the English Saxons
793 The first Viking raid, on Lindisfarne monastery
870 onward Immigration of the Danes into Danelaw
T English Saxon
871-99 Alfred the Great crowned king of Wessex society had three classes-
1013 The Danes conquer all of England thanes or nobles, churls
1066 The Normans, led by Duke William, conquer or freemen, and serfs or
England slaves. In this picture, serfs
are harvesting barley.

123
 10,000 5000 3000 1500 500 300 100 B.C. A.D. 100 200 350 500 700

The holy roman empire 962-1440

BRITAIN
Otto I became king of Germany in 936. He wanted to Atlantic GERMANY
Ocean
revive the old Roman Empire and was crowned as the
HOLY ROMAN
first Holy Roman emperor by the pope in 962. EMPIRE

T he Holy Roman Empire was neither

particularly holy, nor Roman. Founded
FRANCE
AUSTRIA

v^llp
by Charlemagne in 800, it was concerned HUNGARY
SPAIN ITALY ?WltTdC.<
with the power of kings and it was iiM.
German. After Charlemagne’s death The Holy Roman Empire united all of the German¬
the Carolingian Empire gradually speaking peoples and extended its power into Italy,
both to protect and to try to control the popes.
broke up, and France and Germany
were separated. In Germany, a high
king was elected as an overlord so Otto conquered Bohemia, Austria,
that he could bind together the and northern Italy. After 25 years, he had
many independently ruling dukes, the pope crown him Emperor Augustus,
counts, and bishops. The first of these founding an imperial tradition that lasted
overlords was Conrad I of Franconia, 850 years until 1806. His empire became
elected in 911. Later, the ambitious a revived Holy Roman Empire.
Otto I (936-973) wanted to revive
Otto I was on the throne the Roman Empire. Otto brought The Holy Roman emperor had the right to be crowned by
of Germany for 37 years. the pope in Rome. Many popes and emperors disagreed
stability by uniting all of the rulers
He made the Holy Roman over questions of power and authority, and this led
Empire a great and lasting who owed him allegiance and to problems because each side wanted to
institution by uniting his by defeating the Magyars. interfere in the other's affairs.
country's regional 1
rulers and making A
them cooperate If
with him. 4jp

124
900 1100= 1200 1300 1400; 1500 1600 1700 1750 1800 I 1850 | 1900 1950 2000

Monks

Henry IV went to see the pope at Canossa, in January

1077, to settle a dispute over power. Pope Gregory VII kept
him waiting outside in a snowstorm for three days before
forgiving him and removing the ban of excommunication.

POPES AND EMPERORS

Several popes wanted help in ruling Laborers
Christian Europe but often came into
conflict with the emperors. Catholics ▲ Noblemen usually
supported the emperor
had to obey the pope, so he was powerful.
against the pope, but
Popes wanted to choose emperors, and sometimes they rebelled.
emperors wanted to choose popes and Soldiers usually supported
the nobles, who gave
control Church affairs. Finally, Emperor
them land; and peasant
Henry IV and Pope Gregory VII clashed— laborers were employed
in 1075, Gregory said Henry had no right by soldiers and nobles.
Similarly, monks supported
to choose bishops. In revenge, Henry said
clerics, who supported the
that Gregory was no longer pope. Gregory pope. These were "feudal"
excommunicated him, which meant that relationships, where a
Henry was no longer recognized by the person gave allegiance
and taxes in return for
Christian Church and his subjects did not protection, land, or rights.
have to obey him. In 1077, Henry asked Everyone was bound into
to be forgiven. The quarrel over choosing feudal relationships
throughout society.
bishops was finally settled in 1122, but
there were more disputes, which led to a
gradual separation of church and state.

_KEY DATES_
911 Conrad I of Franconia is elected German king
936-973 Otto I strengthens the Holy Roman Empire
955 Otto I defeats the Magyars
In 1100, the pope and
1056-1106 Henry IV in conflict with the pope the Holy Roman emperor
1122 Concordat of Worms: an agreement signed an agreement at
between emperor and pope St. Peter's Cathedral, in
1200 Peak of the political power of the Roman Worms, in southwestern
Catholic Church Germany. The agreement
1300 Popes lose political power ended a long-running
dispute over who was
1440 Holy Roman Empire passes to the Austrian
responsible for the
Hapsburg dynasty
appointment of bishops.

125
 100 B.C. i 500 | 700
10,000 5000 ; 3000; 1500 500 300 0 A.D. 100 200, 350

CAPETIAN FRANCE 987-1328

English Channel
In France, the Carolingian dynasty was followed by the
Capetians in 987. Founded by Hugh Capet, the dynasty's nofm
aim was to unite France as a proud nation. ''V V_fS • Paris
N.'W'U \ • Chartres

C apet was the nickname given to

Hugh Capet, the dynasty’s founder, Bay of
Biscay
because of the short cape he wore when
AQUITAINE
he was a lay abbot. As Duke of Francia, he ryBURGUND'
had been the chief vassal of the last SPANISH
\ /'

Carolingian king, and was himself elected IMARChk

VC
French king. His position was not very
strong: from Paris, he ruled northern
Mediterranean Sea
France, but the dukes of Normandy,
Burgundy, and Aquitaine were nearly When Hugh Capet came to power, France was split into
The dynasty founded by as powerful as he was. large dukedoms. Marriages and shifting political alliances
Hugh Capet died out in meant that France was kept divided for some time. The
1328. Monarehs of the Capetians1 aim was to unite France under one rule.
later French royal houses
THE MAKING OF FRANCE
of Valois and Bourbon The aim of the Capetians was to unite
claimed indirect France and build it up as a proud and Unlike the kings, the dukes were
descent from him.
prosperous nation. Capetian influence more interested in the fortunes of their
and French nationalistic feeling grew own dynasties than those of France as a
under Louis the Fat (1108-37), who whole. Marriage alliances allowed land
made alliances with Church leaders to pass out of central control, and this
against the Germans and the English. was to become a problem.

The Oratory at St. Martin

d’ Aiguilhe is an imposing
structure in Burgundy. This
part of France was ruled
by the mighty dukes of
Burgundy, against whose
power the Capetian kings
could not complete.

Hugh Capet is shown here

receiving the keys of the
town of Laon from Bishop
Asselin, its local ruler.

126
900 iiool^^^ooi^^ao^™ 14001 1500 1600 I 1700 1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 j 2000

FRENCH AND NORMANS

In 1152; King Louis VII’s wife, Eleanor
of Aquitaine, divorced him—he was away
on Crusades too often. She then married
Henry II, the French-Norman king of
England, putting Aquitaine under Norman
rule. France was then split into two halves,
and this led to conflict. By 1214, the
French had regained some of the Norman
land, and by 1226, Louis VIII had
strengthened France greatly. This process
was continued by Louis IX (St. Louis),
who conquered the south and overcame
several rebellious nobles. However, the
dukes still held much power, and the
Normans exploited this. They wanted to
control France. The question of Norman
power in France was not resolved and, after This painting depicts the
the Capetians fell in 1328, a century of war excommunication of Robert
II, king of France (996-1031)
began between the English and French. The and son of Hugh Capet. This
Capetians had given France nationhood happened because Robert
and stability, but this had taken some made a questionable marriage.

time to achieve.

ABBEYS AND CATHEDRALS

In medieval times there were two major
employers: the kings and the Church. Many
churches, monasteries, and cathedrals
were built during the 1100s and 1200s,
but not only for religious reasons. The
building stimulated the economy, provided
employment, and symbolized greatness,
stability, and wealth. Also, the Church m
acted as a European religious Jl
overlord to kings, and it was in nl
) the interest of kings to attract Mm
the favor of the pope. The new
churches of the time were
symbols of progress and prosperity pH
i as well as places of worship. M

Jumieges Abbey was built

around 1040 as part of a
drive by the Capetians to
make France into an
influential kingdom
supported by the pope.

The Capetians made

France stable and
wealthy. One result
of this was the building
of great cathedrals such
as Chartres. Construction
began in 1195, and it took
35 years to complete.

127
 700
10,000

The AMERICAS 500-1200

In Mesoamerica, the Toltecs came into prominence MEXICO
Gulf of
TeotihuacAn Mexico North
following the destruction of Teotihuacan. Meanwhile, Atlantic
Tula* • Chichen Itza Ocean
in South America two new civilizations were developing. ^alenque

B y 600, Teotihuacan was in decline,

and around 750 it was burned to the
Toltecs

Maya
MESOAMERICA

ground, possibly by tribes from the north.

Various peoples tried to assume control,
and around 900, the Toltecs established Moche Empire

a capital at Tula. It became the center of Cuzco

a military state and trading network that Huari Empire

Tlahuanaco

reached from Colorado to Colombia. In

1000, far away in Yucatan, a faction of SOUTH
South
AMERICA
the Toltecs invaded the Mayan Empire, Pacific Ocean
expanding the northern Mayan city of
Chichen Itza. The Toltec Empire came
During this period
to an end in 1168, when it was overrun, the main centers of
and Tula was destroyed. Soon afterward, city civilization in the
South
the Aztecs moved into the area. Americas continued Atlantic
to be in Mexico, the Ocean
Mississippi Valley,
THE LATER MAYA and Bolivia-Peru.
Many Mayan cities were abandoned
around 800, although some still flourished The Toltecs were beaten by the Maya from
in northern Yucatan from 900 onward. Mayapan, whose Cocom dynasty dominated
Around 1000, Yucatan was invaded by Yucatan for 200 years until civil war broke
Toltecs, who stayed there until 1221, out in 1480. The Spanish arrived during
building a copy of Tula at Chichen Itza. the 1500s, but the last Maya city-state,
The Toltecs were very Warrior chiefs took power from the Tayasal, did not fall until 1697.
militaristic. Their temples priests, and caused crafts such
were guarded by stone
statues of warriors such
as pottery, art, and literature
as this one from Tula. to decline in quality.

THE PYRAMIDS OF ETOWAH

Etowah was one of the towns of the Mississippian culture
in North America. This city culture spread far beyond the
Mississippi valley-Etowah was near today's Atlanta, and
famous as a source of mica, a transparent form of rock which
could be split into fine sheets, like glass. The Etowans used
tools of copper and stone, and built earthen pyramids with
temples or the palaces of their chiefs on top. Their
cities often had 10,000-20,000 inhabitants.
They traded with Mexico and the
Great Lakes area, and they made
items to trade with the
village-dwelling tribes
of North America.

128
900! 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1750 1800 1850 1900 I 1950 ! 2000

TIAHUANACO AND HUARI

Civilization in South America was based in
two places. One was at Tiahuanaco, a large
temple-city 12,000 ft. (3660m) above sea
level near Lake Titicaca in Bolivia. Between
600 and 1000, it had a population of
100,000. The people of Tiahuanaco made
distinctive pottery and jewelry, massive This pottery image of a
stone dry-stack walls, and enormous god from Huari, decorated
with corn, was probably
temple-stones. They created a string of
honored by farmers to
towns stretching to the coast and into the help grow their crops.
Brazilian rain forests. The other civilization
was Huari, which included remnants of
several earlier local cultures such as Nazca
and Moche. This was a powerful military
empire, covering over half of modern Peru.
Huari and Tiahuanaco may have followed
the same religion, but Huari was militaristic
and Tiahuanaco was peaceful. The two This bowl from the Mimbres
people of the southwest
empires prospered until about 1000, when
had a hole made in it to
they were both abandoned, possibly "kill" the bowl. It was then
because of drought. buried with its owner.

▲ This is one of the many massive

KEY DATES carved stone figures of Tiahuanaco,
erected around 700. Tiahuanaco,
600 Teotihuacan is sacked and burned
near the southern edge of Lake
800 Toltec migration into central Mexico
Titicaca, was ruled by a priesthood
900 Toltecs establish a city-state at Tula according to religious principles.
1000 Tiahuanaco and Huari abandoned The city had several large temples.
1168 Tula destroyed
1200 Building of the Mississippian temple-cities
1200 Rise of the Aztecs and the Incas

▲ This earring from

Huari is made of stone
inlaid with bone and
shell. The Huari people
also made beautiful
jewelry and small
objects out of gold.

◄ The sun god

Viracocha was carved
on the Gateway of
the Sun at Tiahuanaco
around 600. This giant
gateway opened into the
Kalasasaya, the largest of
the city's building areas
and the main temple.

129
 10,000 5000 3000 1500 500 300 100 8.C. 0 a.d. 100 200 350: 700

The vikings c.600-1000

The Vikings have a reputation as raiders and violent
warriors. But they were also traders and settlers, whose
impact on European history has been great and lasting.

uring the 700s, the Vikings

began to venture from their
homelands in Norway Denmark,
and Sweden in search of adventure,
treasure, and better farmland. They
made excellent wooden ships that
could sail on rough seas and up
rivers, and landed easily on beaches.
At first they raided rich monasteries
and coastal towns, and later they
sailed up the Rhine, Seine, and Loire
Viking coins minted rivers to attack inland cities. Local rulers
in the 800s were made bought them off with silver and gold.
of real silver or gold, so
the coins themselves
Not all Vikings were raiders. Many were
were actually worth the farmers looking for new land or traders
value they represented. seeking business. They were first-class
sailors and traders, and ventured as far Viking men and women wore everyday clothes
that were both practical and fashionable. Their
as Constantinople and Baghdad in
gold and silver jewelry was sometimes
search of conquest or trade. broken up and used as money.

VIKING LONGSHIPS
The Vikings built superb boats, with sturdy keels acting as frames, which made
the ships faster and more seaworthy. The boats were capable of being sailed
or rowed. They could also be hauled by teams of men across land when
necessary—even being dragged long distances overland in Russia, to
get from one river to another. They could be beached easily without
the need for a harbor. A dragon's head on the bow was intended
to scare off evil spirits, sea monsters, and enemies.

130
900 1100 1200: 1300 1400; 1500 1600! 1750; 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000

For the cremation of

a Viking headman, the
dead body was placed
on a ship with his
belongings, for use in
the next life, and a slave
girl was often sacrificed.
The ship was set alight
by a close relative,
naked to symbolize
how we enter and
leave life naked.

VIKING TRADERS AND SETTLERS and built trading towns such as Visby,
In Britain, the Vikings settled mainly in Novgorod, and Kiev. Sailing down Russia's
northern and eastern England, northern rivers, they met Bulgar, Khazar, Byzantine,
Scotland, the Isle of Man, and Ireland. In and Arab traders. By 1000 the Vikings had
Ireland they destroyed many monasteries settled down, and their Nordic homelands
and founded the first towns. In France, the became Christian nations. They had an
Vikings settled in Normandy, which had enormous effect on the future of northern ▲ The Vikings were skilled
been given to them by the French king in Europe: they established trading routes and metalworkers. This is a
die, used for stamping a
911 to discourage their raiding. In 1066, towns; founded Russia, greatly influenced
pattern onto hot metal. It
as Normans, they invaded England, and Holland, Poland, Britain, France, and shows two shamans with
in the early 1070s, southern Italy, and Ireland; and weakened the Carolingian weapons, poised for ritual
animal sacrifice.
Sicily. Vikings also settled in Iceland, Empire. Their descendants, the Normans,
and some sailed on to Greenland and were influential in Europe and led the
T The Viking town in
North America. Others entered the Crusades. Because of the Viking raiders, Denmark called Hedeby,
Mediterranean, raiding southern France, people had to rely on local feudal lords, and was well known for its
craftworkers and traders.
Spain, and Byzantium. Beaten back by exchanged work, produce, and fighting men
Hedeby was one of the
the Byzantines, Vikings sold them their for protection. Gradually, Europe became ports from which the
services as traders and warriors instead. more disunited, fighting grew frequent, and Vikings sailed far
Swedish Vikings took over the Baltic Sea, gaps grew between the rich and poor. and wide.

131
 300 100 B.C. 0 A.D. 100 200 350 500 700
5000 3000 1500: 500;

[E NORMANS c.800-

u
1

•
The Normans invaded England in 1066 and soon
North
ruled the Saxon and Viking English, the Welsh, and Sea

the Irish. They also wielded influence farther afield.

f #Durham
T he Normans were Danish overlords
who lived in Normandy from 900
ENGLAND

onward. They had absorbed Carolingian WALES) s'! • Norwich

»London
Winchester#
and Christian ideas. There were not
many of them, but they were tough Atlantic
Ocean
warrior lords. William the Conqueror
was crowned on Christmas Day 1066—
FRANCE
in France he had been only a duke, but
now he was also the English king. The Norman invasion of England took five years, and it
/illiam the Conqueror, raised the Normans from provincial French vassals to
Duke of Normandy, was being the wealthy rulers of a whole country.
king of England from NORMAN RULE
1066 to 1087. After the Norman invasion of 1066 many
of the English protested. William tax assessment of England’s land and wealth,
put down rebellions brutally, the Domesday Book, was made. Norman rule
taking English land and giving was harsh. They were mainly interested in
it to his Norman nobles, for wealth and power, and used England as a
them to rule the local areas. base for foreign adventures that the English
He gave land to the Church had to finance. However, England developed
in order to gain its support, economically, and within 100 years the
replacing English with French Normans began the invasion of Wales,
bishops, and he encouraged Ireland, and Scotland. England was
French traders and craftworkers changing—its landscape, towns, and culture
to settle in England. The were all influenced by the Normans. By
Normans built large castles, 1140 there was a disagreement over who
churches, monasteries, and great should rule the country. This weakened the
cathedrals, and many towns grew king and strengthened the nobles’ power. A
up around them. The nobility new Norman dynasty, the Plantagenet
spoke French, and the ordinary was founded in 1154, and its first king,
people spoke early English. A Henry II, ruled England and half of France.
central administration and tax During this time, the English class system,
▲ William the Conqueror system was established, and a dominated by nobles, began to develop.
was succeeded by two of
his sons. William II ruled
from 1087-1100, Henry iSTlMIRAbll
from 1100-1135. They
established firm Norman
rule, but it collapsed under
the next king, Stephen,
who died in 1154.

hAROlD

► The Bayeux Tapestry was

made to commemorate
the Norman invasion of
England in 1066. Halley's
Comet, shown clearly on the
tapestry, came close to the
Earth in that year, and it was
taken as an omen that the
invasion was justified.

132
900 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1750' 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000

THE NORMANS IN EUROPE To honor ancient traditions, local law

The Normans were also busy elsewhere courts were often held outdoors. The
lord of the manor was the judge. This
in Europe. Around 1060, Norman soldiers
court, or assize, held in 1072, met to
under Robert Guiscard invaded Sicily and decide whether some lands belonged
southern Italy, to support the pope against to the Bishop of Bayeux, in Normandy,
or to Canterbury Cathedral.
the Byzantines and Arabs. As a result, they
were favored by the pope and often
protected him. In the 1200s, they became
leaders of the Crusades. Through political
marriages, and by serving as knights, papal
agents, bishops, and royal courtiers, Norman
lords formed a feudal network which
became very influential across Europe in the
1200s. In these feudal relationships, a noble
who pledged allegiance and gave military
support to a king was rewarded with lands
and titles. These nobles then ruled estates
and provinces, demanding loyalty of their
followers and in exchange rewarding them
with lands and positions of power. And so
feudalism that started in France became
established throughout Europe.

THE FEUDAL SYSTEM

Under the feudal system, people held land in
exchange for services. It developed during the
700s under the Franks and was introduced
to England by the Normans. In exchange for
receiving estates and titles, Norman nobles
paid taxes to the king, provided knights, and
raised armies. Nobles gave their knights land in
exchange for military service and taxes. A knight
had to have villeins (peasant workers) to manage
his land. The villeins lived in villages near the
manor house. In exchange for a farm or house,
they worked for the lord of the manor,
paying him in crops or money.

133
 10,000 5000 3000 1500 500 300 100 B.C, 0 A.D. 100 200 350 500 700

The seljuk turks 1037-1243

The Seljuks invaded the Middle East from 1037 Byzantine Empire
onward, ending Arabian domination of the Islamic Seljuk Empire
world and opening the way for the Ottomans. Seljuk advances

T he Turks were originally a family

of tribes living in Turkestan, central
EGYPT

Asia. They split up during the 500s, and

spread to Russia, China, India, and Persia.
Some Turks abandoned the nomad life
to become administrators and mercenary
warriors. They served the Abbasids, Fatimids,
and others, and sometimes rose to high
office. Turks such as the Seljuks, Ottomans, The Seljuks streamed down from Bokhara to Baghdad,
and later, westward into Anatolia, almost as far as
Mamluks, Bulgars, and Khazars soon began
Constantinople. Anatolia (Turkey) then became Muslim.
to have great influence. They also joined
forces with the Mongols. The Turkish cities
of Samarkand and Bokhara grew wealthy Alp Arslan, Tughril’s nephew, became
and cultured in Islamic times. sultan in 1063. He took Syria and Armenia
and raided Anatolia. In 1071, the Byzantine
SELJUK EXPANSION emperor fought back. Alp Arslan hired
To the east of the Caspian Sea lived a Turkic Norman and Turkish mercenaries and
group called the Ghuzz, or Turkomans. The marched into Armenia. The armies met at
Seljuk broke away from the Ghuzz in 950, Manzikert. The Seljuks won because they
moving south and west. The Abbasid caliph pretended to be defeated and ran away.
in Baghdad was having difficulties, and he When the Byzantines pursued them, they
asked the Seljuks for their help. Led by turned around and badly defeated the
Tughril Beg, the Seljuks invaded Persia Byzantine army. The Seljuks captured the
This minaret at the and occupied Baghdad by 1055. The Byzantine emperor and held him for ransom.
Jami mosque in Simnan, Abbasid caliph appointed Tughril as sultan This victory laid the foundation of what later
Iran, shows typical Seljuk
patterns in its elaborate
under him—in effect, he gave the Abbasid became the Ottoman Empire. Alp Arslan was
brickwork. The Seljuks Empire to the Seljuks. In this way, the a compassionate leader and ruled the empire
became Muslims around Seljuks rose from being a simple nomadic well. With his blessing, many Turkomans
970, and considered
tribe to rulers of the Islamic world. and Seljuks moved into Anatolia.
themselves defenders
of the Islamic faith.

Like most nomads from the

Asian steppes, the Seljuks
were great horsemen. Using
the new invention of stirrups,
they could stay on horseback
and fire arrows accurately
in battle. This picture shows
them defeating the Byzantines
at the battle of Manzikert.

134
900; 1100 1200; 1300: 1400; 1500: 1600 1700 1750 i 1800: 1850 1900 1950 2000

MALIK SHAH '; rrr;, Lirf; g ce n j1 •. gsaHaicsaiauiKHi!

The Seljuk Empire reached its greatest awi itfpag
power under the rule of Alp Arslan’s
son; Malik Shah (1072-92). He was a
patron of the sciences and the arts and
built fine mosques in his capital,
Isfahan. His minister, Nizam al-Mulk,
was respected as a statesman. During
this time, Seljuks took over Anatolia
(Turkey) completely, and founded ' Ji-.f
M3
aaul
the Sultanate of Rum right next to
SKU
Constantinople. On Malik Shah’s death,
fly
the Seljuk Empire broke up into small
states, and a variety of Seljuk, Mamluk,
and Kurdish sultanates continued
through the 1300s, all under the eye of
the Abbasid caliph in Baghdad. Then, in
1220, the Mongols overran the area,
finally occupying Baghdad in 1258.

AThe Tomeh or Friday

_KEY DATES_ mosque was built in
950 The Seljuks break away from the Ghuzz Turks Isfahan, Persia, in the
1038 Seljuks conquer Khorasan (Afghanistan) Seljuk style. The Seljuks
1055 Seljuks conquer Baghdad were great patrons of
1071 Seljuks defeat the Byzantines at Manzikert learning, architecture,
1072 Peak of the Seljuk Empire and culture.
1081 Founding of the Seljuk sultanate of Rum
1092 Death of Malik Shah-Seljuk Empire breaks up
1243 Mongol invasions: Seljuks become Mongol vassals
1258 Mongols destroy the Abbasid caliphate

AThis is a tiled detail

from the tomb of the
Seljuk sultan Kaykavus I
at Sivas in Turkey. The
Seljuks produced beautiful
and intricate patterns that
were used to adorn their
religious buildings.

◄Though the Seljuks

brought new life to the
Abbasid Empire, life in
the Muslim world went
on very much as before.
This scene shows what a
souk, or indoor trading
hall.in Baghdad, would
have looked like during
the 1100s.

135
 10,000 5000 3000 1500 500 300 i 100 B.C. A.D. 100 200 350 500 700

China: the song dynasty 960-1279

The Song (or Sung) dynasty created the third united
Chinese Empire. This was a time of great innovation and
took China into a long period of cultural eminence.

A fter the Tang dynasty fell in 907,

China became fragmented. In the
Huang He Valley, five emperors tried to
start new dynasties over 53 years. None
succeeded until Song Taizu took power
in 960, founding the Song dynasty. He
brought the many warlords and armies
under control, and by both military and
diplomatic means began to reunify
China. This took 16 years and was
completed by his brother, Song Taizong,
the second Song emperor, in 979. Until the Jin invaded the north in 1127, the Song ruled all
of China. They were then forced to move south where they
prospered for another 150 years until the Mongols invaded.
THE NORTHERN SONG PERIOD
Now surrounded by other states, China
under the Song was smaller than in Tang Agriculture expanded and the population
times. In the northwest was Xixia, grew—especially in the south, which was
which was Tibetan; in the northeast was now wealthy and important. By the end
Liao, ruled by Mongol Khitans; in the of the Song period there were probably
This Song temple painting southeast was Nan Chao, a Thai state; and around 100 million people living in China.
from the 1100s shows in the south was Annam, a Vietnamese
disciples of the Buddha ▼ Song artists often painted landscapes with small
feeding the poor.
kingdom. The Song emperors worked hard central features in them. This example of landscape
to make peace with all of them. painting from the Song period is called "Fisherman."

136
 \
900 I 1100 ' 1200 | 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1750 I 1800 1850 I 1900 i 1950 2000

This vase with a butterfly

and leaf-and-flower design
is typical of the porcelain of
the Song period. Europe
didn't master porcelain¬
making techniques
for many centuries.

"A Buddhist Temple in

the Mountains" was
painted by Li Cheng
during the 900s.

THE SOUTHERN SONG PERIOD

In 1068, the prime minister, Wang Anshi,
reformed the government. He simplified
the tax system and reduced the size of
the huge army. Although these cuts saved
money, they also made invasion easier. In
1127, northern China was attacked by the
Jin, and the Song capital, Kaifeng, was lost.
The Song withdrew to Hangzhou, south
of the Yangtze, and the north was then
ruled by the Jin until Kublai Khan’s
Mongols took over in 1234. Hangzhou
became a large, beautiful city, with canals,
parks, and fine buildings. The Southern
Song lasted until 1279, when southern
China was overrun by the Mongols.
The Song period saw great prosperity
and advancement in new technologies, arts, CHINESE PORCELAIN
and literature. They invented gunpowder Throughout the world, pottery had been made of clay
rockets, clocks, movable-type printing, that produced a chunky and rough finish. Around 900,
the Song dynasty Chinese invented porcelain, which
paddle-wheel boats, magnetic compasses,
was made from kaolin, a fine white clay. Their
and waterpowered machinery. Landscape craftworkers made smooth and delicate porcelain
painting, fine porcelain, poetry, and theater which, when used with special glazes and painting
styles, could be beautifully decorated-
flourished. Banking and trade became
making each piece a work of art. During
important, towns grew large, and new this period, Chinese emperors even had
crops were introduced. Song China could factories built to make porcelain specially
for their palaces. Porcelain production soon
have become even greater, had it not been
became an enormous industry in China.
brought down by the Mongol invaders.

_KEY DATES_
907 Fall of the Tang dynasty
960 Song Taizu founds the Song dynasty
979 Song Taizong completes unification of China
1000 Culture and the economy thrive in China
1068-86 Wang Anshi's reforms
1127 The Jin take northern China: the Song retreat
to Hangzhou
1234 The Mongols conquer northern China, ousting
the Jin
1279 The Mongols conquer southern China:
Song emperors had ceramic factories This porcelain wine vessel stands in another
Song period ends
built to supply fine porcelain. vessel used for warming.

137
. r

i The arts 501-1100

During this period, most artistic expression was Monastic scribes
illuminated their
for religious purposes. But religious authorities did lettering with
encourage the development of arts, music, and crafts. religious pictures,
i using red lead,
[' gold, silver, and
hurches, mosques, and temples
y special inks. Some
attracted the finest craftworkers and scribes would
musicians. Religious feeling encouraged spend years on each
them to stretch their talents to create book using styles
that showed Greek,
delicate, elaborate works. Gifted
Roman, Egyptian,
people were usually educated by Celtic, and German
religious authorities. Ordinary people influences.
bore many hardships, but religion
allowed them to think of higher matters
nd pray for better times, at least in the
Fterlife. Even tough,warlike rulers often
ad a gentle, religious side to them, and
tey brought artists, musicians, poets, and
linkers to their courts, turning a court
ito a cultural center. This earned a ruler
ot only God’s approval, but also that of Temples, churches, and mosques were
iciety and learned scholars. wealthy and used the arts to communicate
religious stories and ideas. At this time most
▲ Alfred the Great of Wessex was very people could not read or write, and in many
religious. This was the top of a bookmark that
areas religious ceremonies were performed
he may have had made for a priest to keep
his place when reading the Bible. The words in foreign languages. So pictures, music,
around the edge say "Alfred had me made.” carvings, mosaics, and architecture were
all used for teaching and raising people’s
▼ For the ship-burials of their chieftains,
spirits. Each culture developed its own
the Vikings created elaborate decorations
carved in wood or inlaid with metals. artistic, musical, and literary style.
Vikings were not just warriors, but
also skilled craftworkers and
lovers of fine objects. A

yi d4 A38 Ah
« ,'T /A
 gm
r\V j/A
■ijfJj

'D

If
Wi . ...

A picture of St. Mark from the Irish Book of Kells shows

Celtic knotwork and spirals mixed with early Christian
styles from Rome, Egypt, and Byzantium.

Byzantine churches were decorated with

mosaics and holy pictures called icons. In
Europe’s monasteries, monks spent long
hours copying books by hand. They
illuminated, or decorated, the capital letters
▲ A Byzantine mosaic M.
of texts and borders of pages with detailed inside the dome of the
if
designs. Muslims specialized in calligraphy, Arian Baptistry in Ravenna,
or beautiful handwriting, and in making Italy, shows Jesus being

elaborate geometrical patterns on their baptized by John the

Baptist. The twelve
buildings. Buddhists in Asia painted stories
Apostles, each carrying
of the life of the Buddha. In Tang and Song a crown, are depicted
i?
China, they painted and carved new kinds around him. Each
of landscape art and natural images. In individual figure in %
the painting is a work
Mexico, manuscripts, stone carvings, and
of art in itself. IV
murals, or wall paintings, were common.
T'
h

vi

◄ Under Islamic law, sW

artists were not allowed
to paint pictures of people
or animals-this was
thought to be idolatry, the
worship of idols. As a result,
artists used calligraphy
and decorated texts with
During the Song dynasty, fine porcelain was also made geometric designs and
for export. This special pale green bowl, called a celadon, flowing patterns of
was said to crack or change color if poison was put into leaves and flowers.
it, and was much valued by vulnerable leaders.
Architecture 501-1100
Building styles varied throughout the world, ranging
from simple structures in remote villages to grand
architectural works in cities and empires.
B uilding styles varied across
the world. In hot,
humid climates, buildings
were made to keep people
cool and shaded, while in
cold climates they needed
to offer protection from wind,
rain, snow, and chill. Where trees were Motte and bailey castles were common all over western
plentiful, buildings were made entirely of Europe. If attacked, villagers could shelter within the
castle. But the village itself was still vulnerable
wood. This was especially true in northern
to burning and looting.
Europe and Japan. Even the first castles
were built of wood, although many were
later replaced using more durable stone.
In warmer climates sunbaked bricks, or
adobe, were used. Bricks and stone
were more difficult to work with,
but the builders of churches,
mosques, and palaces often
used them, hoping to
leave a lasting mark
on history. With
advances in building
techniques, architectural styles became
In later castles of the Middle Ages, outer walls were built
more complex, frequently featuring
to enclose settlements, sometimes around whole towns.
arches, lofty roofs, and domes. Minarets, The Normans were masters of castle-building-but the
pagodas, and church spires became Japanese, Arabs, and Maya were also skilled in the art.

taller, and their shapes more graceful.

Muslims built minarets

beside mosques so that
the muezzin, or caller,
could climb them to call
the people to prayer. The
design of these minarets,
and of the cupolas, or
onion-shaped domes,
on top of the mosques
themselves, is typical
of Muslim architecture.

Villages like this

Saxon one in England,
with its central hall and
a stockade, were common
across the world. Different
materials and styles were
used, but the structure
and layout were usually
the same.

140
 A Norman builders had only simple equipment to
help them build great cathedrals and castles. Their
methods were often ingenious, and they were
very skilled. Building methods like those
used by the Normans did not change
fundamentally for nearly 1,000
years, until the introduction
of steel and concrete.

The Hagia Sophia (Saint Sophia) in Constantinople

was built during the early 500s. An immense work
of Byzantine architecture, it was later converted into
a mosque by the Ottomans. It is now a museum.
► Supporting the
great weight of the roof,
the pillars and arches
Fortifications were made taller and
of Durham cathedral in
bulkier. By 1000, fine buildings for England have a typical
traders, markets, and trade guilds were Norman, or "Gothic," style,
which developed around
also appearing. Cities, such as Hangzhou,
1100. Not only beautiful
Teotihuacan, Cordoba, and Kanauj were in shape, these lofty,
built on a grand scale. A more secular, or light-filled buildings
were also well built and
nonreligious, style was slowly emerging,
have stood for many
establishing designs to be followed by hundreds of years.
architects in later times. However,
the majority of people still lived in
simple structures. American tepees,
European log cabins, Arabic tents,
and Indonesian longhouses, built
quickly with simple materials, more
than satisfied their inhabitants’
needs. They were probably
often more comfortable to live
in than drafty stone castles
or grand palaces.

In Aotearoa (New Zealand), the

Maoris constructed wooden buildings.
They were carved with stone tools, and
they often added carved bone, colorful
shells, and stones for special features,
such as the eyes of their gods.

141
 . mm
_ .
■■ mmfW
_ __
■•: ■/; zmy-
_____
|v|
;'C^: 'fe'S-1»il ^IWr^iW
w,
ole

I
Science and technology 501-1100
During this period, the world’s greatest inventors and
so
scientists were Chinese and Arabic. Europeans were far
behind, and Americans mainly copied their ancestors.

M any advances in science and

technology were made
independently by the Chinese and
the Arabs. However, there was
contact between them, so they
also learned from each other. The
H.
Arabs were influenced by many
new ideas from India and Persia;
&M
for example, the use of the
}>!/, number zero and the decimal
.7- /
7 counting system came from India.
Us I f,
V :• While all cultures across the
world knew about herbal
fl medicines and their uses, the
•7' ^ Chinese and the Arabs were the
Sas most advanced. Arabic doctors
wrote medical books which were
studied by both Chinese and
Europeans. The Chinese understood The Arabs further developed the technical knowledge of
ancient Greece, Persia, and India. They built machines like
The inventor Su Song how vaccination worked—this arose from
this, which raised water using the power produced by the
built this clock tower in their knowledge of acupuncture. They falling water, the animal's movement, and the gears.
1090, at Kaifeng, the Song
capital. It was powered
made magnetic compasses that could be
by water dripping onto a used for navigation at sea and in the The Chinese invented paddle-wheel
t wheel. A gong sounded desert, and they invented gunpowder for riverboats, and they designed large wooden
to mark the hours.
//
h- fireworks and as a signaling device. It was machines for making cloth, irrigating fields,
w the Europeans, several centuries later, who and lifting heavy weights. They also
r
first used it in guns. Chinese ships, called invented wood-block printing, dyes,
junks, were the world’s largest, and only paints and paintbrushes, and developed
the Vikings could match their seamanship. new types of vegetables.
X

m
m

▲ Grain crops were cut

with a scythe (right).
Using a flail (left), the
grain was separated from
the husks by tossing it up
into the air where the
lighter chaff blew away.

► Charcoal was used as

// a fuel in metal smelting.
Wood was roasted in a
smoldering, smothered
fire. It slowly dried out,
leaving charcoal behind.

142
mmi ■ .. 1. a . A f Cf Cmi,
 ◄ During this period the Arabs made significant
advances in the use of medicine. In this illustration
from an Arabic manuscript of the 1100s, a doctor
and an apothecary-a pharmacist or druggist-are
making an herbal medicine which they could use
to counteract the effects of poisons.

BOOKS AND IDEAS ► The Arabs were great

One of the greatest advances during astronomers, drawing star
constellations as human
this period was printing. From the figures. This is one called
500s, the Chinese had used wooden blocks, Cepheus. They also invented
or woodcuts, that were carved to print a the astrolabe, which
measured the angles of
whole page. They soon progressed to using
stars to the horizon, for
movable type for individual letters, so use in navigation and
that pages could be made up and printed star charts.

quickly in large quantities. In the mid-700s,

the Chinese technique of papermaking was
passed on to the Arabs, who later passed
it to Europe. The Arabs were skilled in
astronomy and mathematics, and they
drew the most accurate maps available
at the time. The Muslim cities of Cairo,
Baghdad, Cordoba, and Samarkand were
home to the world’s first universities.
However, these developments did not
result in a technological revolution, because
the pace of development had slowed down
in China and the Muslim world by 1100.

WHEN IT HAPPENED ▲ The Chinese made

593 Woodblocks used for printing in China compasses made from
magnetized metal and
595 Decimal counting used in India
stone. The figure on
700 Waterwheels to drive mills in Europe top of this one always
700 Major advances in chemistry in Baghdad pointed to the south.
751 Technique of papermaking spreads
from China to the Muslim world
◄ The Chinese used
810 Algebra invented in Persia; Arabs fireworks in religious
adopt decimals ceremonies. They made
868 Earliest known printed book is fireworks that could

produced in China operate from big

dragonlike kites high
900 Arabic advances in astronomy
up in the sky.
900 Chinese develop porcelain
 j ' ij*

i
!I |
&k
f;A
gig L M

liUiil,
 The
Middle Ages
1101-1460
During the Middle Ages, empires rose and fell
around the world. Many wars were undertaken in
the name of religion. In Europe, alliances were made
and quickly broken and a sense of nationalism began
to grow. European traders ventured as far afield as
China, camel caravans trudged across the Sahara
and Venetian ships sailed the Mediterranean Sea
with their goods. These were times of faith and
fortune, of war and torture, famine and wealth.
By the end of the Middle Ages, learning had
become a possibility for everyone who could read.

▲ The Krak des Chevaliers, in what is now Syria, was the largest and
strongest castle built by the crusaders. It was garrisoned by 2,000 men,
but finally fell to the Saracens in 1271.

◄ The French king, Saint Louis IX, embarks in Aigues Mortes in 1248
for the seventh Crusade to the Holy Land.

145
The world at a glance 1101-1460
D uring this period, trade increased people’s
knowledge of many parts of the world, but it also
The Mongols conquered much of Asia and Europe
to form the largest empire of all time—although it
helped spread the Black Death, a disease carried by the was to be short-lived. Their success was based on
fleas that lived on rats found on ships. In Europe, the brilliant military tactics and superb horsemanship.
Black Death killed a fourth of the population. In the Americas, the Aztecs built their capital city
Information about Africa was spread by Arab traders of Tenochtitlan in the center of Lake Texcoco in
who sailed down the east coast of the continent. They Mexico, while in South America, the Inca Empire
brought with them stories of vast inland empires, rich was expanding by conquering neighboring tribes.
with gold, and centered on large stone cities. In West
Africa, the kingdom of Mali flourished.
In the Far East, the Khmer Empire of Cambodia
was at its height. In Japan, military rulers called
shoguns were supported by samurai warriors,
and were virtual dictators of their country.

■ppprs,
j

NORTH AMERICA
During medieval times, the
NORTH AMERICA
Mississippi Temple Mound 'ftSwift ?T »■8
culture had reached its
peak, even though VTfW'Df
TvW
- = it faded almost ik iriu l 1
completely during the
1400s. In the Southwest,
the Anasazi, Mogollon,
and Hohokam pueblo
cultures declined
£1
during the 1200s.

MESOAMERICA
AND SOUTH
AMERICA

MESOAMERICA AND SOUTH AMERICA

The Toltecs fell around 1200, and this allowed a second phase
of growth for the Maya in southern Mexico. But then the warlike
Aztecs started building an empire in the 1400s in central Mexico.
Their island capital, Tenochtitlan, became one of the world's greatest
cities. Yet the most influential people in the Americas were the
Incas who, from small beginnings in Cuzco, Peru, conquered
and united many city-states
and cultures in the Andes
region during the 1400s.
They became the largest
American empire.

146
 EUROPE
In the Middle Ages, European nation-states grew more stable and established
Much depended on the ruling classes, the nobility, and the clergy, though in
The Mongols dominated Asia
later centuries the merchant classes grew in wealth and power by becoming
for 100 years during the 1200s,
their financiers. There was a violent elimination of freethinkers—so-called
creating the world's largest-ever
"heretics" were persecuted and killed for their beliefs.
empire, embracing China, Persia,
The Crusades against Muslims had a major effect
and central Asia. Later, Asiatic
both on Europe and the Middle East. Then came
Turkic peoples played an important
the shock of the Black Death, which swept
role in India and the Middle East,
through Europe in the 1340s, ruthlessly killing 7^
becoming overlords in many areas.
one third of the population. This was a major ’
In 1271, the explorer Marco Polo
turning point. It led to new political and social
set out for China from Venice. In
developments that in time would put Europe
China, the Ming dynasty gained
in a position to dominate the world.
control in 1368 after the fall of
the Mongols, and Muslim rule
overcame Hindu culture in north
India. Islam spread as far as the
East Indies and into central Asia.

E fc- i

jfi
EUROPE
fmf H*Ifj|
•>!k.
MIDDLE
EAST

AFRICA

AUSTRALASIA
AUSTRALASIA Polynesian cultures, including the
Maoris, now reached their peak,
though this hardly touched the
rest of the world. In Australia,
the Aborigines continued in their
ancient ways.

AFRICA
Several kingdoms became rich during
this period, including Ethiopia, Mali,
Songhay, Zimbabwe, Benin, and MIDDLE EAST
Kanem-Bornu.
After a period of disunity, a new Muslim
■ Foreigners also
order was carved out by Saladin, who fought
f ^ visited Africa
the Crusaders. Later, the Seljuks and Ottoman
- ’ f™m Eu™p" Turks become powerful. The Ottomans took
■ China, and
over Byzantium and also took control of the
7 Arabia.
Middle East and southeast Europe-their
empire survived until 1917.

147
 10,000 5000 3000 1500 500 300 100 B.c. 0 a.d. 100 200 350 500

The crusades 1095-1291

Palestine became the center of a struggle for political
) BRITAIN
and religious power when the pope called for a crusade HOLY
to free the Holy Land from Muslim control.
HUNGARY

T o Christians and Muslims, Palestine

was the Holy Land, a place of
FRANCE

pilgrimage for hundreds of years. After

the Arabs conquered Palestine in
637, Christian pilgrims were Mediterranean
still able to visit Jerusalem Sea Jerusalem • ^
safely, but this changed with (HOLY LAND)
the arrival of the Seljuk Turks.
In 1095, Pope Urban II called At first the Crusaders traveled overland from France and
Italy to Palestine, but, to avoid having to fight the Seljuk
on Christians to free Palestine
Turks in Anatolia, they started to go by sea from Venice.
from Muslim rule. Knights and
ordinary people set out, led by
Peter the Hermit and Walter the Some of the heads of the Christian
Penniless. Most of them never kingdoms behaved badly toward the
reached Palestine, and the rest Muslims. In 1187, Saladin defeated
became a wild, hungry mob. In the Christians at Hattin and recovered
1099, a well-disciplined Crusader Jerusalem. In 1191, England’s Richard I
army recaptured Jerusalem, (“the Lionheart”) led an army to the Holy
massacring its inhabitants. Land. He took Cyprus and the city of Acre,
They established four so- which had been under siege by Christian
called Latin States, or kingdoms forces, but he was unable to recapture
in Palestine and Syria. At first Jerusalem. He and Saladin signed a treaty
The Crusaders wore the Saracens, as the Crusaders sharing the Holy Land, including Jerusalem-
heavy armor and rode
called the Seljuk Turks, left the the Christians founded a “Second Kingdom”
large stallions, and the
Muslims, called Saracens,
Crusader kingdoms alone. of the holy city with its heart at Acre.
wore light armor and rode
mares. Both armies were
The Crusaders built Norman-style castles in Palestine
formidable looking, but
and Syria. The Krak des Chevaliers in Syria, built by the
the Saracens were
Knights Hospitallers, was besieged by
more mobile.
the Muslims in 1271. They
eventually starved the
Crusaders into
surrender.

.
c'A"

Saladin (c.1137-1193), a
pious leader, led his people
in a jihad or holy war
against the Crusaders.

148
 !
900 1100 1 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 : 1750 ! 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000

Richard I of England
(1157-1199), known as
the Lionheart (on the
right), led an army of
knights to the Holy Land
in 1191, on the third
Crusade. They failed to
recapture Jerusalem, but
Richard was able to secure
a five-year peace treaty
with Saladin. This allowed
European pilgrims to visit
the holy places again. On
his return to England, in
1192, he was captured by
Leopold of Austria and
then Henry VI, the Holy
Roman emperor, who held
Richard for ransom for
about a year. He finally
reached England in 1194.

The fourth Crusade began in 1202, KEY DATES

but the Crusaders were unable to pay 1096-99 First Crusade takes Palestine
Venice for transportation. So, in exchange and Syria
for transportation, they agreed to loot 1187 Saladin wins back Jerusalem
1189-92 Third Crusade
Constantinople on Venice's behalf. In 1212,
1202-04 Fourth Crusade loots
up to 50,000 children from France and
Constantinople
Germany set off for Palestine, but most of 1212 Children's Crusade-a tragic
them died of hunger or became slaves—this failure
is known as the Children’s Crusade. The 1218-21 Fifth Crusade-a failure
1228-29 Sixth Crusade—partly
fifth Crusade to Egypt failed; the last
successful
three crusades (1218-1272] were also
1291 Acre is lost-the last Crusades
unsuccessful. In 1291, Palestine was finally
conquered by the sultan of Egypt. T At the decisive battle of Hattin in
1187, Saladin tricked the Crusaders onto
Louis IX, of France (1226-1270), was deeply a hill on a hot day. While the Crusaders
religious. He led the seventh Crusade (1248) roasted in their metal armor, he
onH va/oc r*Qntnrprl Hp qIqo IpH thp pinhth surrounded and defeated them. Saladin

149
 10,000 5000 3000 1500 500 300 100 B.C. A.D. 100 200 350 500 700

Knighthood 1100-1400
Knights were trained horseback warriors drawn from
the nobility. They played an important part in the
Crusades and other wars during the Middle Ages.

I n return for lands, lordships, and

power, nobles did military service for
their kings. They were wealthy enough
to have large horses, armor, and attendants
(squires). Often the younger sons of
nobles became knights to gain riches or
honors, because the eldest son usually
inherited his father’s estates. Knights were
particularly important in the Crusades.
Some went on crusades to gain power and
lands; others went for sincere religious
reasons and to protect pilgrims. But
knighthood was not just about fighting. A A squire kneels to help his master arm himself for battle.
knight was expected to be cultured, fair, Plate armor made from steel was not introduced until
the 1300s. Before that, knights wore chain mail.
and honorable, to help the weak, and
protect the poor. This was known as
chivalry; unfortunately, many knights THE LIFE OF A KNIGHT
did not live up to these high ideals. A boy began his training around the
age of seven, becoming a page in the
household of a knight or nobleman. By
14, he became a squire, who served at
table, helped his master put on his armor,
The crossed legs of this and accompanied him into battle. Later, if
carved effigy on the tomb he performed his duties well, he was also
of a Norman knight show
made a knight. Knights practiced their
that he had been on a
crusade to the Holy Land.
skills in mock battles called tournaments.
In these, most knights carried a scarf or
glove from a lady, to show they were
fighting on her behalf. Richard I of
KEY DATES England and Louis IX of France were
1095 Pope Urban II famous for their support of the
calls for the romantic ideals of chivalry. In the
Crusades
Crusades, some knights took monastic
1113 Knights
vows of chastity and poverty, and
Hospitallers
founded joined the Templars, Hospitallers,
1118 Knights Templars or Teutonic Knights. The Knights
founded Templars were so trusted that they
1208 Albigensian carried people’s money for them. As
Crusade against
a result, the Templars became bankers
the Cathars
1227 Teutonic Crusades
and were very powerful in Europe.
against pagan However, by 1312, the Templars were ^
Lithuania abolished for malpractices, such as
1291 End of the dishonesty in business and heresy.
Crusades in
Palestine
Two important Crusader orders of knights were the
1312 Knights Templars
Knights Templars (left) and the Knights of St. John,
dissolved by the
or Hospitallers (right). The Hospitallers set up a
French king hospital for pilgrims in Jerusalem, and the Templars
guarded the original site of the Temple in Jerusalem.

150
 | j
900 1100s 1200j 1300! 1400| 1500 1600 1700 1750 1800 1850 1900 I 1950 2000

The tradition of the

5$ r'b-. troubadours started in
southern France just
Mijti
before 1100. These
X’ - ;• -
minstrel-poets sang
songs of romantic love,
chivalry, and religion.

Axes, pikes, and swords

were the main weapons
that knights used
during the Crusades.

,
In 1227 the German Teutonic From the 1300s, knighthood became In tournaments, knights
Knights were sent to colonize Prussia more of a royal honor than a military role. jousted against each other
(now Lithuania]. Other knights were Some knights performed worthy tasks, to show their knightly skills
and bravery. Although they
sent on missions within Europe—such as helping people in difficulty and bringing used blunt swords and
the Albigensian Crusade sent by the pope justice; other knights sought power or lances, knights were often
to subdue the Cathars. The Cathars were wealth for themselves. Knights often killed or maimed. Mock
sieges and assaults on
Christians living in southwestern France argued, which was one reason why the
castles were also staged.
who disagreed with the pope. Crusades eventually failed.

151
 10,000 5000 3000 1500 500 300 100 B.C. A.D. 100 200 350 500 700

Henry of anjou 1154-1189

Henry of Anjou became Henry II, the first Plantagenet
SCOTLAND
king of England, in 1154. With his lands in France he
became one of the most powerful rulers in Europe.

H enry of Anjou was William the

Conqueror’s great-grandson. His
ENGLAND
.

Canterbury
mother, Matilda, was the widow of the
Holy Roman emperor Henry V, who had
NORMANDY Paris
died in 1125. She was the daughter of
BRITTANY FRANCE
Henry I of England, who named her his Maine
heir after his sons had died. Henry I also Anjou
wanted to strengthen his hold on AQUITAINE W
Henry II (1133-89) was a Normandy, so, in 1128, he had Matilda
man of great humor but GASCONY
marry Count Geoffrey of Anjou in France.
he also had a violent
temper. Through his
In 1127, Henry had forced the English
strong rule, he brought nobles to accept a woman as heir to the
a period of peace and thrones of England and Normandy, but
prosperity to both Henry ruled over a greater area of France than the French
they were now furious that Matilda had king, Louis VII. He also ruled England, and eventually
England and France.
married into a French royal house. When spread his influence to Wales, Scotland, and Ireland.
Henry died in 1135, the Church and the
nobility split, and most threw their When Henry of Anjou became Henry II
support behind Matilda’s cousin Stephen of England at the age of 21, he inherited
as king. Civil war broke out in 1139, but the French provinces of Anjou, Maine, and
in the end, Stephen remained king. He Touraine from his father, and Normandy
was later forced to make Matilda and and Brittany from his mother. In 1152, he
Geoffrey’s son, Henry of Anjou, his heir. married Eleanor, the abandoned wife of the
French king Louis VII, thus gaining
Aquitaine. As a result of this, he ruled
Eleanor of Aquitaine (c. England and two thirds of France.
1122-1204), wife of Louis
VII of France, had no
HENRY AND BECKET
children, so the marriage
was annulled. She then Henry was an energetic ruler and traveled
married England's Henry II. widely throughout his kingdom. He was
well educated and cultured, and his court
at Chinon in France was attended by
many erudite scholars and troubadours
(minstrels). Henry brought his nobles
firmly under control, improved the laws
of England, and forced the Scots and
Welsh to obey him. When Norman nobles
took control in Ireland, he subdued them
and made himself king of Ireland in 1172.
Henry chose capable ministers, among
Thomas a Becket them Thomas a Becket, who became his
(c.Ill8-70), Henry's chancellor. When Henry made him
chancellor, became
Archbishop of Canterbury
Archbishop of Canterbury, Becket began^
in 1162. He frequently to assert the rights of the Church. After
opposed the king, and in years of quarrels, Henry is said to have
1170, was murdered in
exclaimed, “Who will rid me of this
Canterbury Cathedral
(right). This was a turbulent priest?” Four knights took him
mistake that Henry at his word and killed Becket. Henry
much regretted.
later did penance for this crime.
152
900 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 j 1700 1 1750 i 1800 1850 : 1950 j 2000

Eleanor of Aquitaine LIFE IN A CASTLE

died in 1204. Her tomb
in the abbey church at Castles were large buildings that were cold and drafty to
Frontrevault, in western live in. They were military fortresses that also housed the
France, lies next to that lord's soldiers and servants. Towns soon grew outside
of one of her sons, the castle walls. In the lord's dwellings, the lady's servants
Richard I. Her husband, lived in the top room, where linen and clothes were stored.
Henry II, who died in Under this was the master bedroom, where
1189, lies nearby. the lord and lady slept. Below this
was the solar, the lord's private
living room, and on the ground
floor were the great hall and
a secure storeroom for the
master's weapons
and valuables.

Henry’s empire was a family possession,

not a country, and he planned to divide After the murder
it among his four sons. They squabbled of Becket, the pope
demanded that Henry do
over this and then revolted against him. penance and be flogged.
Two of them died, leaving Richard (the This was done, and Henry
Lionheart) and John. Richard became expressed his regrets. He
was later pardoned.
king of England in 1189, and was followed
after his death in 1199 by John. Henry
had been a great and creative king, who
had set up English common law, but he
died in 1189, feeling that his life had
been a failure. After his death, his sons
lost most of his French lands, and the
new order that Henry had built in
England soon disintegrated.

KEY DATES
1122 Eleanor of Aquitaine is born
1133 Henry of Anjou born
1139 Eleanor of Aquitaine marries Louis VII
of France; marriage later annulled
1152 Henry marries Eleanor of Aquitaine
1154 Henry becomes king of England
1157 Submission of the king of Scotland
1162 Thomas a Becket becomes Archbishop of
Canterbury
1166-76 Legal reforms in England
1170 Murder of Thomas a Becket
1171 Henry becomes king of Ireland
1173 Thomas a Becket made a saint
1174 Rebellions by Henry's sons
1189 Henry dies in France

153
 10,000 5000 j 3000; 1500 500 300 100 B.C. 0 A.D. 100 200 350 500 I 700

Ireland 700-1350
This period of Irish history saw increasingly permanent
domination by foreigners, following invasions first ULSTER
by the Vikings and then by the English.

I reland was inhabited mainly by Gaelic

Celts who lived in about 150 tuath or
CONNAUGHT

tribes. They frequently feuded and warred, PALE

which became a hindrance to Ireland’s Clontarf
prosperity. Then, in 432, a man arrived
who changed the course of Irish history— MEATH
St. Patrick. He traveled around Ireland
Kilkenny
converting Irish chiefs to Christianity
and preaching peace. By 600, Ireland had
become Europe’s main Christian center,
MUNSTER
▲ Strongbow, or Richard and Irish monks preached all across
de Clare (c. 1130-1176)
Europe. In 795, the Vikings invaded the
invaded Ireland from
Pembroke, in Wales. He island, and for the next 40 years raided
became king of Leinster. and destroyed monasteries. By 840, they In medieval times, there were five kingdoms in
began to settle, founding towns such as Ireland. All that was left of direct Norman rule
▼ MacMurrough Kavanagh, was a small area around Dublin called the Pale.
Dublin, Waterford, Cork, and Limerick.
king of Leinster, rides to
make peace with the
From these, they traded and mixed
Earl of Gloucester during with the Irish people, adopting many
the Norman invasions. of their customs.

154
 |
900! 11001 1200 1300 1400 1500 i600:; 1700! 1750 1800 I 1850 1900 1950 i 2000

The rest of Ireland was still traditionally

Irish. By now, the five largest kingdoms
were Ulster, Leinster, Munster, Connaught,
and Meath. In 976, Brian Boru, king of
Munster, set about invading his neighbors.
By 1011, he dominated Ireland, but on
his death other local kings fought to be
high king. The last strong high king was
Turlough O’Connor of Connaught. After
he died in 1156, two kings became rivals.
One of these, Dermot MacMurrough
of Leinster, asked for help from the
Normans in England.

THE COMING OF THE ENGLISH

The Earl of Pembroke, or “Strongbow,”
supported Dermot MacMurrough in
return for marrying his daughter and
inheriting Leinster. In 1170, Strongbow
and other Norman nobles invaded, seizing
During the unsuccessful
Irish lands for themselves. This alarmed _KEY DATES_ English campaigns in
the king of England, Henry II, who 432 St. Patrick introduces Christianity to Ireland Ireland, between 1367 and
proclaimed himself overlord of Ireland. 795 The start of Viking raids-destruction of 1400, ships had to carry
Irish monasteries provisions across the Irish
Many Irish, fearing chaos, supported him Sea to the English troops.
840 Vikings settle, establishing coastal
and the Norman nobles submitted. Like
trading towns
the Vikings before them, many Normans 1014 Brian Boru, king of Munster, defeats Vikings
soon adopted the customs of the Irish. at the Battle of Clontarf
However, in 1366, Lionel, Edward Ill’s 1148 Richard de Clare becomes Earl of Pembroke
1166 Rory O'Connor becomes first king of Ireland T On the Rock of Cashel,
son and governor of Ireland, ordered the
since 1014 in County Tipperary, site
Irish-Norman families to stop speaking of royal fortifications
1170 Norman invasion of Ireland led by
Gaelic and marrying Irish women. Richard de Clare since the 300s, stand the
This demand was not accepted, and the ruins of St. Patrick's
1171 Richard de Clare becomes king of Leinster;
Cathedral. Given to the
Irish-Normans now looked upon the Henry II annexes Ireland
Church in 1101, the cross
English as interfering foreigners. By the 1366 Irish-Normans revolt against English orders
(far left) is where the
banning Gaelic and mixed marriages
late 1400s English rule existed only in kings of Munster were
1530s Henry VIII reimposes English control traditionally crowned.
the Dublin area, called “the English Pale.”

155
 5000 ; 3000! 1500! 500 300; 100 B.C. 0 A.D. 100 1 200 350 500 700
10,000

Shoguns and samurai 1200-1500

The shoguns were generals who acted as governmental A samurai's main weapons
were a bow made of
dictators, and the samurai were Japanese knights. boxwood or bamboo and
They both dominated Japan for almost 700 years. one or two single-edged

T he Fujiwara family had held power

in Japan for 300 years since the
swords. Samurai were
strictly trained from
childhood, following a
code called bushido-the
800s. However, their influence broke warrior's way.
down when local dissent spread and
when they ran out of daughters,
the traditional brides of the
emperor. For a time, some
of the former emperors
ruled. Then the Taira
clan took over briefly
until a rival clan, the
Minamoto, rallied under
Minamoto Yoritomo and
seized power. Yoritomo
assumed the title sei-i tai
Minamoto Yoritomo shogun, which means “barbarian-conquering
(1147-1199) was an great general.” In 1192, he set up the
ambitious nobleman who
Kamakura shogunate, through which he Japanese government was complicated.
saw his chance in the
chaos that followed the ruled Japan from his estate, Kamakura, near The emperor was a ceremonial figure
breakdown of the power Edo (Tokyo). His powers were unlimited. to whom everyone bowed down, but the
of the Fujiwara. Yoritomo
From that time on, shoguns ruled Japan shogun had the real power. The regents
ruthlessly crushed his
enemies, including many as military dictators until 1868. When to the emperors and shoguns also had
of his own family. He set Yoritomo died in 1199, the Hojo family, influence, as did the daimyos or lords, who
up the shogunate, a rigid
a branch of the Taira clan, became regents jostled for position at court and frequently
feudal system that affected
the whole country with to the shoguns, and held power in an battled over land. As a result, a class of
him—the first shogun— unofficial capacity until the Kamakura warriors, or samurai, developed, who
as its head. shogunate ended in 1333. fought for the daimyos.

Samurai had elaborate decorated armor and many rituals.

They were not only warriors who followed the code of
bushido-the observance of very rigid rules that affected

156
900 I 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1750 j 1800 1850 1900 ; 1950 2000

► During the 1100s, Zen,

a branch of Buddhism,
spread from China to
Japan. It had simple but -ft_ %
strict rules, which the
samurai followed. Buddhist
shrines, like this gateway,
were also built in the
Chinese style.

KNIGHTS OF JAPAN In 1333, the Ashikaga clan overthrew

The samurai were knights who were the Kamakura shogunate and the emperor,
prepared to fight to the death for their putting a new emperor in power. He
daimyos, to whom they swore undying appointed them as shoguns, this time in
loyalty. Like the European knight, a Kyoto. However, there was frequent
samurai believed in truth and honor, and samurai fighting between daimyos. This
had a strict code of conduct called increased until the Onin civil war broke
bushido. Before combat, a samurai would out, lasting from 1467-77, and Japan split
shout his name and those of his ancestors, into nearly 400 clan-states. The Kyoto As with European
and boast of his heroic deeds. In battle he emperors became powerless and knights and Muslim
fought hand to hand, often using two impoverished. Despite this, trade and warriors, religion and
war were very closely
swords at once. If defeated or captured by culture grew in Japan, centered on the connected for a samurai.
his enemy, he had to commit ritual suicide daimyo estates. For ordinary people, the He took a long time
(hara-kiri) in order to save face. At times, daimyo wars brought high taxes, dressing and arming
himself for battle, with
rivalry between samurai was destructive. insecurity, and disruption to their lives.
strict rules of cleanliness
and ritual.
THE SAMURAI IN BATTLE
Samurai battles were very ritualistic. They involved prayer
and posturing (making oneself look strong) beforehand,
with shouting and noisemaking using rattles and gongs
to frighten the enemy. Individual samurai would undertake
duels and contests. Often, battles were like a dance or a
ceremonial game of chess. However, samurai warfare was
deadly once they joined in full battle. During the Ashikaga
period (1338-1573), much of the fighting deteriorated
into meaningless squabbles for honor and plots of land.

157
 10,000 I 5000 I 3000 1500 500 300 ; 100 B.C. 0 A.D. 100 200 350 500 700

European trade 1100-1450

Trade and industry rapidly grew to provide services for
rising populations. Merchants and bankers thrived and
found new influence from meeting society's needs.

T he early Middle Ages was a

time of growth for Europe.
The population was increasing,
and more land was cultivated to
grow food. This led to surplus
produce for trading.
Towns grew larger,
with regular trade fairs
at places like Troyes,
Lyons, Antwerp, Kiev,
Frankfurt, Leipzig,
The perils of travel in London, and Krakow. River links and In the 1100s, cities and ports grew along trade routes in
medieval times are shipping routes were busier. Instead of Europe. Italian merchants attended fairs such as that at
shown in this drawing of Troyes to buy Flemish cloth and sell Asian goods.
a highwayman stealing
exchanging goods [bartering), money was
a traveler's money. used, and increasingly, people went into
Highwaymen often lay business for profit. Jewish traders, Knights Most of Europe’s money was silver, but
in wait for their victims
Templars, and certain business families the Asian countries traded in gold. This
at roadsides.
specialized in moneylending and the caused problems, so the Templars, Jewish
safekeeping of valuables. Italy was the traders, and Italian merchants invented
richest part of Europe. Venice and Genoa banking, with bills of exchange and
were large independent seaports and “promissory notes” that could be used
banking centers, buying spices, silks, and instead of cash. Industries grew
In a medieval town,
markets were usually other luxuries from the East. Goods from in the Rhineland [Germany), northern
held once a week. Livestock, Asia came through Byzantium, Egypt, and France, Flanders, and England,
food, metals, cloth, leather,
Syria, and from Africa through Tunisia and importing materials like copper,
and woodwork were all sold
there, and people met to Morocco. They were traded for cloth, furs, alum, wool, and charcoal, and
discuss local affairs. hides, iron, linen, timber, silver, and slaves. exporting goods and clothes.

158
900 1100|1200!1300 |1400| 1500 1600 ; 1700 1750 1800 1850 : 1900 1950 2000

THE GROWTH OF COMMERCE In Europe, posthouses and taverns were built along
A new class of merchants and skilled main roads. They provided refreshments, a place to
stay, and a change of horse for merchants, pilgrims,
craftworkers appeared. Merchants grew
and other travelers.
rich through buying and selling, but they
also risked loss because of highway
robbery or piracy on the high seas where
cargoes and fortunes could be lost. Trading
companies, cities, and organizations like
the Hanseatic League in the Baltic Sea
worked together to protect trade, and
opened offices in ports and marketplaces.
To protect their trade, the Venetians and
Genoese became Mediterranean naval
powers. Around 1350, in Genoa, insurance
services were offered, to protect traders
against loss and bankruptcy. Banking
families such as the Fuggers in Augsburg,
Germany, and the Medicis in Florence,
Italy, grew in wealth and influence. A new
commercial order was developing, and
kings, nobles, and clerics slowly lost power
as they grew dependent on merchants and
indebted to bankers. Soon, this new class
began to influence the decisions of kings.

THE HANSEATIC LEAGUE

In 1241, two German towns, Hamburg and Lubeck, set up a Hansa or trading association,
which developed into the Hanseatic League in 1260, and involved many former Viking
towns. They carried food and raw materials from eastern Europe in exchange for
manufactured goods from the west. The Hanseatic League dominated trade
between England, Scandinavia, Germany, and Russia during the 1300s.

Hanseatic merchants
The seal of Danzig, one of used these sturdy ships
the leading Hansa towns. to carry goods between
Baltic and Atlantic
ports. They established
warehouses, customs,
banking systems, and
defensive structures.

159
 5000 3000 1500 500 : 300 100 0 A.D. 100 200 350 500 700
10,000 B.C.

Venice 1100-1500
During medieval times, the city-state of Venice
dominated most of the trade between Europe, Asia,
and Africa—becoming rich and powerful in the process.

V enice had been founded in Roman

times by the Veneti, a Romanized
tribe that withdrew to the marshes
to avoid raids by the Celts,
Hannibal, and others. Their town
was built on stilts and piles
driven into the mud, with
St. Mark's Cathedral was built to house the relics of St.
canals between the built- Mark as well as other treasures which the Venetians had
up islands they had looted from Alexandria and Constantinople.

constructed. There was no

land to farm, so the early GROWTH OF VENETIAN POWER
Venetians fished in the sea. During the 1100s, the Venetians
▲ Four bronze horses, Gradually, their small boats began to expanded their influence by taking
dating from around
venture farther afield to trade. By 1100, an active part in the Crusades. As the
300 b.c., were seized by
the Venetians at the sack Venice had become a very wealthy power of Byzantium declined, Venice
of Constantinople in 1204, place, and its rich traders were living took over its trade, and used several
during the fourth Crusade. in sumptuous palaces. Protected by the well-placed islands like Corfu and Crete
The Crusades allowed
Venice to grow even richer
sea, the city did not have to spend time as ports. After fighting off its great
and more influential. and money on the building of elaborate Italian rival, Genoa, during the 1300s,
fortifications. Its ships sailed around Venetian ships dominated all trading
the Mediterranean, trading with the and cargo transportation between
Venice was originally built
Byzantines and Arabs, who themselves Europe and the East, and reached the
on stilts and piles driven
into the mud of a marsh. traded with Russia, Asia, and Africa. height of its power during the 1400s.
Between the built-up Imported goods were sent overland into Venice did not own much land, but it
islands were canals which
Europe. The cosmopolitan population of controlled so much business that its
can be seen in this bird’s-
eye view and map of the Venice—Jews, Germans, French, Italians, silver dinars and gold ducats were
city from the 1500s. and Arabs—introduced many new ideas. used everywhere as money.

160
900 1100 1200 1300 : 1400: 1500 | 1600 ; 1700 1750 I 1800 ! 1850; 1900 I 1950 2000 :

▲ The Lion of St. Mark

Like other places in medieval Italy, was made by the Italian
sculptor Vittore Carpacchio
Venice was a city-state and largely around 1500 and has been
independent. Its rulers were called doges, Venice's emblem for
from the Latin word dux, which means centuries.

“leader.” Doges were elected for life and

◄ Convoys of ships sailed
came from the most powerful families to the Levant to buy
in Venice. They had almost absolute cotton, silk, and porcelain
from China, spices from
power over the government, the army,
Zanzibar and Indonesia,
and the Church. But, after 1140, they and gems and ivory from
lost most of their powers, which were Burma. Venice was famous
transferred to a Great Council. for its lace and glassware.

KEY DATES
726 First doge is
elected
800s The rise of
Venice as a
trading port
1081 Venetians gain
trade privileges
in Byzantium
1090s Arab dominance
of Mediterranean
trade ends
1192 Venice transports
Crusaders to
Constantinople
by ship
1381 Venice defeats
Genoa, to
dominate all
trade
1400s The economic
center of
Europe
shifts north

Venetian banks lent money

and underwrote contracts,
guaranteeing payment if
things went wrong. Banks
encouraged trade, but their
interest rates were high.

161
 10,000 5000 3000 1500 ; 500 l 300 100 B.C. 0 A.D. 100 200 350 ! 500 I 700

Charter and parliament 1215-1485

In England, in the 1200s, there was a growing struggle
between the kings and the lords. The absolute power
of kings was being questioned by those they ruled. This is the great seal of King John,

K ing John of England, the youngest

son of Henry II, was given to violent
affixed to the bottom of the Magna
Carta. John's seal showed his consent,
and so turned the charter into
the law of the land.
outbursts of temper. Not surprisingly, he
soon angered his barons in English-ruled
Anjou and Poitiers, and he lost those lands
to France. In England, he taxed his barons
heavily and ruled so harshly that they
rebelled. The barons threatened John,
and demanded that he recognize their
King John (1199-1216), traditional rights and obey the law.
quarrelled with his nobles,
who turned against him,
and forced him to sign
the Magna Carta.

THE MAGNA CARTA

In 1215, the barons met King John in a
meadow called Runnymede, beside the
Thames River. There, they forced him to
put his seal on the Magna Carta, or “great
charter.” This document covered many
important areas, including weights and
measures, the powers of sheriffs, and the
legal rights of freemen and boroughs
(towns). The king agreed to obey the law
himself, and he was not allowed to raise
taxes without the agreement of his Great
Council of nobles. No sooner had John
agreed to the charter than he went back
on his word. A civil war broke out, but John
soon died, leaving the throne to his young
son who became Henry III. The charter was
reissued, and in 1225, it became the law of
England. Henry III was incompetent and
he spent large sums of money, so the barons
banded together again, this time led by
Simon de Montfort. They forced Henry to
agree to consult the Great Council in all
major matters. Like his father, Henry III
went back on the deal, but de Montfort *
defeated him in battle at Lewes in 1264.
Simon de Montfort and the Council then
ruled England in Henry’s name.

In 1215, John was forced to put his seal on the Magna

Carta at Runnymede. John did not actually sign the
charter, and possibly could not even write.

162
900 1100 1200 1300 1400 I 1500 1600 | 1700 I 1750 1800 1850 1900 I 1950 2000

THE POWER OF PARLIAMENT

In 1265, Simon de Montfort called a new
Parliament of two chambers, the House
of Lords (previously the Great Council
of nobles and bishops,) and the House
of Commons. The House of Commons
was made up of two knights from every
shire and two people (burgesses) who
represented each borough. Later, Edward I
(1272-1307), a successful ruler, reformed
England’s law and administration; he
created a Model Parliament which
included even more representatives from
the country. However, the king still held
power. In 1388, there was a major clash
and the “Merciless” Parliament removed
some of King Richard II’s rights.
As time went on, Parliament’s powers
gradually grew. The House of Commons
slowly gained greater power, although it
was mostly the richer classes that were
represented in Parliament. Full-scale
democracy only arrived in the 1900s.

KEY DATES
1215 King John reluctantly affixes his seal to the
Magna Carta
1216 King John dies. His nine-year-old son, Henry
III, becomes king
1225 The Magna Carta becomes the law of England ▲ Henry III, is pictured
1227 Henry III, now aged 20, begins to rule ► Simon de Montfort here at his coronation
1258 Council of nobles set up (c.1208-1265) was a in 1216. He ruled for 55
1265 Simon de Montfort's Parliament is called Norman baron who years. He lost much of
1272 Edward I becomes king of England became Earl of Leicester. his power as king because
1295 Edward I’s Model Parliament In 1264-65 he virtually he was not a good ruler.
1307 Edward II becomes king of England ruled the country on He was more interested
behalf of the king. in the arts and in
1388 The "Merciless" Parliament (against Richard II)
building churches.

Peasant

Lord Lady Knight Merchant Nun

These were the different social classes of the time, in order of

power from the king downward. The largest number of people were
Queen peasants, who had no power at all. Some lords and priests treated
them fairly, allowing them to voice their concerns, but this was rare.

163
 10,000 5000 3000 1500 500 300 100 B.C. A.D. 100 200 350 | 500 700

Mali and Ethiopia 1240-1500

In West Africa, the Mali Empire grew powerful by Mali’s trading cities exported ivory, gold,
controlling the gold trade. In the east, the Christian and slaves to the Muslim world, and to
empire of Ethiopia was isolated by the spread of Islam. Venice and Genoa in Europe. In exchange,
they imported salt, cloth, ceramics, glass,
n 1240, Sundiata Keita, the ruler horses, and luxuries. Timbuktu and Djenne
of the small Malinke kingdom in became centers of learning, where
West Africa, brought about Muslims mingled with Africans. Timbuktu
the collapse of the nation of had a university and 100 schools. Mali
Ghana, and established a reached the height of its power, and
new nation called Mali. He also became Muslim, under Sundiata’s
set up a well organized state grandson Mansa Musa (1307-37). He
that possessed fertile farmlands made a pilgrimage to Mecca in 1324,
Mali had important beside the Niger River. Under Sundiata’s taking 500 slaves and 90 camels loaded
links with the Muslim
rule, Mali controlled the gold trade and with gold. In 1325, Mali overpowered
world. The Great Mosque
at Timbuktu was designed
became rich and powerful. Many of the Songhay, lower down the Niger River,
by As-Saheli, an Egyptian. camel caravan routes across the Sahara but in 1464 Songhay’s ruler declared
Desert led to Mali’s independence. Mali’s decline had
fine cities, such as begun in 1350, and by 1500, it had
Koumbi Saleh, been conquered by Songhay.
Djenne, and
Timbuktu.

Timbuktu was a prosperous

city on the Niger River. It was
a key destination of many
caravan routes across the
”<<»*ti
Sahara and had schools,
a university, mosques, m
and markets. cN-tot.
IWt'tfCl

This is part of a Catalan

map of northwest Africa
from the 1300s. It shows
major towns and trading
routes, and features
Mansa Musa, the
great ruler A
of Mali.

~ZtirnV‘

sdJ-YrtM
nut Si'

164
900 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000

THE GREAT MOSQUE AT DJENNE

During the 1100s, when Mali was founded and Islam was adopted,
Mansa Musa ordered a mosque built in the ancient city of Djenne,
a center for the gold trade. The present Great Mosque, finished in
1907, was built of mud brick
in the traditional style.

■V«

THE FOUNDING OF ETHIOPIA

In East Africa, the old nation of Aksum
had collapsed around 1000. Ethiopia
[Abyssinia] was founded by the Jewish
Zagwe dynasty around 1137. Most
Ethiopians practiced Coptic Christianity.
Their church was cut off by the spread
of Islam, but there was contact with
Christianity through an Ethiopian
monastery in Jerusalem. Lalibela became
emperor in 1190, moved the capital from
Aksum and built a new one at the holy
city of Roha, later renamed Lalibela
in his honor.
In 1270, Yekuno Amlak founded the
Solomonic dynasty—they claimed descent
from Solomon and the Queen of Sheba.
Ethiopia expanded its borders into the
mountains of East Africa, taking in many The Ethiopians built cross-shaped churches, carved and
hollowed out of solid rock. Both of these pictures are
tribes. It was a unique country, untouched
of the Church of St. George at the holy city of Lalibela,
by others for a long time, isolated from the one of 11 such churches built in the 1200s.
rest of the world by its mountain location.
However, having been at its strongest KEY DATES
during the 1300s and 1400s, it was plagued 1137 Founding of Ethiopia by the Zagwe dynasty
1190s Lalibela built as the capital of Ethiopia
by internal discord in the 1500s. In
1240 Sundiata Keita founds the state of Mali
medieval Europe, Ethiopia was regarded
1270 Yekuno Amlak founds the Solomonic
as a mysterious Christian kingdom, with dynasty; Ethiopia expands
a mythical king called Prester John. The 1307-37 Mansa Musa, Mali's greatest ruler
very last emperor of Ethiopia, Haile 1350 Mali goes into slow decline

Selassie, who ruled from 1930 to 1974 1300s- 1400s High point of Ethiopian culture
c.1500 Songhay overwhelms Mali
was a descendant of Yekuno.
165
 I !
10,000 5000 3000 1500 500 300 lOOB.c.j 0 A.D. 100 200: 350! 500 700

Benin and Zimbabwe noo-hso

Benin was an advanced kingdom in the tropical forests
of West Africa. Zimbabwe was a gold-mining centre Mediterranean
W\OROcC° Sea
in the high grasslands of southeast Africa.
Sahara Desert

B enin was situated in what is now

southeastern Nigeria. It was the Timbuktu • j Songhay
longest lasting of the forest kingdoms of Addis
Mali/'* °ienne Ababa
rain-forested West Africa. Its capital, Benin A/ Lagos •
•
• Roha
City, was founded in about A.D. 900 and Benin City
(Lalibela)
was at its most prosperous during the
1400s. The city had wide streets lined
with large wooden houses and was
enclosed by walls 25 mi. (40km] long. Kilwa •

The palace of the oba (king) was richly Great

decorated with bronze plaques and Zimbabwe •

carvings. The city’s busy traders dealt in

cloth, ivory, metals (especially bronze),
palm oil, and pepper. Benin was famous
for its art, especially sculptures using During medieval times, there were four main kingdoms
pottery, ivory, or brass. that flourished in Africa: Mali (later overwhelmed
by Songhay), Ethiopia, Benin, and Zimbabwe.

This lifelike ivory mask

shows an oba or king of Benin flourished under the leadership
Benin. The oba would have
hung it around his waist
of Oba Eware the Great, who ruled from
on ceremonial occasions. 1440 to 1473. He modernized and
expanded Benin. Usually, warring African
states made slaves of their prisoners, but
Benin avoided this—so when the Portuguese
This Benin bronze shows began buying slaves from West Africa in
an oba seated on his
the 1500s, Benin did not join in the slave
throne, with two subjects,
kneeling before him. The trade. This protected it from European
Benin cast bronzes by the colonialization-until 1897.
"lost wax” process. A wax
model was carved, then
covered with clay to make
a mold. The wax would be
melted away, and molten
bronze would be poured
into the mold. Many
copies could then be
made using this process.

Many of the peoples of West Africa lived

in tribal villages, herding animals and
growing crops. The grasslands of
central Africa (shown here) were
very different environments from
the tropical forests of
the west.

. ..

« .»Mi*

life..
166
900 11001 1200 i 1300 I 1400 | 1500 I 1600 1700i 1750 ! 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000

ZIMBABWE Around 1450, Zimbabwe was absorbed

Zimbabwe grew prosperous from into the Shona kingdom of Rozvi
its large reserves of copper and gold. [Mwenemutapa], named after a line of
Dug from over one thousand mines, strong kings. This warrior kingdom took
much of it was bought by Arab traders control of most of what is now Zimbabwe
on the east coast from the 900s onward. and Mozambique. It continued to trade gold
They built the only towns in southern and copper with the Arabs and grew rich
Africa, and Zimbabwe is best known for from this. This changed when the Portuguese
its walled palace city, Great Zimbabwe, settlers tried to gain control of the mines.
built between 1100 and 1400. However, Rozvi fought against this for some time,
little is known of the Zimbabweans. but by 1629, the mines had fallen under
They were not great warriors, so Portuguese control. Nevertheless, Rozvi
Zimbabwe did not expand its borders survived until the 1830s.
by military means.

GREAT ZIMBABWE
This is a bronze head
One intriguing African mystery is the walled city of Great of an oni, or king, of Ife,
Zimbabwe, after which modern Zimbabwe is named. The from the 1300s. He is
massive stone structures were built with granite blocks wearing the headdress
between 1000 and 1400, but nobody knows why or by of a sea god. Ife was
whom. A Zimbabwe is a stone-built enclosure, of which a kingdom that once
there were many in southeast Africa, but this was bordered Benin.
the largest and grandest.

The ruins of the Great

Enclosure can be seen
today on the 60-acre
(24ha) site of Great
Zimbabwe.

167
 1500 500 300 100 0 A.D. 100 200 350 ! 500 700
10,000 5000 3000 B.C.

Religion
In the Middle Ages, religious institutions worldwide
had grown powerful and influential. This brought
enormous benefits, but also led to corruption.

B y 1200, even the newest religion,

Islam, was 500 years old. Religions
had become major institutions, and were
established in the traditions of every
country. In many places, everyday life had
become difficult—there was poverty and
hardship, and those not suffering from
these often experienced corruption and
crime. Many religious people began to feel
that it might be beneficial to withdraw
St. Francis of Assisi (1182- from the world and worship God by
1226) founded the Order becoming hermits, monks, and nuns. This
of Franciscan Friars in
made monastic communities attractive. In
1210. Two years later, he
founded the Poor Clares, Europe, China, and Tibet, monastic This is the Church of St. Peter in Rome as it looked in the
Middle Ages. Built in Roman times in 325, it became the
an order for women. traditions, with their strict rules and
pope's headquarters, until it was demolished in 1506
simple lifestyles, grew strong. Monasteries and replaced by a much grander Renaissance church.
provided the local community
with health care, education,
employment, and refuge. They RELIGIOUS POWER
encouraged pilgrimages and The priesthood was influential in politics
provided a positive influence as well as religion. In Europe, there was
during troubled times. rivalry between popes and kings, priests,
and lords—and even between competing
popes. The Church became corrupt—
St. Francis devoted himself priestly posts and the forgiveness of sins
to helping the poor and could be bought. In Islam, there was no
sick. He also loved nature During the early Middle
strong priesthood, but there were many
and was said to talk to Ages, thousands of
animals. He was well churches were built different Muslim groups
known for his compassion all over Europe. They In Mayan and Toltec Mexico, priests
and for caring for small contained no pews or were all-powerful, and demanded blood
creatures. He was made benches-people had to
a saint two years after stand during services-
sacrifice of their people. Worldwide,
his death. although there were many people had a simple faith, but no
ledges that the old and real religious education. In Europe,
infirm could lean on.
religion was taught in Latin, and in India
it was taught in Sanskrit—languages
that most people did not understand.
Pilgrimage was important—Muslims
went to Mecca, Christians to Rome and
Jerusalem, and Buddhists and Hindus
to holy mountains and temples. Many
people could not improve their lives, so
they prayed for a better life in heaven
(Christians, Muslims, and the Maya),
or in their next life (Hindus and
Buddhists). Around the world great
temples, cathedrals, churches, and
mosques were built—some of the
finest architecture of the time.
168
900 1100 1200 1300 I 1400 1500 | 1600 : 1700 1750 1800 1850 | 1900 1950 | 2000 |

The Great Mosque at Cordoba in Muslim Spain was one of ▲ Mosques were built ◄ Quetzalcoatl was
the most elegant buildings ever erected. Over a thousand in many countries, from a god honored by
pillars held up the roof-this made the interior light and Africa to India-even in the Toltecs, the Maya,
airy, an important feature of buildings in hot climates. parts of China. These are and the Aztecs. He
the ruins of the mosque was the god associated
at Kilwa, a Muslim city- with civilization and
RELIGION AND CULTURE state off the coast of learning, and with the
East Africa that traded spiritual protection
During the Middle Ages, great religious of the priesthood.
with Zimbabwe.
thinkers were at work. Scholars such as
Meister Eckhart in Germany, Thomas ▼ This is a Buddhist
monastery in Tibet.
Aquinas in Italy, Maimonides and Ibn
Buddhism, with its belief
Arabi in Egypt, Marpa the Translator in in reincarnation, was
Tibet, Ramanuja in India, and Dogen in introduced to Tibet in
a.d. 749. Tibetan monks
Japan shaped the ideas of the age. Religion
are called lamas.
became a part of everyday life, affecting the
arts and sciences, medicine, government,
and society. It formed the heart of the
world’s many cultures. But there was
a growing gap between what people
believed and what they practiced.
Some thought it was all right to
pray on holy days and break
the rules the rest of the time.
Some temples and churches
became so rich and
corrupt that many
people began
to question
their faith.

169
 10,000 5000 3000; 1500 ! 500 300 100 B.C. 0 | A.D. 100 ! 200 | 350 500 700

The Mongol empire 1206-1405

RUSSIA
The Mongols created the largest empire in history.
Their presence was felt strongly in China, Russia, and
Islam, though their empire was not very long lasting. MONGOLIA

I n 1180, a 13-year-old boy was made

leader of his tribe when his father was
Samarkand <
Karakorum •

Khanbalik •

CHINA
poisoned. The boy was named Temujin,
.Nanjing
and his tribe, the Yakka Mongols, were a
warlike nomadic people in Mongolia. Two
thirds of the tribe promptly deserted him, INDIA

but Temujin soon reunited them and went

on to take over other Mongol tribes. In
1206, at a meeting of the khans (chiefs),
Genghis Khan (e.1162- Temujin was hailed as Genghis Khan,
1227) was a great leader, “Emperor of All Men.” He promised that At its greatest extent, in the 1200s, during the reign of
general, and organizer. Kublai Khan, the Mongol Empire extended from the
During one campaign,
future generations of Mongols would lead
Pacific Ocean to the Black Sea.
his army traveled at lives of luxury. Genghis Khan began a
breakneck speed-275 career of conquest, by training a ruthless,
mi. (440km) in just
three days. He died after
fast-moving, and well disciplined army. His MONGOL EXPANSION
falling from a horse. hordes terrified their opponents, killing After Genghis died, Ogodai and Monke
anyone who did not surrender or change Khan conquered Armenia, Tibet, more of
sides. In a series of outstanding campaigns, China, and then ravaged eastern Europe.
Genghis Khan conquered Turkestan, Ghengis’s grandson, Kublai Khan,
northern China, and Korea, then swung completed the conquest of China. He
westward to overrun Afghanistan, Persia, made himself first emperor of the Yuan
and parts of Russia. Part of his success dynasty (1271-1368). Some aspects of
came from the fact that his opponents Mongol rule were good—they gave women
were not united. status, encouraged scholars, respected
In battle, the Mongols were unstoppable.
different religions, and helped trade. They
Their bows fired farther than any had opened the Asian Silk Roads to East-West
before, their horses were fast, and their travelers. Other aspects were not so good—
tactics tricked many of their opponents.
their ruthless armies destroyed cities and
massacred many. However, the Song in
southern China were able to resist them
for 20 years before they fell, and the Delhi
Sultanate stopped them from
invading India. By 1260, Mongol
expansion had ended.
 |
900 i i
1100 1300 1400 1500 1600 : 1700 1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000

The Mongols were a nomadic people from the plains of

Mongolia who lived in portable yurts—large:, round tents
made of hides or cloth. They herded cattle, sheep, goats,
and horses. Even when they invaded cities, their army
stayed outside in yurt encampments.

THE BARBAROUS TAMERLANE

From 1275, a Venetian merchant
named Marco Polo spent 17 years at
the court of Kublai Khan. His stories gave
Europeans their first picture of China and
its wealth. After Kublai Khan’s death in
1294, the mighty Mongol Empire Despite his cruel reputation,
began to break up. Some khans, such as Tamerlane was a great patron of the arts,
the Chagatais in Turkestan, the Ilkhans astronomy, and architecture in Samarkand. In battle, the Mongols
in Persia, and the Golden Horde in Generally, however, the Mongols left no wore light armor made of
leather and iron. They were
southern Russia, kept smaller empires for lasting mark on the world, except for so fast and ruthless that
themselves. Cruel though the Mongols the destruction they brought. China and most of their opponents
were, none was as barbarous as the great Russia became poor, the Muslim world gave up in fear. Large silk
flags streamed behind
Mongol-Turkish ruler of Samarkand, was in turmoil, and even European
them. Anyone who
Tamerlane, or Timur (1336-1405}. His countries like Poland and Serbia suffered opposed them was
army went on the rampage between 1361 greatly. After Tamerlane’s death in 1405, destined to die.

and 1405, and brutally overran Persia, the great, bloodstained Mongol adventure
Armenia, Georgia, Mesopotamia, was over, except in Russia and Turkestan.
Azerbaijan, and the Golden Horde.
MONGOL SPORTS
The Mongols loved horseriding, wrestling, and
archery. The great khans encouraged sport as a way
of developing battle skills and discovering talented
soldiers. There were many sports contests, and
military promotion could be gained from
success in these. Participating in sports also
fostered teamwork, which was one of the
Mongols' greatest strengths.

From an
early age,
Mongol boys
practiced
archery and
wrestling.

The Mongols adopted the ancient Persian game of polo.

171
 10,000 5000 3000 1500 500 300 100 B.C. o A.D. 100 200 350 500 700

Aztecs and incas noo-isoo

Two great civilizations were founded in the Americas
within about a hundred years of each other: the Inca
Empire in Peru and the Aztec Empire in Mexico.

L egends say that the Aztec

people originally came
from northern Mexico. Then, in
1168, on the instructions of their
god Huitzilopochtli (often depicted
as a snake), they began to migrate
The Aztec god southward. They eventually settled in
Huitzilopochtli was the valley of Mexico, where they set up The Aztec and Inca empires developed independently of
sometimes depicted as a each other in North and South America. By the beginning
snake. This image is made
farming communities. Around 1325,
of the 1500s, they had both expanded and had great
of wood, and covered with during a time of warfare, they moved to a influence over their regions.
jade stones. safe site on an island in Lake Texcoco. This
is the site of present-day Mexico City.
THE CITY OF TENOCHTITLAN
The Great Temple lay at
the heart of the island The Aztecs created garden-islands in
city of Tenochtitlan. On Lake Texcoco on which to grow food.
top of the pyramid were They also started to build a great city,
shrines to the gods Tlaloc
and Huitzilopochtli. The
called Tenochtitlan. It was easily defended,
monument in front of since it could be reached only by the
it was dedicated to causeways (raised roads) that the Aztecs
Quetzalcoatl.
had built across the lake. The Aztecs traded
throughout Mexico, and their men served
in the armies of other cities in return for
payment. Under their great leader, Itzcoatl
▼ Tenochtitlan lay in the who ruled from 1427-40, they began to
center of Lake Texcoco
conquer these neighboring cities, eventually
and was linked to the
mainland by causeways. building up the Aztec Empire which, by
A network of canals 1500, stretched coast to coast.
threaded through the city.

172
900 1100! 1200 1300 1400 1500 ! 1600 1700 1750 ) 1800 1850 1900 I 1950 2000

THE INCA EMPIRE The Inca ruler Pachacutec leads his army
into battle. Inca soldiers used bolas
According to tradition, Manco Capac
(slingshots that consisted of a stone
and his sister, Mama Ocllo, were the first attached to a length of string), wooden
rulers of the Incas around 1200. They spears, swords, and star-shaped clubs
called themselves “the Children of the for weapons. Under Pachacutec's
leadership, the Incas successfully
Sun.” The Incas lived in a valley high in conquered the neighboring tribes.
the Andes mountains, in what is now Peru.
There they built a city called Cuzco, and
others such as Machu Picchu. Cuzco
means “navel” or “center of the world.” For
200 years, the Incas lived there, isolated
from the rest of the world. However,
under Pachacutec, a brilliant general and
their emperor from 1438 to 1471, the
Incas began a time of conquest. By 1500,
they had created an extensive empire.

MACHU PICCHU

Machu Picchu was a remarkable Inca mountaintop

city that was so well concealed that it was
only rediscovered in 1911. High in the
Andes, the city was one of the last
Gold, silver, and precious stones were strongholds of the Incas against the
used to craft beautiful objects for invading Spaniards. It was built using
noble families. The objects also played stones that fit together precisely, without
a role in religious rituals. mortar. Machu Picchu was a spiritual
center, with an astronomical observatory
and temples.

173
 10,000 5000 3000 1500 500 300 100 B.c. 0 A.D. 100 200 350 | 500 700

Medieval explorers 1270-1490

In the Middle Ages, many bold men made long, and
often dangerous, journeys to distant lands. These new
contacts improved trade and spread political influence.

T he first medieval explorers were the

Vikings, who went as far as America,
Morocco, and Baghdad. The first account
of central Asia was written by a Franciscan
friar, John of Pian del Carpine, who visited
the Mongol khan on behalf of Pope
Innocent IV in 1245. The best known
European traveler was Marco Polo, a young
Venetian who journeyed to meet Kublai
Khan in China and remained there for Camel caravans took Muslim travelers and traders across

many years. Returning in 1295, he the deserts of Africa and Asia, making them some of
the most traveled people of the medieval period.
Prince Henry the composed a vivid account of his travels.
Navigator (1394-1460)
Between 1325 and 1350, Ibn Battuta,
was responsible for the
port city of Ceuta in a Moroccan lawyer, traveled to Russia, PRINCE HENRY THE NAVIGATOR
Morocco. This led to his central Asia, India, southern China, and Henry was a son of the king of Portugal.
fascination with ships. He Africa, writing detailed descriptions of his At the age of 21, he discovered treasures
sponsored expeditions and
the work that led to a new
travels. Admiral Zheng He was sent by the in Morocco that had been carried overland
ship, the caravel. He Chinese Ming emperor Yongle on seven from Songhai and Senegal in West Africa.
encouraged more precise naval expeditions between 1405 and 1433. He was curious to know if these places
mapmaking and seafaring
His fleet sailed to Indonesia, India, Persia, could be reached by sea. So, after about
instruments. The sailors
he trained were the first Mecca, and East Africa, establishing 1420, Henry paid Portuguese sailors to
Europeans to undertake diplomatic relations and extending China’s explore the coast of Africa. Encouraged
long sea voyages. Soon the
political influence over maritime Asia. by their discoveries, he built a school of
Portuguese opened up new
routes around Africa to Zheng He took back gifts to the emperor, navigation at Sagres in Portugal, to train
India and the Far East. including spices and exotic animals. sailors for further voyages of discovery.

Kublai Khan sent Marco Polo on various journeys,

including to the Chinese borders of Tibet. Polo told
of how they burned bamboo on their campfire, which
caused loud crackling noises that terrified the horses.
However, the noise also scared off wild animals.

174
900 1100 1200 1300 ( 14001 1500 1600 1700 1750 1800 1850 | 1900 1950 ! 2000

The incredible journeys

Kazan
of medieval travelers
covered thousands of
miles. The greatest
of these travelers were
VENICE
Marco Polo, Ibn Battuta,
and Zheng He.

.NTINOPLE'
Shangdu

Bukhara “» KASHGAR
Tunis
Ulkh [no-zhou *

■.ORMUZ Zaitua
Delhi

Canton
Mecca

^Paoan

Marco Polo first visited

China with his father, a
Venetian trader. He stayed
there longer, playing an
active role in the court of
M.OGADI5HO
INDIAN OCEAN Kublai Khan. He was even
Ihens He Ibn Battuta Marco Polo
sent on missions for the
khan around China and
to Pagan in Burma.
Marco Polo was away
from Venice for 25 years.
His overland journey to
China took four years,
and the return journey by
sea from China to Persia,
then overland, took three.
He acted as a regional
governor and ambassador
for the khan while in China.
The khan welcomed many
foreigners, and he found
Europeans to be very
unusual, exotic visitors.

By the time Prince Henry died in 1460;

Portuguese explorers had reached what is
now Sierra Leone. Henry’s work inspired Ibn Battuta (1304-68)
was a lifelong traveler
later Portuguese explorers to sail farther
from North Africa who
down the coast of West Africa, seeking a wrote lengthy accounts of
sea route to India and the Far East. his journeys. He traveled
The world was now on the verge of to Africa and Russia, to
Morocco and India, and
a great expansion of international by sea to southern China.
contact. The Chinese could have His stories were the most
been the first international travelers, accurate and useful of all
the accounts written by
but its emperors preferred isolation,
medieval travelers.
and traders were discouraged from
travel. Muslims had also traveled far Admiral Zheng He's fleet
and wide, though by 1500 they had of huge oceangoing junks
lost their urge to expand further. were specially built for his
expeditions. On his first
Meanwhile, the Europeans were
voyage, his fleet
about to change their inward-looking consisted of 62
policies and seek new horizons. of these ships.

175
 10,000 5000 3000 1500 500 300 100 B.C. A.D. 100 200 350 500 700

The hundred years’ WAR 1337-1453

The Hundred Years' War was a series of short, costly
wars in which the English kings tried to dominate
France, but met great resistance.

Tn 1328, Charles IV of France died. The

AFrench barons gave the throne to his
cousin, Philip VI, but Charles’s nephew,
Edward III of England, challenged him.
Philip confiscated Edward's French lands,
and in 1337 war broke out. At the start of
the conflict, which actually lasted 116
years, the English defeated a French fleet in
the English Channel at Sluys, then invaded
John of Gaunt(1340- France, winning a major battle at Crecy, The English longbow (left) shot farther and faster than
1399) was one of the sons and capturing Calais. Both sides ran ever before. The French crossbow (right) was easier to
of Edward III. As regent load and fire than a longbow, but much slower.
(1377-1386) for his
out of money and had to agree to a truce,
nephew Richard II, he was which lasted from 1347 until 1355. In
the most powerful man 1355, a fresh English invasion took place,
in England.
led by Edward’s heir, Edward, whose In the late 1360s, both thrones were
nickname was the Black Prince. Fie won inherited by children—Charles VI of France
a resounding victory at Poitiers. The Treaty and Richard II of England. Richard's uncle,
of Bretigny in 1360 gave England large John of Gaunt (for Ghent in Belgium, his
parts of France. But a new campaign birthplace), ruled for him. In 1396, Richard
followed, and England lost most of II married Charles Vi's daughter, Isabelle,
her French possessions. and a 20-year truce was agreed.

newfac.^t ccifnc u fcay ice (Vt

& Ccutc (htatiCtScxtcvy mtve Cctvr fc
nances ctcajiie ic^aufc fmnee ctCevoy
mv ct dctevtnwcva y cu cc

▲ Edward, (1330-1376),
father of Richard II, wore
black armor and so was
called "the Black Prince."

► Edward III, (1312-

1377) invaded France in
1346. His army of 10,000
defeated a French army
twice its size at Crecy.
The English easily outshot
the French crossbows.

176
900 1 1100 j 12001 1300 I 14001 1500 1600 1700 | 1750 j 1800 j 1850 j 1900 I 1950 j 2000

BATTLE OF AGINCOURT
The Battle of Agincourt in 1415 was a notable English victory. Henry V commanded
about 900 men-at-arms and 3,000 archers. The French had at least three times
as many heavily armed troops, but they were badly led and organized.

THE END OF A COSTLY WAR KEY DATES

After a long truce the war began again E = English victory, F = French victory
in 1415. Henry V (1387-1422), England’s 1340 Battle of Sluys (E), at sea

adventurous king, revived his country’s 1346 Battle of Crecy (E)

1347 Battle of Calais (E)
claim to the French throne. England still
1356 Battle of Poitiers (E)
held Calais and parts of Bordeaux. Henry 1372 Battle of La Rochelle (F), at sea
captured Harfleur in Normandy and 1415 Battle of Agincourt (E)
heavily defeated the French at Agincourt. 1428 Battle of Orleans (F)
Henry then occupied much of northern 1450 Battle of Formigny (F)
1451 Battle of Bordeaux (F)
France. Charles VI made him heir to the At the age of 17, Joan
of Arc (1412-1431) led
French throne in 1420. He also married
the French against the
Charles’s daughter, Catherine of Valois. English, during France's
Henry died just 15 months later, leaving darkest hour. The English
the throne to his infant son, Henry VI. accused her of being a
witch, because she
Charles VI died soon after. claimed she had visions
In support of the claim, Henry’s uncle, and heard voices telling
John, Duke of Bedford, besieged Orleans. her to drive the English
out of France.
The French forces, led by a 17-year-old
peasant girl, Joan of Arc, successfully
defended the town. Joan claimed she saw
visions and heard voices telling her to
free France. She escorted the new but
uncrowned king, Charles VII, to Reims
to be crowned. However, Joan was soon
defeated at Paris and captured by the
Burgundians. They sold her to the English,
who burned her as a witch. Sporadic
fighting went on for some years afterward.
The French recaptured their lands by Joan of Arc was burned
at the stake in 1431.
1453, ending the war. Only Calais Six hundred years
remained English. This had been a kings’ later, in 1920, she
war—but it was the people who had was made a saint.

paid the price. 177

 10,000 I 5000 3000 ; 1500 5001 300 100 B.C. A.D. 100 200: 350; 500 700

The black death 1347-1351

The Black Death was one of the worst disasters in
history. It resulted in the death of around a third
of the population of the Middle East and Europe.

T he Black Death killed about 25

million people in Europe alone, and
probably millions more in Asia. It began
as bubonic plague. Its name comes from
spots of blood under the skin that turned
black and from swellings [buboes) in the
groin and armpits. Most victims died
The Black Death was horribly shortly after symptoms appeared
carried by fleas on rats. Bubonic plague was transmitted to European towns were filthy, with rubbish, rats, and human
It may have spread from excrement in the streets. Human waste was thrown out of
an area in southern China
humans by fleas on rats—it could not be
windows and trodden underfoot. The lack of basic hygiene
or Southeast Asia. passed from person to person. But if was the reason that the plague spread so fast.
pneumonia developed in a plague victim,
the infection became pneumonic plague,
which could be passed on to another THE IMMEDIATE EFFECTS
person. It was highly contagious, spread The Black Death devastated whole
rapidly, and most victims died. regions: houses stood empty, villages
The disease was carried from southern and towns were abandoned, and people in
Rats were common in China or Burma, through central Asia, some trades and even some entire areas
houses, ships, and food along the Silk Road to Baghdad and the were completely wiped out. Baghdad and
storerooms, so the disease
spread rapidly through the
Crimea. In 1347, it arrived by ship at Mecca were emptied. Doctors, priests, and
population. Genoa, in Italy, and spread to Paris the people who buried the plague victims
and London in 1348, and Scandinavia also died. In the end, fields were Uttered
and Russia in 1349. No one was with unburied corpses. Society and the
safe from it. economy in Europe began to disintegrate.

Scandinavia Northern Russia

1349 1349
Durham 1349

In the art of the time, the

Black Death was depicted
as a skeleton riding
furiously on horseback. London 1348

Paris 1348
Southern Russia
1345

.Venice 1348
-Vf1
From
larseille
1347 \ Asia

► The Black Death

spread through Europe
Rome 1348 Constantinople %
1347 1
from Genoa. Some areas,
Seville 1348
including Ireland and parts
of France lost 10 percent Sicily
of their population. Other 1347
areas, including northern
Italy, eastern England, and
Norway, lost as much Mediterranean Sea
as 50 percent.

178
 m l
900 1100 1200! 1300| 1400 j 15001 1600 j 1700 j 1750 j 1800 | 1850 j 1900 | 19501 2000

THE LONG-TERM EFFECTS

The Black Death destroyed many people’s
faith in God. To them it appeared to
have no logic, killing good as well as bad
people. Farms were abandoned and
churches were empty. Until the onset of
the Black Death, Europe usually had a
surplus of labor and low wages, but the
shortage of workers now made wages soar.
Many country people began moving into
the empty towns, working for actual
money for the first time. The already weak
feudal system collapsed. There were
revolts. Europe and the Muslim world
were in shock. Over the next 100 years,
many things changed. The medieval People burned the clothes
of the dead to try to stop
period was making way for a new,
the plague from spreading.
more questioning, world. This didn't work because
the disease was caused by
fleas living on rats that
were found everywhere
at the time.

A It was important to
remove infected bodies
quickly, even when people
were still bewailing the
loss of their loved ones.
Criers went around the
streets calling "Bring
out your dead!"

◄ At night, plague carts

were loaded with corpses
to be taken away and
buried. The Black Death
spread quickly in towns
because of the crowded
housing conditions and
lack of hygiene. Even
isolated monasteries
did not escape since the
disease was carried
there by infected people
pleading for help.

179
 3000 1500 500 300 | 100 B.C. a.d. 100 200 : 350 500 700
10,000 5000

CHINA: THE MING DYNASTY 1368-1644

After a long campaign, the Mongols were driven
out of China. There then followed 150 years of
peace and prosperity under the Ming dynasty.

K ublai Khan was a great Chinese

emperor, but he was a foreigner.
When he died in 1294, he was followed
by a series of feeble Yuan emperors,
famines, and much hardship. The last
Yuan emperor, Sun Ti, was a bad ruler.
The Chinese people were tired of being
ruled harshly by foreigners. They found
a Chinese ruler in Zhu Yuan Zhang, who
had been a monk and, during bad times,
a beggar. As a rebel bandit chief, he had
a ready-made army. He also proved to
be an excellent general.
After a 13-year campaign, he captured
Beijing, drove the Mongols back to
Mongolia, and became emperor in 1368.
He founded the Ming (“bright”) dynasty, Art, literature, and ceramics had developed during the
and took the name Hong Wu (“very Song and the Yuan dynasties. This vase demonstrates
Emperor Hong Wu warlike”). He moved the capital south another period of excellence in the arts under the Ming.
(1328-1398) reorganized to the fortified city of Nanjing.
the administration of
China and set up colleges
Hong Wu ruled China for 30 years as a incursions and restoring order and
for training mandarins dictator, guarding against Mongol prosperity to his country.
(civil servants). Candidates Hong Wu left his throne to a grandson,
for these posts had to pass V In Beijing, the Ming emperor Yongle built
the Forbidden City, which only the emperor and Jianwen [born Zhu Yunwen), but he was
examinations in literature
and philosophy. his household were allowed to use. This is a overthrown four years later by his uncle
typical building inside the imperial complex. Zhu Di, who became Emperor Yongle
(pronounced Yong-lay) in 1403.

180
900 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000

PEACE UNDER THE MING

China grew great again under Yongle,
who was emperor from 1403 to 1424.
Roads, towns, and canals were rebuilt,
and when he moved to Beijing, he built
the great halls, palaces, and temples of
the Forbidden City. Learning and the
arts flourished. Trade and industry were
encouraged, and, unusually, China looked
outward, exporting goods and spreading
Chinese influence abroad. The Muslim
admiral Zheng He was sent on long
voyages to India, the Middle East, and
Africa. After Yongle’s reign, however,
China lost interest in other countries.
Many Chinese settled in Southeast Asia,
and became involved with the growing
“China trade.” Government administration
was improved and, apart from problems Gardening and landscaping developed into a very special
with piracy and Mongol attacks, art form in China and Japan. Water was an important
ingredient in this exquisite Chinese ornamental garden.
flourished for a century.
From 1517 onward, the Portuguese
and other Europeans arrived on the coast, KEY DATES
trading mainly in Guangzhou (Canton}. 1353-54 The Black Death breaks out across China
In the late 1500s, there was a series of 1368 The Ming dynasty is founded by Zhu
emperors who were disliked and wasteful, Yuanzhang
1403-24 The reign of Ming Emperor Yongle
and there were attacks on the borders.
1517 Arrival of the first European traders in
Trade declined, corruption and banditry This brush holder, from
southern China
the Ming period, is made
grew, and there was famine and rebellion. 1552-55 Major attacks on shipping by pirates off of carved lacquer. Lacquer
In 1592, the Japanese invaded neighboring the coast of China is a thick varnish painted
Korea, thereby threatening the security 1582 Growing corruption and decline in many layers onto wood.
1592 The Japanese invade Korea, threatening It sets hard, making a very
of China. Rebels eventually took over
China's security strong material that is
much of China, and in 1644, the often used by the Chinese.
1644 Fall of the Ming dynasty
Ming dynasty finally fell.

181
 10,000 5000 I 3000 I 1500 ! 500 I 300 I 100 B.C. ! 0 A.D. 100 200 ! 350 500 700

Constantinople 1204-1453
The Byzantine Empire lasted 1,000 years. The
Ottoman Turks eventually reached the doorstep of
Constantinople, and had taken over the city by 1453.

B yzantium was the empire of one city—

Constantinople. In the later centuries
of its dominance, foreign powers moved
ever closer to the city, and Byzantine
territory was much reduced. The Byzantines
were slowly losing heart. In 1204, Frankish
and Norman Crusaders had taken The Byzantine basilica of St. Sophia in Constantinople
was turned into a mosque after the Ottoman takeover
Byzantium, renaming it “the Latin
in 1453. The minarets were added at this time.
Empire.” The Greek Byzantines
regained it in 1261, but Byzantium did
not recover. A series of civil wars also continued their expansion into Europe.
weakened the empire. The Ottomans were in control of most
of Greece, Bosnia, Albania, and Bulgaria by
THE OTTOMAN TURKS 1450, and tried to conquer Hungary. All
Around 1070, before the Crusaders that was left of the Byzantine Empire was
arrived, the Seljuk Turks had Constantinople itself. In 1453, the Turks,
entered Anatolia, where they led by Mehmet II, made a final assault on
founded the sultanate of Rum. the city. The last Byzantine emperor,
The Mongols destroyed it Constantine XI, had 10,000 men whereas
A janissary, here in around 1240, and by 1280 the Ottoman Mehmet had between 100,000 and 150,000.
ceremonial dress, was Turks had started settling southeast of The Turks even dragged 70 of their ships
an elite soldier of the
Ottoman army. The first
Constantinople. The Ottomans built up overland, bypassing Constantinople’s outer
janissaries were young their empire quickly. They encircled the sea defenses, to attack by surprise. Protected
Christian prisoners of war city and crossed into Europe, where, in by strong walls, the Byzantines held out
whose life was spared if
1361, they took Adrianople, making it their for 54 days until finally Mehmet’s best
they converted to Islam
and fought for the Turks. capital. Tamberlane defeated them in 1402, troops overran the city, ending the
but from 1430 onward the Ottomans Byzantine Empire.

Teams of oxen and

thousands of soldiers
dragged 70 small galleys
of Mehmet ITs fleet over
a neck of land into an
unprotected stretch of sea
near Constantinople. They
were able to bypass the
Byzantine sea defenses
and besiege the city.

182
900 11001 1200: 13001 14001 1500 1600 1700 1750 1800 r 1850 I 1900 I 1950 i 2000

Mehmet II was one of the

most successful Ottoman
sultans. He was well
educated, built many
public buildings, and
repopulated Istanbul
with people from all
parts of his empire.

A NEW BREED OF MUSLIMS ▲ This fresco from the ◄ Castles were

The Byzantine Empire had given birth Moldovita monastery in strategically built to
Romania, depicts the Ottoman guard the Bosphorus,
to an outstanding medieval culture. Its
siege of Constantinople in 1453, the narrow sea route
decline was slow. It changed from a great
the final hour of Byzantine that connected the
power into a small country possessing a Empire's 1,000-year history. Black Sea with the
long history but with little future. The Mediterranean.
Ottoman Turks, replacing the Byzantines,
wanted to be involved in Europe. Many
of their administrators were captured
Europeans. The Ottomans were a new
breed of Muslims who came from the
East yet looked West. They occupied the
traditional territory of the Byzantine
Empire—the Balkans, the Black Sea,
Anatolia, and Syria, and also invaded other
lands. After Mehmet and his army overran
Constantinople in 1453, the name of the
city was changed to Istanbul, but life
continued as before. However, the Muslims
were now much closer to Europe, which
caused the Europeans concern.

_KEY DATES_
1071 The Seljuks defeat the Byzantines,
occupying Anatolia
1204 Crusaders capture Constantinople
1243 The Mongols destroy the Seljuk sultanate
of Rum
1261 Byzantines retake Constantinople
1280 The Ottomans in Anatolia move close
to Constantinople
1389 Ottomans defeat the Serbs in Kosovo
1391 Ottomans defeat European Crusaders
in Romania
1453 The final fall of Constantinople

183
 10,000 5000 3000 1500 500 300 100 B.C. A.D. 100; 200 350! 500 ! 700

The KHMER EMPIRE 802-1440

The Khmer Empire was created in 802, when the
Khmer people were united by Jayavarman II. It reached
its peak under Suryavarman I and Suryavarman II.

A round 400, the Khmer had

created a state called Chen-la
Laos

VIETNAM

which was at its strongest around Thom

THAILAND,
700 under Jayavarman I. Previously Lake
Tonle Sap
Hindu, the Khmer adopted Buddhism
Khmer Empire
during this time. Chen-la declined,
and, after a brief occupation by the
Javanese, a new Khmer state was
created in 802 by Rajah
Jayavarman II. He was a “god-
The Khmer lived in what is now Cambodia. Their armies
king” or devarajah (like the conquered many of the surrounding lands, dominating
Tibetan Dalai Lama today). mainland Southeast Asia during the 1100s.
He ruled from a city called
Angkor Thom, near a lake The building of Angkor Thom, originally
called Tonle Sap. The called Yasodharapura, was started just
Khmers wrote books on before 900. The richly decorated temple
paper, palm leaves, and complex of Angkor Wat was built
vellum. Fire, rot, and termites between 1113 and 1150.
have long since destroyed them,
but it is possible to learn about ▼ Angkor Wat, a huge temple complex built of red
sandstone, was surrounded by walls and a moat 590 ft.
the Khmers from Chinese
(180m) wide and 2.5 mi. (4km) long. The temple had three
histories, and from the many main enclosures (representing the outer world)
The temple complex of carvings in the ruins of Angkor Thom surrounding an inner holy shrine.
Angkor Wat was richly
(“great city”) and Angkor Wat (“great
decorated with many
carved sandstone figures.
temple”) nearby.
After the temple was
abandoned in the 1400s,
they were swallowed
up by the jungle and
not rediscovered
until the 1800s.

184
900 1100! 1200 1300 1400 1500 | 1600 i 1700 1750 i 1800 1850) 1900 1950 2000

' IS

A Many of the temple

The Khmer armies, which may have carvings at Angkor Wat
included hundreds of war elephants, fought show the daily lives of the
many battles and conquered most of the Khmer people as well as
telling the stories of their
surrounding lands, including Thailand and
sacred myths and battles.
Champa (southern Vietnam). The empire
reached its peak between 1010 and 1150,
under Suryavarman I and Suryavarman II.
During the 1200s, the people grew tired
of serving the devarajahs through forced
labor, and Khmer life began to break down.
In 1444, invading Thai armies forced the
This masterpiece of carved
Khmer to abandon Angkor. From then on, architecture is one tower
Cambodia was dominated by the Thai of the Bavon temple, built
kingdom of Siam. in the 1100s in the capital
city Angkor Thom.

KHMER DAILY LIFE

The Khmer were builders, craftworkers,
fishermen, farmers, and warriors. Many
lived in houses perched on stilts around
Tonle Sap. Their main food was rice, and
their special irrigation systems produced KEY DATES
three crops a year. The kings were still c.400 Founding of Chen-la, after the fall of Funan
Hindus, but most of the population was c.700 Chen-la reaches its peak of development

Buddhist. They held elaborate religious 802 Jayavarman II founds the Khmer nation by
uniting the people
ceremonies in connection with the seasons
880s The Khmer conquer the Mon and Thai peoples
of the year. They traded with India and 900 Angkor Thom founded
Java, and also with China, bartering spices 1050-1150 The Khmer Empire at its high point
and rhinoceros horn for porcelain and under Suryavarman I and Suryavarman II

lacquerware. The royal women of the 1113-50 Angkor Wat is built These heavenly dancers
c.1215 Death of last Angkor king, Jayavarman VII; were carved on one of
court wore skirts, leaving the upper part
empire starts to fall into decline the walls at Angkor
of the body bare. They were encouraged Wat in about 1200.
1444 Angkor abandoned after Thai invasions
to study law, astrology, and languages. led by Ayutthaya
Men wore only a loose loin covering.
185
The arts 1101-1460
This was a period of consolidation and improvement
in the arts. The sense of invention and creativity of the
early Middle Ages was developed further and refined.

D uring the late Middle Ages,

artistic creativity around the world
was blossoming. Medieval arts and music
had developed, refining the styles and
techniques created in the previous
500 years. There were now grander
institutions, such as the Church, requiring
artistic works, and there was a growing
number of patrons—rich people who
bought works of art and sponsored artists.
The arts of the Tang and the Song in
Each noble family in China reached new heights of refinement
Europe had its own coat in the Yuan and Ming periods. Ceramics,
of arms. Heraldry used
many different symbols
literature, music, theater, landscape This enamel reliquary, decorated with scenes depicting
painting and gardening, lacquerware, the murder of St. Thomas a Becket in Canterbury
to tell a story about the
Cathedral in 1170, was made in England in 1220.
family's history and aims. and sculpture all flourished.
In Japan, local styles replaced the
imported Chinese styles which had been
adopted earlier. In comparison, the Toltecs
and Aztecs took on and adapted earlier
styles from Teotihuacan and the Maya.
Islamic art, now a long-standing tradition,
was modernized by different schools of
thought in Spain, Morocco, Egypt, and
Samarkand. In Europe, most art and music
was created for the Church, including
stained glass, tapestry, and choral music.
During the 1300s and 1400s, some artists,
working privately, began to paint pictures
in a realistic style.

▼ During the Ming dynasty, the Chinese made

ornamental blue-and-white pottery in the imperial
factories. Later, many pieces were exported to Europe.

◄ Stained-glass windows were made from pieces of

colored glass, joined together with strips of lead. This
window, in Canterbury Cathedral in southern England,
depicts medical subjects and was made in 1280.
 * t,:.;. V :—

These two Aztec women are making cloth. In Europe there was a tradition of street
One is spinning raw cotton into yarn for the theater at markets and festivals. Popular
other to weave on a belt loom. It is given plays were performed on the back of
this name because one end was k a wagon, or on a makeshift stage.
tied to the woman's belt.

In Europe, there were mystery plays

based on the Bible or on traditional
Wooden furniture
myths, and poems about heroes such as
and wall panels were
Charlemagne and King Arthur. Geoffrey often carved with scenes
Chaucer wrote about courtly love and from stories. This scene is
ordinary people. Books were available to from The Pardoner's Tale
by Geoffrey Chaucer from
a wider public as they began to be written his great Canterbury Tales.
in local languages, rather than in Latin. It shows Death teaching
a lesson to three men.

The temple complex at

Angkor Wat, in present-
day Cambodia, was
built during the peak
of the Khmer Empire in
the 1100s. Its sandstone
walls were carved with
pictures of the Khmer
people, their daily lives,
myths, and battles.
Architecture 1101-1460
Throughout the world, remarkable craftsmanship and
technical advances led to the construction of imposing
and elegant buildings during the Middle Ages.

M ost people in Europe built houses

with wood because it was cheap
Most castle walls had slots called loopholes. They were
and plentiful. Unfortunately, it caught narrow on the outside and wide on the inside, letting the
fire easily and tended to rot. Therefore, archers shoot out, but attackers could not shoot in.
important buildings were constructed in
stone. Castles and city walls were built MUSLIM ARCHITECTURE
with thick, well-laid stones. Cathedrals The arrival of the Ottoman Turks in the
were designed in a new Gothic style. Muslim world brought a new lease on life
Instead of the rounded arches and sturdy to Islamic architecture. Earlier Islamic styles
Freemasons, or masons, pillars of the older Romanesque style, gave way to Seljuk and Persian influences,
were skilled and valued
they had pointed arches, slender pillars, different from earlier styles in detail and
workers. They cut and
shaped stones accurately and high stained-glass windows. Worldwide, shape. The newest Muslim architecture
for use in building. buildings were becoming finer in came from Turkey, Morocco, Afghanistan,
shape and less bulky. The carved and Samarkand, where arches, domes,
decorations of Khmer temples, pillars, and mosaics were developed.
the roofs of Ming palaces, and
temples in China, and the
expert woodwork found
in Japan made this
an architecturally
rich period.
Roughmasons placed
the stones in the
wall, according to the Under the direction
numbers put on them of an experienced
by the masons. master mason,
a large team of
people would be
needed to build a
castle. Ropes,
pulleys, wooden
scaffolding, and
horses were all
used to carry the
materials to
where they
were needed.

188
 Gothic-style cathedrals were taller and
lighter than earlier ones. They were built
according to carefully worked out
engineering principles, and they
took years to build.

Tamerlane, the last great Mongol leader, was buried in a

beautiful jade-covered vault in Samarkand. This is one of
the finest examples of Islamic art from this period.

In South America, high in the Andes, The Tibetans built monasteries clinging
the Inca city of Machu Picchu was a to precipitous Himalayan mountainsides—
remarkable feat of engineering. Here, such as the Potala in Lhasa. During the
the Incas built high walls of massive 1200s, the Ethiopians carved Christian
stones which fit together so exactly churches out of solid rock, making them
that not even an earthquake could safe from any form of attack. These rock-
move them. The city still cut churches still survive, as do many
stands today. other grand buildings around the
world from this period.

Stonecutters left their

own special marks to
identify their work. Some
of them also carved the
faces of people they
knew on the gargoyles
and other decorations
around the churches
they built.

In India and Southeast

Asia, stonecutting was
at a peak of development
during this period. This
ornately carved stone gate
guarded the entrance to
a temple in Orissa, India.

189
 "4‘sb LJ _ I
_

Science and technology 1101-1460

The spread of knowledge from China and Muslim
countries led to a new fascination with learning that
swept through Europe in the Middle Ages.

T he Chinese, the Indians, and the

Arabs were still ahead of the rest
of the world in science and technology.
Crusaders returning to Europe from
Palestine brought with them Arabic
u knowledge of medicine, technology,
astronomy, and mathematics. The
city-states of Venice and Genoa, The great Mongol emperor of China, Kublai Khan,
exposed to Asian influences through founded the Institute of Muslim Astronomy in Beijing in
trade, often received these ideas first. the 1200s, to observe important planetary events. China
had a special government astronomy department.
The great Italian mathematician,
Fibonacci, based his work on
knowledge gleaned from Arabic ADVANCES IN CHINA
Eyeglasses for texts. In England, Roger Bacon, one of Chinese writing and education was
farsighted people were the earliest Western scientists, based his very advanced, and Chinese medicine,
W first worn in about 1285.
A), Those for nearsighted
ideas of reflection and refraction on works mathematics, and other sciences were
people were not invented brought in from Muslim Spain and Egypt. already well developed. The government
until around 1430. administrators, called mandarins, were
PRINTING actually required to be scholarly. This
Knowledge of papermaking spread to helped the progress of Chinese sciences
Europe from Arabia at the end of this and technologies. The Mongols also
period. The Koreans and Chinese had also brought foreign ideas with them, which
invented movable-type printing, and this would later benefit Ming China.
was later developed in Europe, setting
il off a revolution in knowledge. But for
most of this period, all books were
still written by hand, and most
people in Europe could not read.

This servant is washing

dishes in a castle kitchen.
Diseases were common
at this time because
■
hygiene was not
practiced or even
K
understood.

This is a special
Aztec calendar stone
that uses their system
of 20-day months. Each
year had 18 months, as
well as a final five unlucky
days (nemontemi) The Monks distilled alcohol (aqua vitae-the water
figure in the center is of life) from wine to make alcoholic beverages.
the sun god Tonatiuh. Fermented cereals were used to make whiskey.

190
Waterpowered wheels were used to drive simple
machinery such as the hammer used in ironworking (shown
here). This process made metalworking much easier.

THE SPREAD OF KNOWLEDGE

Early medieval books were entirely handmade.
There was a new spirit of inquiry in the Scribes wrote on sheets of parchment which
air. The Arabs learned from the East, and were bound together with wooden boards.
the Europeans learned from the Arabs. This made books rare and expensive.

When the first Westerners, such as the

Venetian Marco Polo, went East, they
took European ideas with them. More
knowledge from ancient Greece came to
Europe after the fall of the Byzantine
Empire, when many scholars fled from
Constantinople to Italy. When Admiral
Zheng He sailed from China to India,
Arabia, and Africa, his fleets carried
scholars and collectors to gather items and
information from the places they visited.

Once people started

printing with movable
type, books could be
produced more quickly
and efficiently. Although
this made books cheaper,
only the rich could afford
WHEN IT HAPPENED them or knew how to read.
1100 Returning Crusaders bring Arabic
knowledge back to Europe
1202 Fibonacci, an Italian mathematician,
writes about Hindu-Arabic numbering
1260 Englishman Roger Bacon describes
the laws of reflection and refraction
1275 First human dissection carried out
1397 Movable type produced in Korea
 The
Renaissance
1461-1600
This period marks the start of modern history.
Muslims still dominated much of Europe and
Asia. The Ottomans in the Middle East and
the Moguls in India took Islamic culture to
new heights. The Aztecs and Incas dominated
the Americas. In Europe, a new world was
coming into being. Europeans questioned
their traditions and beliefs. They sailed the
oceans, explored new ideas, and European
society changed greatly—becoming more
complex, freethinking, and materialistic.

▲ The Inca celebrated two festivals of the sun. One was in June,
the other in December. The emperor led the ceremonies, attended
by officials from all over the empire, in the great square at Cuzco.

◄ This is a detail from "Madonna of the Magnificat," painted by

Italian Renaissance artist Sandro Botticelli in 1465.

193
The world at a glance i46i-i6oo
E uropeans started to emerge from the narrow
confines of the Middle Ages to travel beyond
African civilizations also came under European
influence, but it was confined to the coast. The heart
their continent. In 1461, European seafarers, traders, of Africa remained undisturbed. China was still ruled
and colonists were on the brink of setting out to find by the Ming dynasty. Although the arts flourished,
new routes to the Far East, and to explore and exploit society had begun to stagnate under its rule.
the rest of the world. For the first time, continents In Europe, the movement now called the
were brought into direct contact with each other. Renaissance was fueled by Greek scholars fleeing
In Mexico and South America, the Aztec and Inca from the fall of Constantinople, who brought with
empires were at their height, but with the arrival of them the knowledge of ancient Greece and Rome.
the Spanish, the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan was
destroyed and the Incas were forced to retreat to the
mountains of Peru. By 1533, the Spanish had turned
the native population into slaves and the original
inhabitants were nearly wiped out by disease and
mistreatment. The invaders turned their attention if-, t
fed.
north, but it was some years before North America
would feel the real effects of their arrival.
$
NORTH AM
AMERICA
Europeans first arrived here about 1500, though
colonies were not really started until the 1600s. ft- "

Mississippian culture was in

decline from the 1450s, and
the Pueblo peoples of the
Southwest were now past their
peak. Other native peoples were
having their own political and religious
problems, as well as matters of trade with
other tribes-all the time unaware of the white
man's impending threat to their way of life.

MESOAMERICA
AND SOUTH
AMERICA

MESOAMERICA AND SOUTH AMERICA

Disaster struck the whole region. The richly advanced
civilizations of Mexico and the Andean regions were
generally on an upswing when the Spanish arrived.
! But both the Aztecs, in the 1520s, and the Incas in
the 1530s, were quickly subjugated by these strange
foreigners, whom they had welcomed at first. Trickery,
followed by European diseases, killed millions. The Spanish
and Portuguese quickly took over, establishing plantations,
mines, and cities in the search for gold, wealth, and glory.
The majority of early immigrants were actually Africans,
brought over as slaves to work the plantations. But it was
the European bosses and priests who, by 1600, ran what was
to be become Latin America. Those indigenous Americans who
survived were suddenly the subjects of new masters.
 EUROPE
Europe was changing fast. In Florence and Amsterdam, power now lay ASIA
in the hands of traders. In many countries, a new form of religion had
In the early 1400s, Chinese expeditions had sailed to
started-Protestants fought to throw off Catholic rule. Cities and business
India, Arabia, and Africa, yet the Ming emperors soon
ai grew, and with them new social habits and possibilities. European
closed the door to overseas missions. Japan reached
^ \ nations and empires were wealthy and powerful at
new heights, although it was also isolated from outside
this time. New products flooded in from far-off
affairs. In Southeast Asia and India, Europeans were
/£$a-Si places, and new ideas emerged, despite of the
establishing trading posts and influencing Asian society.
Jtfmw risk upsetting rulers. Europeans were
Russians were colonizing Siberia. The Moguls ruled
W/IM \ sure of themselves, yet there was much
most of India, creating a tolerant
IIL. 'N Sv turmoil. They were also courageous,
and successful society, and i
V/ sailing to the ends of the Earth to explore
in countries such as Tibet, w
\\ new routes and trading opportunities.
Thailand, Vietnam, Malaya,
and Indonesia, advanced +
cultures were making
great strides forward. JL

EUROPE

MIDDLE
EAST
AUSTRALASIA
AFRICA
In Australia, Aotearoa (New
Zealand,) and the Polynesian
islands, life continued as
before, with some exploration

AUSTRALASIA

AFRICA
Many African tribes became
nations during the 1500s,
and towns grew in number, MIDDLE EAST
stimulated by growing trade
In the 1500s, the Ottomans reached their
| between nations, and with
highest point of development and conquest,
Europeans on the coast.
becoming the dominant force in the Middle
By 1502, Africa was also
East. They clashed with another rising
feeding the slave trade.
power, the Safavids of Persia. Both empires
were culturally sophisticated and wealthy.

195
 10,000 I 5000 i 3000 1500 500 ; 300 | 100 B.C. j 0 A.D. 100 200 350 500 700

The aztecs 1430-1520

During the 1400s, the Aztecs dominated Mexico NORTH AMERICA
from the wondrous city of Tenochtitlan, dominated
by pyramids, on an island in the middle of a lake.

T he Aztecs had started to expand in

1430, under the emperor Itzcoatl, and
Bay of Campeche

Chichen ltza»
by 1500, they controlled a large empire
Yucatan
in Mexico. Tenochtitlan had a population
•• T i/?* *
of about 300,000, and was at its most CENTRAL
powerful, under Montezuma II (also AMERICA
Mr . .
known as Moctezuma II). In order to feed
Pacific Ocean
Xoconusco iMv*
everyone, food was grown on artificial
islands, or chinampas, built up in Lake
Texcoco, in the middle of which the city
The Aztecs dominated the center of Mexico from coast
stood. Conquered lands provided corn, to coast, including several cities. They also influenced
beans, and cocoa, cotton cloth, and gold, much wider areas to the north and south.
silver, and jade for Aztec craftworkers.
Traders bought turquoise from the Pueblo HUMAN SACRIFICES
Indians in the north, and from the south One of the main tasks of the army
came brightly colored feathers, which was to take many prisoners of war. The
were used to make elaborately decorated prisoners were sacrificed in Tenochtitlan,
capes, fans, headdresses, and shields. Aztec at the huge pyramid-temples in the
society was organized along military lines. middle of the city. Religious blood
All young men served in the army from sacrifice was important to the Aztecs
the age of 17 to 22. Some stayed longer who sacrificed to many different gods.
than this, because even a peasant could All of these gods were believed to need a
▲ Priests were powerful rise to be an army commander if great deal of human blood—especially the
in Aztec society. They did
he was good enough. god of war, Huitzilopochtli. This armed
not marry, and they were
responsible for conducting aggression and human sacrifice gradually
all of the many ceremonies turned the Aztecs’ neighbors against them.
in the Aztec 260-day
calendar. They also carried
out human sacrifices, using
knives with blades made
from very sharp stone,
such as chalcedony,
flint, or obsidian.

► Ordinary Aztecs lived

in huts with thatched
roofs. They ate pancakes
made from cornmeal, with
spicy bean and vegetable
fillings, very like Mexican
tortillas today.

196
900 1100 1200 : 1300 1400 1600 1700 1750 1800 1850 : 1900 1950 2000

This ceremonial headdress from the 1500s is made

mainly of quetzal feathers. Parrot feathers in brown,
crimson, white, and blue were also used.

RISE AND FALL OF THE AZTECS

The Aztecs traded far and wide around
Mexico, into what is now the United
States, and south to Colombia. They sold
high-value items made by craftworkers—
clothing, jewelry, and household and
ceremonial items. They also exacted
tribute—payments made by cities to keep The emperor was treated ◄ This terracotta
like a god, and he could statue bears the hideously
the Aztecs from invading them. The
be spoken to only by priests grinning skull face of the
capital, Tenochtitlan, was one of the Aztec god of death. The
and nobles. Ordinary people
world’s best-planned cities. The streets and had to keep their eyes down Aztecs used human skulls
when the ruler traveled to make masks. They
canals were laid out in a grid pattern on its
through the capital. encrusted them with
lake island, and arranged around a huge turquoise and seashells
ceremonial area of pyramids, temples, and lined them inside
palaces, and gardens. Three wide with red leather.

causeways linked the city to the mainland.

But the Aztecs’ greed for sacrificial victims
meant that, when the Spanish arrived in
▼ Three long causeways linked Tenochtitlan to the mainland.
1519, their neighboring societies helped
Traders traveled far and wide from the city, and some of them acted
them conquer the Aztecs by the as spies for the emperor. The causeways were also a good defense
following year. for the city. When the Spanish arrived, it was trickery and disease,
not direct attack, that helped them overcome the Aztecs.

197
 5000 3000 1500 500: 300! 100 B.C. A.D. 100! 200; 350 500 ! 700!
10,000

The INCA EMPIRE 1438-1533

For a century, the Incas ruled a vast, well-organized, - Extent of Inca
Empire 1525
mountaintop empire, high in the Andes in South
Roads
America. Their empire was obliterated by the Spanish.

T he Inca ruler was known as the

Sapa Inca. He was believed to Chan Chan
(Chimu)
be descended from Inti, the sun god,
who gave him the right to rule. He
was also worshiped as a god himself.
Pacific
The Sapa Inca ran the country from Ocean
Cuzco, thought to be Inti’s home.
Royal officials oversaw and directed
The Incas were
everything in all parts of the empire. skillful engineers.
This golden pendant made They looked after the affairs of the Their vast empire
by the Incas has markings cities, and made sure the factories and was linked by
showing mathematical stone-covered roads
patterns. These had a
workshops that produced pottery, textiles,
that crisscrossed
religious and calendrical and decorative metal objects, as well as the high mountains
significance for the Incas. the farms, were all working efficiently. of the Andes, which
form the backbone
Writing was unknown to the Incas, so
of South America.
they kept all their records on quipus.
These were cords with knots tied in them
to convey information, such as records of
population and taxes. At its greatest period INCA EXPANSION
in 1525, the empire stretched for 2,200 When Pachacuti became the Sapa Inca
mi. (3,500km). The cities, towns, and in 1438, he began to expand his lands
villages were all linked by a network of around Cuzco. In 1450, he conquered
roads. Communication was provided the Titicaca basin; and in 1463, he went
^_ by relay runners. to war against the Lupaca and Colla tribes.
Under his son Topa’s command, the Inca
army -defeated the neighboring Chimu
Empire in 1466, and Tqpa continued to
expand the empire after he became the
tenth Sapa Inca in 1471. During the next
A A quipu was a length of
15 years, he conquered lands far to the
string, or cord, from which
several strings hung. These south, and later took control of
were in different colors, lands to the north and west.
and each had knots in it.
"Quipu" comes from the
word for knot. By its style,
color, and position, each
knot was a valuable piece
of information, usually
a number. The Incas
would hold up the long
cord at the top and
“read" the information
in the downward rows.

► The Incas cut terraces

into the Andes with wooden
tools. Alpacas and llamas
grazed on higher ground,
and the Incas grew corn,
pumpkins, quinoa, and
fruit lower down.

198
900 1100 1 1200 I 1300 1 1400 | 1500 | 1600 i 1700 1750 | 1800 1850 | 1900 1950 2000

RISE AND FALL OF THE INCAS

The Incas reached a very high level of
technology and organization, and came
up with ingenious ways of farming on
steep slopes, and building bridges, roads,
and towns high in the mountains.
Topa built many of these roads and
towns. Topa’s son, Huayna Capac, the
Sapa Inca from 1493, further expanded
the empire, building a second capital at
Quito. When he died in 1525, the empire
was divided between his sons: Huascar
ruled the south, and Atahualpa the north.
This division led to civil war just before
the Spanish landed in 1532. The invaders
took advantage of the road system while
the Incas argued among themselves,
and the Spanish were able to destroy
the empire by 1533.

KEY DATES
1200 Manco Capac establishes the Inca dynasty and
capital of Cuzco ▲ Two main roads ran the length of the
1350 Local expansion of the Incas under Mayta empire. They were connected with every
Capa town and village by smaller roads. Goods
were carried by trains of llamas. Quipus
1438 Pachacuti becomes the Sapa Inca
were delivered by relay runners.
1450 Pachacuti greatly enlarges the Inca Empire
1466 Topa Inca overruns the Chimu Empire
1485 Topa Inca conquers Chile and Peru
1493 Quito becomes the second capital
1525 Fluayna Capa dies, and civil war breaks out
between Cuzco and Quito
1532 The Spanish invade the Inca Empire
1533 The Spanish destroy the Inca Empire

▲ Relay runners carried

official messages and
packages throughout
the empire. Each runner
ran about 1 mi. (1.5km)
before the next one took
over. To make sure of a
quick changeover, a runner
announced his approach by
blowing on a conch shell.

◄ Each year, the Incas

would celebrate the Great
Festival of the sun, to give
thanks for the growth of
crops and the continuation
of life, and to pray for
blessings in the future-
not unlike the Christian
festival of Easter.

199
 10,000 5000 3000 1500 5001 300! 100B.C. 0 A.D. 1001 2001 350 500 7001

The reconquest of SPAIN 1469-1516

The reconquest of Muslim-ruled Spain by the Spanish
began during the 1100s. The country was fully reunited
300 years later, under Ferdinand and Isabella.

A fter the fall of the Roman Empire,

Spain had been ruled by the
Visigoths for 300 years. Then came the
invading Berbers (Moors) from northern
Africa in 711, establishing a Muslim
caliphate which lasted from 756 until
1031. At this time, Christians in the north
of Spain started pushing southward. They
started a reconquista (reconquest) which,
Ferdinand (1452-1516)
by 1235, had limited the Muslims to Spain was divided for much of the 1400s, though the
succeeded to the throne
Granada in the south of the country. uniting of Aragon and Castile in 1481 made the eventual
of Aragon. He was a
union of Spain almost inevitable.
tough politician and However, Catholic Spain was divided
ruled Spain together into several countries—Leon, Castile,
with his wife, Isabella.
Navarre, and Aragon. In the 1400s, Leon THE SPANISH INQUISITION
had joined with Castile, making Castile Many Muslims and Jews had converted to
and Aragon the two largest. The first step Christianity and stayed in Spain, making a
toward finally uniting Spain was made in great contribution to its culture. But their
1469 when Lerdinand, heir to Aragon, success was resented. The king and queen
married Isabella of Castile. When the king decided that all non-Christians should
of Castile died in 1474, Isabella and leave Spain. They wanted to find those
Lerdinand succeeded him as joint rulers of who had “converted” but still followed
his kingdom. Live years later, Lerdinand the old religion secretly. Spain used
inherited Aragon and made Isabella joint religion as a political weapon. The pope
Isabella (1451-1504) ruler of Aragon as well. gave permission for an Inquisition, a court
inherited the kingdom that investigated heresy, but the Spanish
of Castile. She and her
▼ The Christian armies of Aragon and Castile defeated
misused the power and imprisoned,
husband, Ferdinand,
eventually became the Moors in 1492, and the Moors were driven back tortured, and killed thousands of people.
rulers of all Spain. to North Africa where they were shown no mercy.

200
900 i 1100 1200 | 1300 1400 ! 1500 1600 1700 1750 1800 1850 I 1900 1950 2000

Boadbil, the last Moorish

THE REUNIFICATION OF SPAIN emir of Granada, leaves
the city after the conquest
In 1492, fourteen years after the Spanish
by Aragon and Castile in
Inquisition began, Moorish Granada was 1492, ending a long era
recaptured by Aragon and Castile. Many of Muslim rule in Spain.
Muslims and Jews were expelled or
During the Spanish
forcibly converted—as many as 200,000 _KEY DATES_ Inquisition, books that
Jews left the country. This persecution 1248 The Christians reconquer most of Spain were written by people
resulted in many skilled and able people 1469 The marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella suspected of heresy were
1474 Isabella inherits Castile burned. This painting by
moving away to France, Germany, and
Pedro Berruguete not only
1478 The Spanish Inquisition is established
the Ottoman Empire. celebrates the Catholic
1479 Aragon and Castile are united
In the same year, Ferdinand and Isabella victory in Spain, but also
1492 The conquest of Granada-end of Muslim
vividly illustrates the
sponsored the voyage of Christopher rule in southern Spain. Christopher Columbus'
power of the Inquisition.
Columbus—they were seeking a sea route expedition to India is financed by Isabella
to India and China, but instead found the 1504 Isabella dies
1515 Navarre joins Castile-Spain is finally united
Americas. This began a period of Spanish
1516 Ferdinand dies
conquest that brought about the downfall
of the Aztecs, Maya, and Incas.
Ferdinand and Isabella had five
daughters, one of whom, Catherine of
Aragon, married Henry VIII of England.
But Ferdinand and Isabella had no son,
and descent passed through their daughter
Joanna the Mad. When Isabella died in
1504, Ferdinand acted as regent for the
young Joanna. In 1515, Navarre joined
Castile, and Ferdinand finally became king
of a united Spain. Joanna’s son, Charles V,
eventually became the Hapsburg emperor,
the most powerful ruler in Europe. Under
his rule, Spain experienced its golden age.

A map of the world taken from Ptolemy's Geographici

shows how the world was thought to look in 1486,
before world exploration by Europeans really began.

201
 3000 i 1500 j 500 i 300 | 100 B.C. | 0 j A.D. 100 | 200 j 350 500 700 j
10,000 5000

The renaissance 1450 -1600

The Renaissance was a bridge from medieval to modern
culture. It was a revolutionary period in the arts and
sciences that eventually changed the whole world.

D uring the 1300s, life in Europe

had been affected by wars, peasant
revolts, and the Black Death. The old
order was dying, and people were seeking
something new. In medieval times, the
Church had dominated the arts,
education, and learning. People had
accepted what they were told without
asking questions. Then, in the 1300s,
Developed in the 1440s, Italian scholars began to take an interest
Gutenberg's printing During the Renaissance, the ideal person was the
in the writings of the ancient Greeks and
press with movable type "universal" man or woman. This was someone who was
made books available to Romans—ideas that arrived in Europe educated to be skillful in a variety of subjects including
people throughout Europe from Byzantium and the Arab world. literature, painting, science, music, and philosophy.
for the first time.
This interest grew when, in 1397,
Manuel Chrysoloras, a scholar from THE PEAK OF THE RENAISSANCE
Constantinople, became the first professor The Renaissance affected art and science,
of Greek at the University of Florence architecture and sculpture. Ideas became
in northern Italy. Scholars became more realistic, more human, and less
fascinated by the questions that ancient dominated by religion. Paintings and
philosophers dealt with. From these statues were more lifelike, music explored
studies grew a belief system called new feelings, and books asked real-life
humanism. Suddenly people, not God, questions. Rich families such as the
were considered responsible for choosing Medicis and the Borgias in Italy and the
the course of their lives. After the fall of burghers of Holland became patrons of
the Byzantine Empire and Muslim Spain the arts and sciences. Printed books helped
Renaissance architects in the 1400s, many scholars moved to Italy to spread new ideas. The Renaissance
copied the elegant styles
and northwestern Europe, taking many reached its peak in the 1500s, mainly in
of Ancient Greece and
Rome for buildings such
old manuscripts and ideas with them. cities such as Venice, Florence, Antwerp,
as the Tempietto in Rome. and Haarlem. People looked closely at
T Sandro Botticelli (1445-1510) was an Italian artist
the world, made detailed scientific
famous for his religious and mythological paintings,
such as "The Adoration of the Kings.” He was observations, collected exotic objects,
sponsored by the influential Medici family of Florence. and considered new ideas.

202
900! 1100 [ 12001 1300 i 14001 1500 1600! 1700! 1750! 1800 | 1850 1 1900 1 1950! 2000

THE NEW SPIRIT OF INQUIRY THE BIRTH OF A MODERN WORLD

Some people studied plants and animals. Demand for change led to advances in
Others investigated astronomy and geology. science and art, and even caused some
Sometimes their findings brought them into people to set sail for unexplored lands.
conflict with the Church. When Nicolaus New universities encouraged new
Copernicus (1473-1543) realized that the ideas. Money and trade also became
Earth moved around the sun, he dared not significant. Foods and products such
publish his views until he was actually on as coffee, sugar, tobacco, potatoes,
his deathbed. He feared the reaction of the pineapples, porcelain, and cotton
Church, which continued to insist that the were imported to Europe from
Earth stood at the center of the universe. Africa, America, India, and China.
This new spirit of inquiry and interest in No longer bound to the land by
humanity eventually led some people to feudalism, people began to move around.
question the authority of the Church. Many of them went to cities to seek their The Dutch
scholar and
Thinkers such as Jan Hus in Bohemia fortune. Northwestern Europe grew in
humanist
and John Wycliffe in England began to importance, and power shifted slowly from Desiderius Erasmus
question the Church openly. People’s the nobles and clerics to the bankers and (1467-1536), was critical
of the Catholic Church
own opinions became more important— politicians. These changes marked the
and, later, of the Reformers,
rulers and the Church could no longer beginning of a modern world that was to especially Luther.
do just as they pleased. develop rapidly over the next 400 years.

EVERYDAY LIFE IN FLORENCE

Florence, in Italy, was one of the great centers of Renaissance learning
and art. Lorenzo de' Medici became joint ruler of the city with hrs
brother Giuliano, in 1469, and was a powerful patron to many
k writers, artists, and scientists. The city grew rich from trade
Hk and commerce, its people wore fine clothes, and its
streets thronged with skilled craftspeople.
 10,000 5000: 3000 1500 500 300 100 B.C. 0 : A.D. 100 | 200 I 350 ! 500 j 700

Italy 1460-1530
During this period, Italy was divided into small states. MILAN
to Hapsburgs
This made for great variation—some states were SwJRC: VENICE
progressive while others were more conservative. Venice

M any Italian states, such as Florence,

Venice, and Rome, were really large
lantua
• Ferrara

cities. Others were ruled by dukes, as in

Mantua, Milan, Urbino, and Ferrara. Most J PAPAL*
CORSICA STATES
of these states were ruled by families who
to Genoa Rome
had grown rich from trade and commerce
in the late Middle Ages. NAPLES
Naples •
to Aragon
The most powerful family of the time SARDINIA
was the Medici family of Florence. They to Aragon

had made a great fortune during the

To further the ambitions 1300s through banking and moneylending.
of her father, Rodrigo, (Pope Mediterranean Sea
The best known of the Medicis is Lorenzo, SICILY
Alexander VI), Lucrezia
Borgia (1480-1519) was who became joint ruler of Florence with to Aragon
married three times. With his brother in 1469. Fie was a cunning
her third husband, the Duke
statesman and banker as well as a patron
of Ferrara, she became a
great patron of the arts.
of writers, artists, philosophers, and During the Middle Ages, much of Italy was controlled
by the Holy Roman Empire. Following a power struggle
Their court became a scientists. He was eager to promote his
between emperors and popes, many cities formed
magnet for artists and family and saw his second son become their own independent states.
writers. She is also known
for her devotion to causes
pope. Under Lorenzo’s influence, Florence
involving children became one of the most beautiful and Another family, the Borgias, sought power
and education. prosperous cities in Italy, and a center of through the Church and the military.
the Renaissance. Lorenzo helped make Two Borgias became pope. One of them,
the form of Italian spoken in Florence Rodrigo, schemed to help his children.
into the language of the whole country. When he died, the family’s power collapsed.

LORENZO DE* MEDICI

The Medici villa at Florence was built in 1480
for Lorenzo the Magnificent by Renaissance In 1469, when he was 20 years old, Lorenzo became joint ruler of Florence
architect Giuliano da Sangallo. with his brother Giuliano. He was the grandson of Cosimo de' Medici, who
was the second Medici to hold power in Florence. Lorenzo's brother was killed
in a plot by a rival family in 1478. Lorenzo did everything he could to
further his family's interests-his second son Giovanni became Pope
Leo X-and to build a large gathering of scholars
and creative people. He was the first
patron of the artist Michelangelo.
He maintained and expanded the
family traditions of banking
and government.

Lorenzo de' Medici (1449-

1492)-"The Magnificent"-
ruled Florence from 1478
to 1492.

204
900 1100! 12001 1300 | 1400 1500 1600 1700 | 1750 ! 1800 ! 1850 ; 1900 1950 2000 j

The magnificent city

of Florence was at the
height of its powers
during the late 1400s.
Ruled by the Medicis, it
became home to many
great artists, architects,
writers, and scientists of
the Renaissance. Florence
also became one of
Europe's main business
and banking centers.

Raphael was influenced by

The Sforzas were a great family of
the work of Da Vinci and
Milan. Ludovico Sforza [1452-1508], Michelangelo in Florence.
was a man of taste, but also one with This is his "Deposition of
Christ," which he painted
ruthless ambition. He ruled as regent for
in 1507 at the age of 24.
his nephew, the duke of Milan, but made The following year Pope
himself the real center of power. He made Julius II asked him to
alliances with Rodrigo Borgia and married do a major work in the
Vatican in Rome.
a daughter of the powerful d’Este family,
from Ferrara. Ludovico’s court attracted
great artists from all fields, among
them Leonardo da Vinci.
Families like the Medicis represented
“new money,” with new values and ideas.
They paid for exploration, centers of
learning, public works, and new, imported
products. People traveled to Italy to learn
new ideas, which were taken back to other
parts of Europe, and Europeans flocked to
Florence, Venice, and Milan to gain support
for their own ideas. Although future centers
of modern development were to be
in northwestern Europe, much
of the energy of the early
Renaissance came from
the city-states of Italy.

Wealthy Renaissance
people enjoyed a very
comfortable life. In
addition to palaces or
large city residences,
many had country villas
where they welcomed
groups of visitors. They
would spend time
hunting, holding parties,
discussing literature,
and writing poetry.

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 10,000 5000 : 3000 1500 500: 300 100 B.C. | 0 A.D. 100 | 200 | 350 i 700

European explorers 1460-1600

During the second half of the 1400s, European sailors
and navigators planned voyages which would take
them far beyond the limits of the world they knew.

T he urge to explore was partly a

result of a new interest in the world,
encouraged by the Renaissance; but the
main intention was to bypass the Islamic
world in order to set up new trading links
with India and the Far East, the source of
spices and other luxuries. Until the fall of
the Byzantine Empire in 1453, spices were
brought overland to Constantinople and
In 1488, Bartholomeu Dias then carried across the Mediterranean to
(1450-1500) sailed around Europe. In spite of their expense, spices
Africa's Cape of Good
Hope in a terrible storm-
were essential. The only way to preserve
thereafter it was feared as meat was by salting it. Adding spices
the "Cape of Storms." helped hide the salty taste, and they also
A sailor's personal property from the year 1536, salvaged
concealed the taste of meat which had from the wreck of Henry Vlll’s flagship, the Mary Rose.
spoiled despite being salted. It includes a pouch, a whistle, a rosary, and a comb.
The Portuguese had set up harbors
and forts along the west coast of Africa, Vasco da Gama was followed by Pedro
trading with the Africans in gold, ivory, Cabral who returned from India with a
and silver. Gradually, they sailed farther cargo of pepper. This encouraged other
south, and in 1488, Bartholomeu Dias navigators to try to sail farther east. In
sailed around the tip of southern Africa— 1517, the Portuguese had reached China,
pushed by a fierce gale. His frightened, and nearly 30 years later they had arrived
exhausted crew refused to go any farther. in Japan. The Portuguese were driven not
Vasco da Gama (1469- Nine years later, Dias helped Vasco da only by trading possibilities, but also by
1525) rounded the Cape
of Good Hope in 1497,
Gama plan a voyage around the Cape a determination to spread Christianity
and sailed up the east of Good Hope to Calicut in India. to the peoples of the East.
coast of Africa. With the
help of an Indian sailor,
he then crossed the Indian
Ocean to Calicut in India,
returning home with a
cargo of spices. He went
back to India to defend
Portuguese interests and
was made viceroy of
India in 1524.

► Vasco da Gama's small

ships were a development
of the traditional caravel,
with its triangular lateen
sail. His ships had both
square and lateen sails,
making them more
maneuverable and
adaptable on the seas.

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900 11001 1200 j 1300 | 1400] 1500 | 1600 | 1700 1750; 1800 1850 1900 | 1950 2000

◄ Navigators from Europe

tried many routes to reach
the Spice Islands, the
Moluccas. They discovered
more than they expected,
opening up new routes
and laying the foundations
of future empires.

▲ Although Portuguese by
birth, Ferdinand Magellan
(1480-1521) sailed for
Spain. He led the first
expedition to sail around
the world, and gave the
Pacific Ocean its name.

WESTWARD EXPLORATION CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS

While the Portuguese sailed east, the In 1492, Queen Isabella sponsored Christopher Columbus, a navigator from Genoa in
Spanish sailed west. In 1492, Columbus Italy, to find a western route to India. It is possible that he knew of America from Viking
tales he had heard in Iceland. Most people believed the world was much smaller than it
found the West Indies. Amerigo Vespucci
really was. When Columbus reached a group
reached South America in 1499, but of islands across the Atlantic, he called
didn’t realize until his voyage of 1501 them the West Indies. They were in
fact the islands of the Caribbean.
that he had found a new continent. In
Columbus made three more
1497, John Cabot, a Venetian sponsored voyages there, but it is not
by England’s Henry VII, discovered known whether he really
knew if they were
Newfoundland. In 1535, Jacques Cartier
America or Asia.
sailed up the St. Lawrence River, claiming
the area for France. Ferdinand Magellan
rounded South America in 1519.
He died in the Philippines, but
part of his crew returned to
Spain in 1522—the first
explorers to sail
around the
world.

Christopher Columbus (1451-

1506) first went to sea at
the age of fourteen. He was
shipwrecked and washed up
on the coast of Portugal.

◄ When Christopher Columbus

and his crew landed on
Guanahani in the Bahamas,
he claimed it for Spain.

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 10,000 I 5000 j 3000 1500 500 | 300 | 100 B.C. I 0 | A.D. 100 | 200 35C

The songhay empire 1460-1603

Songhay replaced and enlarged the state of Mali.
During the 1200s, Mali itself had replaced Ghana
as the dominant gold-trading nation of West Africa.

W hen Europeans arrived in

Africa in the 1460s; the
continent had many states and
kingdoms. Tradition has Songhay
founded in the 600s by a Berber
Christian called al-Yaman, beside
the Niger River. By 1200, the
rulers moved to Gao, farther up
the Niger, where they converted
to Islam. Songhay became part
of Mali in 1325, after Gao was
captured by Mansa Muse, the
Muslim emperor of Mali. In 1464,
Early European explorers who settled on the coasts of
Sonni Ali made Songhay independent Africa knew nothing about its rich interior. Songhay
again and expanded its territory, traded its gold and slaves for luxury goods and salt.
taking over Mali, including Timbuktu
and Jenne. Songhay became rich and THE DECLINE OF SONGHAY
powerful, dominating West Africa. In 1528, Askia Mohammed I was deposed
Sonni Ali was cruel and immoral, and by his son, and a succession of weak and
persecuted religious people. He drowned corrupt rulers followed. Songhay grew
in 1492, and in 1493, Askia Mohammed I weaker, and finally fell to the Moroccans
founded a new dynasty. Under his in 1591. Songhay was not the only state
leadership, Songhay grew, trading gold, in West Africa. To the east was Kanem-
first with the Arabs, then with the Bornu, an African empire which grew
This terracotta head from Portuguese. Askia was a good ruler—he around Lake Chad. By 1100, it had become
Songhay was made in the respected religious beliefs and rebuilt a center of Muslim civilization, reaching its
1400s. It was probably
part of a larger statue
Songhay’s society. Timbuktu again became peak under Idris Aloma, who came to
of a prominent person an international center of learning. power in 1571 and ruled until 1603.
who lived in Songhay.

Gao, once the capital of Songhay,

housed the tomb of the greatest
king of Songhay, Askia Mohammed
j, I, who ruled from 1493 to 1528.

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900 1100 12001 1300 1 14001 15001 1600 1700 1 1750 1800 1850| 1900 1 1950 1 2000

SAFAVID PERSIA 1500-1722

At the beginning of the 1500s, Persia regained Caspian
independence under the Safavid dynasty. Persia soon Sea

became one of the leading cultures of the world.

P ersians had been prominent in the

Abbasid Empire since 642, and then
SYRIA

again under the Seljuks and Mongol

Ilkhans. After a period of disorder, the
Safavid dynasty came to power after the
Safavid Persian
they captured the city of Tabriz in 1501, Empire
making Persia independent. Their leader ARABIA • Ormuz
was Ismail I who had himself crowned (Portugue
shah, or ruler. The name “Safavid” came
from Ismail’s ancestor Safi od-Din, a Sufi
holy man who lived around 1300. By
Under the Safavids, Persia again became independent
▲ This military standard 1508, Ismail controlled all of Persia and and a major power in the region. They made friends and
from Safavid Persia was most of Mesopotamia. He established traded with the Portuguese, though they were troubled
used in ceremonies to by the Ottomans to the west and the Turks to the east.
Shiite Islam as the state religion. Doctrinal
honor those who had
been killed in battle.
differences, together with disputes over
It was made of precious land, led to a long series of Muslim Safavid Persia was continually
metals and richly inlaid religious wars between the Shiite Safavids under pressure from Ottomans in the
with precious stones.
and the Sunni Ottomans. They started in west and Turks in the east, until the reign
1514 when the Ottoman sultan, Selim I, of Abbas I who made peace and created
invaded western Persia. Under the a cultural renaissance in Persia. After his
Safavids, Persia developed its own identity death in 1629, a series of weak shahs
after centuries of foreign domination, and followed, and the Safavids were brought
the powerful dynasty lasted for 200 years. down by invading Afghans in 1722.

ABBAS THE GREAT

The Safavid dynasty reached its peak under Shah Abbas
the Great (1571-1629), who ruled from 1587. A good
military leader, he made peace with the Ottomans and
drove the Uzbek Turks out of eastern Iran. He moved his
capital to Isfahan and made it into one of the world's
finest cities, with a magnificent palace and mosque.
Covered bazaars (markets) surrounded the main square,
trees and streams flanked the market square, and a central
avenue had gardens on both sides. Abbas the Great set in
motion a revival of Persian culture, creating lasting friendly
relations with Europe, and entertaining foreign visitors.

◄ This 17th-century A Complex geometric and

painting shows Abbas I natural patterns decorate
defeating the Uzbeks. the mosque at Isfahan.

209
 10,000 ; 5000 3000 1500 500 300 100 B.C. 0 A.D. 100 200 350 i 500

Tudor England i485-i603

During the Tudor period, England grew great and
powerful. It forged a strong new identity, broke its ties
with Rome, and sowed the seeds of an imperial future.

T he Tudors, a Welsh family, rose

to power after the confusion of a
long civil war, the Wars of the Roses
(1455-1485). The first Tudor king, Henry
VII, banned private armies and put down
any nobles who opposed him. He enriched
his own finances and those of the nation.
Henry Tudor (1457-1509) In 1509, when the young Henry VIII
came to power in 1485. became king, England was an important
power in Europe. Henry married Catherine
of Aragon, daughter of Spain’s Ferdinand Henry VIII loved banquets. He was well-educated, played
several musical instruments, and wrote songs. He also
and Isabella, and spent 15 years as a enjoyed lively discussions on religion, art, and politics.
pleasure-seeking Renaissance-style ruler,
while Thomas Wolsey ran the government. he asked the pope’s permission to divorce
After wars against France and Scotland Catherine. He was refused. At this time,
Henry became more politically aware. In new religious ideas and demands for
1521, he wrote a treatise attacking Luther, Church reform were common, so
and the pope gave him the title Defender Henry broke with Rome and
Henry VIII (1491-1547)
brought about great of the Faith. He had only one living child, made himself head of the
changes in England. Mary, and Henry wanted a male heir, so Church in England.

DISSOLUTION OF THE MONASTERIES

Between 1536 and 1540, Henry closed 800 monasteries. He turned 10,000 monks and
nuns out and sold or gave away their lands. He did this to break the power of Rome
in England, and to raise money. He founded the Protestant Church of England, though
he was not enthusiastically Protestant-Protestantism really developed under Elizabeth I.

210
900 1100; 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1 1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000 j

THE FIRST ELIZABETHANS

When Mary died, her sister Elizabeth I
came to the throne. Elizabeth was hard¬
working, popular, and intelligent. She
refused to marry, and she made her own
decisions. The Catholic Mary, Queen of
Scots, Elizabeth’s cousin, was found guilty
of plotting against her, but Elizabeth resisted
pressure to have her executed for many
years. Elizabeth aided European Protestants Elizabeth I (1533-1603)
became queen of England
and sent out English pirates against Spanish
and Ireland in 1558. She
ships. She made a settlement between ruled for 45 years and, due
English Catholics and Protestants, and to her active involvement
in government, England
fought a war with Spain, defeating the
went through a period
Spanish Armada. England began to develop of stability, as well as
Henry VIII rebuilt the English navy, and his pride and joy
overseas ventures, and at home its industries cultural and economic
was the Mary Rose. In 1536, he went to Portsmouth to
and economy grew. This was Shakespeare’s expansion.
watch it sail. However, the ship's balance was affected
by the 700 sailors on deck, and it capsized and sank. time, when English culture and society
flowered, laying the foundations for a
Henry married six times, and during period of imperial English greatness.
his reign, strengthened English control
of Wales and Ireland, established a large MARY, QUEEN OF SCOTS 1542-1587
navy, and planned various colonial and Mary Stuart became queen of Scotland in 1542 when
commercial ventures. He was succeeded she was only a week old. Her father, James V, was the
nephew of Henry VIII, and this encouraged the Catholic
in 1547 by his only son, Edward VI
Mary to claim the English throne. She was educated
(1537-1553) who died at the age of in France and married the heir to the French throne
sixteen. During his reign, the Church in 1558. After his death in 1560, Mary returned to
Scotland where she proved unpopular. She abdicated
of England grew stronger. Edward was
and fled to England in 1568. As a focus for Catholic
followed by his half-sister, Mary I dissent against Elizabeth, Mary became involved
(1516-1558). Devoutly religious, she in plots and was imprisoned in Fotheringay Castle,
tried to restore England to Catholicism. where she was executed in 1587 on a charge of treason.

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211
 700
10,000

The PORTUGUESE EMPIRE 1520-1600

Portuguese seafarers and traders paved the way for
European colonialism around the world. At its height,
their trading empire spanned the whole globe.

T he Portuguese were the leading

seafaring explorers of Europe. They
had long been fishermen, accustomed
to the high seas. Henry the Navigator
began the training of sailors in the
mid-1400s, and sent ships down the
west coast of Africa. There were large
profits at stake in the trade of exotic
goods. Portuguese explorers reached
the East Indies (Indonesia) in the
early 1500s, following the Muslim trade
routes to the Moluccas (Spice Islands),
which were rich in the spices such as
cinnamon, cloves, and nutmeg, that
Europe wanted. To control this valuable
trade, the Portuguese conquered the
Moluccas and seized many of the best-
This ornamental African placed ports on the Indian Ocean. They ▲ The Portuguese were the first Europeans to trade
mask from Benin shows with West African countries. This brass plaque from
also visited China. Because Portuguese Benin shows Portuguese men symbolically holding up
the oba (king) wearing
traders needed to sail around Africa in the pillars supporting the palace of the oba of Benin.
a headdress carved
with representations of order to return to Lisbon, forts were set
▼ The Portuguese Empire at its greatest extent in about
Portuguese merchants. up at various places along the African 1600 was far-flung, but very profitable. Trading posts
coast to supply and protect the ships. and ports to service ships were positioned in strategic
locations along the major trade routes.

▲ In the 1500s, Benin

craftspeople carved
items such as this ivory
saltcellar, for export to
Europe. Around the
base are figures of
Portuguese noblemen.

212
900 1100! 12001 1300 1400 1500 1700 : 1750 1800 1850 1 1900 1950 2000

AlLHAE ODADEDE GOAMETROPOLTTANADA INDIAE PJ ORIENTAIS QVE ESTA EN i; GRADS DA BANDA DO NORTE.

I IMiTfio. C-A PATEIRO.

A Lagoa

5[train- ailaita -.'it Oriatit Ofa ?

bar Cm . tat aa/fa/Sa-n.-r trte
tthjafii cxfiar AtpctaJa. 1 ■DitopZ.haiikktamJr*.
Ww raami.pr fr tbfmt uctir

The port of Goa in India

THE START OF THE SLAVE TRADE KEY DATES was an important trading
From Africa, the Portuguese bought 1419 The Portuguese reach Madeira link in the Portuguese
gold and slaves to work on their sugar 1471 The Portuguese reach Asante and Benin Empire. It is shown here
1488 Dias rounds the Cape of Good Hope in a map made in 1595
plantations. The first ones were on the by a Portuguese-Dutch
1498 Vasco da Gama reaches India
African island of Sao Tome, but the sugar engraver, Johannes
1500 Cabral explores the coast of Brazil
was inferior and the market collapsed. Baptista van Doetechum
1505-20 Asian trading posts founded in Goa the Younger.
Problems grew. In the 1570s, a slave and Malacca
named Amador led a major revolt. Raids 1520 Magellan discovers the Moluccas
by pirates were a continuing threat. Sao (Spice Islands)
1530 First Portuguese colony established in Brazil
Tome became only a place where slaves
1534 First African slaves are brought to Brazil
were loaded onto ships bound for Brazil—
and so the transatlantic slave trade began.
At its height in the 1500s, the
Portuguese Empire did not possess large
areas of colonial land like the Spanish,
but they did hold well-placed, valuable Before the Portuguese
trading posts and plantations. These arrived in the Moluccas,
included Angola and Mozambique, the its rulers enjoyed high
profits from the lucrative
islands of Cape Verde, Madeira, and spice trade. Under
the Azores; the bases of Ormuz (Persia), Portuguese rule the local
Goa and Calicut (India), and Colombo rulers were bypassed.
Spices from the Moluccas
(Sri Lanka); and trading posts in the
included cloves, nutmeg,
Far East, such as Macao (China), the pepper, cinnamon,
Celebes, Java, and Malacca. and ginger.

213
 10,000 700

The reformation 1520-i6is

During the Reformation, a new kind of Christianity,
with many new groups and sects, developed. This led
to social divisions and eventually war across Europe.

B y the early 1500s, the new ideas of

the Renaissance led some people to
challenge the teachings of the Roman
Catholic Church. The way its leaders ran
the Church was strongly criticized. Priests,
monks, and nuns no longer led lives of
poverty, celibacy, and simplicity, and popes
and bishops were too interested in money
John Calvin (1509-1564) and power. People sought Church reform.
was born in France and This became known as “the Reformation.” The Reformation in the 1500s meant that Europe
was originally named was divided roughly north-south over religious beliefs—
Jean Chauvin. He was
It had started quietly over 100 years
Protestant to the north and Roman Catholic to the south.
a strict Protestant and before, but gained momentum in 1517 This division also happened within individual countries
believed that God had when Martin Luther, a German priest, such as France, and later led to civil war.
already ordained the
nailed a list of 95 statements (theses] to
future and that only
those chosen by God (the the church door at Wittenberg, criticizing THE EARLY PROTESTANTS
Elect) would be saved. the role of the Church. Luther hated the Luther had gained support in Germany
sale of “indulgences”—the forgiveness of and Switzerland, setting up his own
Europe suffered a series sins in exchange for money. He hoped that Lutheran church. Other groups, such as
of violent religious civil his list would lead to healthy debate, but Quakers, Anabaptists, Mennonites, and
wars. There were many
he was accused of heresy (going against Moravian Hussites did the same. After a
massacres, and people
accused of being heretics Church beliefs], and excommunicated conference in 1529, they were all called
were burned at the stake. from the Catholic Church in 1521. Protestants. Ulrich Zwingli led the
Reformation in Switzerland. His views
were more extreme, and this led to a civil
war in which Zwingli was killed. He was
followed by John Calvin, who gained
followers in France, Germany, and
Holland. He established the Reformation
in Switzerland and influenced John Knox,
who took the Reformation to Scotland.
Some groups pooled all their property
to form communities, taking
over whole towns.

A Martin Luther (1483-1546) believed that people are

saved by faith alone, not by buying indulgences. He wanted
faith to be based on the Bible, not on corrupt religious
traditions. He believed that church services should be in
the local language, not Latin. The cartoon on the right
shows the devil dictating Luther’s sermons to him.

214
900 1100 1200 1300 1 1400' 1500 1700 1750! 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000

The Council of Trent

met three times between
1545 and 1563. It began
a major reform within the
the Catholic Church and
sought to stop the spread
of Protestantism.

▲ The Catholic Church

used pictures for teaching,
and this 1470 woodcut
from Germany shows
a good Catholic on his
deathbed, being given
THE COUNTER-REFORMATION However, the religious dispute in Europe the last rites.
In 1522, Pope Adrian VI admitted grew into a political one when Philip II
there were many problems in the Roman of Spain tried to restore Catholicism in T Julius II, pope
Catholic Church, but following his death, England, France, and Holland by force. from 1503 to 1513, was
nothing more was done until 1534, when Other rulers took sides. Civil war erupted concerned with politics,
and was a great patron
Paul III became pope. This was the year in France, and Protestant Holland revolted of the arts. Popes after
Henry VIII of England broke away from against Spanish domination. Eventually, him were forced to reform
Rome. Paul began to reform the Church the Thirty Years’ War broke out in 1618. the Church from within.

in a movement known as the Counter-

Reformation. He began by encouraging
the preaching and missionary work
of an Italian order of friars called the
Capuchins. Six years later, he approved
the founding of the Society of Jesus, or
Jesuits, which had been started by Ignatius
Loyola, to spread Catholicism. He also
called together a group known as the
Council of Trent, in 1545, to decide on
further Church reforms. The council
enforced vows of poverty and set up
Church colleges (seminaries) to educate
monks, nuns, and priests. All this led
to a revival of Catholic faith and active
opposition to the Protestants.

KEY DATES
1517 Luther's 95 Theses, announced at Wittenberg,
Germany
1522 Luther's Bible is published in German
1523 Zwingli's Program of Reform established
in Switzerland
1530s Protestant social movements and revolts
in Germany
1534 England separates from the Roman Church
1540s Calvin establishes Protestant church in Geneva
1545 The first Council of Trent-the Counter-
Reformation begins
1562-98 The Huguenot Wars in France
1566 Calvinist church founded in the Netherlands
1580s Increase of tension between European rulers
1618 Outbreak of the Thirty Years’ War (until 1648)

215
 10,000 5000 30Q0 1500 500 I 300 100 8.C. I 0 A.D. 100 200 | 350 : 500 700

The ottoman empire 1453-1600

Following the taking of Constantinople in 1453, the
Ottoman Empire soon became a force to be reckoned
with in the Middle East and around the Mediterranean.

W hen Constantinople fell to

Mehmet II in 1453, the Ottoman
Empire began its golden age. The former
Byzantine capital was renamed Istanbul,
and became the center of an enormous
empire, which at its peak, stretched from
Algeria to Persia and Hungary to Arabia.
The empire was founded by Osman I
in 1301, and by 1389, it had extended
into Europe. The Mongols halted its
expansion for a while, but, after taking
Constantinople, Mehmet II quickly
conquered 12 kingdoms and 200
cities in Anatolia and the Balkans.
Then Selim I gained Syria, Arabia,
▲ The Ottoman spahi, and Egypt between 1512 and 1520.
or cavalry knights were
given land in return
for military service, and SULEYMAN THE MAGNIFICENT
became a local ruling Suleyman the Magnificent ruled for 46
class across the empire.
years from 1520. He conquered Belgrade
and Hungary, but failed in his siege of
Vienna, the capital of the Holy Roman
▼ By 1566, the Ottoman Women in the Ottoman Empire led a secluded life.
Empire stretched into Empire. He later took Mesopotamia,
Outside their home they had to wear a veil and could
three continents. Suleyman Armenia, and the Caucasus region. The only meet men from their own families.
had built up a strong navy Ottomans gained control of the eastern
and won control of the
Mediterranean. He also
Mediterranean and Black Sea (thereby To his own people, Suleyman was
dominated the Red Sea dominating Venetian and Genoan trade), known as Qanuni, the Lawgiver, because
and Persian Gulf. and also North Africa and the Ukraine. he reformed the Ottoman administration
and the legal system. He gave shape to
Vienna* the Ottoman Empire, enriching everything
Buda m Pest from architecture to courtly life. He
HUNGARY
Caspian was a poet, scholar, and patron of the
vt£> Mohacs ■'*' ' Sea
_
• Belgrade
Black
^
arts, and he rebuilt much of Istanbul.
ALBANIA • Istanbul rebizond Europeans called him Suleyman the
• Smyrna
Magnificent because of the splendor of his
Morea
court and his military victories in Europe.
Tunis* SYRIA
ALGERIA Mediterranean These included a series of campaigns in
Sea CYPRUS
\ \.Ba
Safavid which he captured Belgrade in Yugoslavia
in 1521, and threw the Crusader Knights
• Cairo % -o of St. John out of Rhodes in 1522. His
m.
EGYPT greatest victory was at Mohacs in Hungary
%
ARABIA
'O/f
in 1526; his siege of Vienna in 1529
threatened the heart of Europe; and he
took the Muslim holy city of Mecca in
1538. Meanwhile, the Turkish fleet, under
Ottoman Empire
©
the pirate Barbarossa (Khayr ad-Din
Pasha), attacked and ravaged the coasts
of Spain, Italy, and Greece.
216
900 1100! 1200 1300 i 14001 1500 I 16001 1700 1750 I 1800 1850 i 1900 I 1950 I 2000

Suleyman the Magnificent

(1494-1566), became
sultan in 1520 and turned
the Ottoman Empire into
a vast and rich Sunni
Muslim empire straddling
three continents.

MUSLIM WARS
Suleyman waged three campaigns in
the east against the Safavid Empire of
Persia. This was a war between Muslims—
between the Sunni Ottomans and the
Shiite Persians. Suleyman took Baghdad,
but the eastern border of the empire was
never secure. The wars between the two
empires lasted throughout the 1500s and
diverted Ottoman attention so that they
did not advance further into Europe.

THE START OF A SLOW DECLINE

When Suleyman died, his son Selim II A Suleyman's greatest victory T Suleyman's failure to capture Vienna, the
became sultan. Selim led a life of leisure, was at the battle of Mohacs in 1526 capital of the Holy Roman Empire in 1529
where he crushed the Hungarian prevented him from moving farther into
while his ministers and generals ran the army. His army overwhelmed an Germany and central Europe. Ottoman
empire. The Ottomans themselves were alliance of central European nations advances halted there. The use of cannons
not many in number. They relied on and killed the king of Bohemia. was a fairly recent development in warfare.

taking Russian and North African slaves,

and drafting one in five boys from their
European territories, to train them
as administrators and soldiers. Ordinary
people were left alone as long as they
were obedient and paid taxes, and no
one was forcibly converted to Islam. The
Ottomans relied on Greeks, Armenians,
Venetians, and other foreigners as traders,
making the Ottoman Empire international
in character. However, by 1600, the
empire had begun a long, slow decline.

KEY DATES

1453 The Ottomans take Constantinople

c.1460 Greece, Serbia, and Bosnia taken
1512-20 Selim I takes Syria, Arabia, and Egypt
1522 Suleyman takes Rhodes from the Knights
of St. John
1526 Battle of Mohacs: Hungary taken
1529 Siege of Vienna (failed)
1534 Suleyman takes Baghdad and Armenia
1538 Suleyman takes the holy city of Mecca
1540s onward The flowering of Ottoman culture
1566 Death of Suleyman, the Ottoman Empire
passes its peak

217
 10,000 5000 3000 1500; 500 300 100 B.C. I A.D. 100 200 350 500 700!

India: the moguls 1504-1605

The Islamic world was changing. India, a divided
subcontinent, was invaded by the Moguls. They
established a strong Empire in the north of India.

B abur, a descendant of Genghis Khan

and Tamerlane, led a tribe in Turkestan
called the Moguls—the name Mogul is a
variation of the word “Mongol.” Driven
out by the Uzbeks, they invaded Kabul
in Afghanistan in 1504. Then they set
their sights on India, a patchwork of often-
warring Hindu and Muslim states. After
an experimental attack in 1519, 12,000
Babur (1483-1530), born Moguls swept through the Khyber Pass
in Turkestan, was the first into India in 1526, invading the Delhi
Mogul emperor in India.
He died in Agra.
sultanate, the greatest power in India.

Expanding outward from Delhi, the Mogul Empire grew

to cover all of northern India and much of central India.
Although it was Muslim-ruled, it accommodated the
many faiths and cultures of India.

Babur and his followers were Muslims.

When they invaded India, the Ottoman
Empire supplied them with guns and
soldiers. Babur’s troops also rode swift
horses which easily outmaneuvered the
Indians’ slower elephants. This helped
them defeat a much larger Indian army
at a battle in which the sultan of Delhi
was killed. After this victory, Babur made
Delhi his capital. When Babur died in
1530, his son Humayun became ruler.

◄ Painted by a Persian, ▲ Babur had a full-scale

this picture shows Babur account of India written.
(left), his ancestor It details the nature,
Tamerlane, and Babur's people, and customs
son Humayun (right). of his empire.

218
900 "100 1200 1300? 1400 1500' 1600 1 1700 | 1750] 1800 1850| 1900 ! 1950| 2000

Humayun invaded western India, but AKBAR, THE THIRD MOGUL EMPEROR
in 1540, the Surs chased out the Moguls,
Akbar inherited the Mogul Empire at the age of 13,
forcing them back into Persia. Humayun and he ruled for nearly 50 years. He invaded Rajasthan,
returned in 1555, overcame the Surs, and Gujarat, Bengal, Kashmir, and the Deccan to rule most
moved back to Delhi. A year later, before of India. He taxed farming peasants less, encouraged
traders, and introduced a very efficient government
he was able to win back the whole empire,
and military service. This served later Mogul emperors
Humayun was killed in an accident. and their people well. Though Akbar could not read, he
welcomed scholars of all religions, artists, and foreign
travelers to his court. His greatest success was in
AKBAR EXPANDS THE EMPIRE
making peace with the Hindu majority of the Indian
Humayun’s succesor was Babur's population, ending many Hindu-Muslim conflicts.
grandson, Akbar. He became emperor at
the age of 13 and ruled until his death in
Akbar (1542-1605)
1605. Akbar was a great military leader believed in religious
and wise ruler. His army pushed west into toleration. His own
V. i 'kV,.
Gujarat and east into Bengal—the richest n vj YV ]|| 3R4 beliefs included ideas
b. k,/i Si« from different religions.
y,
province in northern India. It produced In 1575, he set up a
rice and silk, which provided Akbar with center for the study
of religion through
his main source of income. By 1576,
the exchange of ideas.
Akbar controlled all of northern India. Akbar found, however,
Although Akbar was a Muslim, many that the scholars were
not as broad-minded
of his subjects were Hindus, and to keep
as he had hoped-each
the peace, he married a Hindu princess. one argued without
He believed in religious tolerance, bringing really listening to
the Hindus into the government and anyone else's point
of view.
encouraging their overseas trade. He
set up a well-organized empire with
professional administrators. ◄ Although some local
rulers rebelled against
Akbar's rule, they were
MOGUL GREATNESS soon defeated. Here, the
During this period, India traded profitably rebel Bahadur Khan is
shown yielding to Akbar.
with Africa, the Ottomans, Europe, and
the Far East. By this time, the Portuguese
had trading posts and ports in India. The ▼ At Fatehpur Sikri, Akbar
country also had the world’s largest textile built a capital city with a
mixture of Muslim, Hindu, and
industry. Akbar welcomed Christian
other architectural styles as the
Jesuits and Persian artists to his court, and center for his new religion. He
he tried unsuccessfully to create a new was buried in this tomb.

religion for India. He built schools for

children as well as a new capital city at
Fatehpur Sikri. The city combined Muslim
and Hindu styles of architecture.

KEY DATES
1504 The Moguls seize Kabul
1526 Delhi becomes the Mogul capital in India
1556 Akbar the Great, the greatest Mogul
emperor, begins reign
1571 Fatehpur Sikri becomes the new capital
1605 Jahangir becomes Mogul emperor (Nur
Jahan rules 1611-22)
1628 Shah Jahan, Mogul emperor
1658 Aurangzeb, the last great Mogul emperor
1707 Beginning of the decline of the Moguls
1803 The fall of the last Mogul stronghold to
the English

219
 10,000 5000 3000; 1500: 500: 300 100 B.C. 0 A.D. 100 200 350 500 I 700

The conquistadores 1519-1550

The Spanish conquistadores were soldiers and
adventurers who invaded the Americas. In doing so,
they destroyed the great Aztec and Inca civilizations.

S oon after the navigators had found the

Americas, Spanish adventurers, known
as conquistadores (conquerors), followed
them. After conquering many Caribbean
islands, they explored the American
mainland, hoping to find treasure. In
1519, about 500 Spanish soldiers, led by
Hernan Cortes, reached the Aztec city
of Tenochtitlan, where, at first, they were
Hernan Cortes (1485-
welcomed. It is thought that the Aztec
1547) returned to Spain At first Montezuma welcomed Cortes to Tenochtitlan,
emperor, Montezuma II, believed that
where he died in poverty. showering him with gifts. This goodwill died when
Cortes was the god Quetzalcoatl, whose the Spanish seized power. Most of the Aztecs soon
return he had been awaiting. The Spanish died of diseases brought by the foreigners.
tricked and captured Montezuma, and
Cortes ruled in his place. When Cortes THE END OF THE INCA EMPIRE
left, the Aztecs rebelled and defeated the Another conquistador, Francisco Pizarro,
remaining Spanish. With the help of an landed in Peru in 1532, seeking to conquer
interpreter, Cortes then won the support the Incas. An Inca civil war was already in
of the neighboring tribes who had been progress between Huascar and Atahualpa,
conquered by the Aztecs. In 1521, he the sons of Huayna Capac. Atahualpa killed
returned to Tenochtitlan with a native Huascar with the help of the Spanish, but
Francisco Pizarro army and destroyed the city. Pizarro then had Atahualpa executed. The
(c. 1475—1541) marched
Incas soon surrendered, and by 1533 their
on the Incas in 1532. He
was murdered in Lima. vast empire was in Spanish hands.

THE CAPTURE OF ATAHUALPA

In 1532, Pizarro, with only 159 men against a large

Inca army, kidnapped the Inca leader, Atahualpa.
He was a god to the Incas, which, to them, made
Pizarro more powerful than the gods. The Incas soon yielded,
and Atahualpa was executed. Like the Aztecs, the Incas
were tricked into submission, and a whole civilization died.
900 11001 1200 1300 1400 1500 | 1600 1700 ! 1750 1800 1850 I 1900 1950 I 2000

The Spanish empire i 533-1600

Spain’s occupation of large areas of the Americas
brought harsh conditions and disease to the Native
Americans. By 1600, Spain had the largest empire.

A fter the fall of the Aztecs and

Incas, the king of Spain added
their territories to his empire. The
Aztec Empire became the Viceroyalty
of New Spain in 1533. Later in the
1500s, it also included parts
of California, Arizona, and
New Mexico. The land of the
Incas became the Viceroyalty
of Peru. Many people from
Spain emigrated to live in
this new Spanish Empire.
The colonies were ruled
by the Council of the Indies,
based in Spain. Many of the The Spanish forced the Native Americans to mine gold
laws made for the colonies and silver, which was then sent back to Spain. The harsh
conditions and new diseases brought by the Spanish
show that the Spanish decimated the population of Mexico, which fell from
government tried to 25 million in 1500 to just one million in 1600.
make sure that the Native
Americans were not badly treated. The Spanish Empire continued to expand
But it was impossible to prevent under the reign of Philip II (1556-1598).
The conquistadores were the colonial Spaniards from Most of the Philippine Islands were
followed by missionaries, treating them cruelly. Native Americans conquered in 1571. Then, in 1578, King
who tried to convert were forced to mine silver and work as Sebastian of Portugal was killed in
the Native Americans-
by force, if necessary.
slaves. Millions died because they had Morocco. Philip was his closest relative, so
They destroyed their no resistance to European diseases such he inherited the Portuguese Empire. By
temples and made the as measles and smallpox. The colonists 1600, the Spanish had the world’s largest
people build churches
were followed by Spanish missionaries, empire, but they were losing power.
in their place.
who destroyed temples and idols and Philip’s opposition to the Protestants in
set up churches in their place, trying Europe led to expensive wars that used
to convert the Native Americans. up the gold and silver from the Americas.

Spanish Netherlands Franche-Compte

Duchy of Milan
SPAIT|^ __ Kingdom of Naples
Kingdom
of Portugal Kingdom of Sicily Pacific
Tangier
Ocean
Kingdom of Sardinia
of New Atlantic
Ocean \*Philippines
Indian
Ocean

A The Spanish took new ► The Spanish Empire

foods, such as pineapples, was large and yielded
tomatoes, potatoes, cocoa, vast wealth, especially
Spanish Empire
peppers, and sunflowers from gold and silver
back to Europe. mined in Mexico and Peru.

221
 10,000 5000 3000 1500 500 300 100 B.C. 0 A.D. 100 200 350 500 700

The hapsburgs 1273-1556

The Hapsburg family came from Habichtsburg in
Switzerland. They dominated European politics for
more than 600 years, from the 1200s until 1914.

T he Hapsburg family took its name

from their castle in Switzerland—
Habichtsburg, or “Hawk’s Castle.’’ By
1200, the Hapsburg lands were in Austria.
After 1438, the Holy Roman emperor
was almost always a Hapsburg. In the
late 1400s, Maximilian I (1459-1519)
expanded Hapsburg influence by
advantageous marriages. His son, Philip of
Charles V (1500-1558) Burgundy (1478-1506), married Joanna
became king of Spain in the Mad, a daughter of Ferdinand and
1516 and Holy Roman
Isabella of Spain. Their son, Charles V, was
emperor in 1519. In
1553, he gave the imperial to be the most powerful Hapsburg of all.
crown to his brother, and When Philip died in 1506, Charles
two years later gave his
inherited Burgundy and the Netherlands.
kingdoms (Spain, the
Netherlands, the Americas) In 1516, Ferdinand of Spain left him Spain
Rudolf I (1218-1291) was elected king of Germany in
to his son Philip. and Naples, and in 1519 he inherited the
1273, and became the first Hapsburg Holy Roman emperor,
Holy Roman Empire from Maximilian. although never officially crowned. The title, Holy Roman
This led to rivalry with Francis I of France, emperor, remained in the Hapsburg family until 1806.
and their countries were at war for most
of Charles’s reign. A devout Catholic, Charles defeated the League in 1547, but
▼ After Charles V's
death, the Austrian
Charles did not like the spread of later had to agree to their demands. By
Hapsburgs ruled the Protestantism. He called two diets, or 1556, he had spent much of Spain’s wealth
Holy Roman Empire. The assemblies, to reconcile the differences fruitlessly, and was exhausted by war. He
Spanish Hapsburgs ruled
Spain, the Netherlands,
with the Lutherans, but both failed. In retired to a monastery, after dividing his
parts of Italy, and 1546, he took up arms against some of lands between his son Philip (who gained
Latin America. them—the League of Schmalkalden. Spain, the Netherlands, and the American
colonies) and his brother, Ferdinand (who
gained Austria and the Holy Roman crown).

The double-headed eagle

was the emblem of the Holy
Roman Empire. The power of
the emperors decreased in
the 1500s, as some of the
German states became
more powerful.

_KEY DATES_
1020 Habichtsburg, the family home, is built
1459-1519 Maximilian I expands Hapsburg influence
1506 Charles V inherits Burgundy and the Netherlands*'*
1516 Charles V inherits Spain and Naples
1519-56 Charles V, Holy Roman emperor
1546 War between the Hapsburgs and the
Protestants
1618-48 Thirty Years' War between the Catholics
and the Protestants

222
 1100 1200 1300! 1400; 1500 | 1600 1700 1750 ! 1800 ; 1850 ! 1900

The Spanish armada isss

The Armada was sent by Europe's most powerful
country to invade an increasingly ambitious England.
Its failure led to 300 years of English rule on the seas.

P hilip II ruled Spain and its empire

from 1556 to 1598. His strong
Catholic beliefs provoked revolts in
Holland and Spain, led to war with the
Ottomans and England, and sucked Spain
into the French Wars of Religion. His
absolute rule and military activities left
Spain economically ruined, despite the
gold and silver Spain received from the It was important for Elizabeth I to defeat the Armada.
Americas. Spain did not like England. She did not like her brother-in-law Philip II, and she
Francis Drake (1543- had ambitions for England, helped by England's victory.
1596) was a pirate and Elizabeth I had turned down Philip II’s
adventurer. After raiding marriage proposal. British pirates often another Spanish fleet that did not arrive.
gold from Spanish galleons
raided Spanish colonies and fleets. During the night, the English caused
in the Caribbean, he was
made first a captain and Worst of all, England was Protestant. havoc by sending in fireships, and then
later an admiral, and In 1588, Philip sent the Armada from pounding the escaping ships with gunfire.
helped defeat the Spanish Lisbon to attack England. Its 130 galleons A strong wind blew the remaining ships
Armada. In 1580, he was
the first Englishman to sail
carried 8,000 sailors and 19,000 soldiers. into the North Sea. The Armada sailed
around the world-on his Delayed by storms, the Armada was around Scotland, and only half of the
ship, the Golden Hind. sighted and harassed by the English as ships finally returned to Spain. This was
far as Calais, where it was due to meet an enormous setback for the Spanish.

A Philip II (1527-1598)
ruled Spain from 1556 until
his death. He believed that
he had a mission to win
worldwide power for Spain
and the Roman Catholic
Church. He married Mary
Tudor (Mary I) of England.

► Philip II sent his Armada

against England in August
1588. The Spanish had
larger ships, but the English
ships were faster and more
maneuverable. The defeat
of the Armada meant the
end of Spain as a great
naval power.

223
 10,000 5000 3000 1500 500 300 100 B.C. i A.D. 100 200 350 500 700

French wars of religion 1562-1600

The spread of the Protestant faith led to problems in
some parts of Europe—nowhere more so than in France,
which suffered from 36 years of bloody civil wars.

M any French people had become

Protestant Calvinists. The majority
remained Catholic, but Protestants (called
Huguenots) were influential, since many
were prosperous traders and craftspeople.
At first they were tolerated, but the
nobility (especially the Catholic Guise
family) and foreign powers, who were
competing for influence, complicated
In 1598, Henry IV of France signed the Edict of Nantes,
Catherine de Medicis matters. In 1560, the new king, Charles granting the Huguenots freedom of worship and a place
(1519-1589) was the IX, was only ten. The country was ruled in French society. This ended the French Wars of Religion.
daughter of Lorenzo de'
Medici and wife of Henry
by his mother, Catherine de Medicis, who
II of France. She ruled supported the Catholics. In 1562, the Moderate people were horrified at this
France as regent for her Guises massacred many Huguenots. For bloody massacre, and conflict now grew
young son Charles IX.
the next 36 years, a series of civil wars between extremists and moderates as well
took place. In 1572, Catherine plotted as between Catholics and Huguenots. In
a massacre of leading Huguenots and, 1574, Henry III (1551-1589), another of
on St. Bartholomew’s Day, after 3,000 Catherine de Medicis’ sons, became king.
Huguenots were killed in Paris, thousands He was also influenced by his mother, and
more were killed throughout France. civil war continued. In 1576, Henry made
◄ Henry of Navarre, a Protestant, married into the royal
a settlement between all sides. This was
Valois family, but he was imprisoned by the Catholics. He known as the Edict of Beaulieu, but it
eventually became Henry IV and ruled from 1589 to 1610. failed to stop the turmoil.

i -
4. .■ ,
J 1 : --mm-i

In 1572, Henry of Guise

persuaded Catherine de
Medicis to allow the
murder of a Huguenot
admiral. In the events
that followed, many
thousands more
were killed.

224
 ■■
900 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 | 1700 | 1750 | 1800 j 1850 j 1900 | 1950 | 2000

THE WAR OF THE THREE HENRYS

In the same year as the Edict of Beaulieu,
an extremist Catholic group, led by Henry
of Guise, was formed to oppose the
settlement, and the religious difficulties
increased. The Catholics, allied with Spain
and other Catholic countries, tried to
block the Huguenot Henry of Navarre
from inheriting the throne. This led to the
War of the Three Henrys, involving King
Henry III, the Huguenot Henry of
Navarre, and the Catholic Henry of Guise.
Henry III lost control, and war broke out.
Henry of Guise tried to take the throne
and, in 1585, he banned the Protestant
religion. In 1589, Henry III had Henry of
Guise murdered. However, Henry III was
then assassinated by a fanatical monk.
Henry of Navarre became King
Henry IV of France, and to calm things,
he decided to convert to Catholicism in
1593. The Huguenot Wars finally ended
in 1598 with the Edict of Nantes, which
allowed religious freedom and equality
to all. There was to be more trouble in
the 1600s, however, and by the 1680s,
many Huguenots had left France for
their own safety.

v V - ■ '■

wEm
▲ In France and the rest
of Europe, it was common KEY DATES
for Protestants to be
1533 Catherine de Medicis marries Henry II
accused of heresy. The
punishment for this crime of France
was usually to be burned 1559 Henry II dies and is succeeded by his son
alive at the stake. The Francis II who dies after a year; Catherine de
soul of the heretic was Medicis is regent
supposed to burn and 1560 Charles IX becomes king, at the age of 10;
be sent down to hell. Catherine again acts as regent
1562 The Massacre of Vassy marks the beginning
of the Huguenot Wars
1570 Peace and limited rights are agreed for the
◄ Many Huguenots
Huguenots
were skilled traders,
1572 The Massacre of St. Bartholomew's Day
craftspeople, and educated
1574 The moderate Henry III becomes king
townspeople. It was
1576 Edict of Beaulieu-a pact that imposes
important for France to
keep them, since they ran tolerance of the Huguenots
many industries and 1585-89 War of the Three Henrys
professions. After 1685, 1589 Henry of Navarre becomes king of France
many of them left France 1593 Henry of Navarre (Henry IV) converts
for other countries or the to Catholicism
colonies, taking their skills 1598 The Edict of Nantes grants religious freedom
and wealth with them. and equality to all

225
 10,000 5000i 3000 j 1500! 500 300 j 100 B.C. 0: A.D. 100 200 j 3501 500 j 7001

Russia 1462-1613
During this period, Russia grew from a collection of St. Basil's Cathedral
in Moscow was built
small principalities into a great country. Its isolation between 1555 and 1560
ended, allowing it to play a major role in history. to celebrate Ivan IV's

A fter the decline of Kiev around 1060,

Russia survived as an assortment of
victories in Kazan and
Astrakhan in the east.
It became a major center
of the Orthodox faith.
separate small principalities such as
Novgorod, Smolensk, Kiev, and Vladimir.
This suddenly changed when the Mongols,
under Batu Khan, invaded in 1238. They
burned Moscow and damaged Kiev. The
Khanate of the Golden Horde (or Tartars)
dominated Russia by demanding tribute
in money and soldiers, and the Russians
Ivan III (1440-1505) was
the first ruler of all Russia. cooperated to avoid trouble. (In the
He made Moscow his 1300s, Kiev was absorbed into
capital. By the time he
Lithuania for a time.)
died from alcoholism,
he had set Russia on
In 1263, Moscow had a new
a new course. ruler, Prince Daniel, who gradually
expanded its territories. Slowly,
Moscow began to dominate the
other Russian states. In 1380, the
Muscovites defeated the Golden
Horde, although the Tartars carried
on raiding Moscow and demanding
tribute until 1480, when Ivan III By 1480, Ivan III had brought Novgorod
finally defeated them. Ivan III, or Ivan and other cities under his control. He
the Great, came to the throne of Moscow rebuilt Moscow’s famous Kremlin
in 1462. He expanded Moscow and gave [citadel]. When he died in 1505, he was
it a sense of pride, introduced a legal succeeded by his son Vasili, who ruled
▲ Ivan III adopted the code, and declared himself “ruler of all until 1533. Vasili was succeeded in turn
Byzantine symbol of the
Russia.” In 1472, he married Sophia, the by Ivan IV, his three-year-old son.
double-headed eagle as
his own emblem-both niece of the last Byzantine emperor, and
T The boyars of Russia had been independent until Ivan
Byzantium and Russia appointed himself as the protector of
the Terrible brought them under his control. They then
looked east and west.
the Eastern Orthodox Church, calling joined the growing trade with the West in fur, timber,
Moscow “the third Rome.” and other raw materials.

226
900 1100 1200! 1300 1400! 1500 1600 1700 1750 I 1800 i 1850. 1900! 1950 2000 I

▲ The Kremlin was the

IVAN THE TERRIBLE center of Moscow. It was
Ivan IV, or “Ivan the Terrible,” was the actually a fort and many
palaces, churches, and
Grand Prince of Moscow from 1533 to
cathedrals were rebuilt
1584. He was crowned as the first czar within the protection
(emperor) in 1547. His harsh upbringing of its walls by Ivan III.
It became the symbol
left him with a violent and unpredictable
of the centralized
character, but his nickname meant “awe¬ power of the czars.
inspiring” rather than “terrible.” He
improved the legal system as well as
reforming trading links with England and ◄ Ivan the Terrible visited
other European countries—Russia had the seat of the patriarch
of the Russian Orthodox
until then been isolated. He captured
Church at Zagorsk, in order
Kazan and Astrakhan from the Tartars, to have himself anointed
pushing on toward Siberia. Ivan reduced and confirmed as the head
the power of the boyars (the nobility) of the Orthodox Church.

by instituting a kind of secret police, to

bring the country under stronger control.
He set many patterns for the future, and
established strong central control by
the czars. In 1581, in a fit of anger, he
killed his son and heir Ivan, and so was
succeeded by his second son, Fyodor,
who was mentally unstable.

THE ROMANOV CZARS

After Ivan IV died in 1584, Boris KEY DATES
Godunov ruled as regent until Fyodor 1238 Invasion of Russia by the Mongols
Ivan IV (1530-1584) was
died in 1598. Boris made himself czar, 1263 Moscow begins to grow larger
a strong ruler who truly
1462-1505 Ivan III, the Great, strengthens Moscow set the course of Russia's
despite opposition from the boyars. He
1472 Ivan III appoints himself protector of the expansion. Known as the
promoted foreign trade and defeated the
Eastern Orthodox Church Ivan the Terrible, he had
Swedes, who sought to invade Russia. 1480 End of Tartar dominance of Russia a formidable personality.
When he died in 1605, Russia entered 1505-33 Vasili is ruler
eight years of civil war, as rival forces 1533-84 Ivan IV, the Terrible, expands Russia
1584-98 Fyodor is czar and Boris Godunov regent
fought for the throne. Eventually, Ivan
1598-1605 Boris Godunov rules as czar
IV’s great-nephew Mikhail Romanov
1605-13 Civil war between rival boyars
(1596-1645) gained the throne in 1613. 1613 Mikhail Romanov, first of the Romanovs,
He was czar for thirty years, founding the becomes czar
Romanov dynasty, which ruled until 1917.
227
 500 300 100 B.C. 0 A.D. 100 200 3501 500 700
10,000 5000 3000 1500

Dutch independence 1477-1648

The Netherlands was a fast-developing Protestant area
Groningen
with a promising future, but ruled by Catholic Spain.
The Dutch wanted to control their own affairs. Friesland

A fter the collapse of Charlemagne’s

empire in the 800s, the Netherlands,
Overijssel

made up of 17 provinces in what is now • Amsterdam

Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Utrecht
The Hague
Netherlands, were very fragmented since Gelderland
they belonged to various ruling families. REPUBLIC OF
Zeeland UNITED
In the 1300s and 1400s, the dukes of NETHERLANDS
Burgundy, Philip the Bold and John the
Fearless, acquired Flanders (Belgium) and
the Netherlands. These lands stayed under Antwerp
William of Orange (1533— SPANISH HOLY
Burgundy’s control until Charles V, ROMAN
1584)-"the Si lent"— NETHERLANDS
became Spanish governor inheritor of Burgundian lands and a EMPIRE
of part of the Netherlands member of the Hapsburg dynasty, made
in 1559. He disagreed them a Spanish possession in 1516. This
with Philip M’s treatment
of the Protestants and
did not suit the people of the Netherlands, The United Provinces grew richer as the marshy land
since most of them were Protestant. The was drained and developed. As a Protestant country with
turned against Spain. He
growing trade and industry, independence from Spain,
led the Dutch Revolt from fight for independence started when an old-fashioned imperial power, became necessary.
1567 to 1572, and in
Charles’s son Philip II became king of
1573 became a Calvinist.
Philip offered a reward for Spain in 1556. He resisted the Protestant
his death. In 1584, having tide and tried to take complete control. movement, and this resulted in the Dutch
escaped one assassination
He sent the Duke of Alba as governor to Revolts—led by William of Orange. The
attempt, he was killed by
a fanatical Catholic, the Netherlands with orders to use terror, more ruthless the Duke of Alba became,
Balthasar Gerards. if necessary, to crush any opposition. the more the opposition grew. There were
The Duke of Alba public executions, towns were pillaged,
executed two leaders and whole populations were massacred.
of the independence The Dutch used many guerrilla tactics,
such as the flooding of the lowlands, to
halt the Spanish advance. In 1576, Spanish
troops sacked Antwerp, one of Europe’s
richest ports, and ended its prosperity.

A A cartoon of the time shows the aristocratic Duke

of Alba trying to stamp out heresy in the Netherlands
by trampling on the bodies of executed Protestants.

► During the siege of Louvain in 1571, the heroic Dutch

successfully used every possible means to overcome the
superior armed might of the Spanish.

228
 ▲ Battle is joined on
STRUGGLE AND INDEPENDENCE KEY DATES the Zuider Zee, east of
Many merchants and bankers moved to 1477 The Netherlands become a Hapsburg possession Amsterdam, between the
naval might of Spain and
Amsterdam, rebuilding it into a fine city 1516 The Spanish take control of the Netherlands
the small boats of the
defended by canals and a growing navy. 1568 The Dutch Revolt begins
Dutch in 1573. As with
1576 The sack of Antwerp-a turning point
They developed modern trade, banking, the Armada, the smaller
1581 The Northern Provinces declare independence boats outmaneuvered
and industry, becoming one of Europe’s
1609 Truce—the Dutch effectively win the war the Spanish vessels and
main Protestant centers. Spain brought 1648 Dutch independence fully recognized sank many of them.
the Catholic southern provinces (Belgium)
back under its control, but in 1581, seven
Protestant northern provinces declared
themselves independent. Fortunately for
them, Spain was busy fighting France,
England, and the Ottomans, and so
was unable to stop the Dutch.
This struggle for independence was a
religious war and a fight between modern
Dutch town-dwelling burghers and the
traditional Spanish royal hierarchy. Led by
William of Orange, the Dutch declared
the Republic of the United Netherlands.
A truce followed in 1609, but it was not
until 1648 that Spain officially recognized
Dutch independence.
► The plundering of the rich city of Antwerp by the
Spanish in 1576 was the last straw for the Dutch. From
then on, they were determined to get rid of the Spanish.

229
 10,000 50001 3000' 1500| 500| 3001 100 B.C. o A.D. 100 200 350 500 700

North America 1460-1600

North America was a land of many different peoples,
each with their own traditions, way of life, and culture.
The arrival of the Europeans was disastrous for them.

W hen the Europeans first arrived in

America in the 1500s, there were
millions of Native Americans, in hundreds
of tribes and many nations. They did not
believe that they owned the land but
thought that it was held in common for Some Native Americans
the entire tribe. Each tribe had its own built totems to the spirits
customs, language, and way of life, of nature, often with
an eagle at the top to
according to where it lived. For example, represent the farseeing
The tribes of the Iroquois
on the Plains where wild animals such powers of Great Spirit.
wore masks during as buffalo were plentiful, the Cheyenne
important tribal and Pawnee lived a nomadic lifestyle, In the Southwest, people living in
ceremonies. The masks
hunting and trapping. Hunters on the villages, called pueblos, grew crops of corn,
represented the spirits of
mythological creatures. Plains sometimes camouflaged themselves squash, and beans by building dams to
in animal skins when they went in search irrigate the dry land. They had roads,
of prey. The animals they caught provided complex societies with strong religious
them with meat, and also with skins for traditions, and they traded with the
clothing and shelters. Tribes who lived Aztecs and other native peoples.
on the coast or by lakes made wooden Along the Mississippi River, an advanced
canoes and fished for their food. Other city civilization had thrived, although it
tribes were village-dwelling farmers, was in decline from 1450 onward. The
who grew crops, herded animals, Mississippians supplied Native American
and hunted and fished. tribes with tools, cloth, valuables, and
goods brought from far away.
People on the east coast lived by farming
▲ The French explorer
corn, beans, and tobacco in plots around
Jacques Cartier (1491-
1557) sailed up the St. their villages, and they engaged in local
Lawrence River in what is trade and barter. In the Northeast, Native
now Canada, and claimed
American fields and clearings reminded
the area for France. One
of his men drew this European settlers of home—with the
map of the Huron town result that the region gained the name
of Hochelaga-now the
“New England.” Many tribes were part
city of Montreal.
of confederations or nations related by
blood, tradition, or political agreements.
Sometimes disagreements between
tribes led to war.

► The Miami tribe of Ohio

made clothing from hides
and furs. Skins were
cleaned and stretched,
then cut and sewn into
garments and moccasins.
Women did most of the
domestic work and crop¬
growing, but they also
The people of the northeastern woodlands made
held power in tribal
decorated moccasins and ceremonial pipes which
decision-making.
were used to celebrate special occasions.

230
900 1100 12001 1300 1 14001 1500 1 1600 | 1700 ! 1750 | 1800 | 1850 j 1900: 1950 2000

The American tribes

were very diverse. The
map shows where the
main tribes of Native
Americans lived in 1500,
before Europeans arrived
and started driving them
off their lands. At this
time there were about
six million Native North
Americans. These numbers
fell drastically as the
colonists spread west
across the continent.

▼ The Chippewa lived

in wigwams made of bent
branches and covered with
an outer layer of skins or
birchbark to fend off
the winter cold.

THE ARRIVAL OF THE EUROPEANS

Like the Aztecs and the Incas, none of
the Native American tribes had horses
or wheeled transportation before the
Europeans arrived. Their knowledge of
metal was limited, and most of their tools
were made from wood or stone. Their
weapons were bows and arrows, slingshots,
and spears. At first, some tribes were
friendly to the Europeans, and even
helped them survive. But things changed
disastrously for the native peoples when
more aggressive European settlers arrived.
Whole villages of Native Americans
died from European
diseases such as
smallpox and the
measles. Others were
killed in disputes, and
the rest were driven
off their lands.

► The nomadic Plains

Indians lived in tepees. In
the evenings, stories were
told, both to entertain and
to pass on the history,
customs, laws, and ways
of the tribe. They also held
tribal councils to settle
disputes and decide the
tribe's future.
 :
3000 1500 | 300 100 B.C. A.D. 100 200 350 500 700
10,000 5000 I

Japan and china 1467-1644

After first welcoming the Europeans, the Japanese
began to see dangers in foreign influence. Meanwhile,
in China, the Ming dynasty was losing control.

I n 1467, civil war broke out among the

great feudal lords of Japan. The emperor
had lost most of his power, and
even the shogun had very little
influence over the running of the
country. For more than 100 years,
private armies of samurai fought
each other in the struggle to dominate
Japan. During these civil wars, Europeans
Hideyoshi (1536-1598) broke the traditional power of
began to visit the country. The first to the feudal lords and the Buddhist temples, but his plans
arrive were Portuguese sailors, in 1542. to build a Japanese Empire failed.
Seven years later, a Spanish Jesuit
missionary, Francis Xavier, began trying STRUGGLE AND CIVIL WAR
to convert the Japanese to Christianity. Nobunaga was wounded and later
Other traders and missionaries followed committed suicide, but his work was
and were welcomed at first. continued by Hideyoshi, who became
As well as introducing a new religion Kampaku, or chief imperial minister, in
to Japan, the Europeans also brought 1585. He planned a great Japanese Empire
firearms with them. Some samurai looked that would include China. Hideyoshi
down on these, believing they were the invaded Korea in 1592 and 1597, but
Jesuit missionaries entered weapons of cowards, but others quickly saw failed to conquer it. He died in Korea.
China in the 1500s with the their advantages in battle. One samurai, Hideyoshi had appointed Tokugawa Ieyasu
emperor's permission. They
Oda Nobunaga (1534-1582), equipped his (1543-1616) as his son’s guardian, but a
converted tens of thousands
to Christianity. men with muskets (guns) and with their power struggle broke out. Ieyasu defeated
help, captured Kyoto, the capital, in 1568. his rivals at the battle of Sekigahara in
1600. He became the first shogun of the
BATTLE OF NAGASHINO Tokugawa dynasty in 1603. Hideyoshi and
At the battle of Nagashino in 1575, Oda Nobunaga armed his 3,000 men with Ieyasu took strong central control of Japan
muskets bought from the Portuguese. They defeated a much larger force of mounted and its trading, banning foreigners,
samurai, who were armed with the traditional weapons of swords and bows and
Christianity, and overseas travel.
arrows. This was a turning point in Japan-the beginning of modern times in which
European influences played a part. The Japanese tried to control these influences,
banning Christians and foreign traders. But the Europeans sided with certain
lords in southern Japan, and European goods and ideas crept in.

232
900 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500; 1600 [ 1700 ! 1750 1800 18501 1900! 1950 2000

MING CHINA ◄ To protect themselves

By 1500, the Ming dynasty was from Japanese pirates, the
Chinese developed floating
weakening. The emperor stopped Chinese
mines (water bombs).
ships from sailing beyond coastal waters, This idea eventually
but allowed foreign ships to visit China. reached the West.
Japanese pirates were also attacking the
coast, making these waters dangerous for
sailors. In 1517, European traders arrived,
and in 1557, the Portuguese were
permitted to settle in Macao. Some
Jesuit priests were allowed into Beijing. ► The Japanese Tea Ceremony is called cha-no-yu.
Defeating Mongol invasions and the It was brought to Japan by Buddhist monks from
China, but the ceremony spread beyond the
Japanese invasion of Korea destabilized
monasteries in the 1400s. The great teamaster
China. Famines, rising taxes, and official Sen Rikyu laid down the rules for the
corruption led to unrest. In 1641, rebels ceremony in the 1500s.

took over parts of China, and in 1644,

the Manchus from the north were called
in to help drive out the rebels in Beijing.
The Manchus, taking advantage of this
chaos, took over and set up their own
Qing dynasty of emperors.

KEY DATES
1517 Portuguese traders first arrive in China
1542 Mongol invasion of China
1549 First Jesuit mission to Japan
1568 Nobunaga takes Kyoto and central Japan
1582 Corruption breaks out in the Ming
government
1590 Hideyoshi gains control of northern and Hideyoshi built many

eastern Japan castles in Japan. He

built this particular
1592-98 Japanese invasions of Korea
castle, Himeji, in 1577
1641 Rebels take over parts of China
to act as his headquarters
1644 Manchus take over Beijing: the Ming
during the civil wars
dynasty falls between rival samurai.

233
The arts 1461-1600 In Europe, organs
and harpsichords were
In Europe, the Renaissance heavily influenced painting, popular instruments.
sculpture, and architecture. Art also flourished An organ was played
by one person, while
in the Ottoman, Safavid, and Mogul empires. another operated the

T hough they had their roots firmly in

tradition, the arts were now evolving
bellows supplying the
air needed to play it.

with an exciting new imagination and

increasing vigor. In Europe especially,
Renaissance thinking strongly influenced
all the arts—painting, sculpture, theater,
music, and architecture, as well as
education and religion, all flourished.
Artists such as Titian, Holbein,
Raphael, Diirer, Leonardo da
Vinci, Brueghel, Botticelli, and
Michelangelo were all at work,
developing new, more realistic
representations. In Britain, there
was a flowering in literature and drama—
especially as a result of the works of
Though the Incas did not the playwright William Shakespeare.
have potter’s wheels, they The arts were becoming more public
made detailed and beautiful
pottery from coils of clay
and popular, and not simply the domain
fashioned into elegantly of king and Church. The new middle
decorated shapes. classes—traders and professionals—paid
for most of it, and it became fashionable
to be a patron of the arts.

◄ In Persia, new styles

developed showing natural
motifs, such as these
flowers on a tile on a wall
in the Masjid-i Jomeh
Mosque in Yazd, Persia.

► This is a detail from

the entrance to the
Lotfollah Mosque in the
Safavid capital of
Isfahan, Persia. It is an
intricate style of
artwork which was also
used in Mogul India.
 In the Americas, the Aztecs and the
Incas created new styles of ornaments
in gold and silver, although they did not
know how to make metal tools. They also
developed new forms of architecture in
the building of their cities. In Eurasia,
the Ottoman Turks brought Islamic and
European styles closer together, drawing
on creative people from Spain, Italy, and
Egypt to develop a new architecture and
literature. Russia, a new country, combined
Byzantine, European, and Tartar styles
in its churches and buildings.
The arts were also flourishing in Safavid
Persia and Mogul India, combining and
developing Persian, Muslim, and Hindu
styles. However, in China and Japan there
was less innovation because of the growing
isolationism of their leaders. In Africa,
earlier civilizations were starting to lose
their momentum as they came face
to face with European colonists.

▲ Realism was important

to Renaissance Europeans.
Michelangelo's statue of
Moses, carved around
1513, clearly showed
the muscles and veins
in arms and legs.

Iznik pottery from the

The work of the 16th-century Italian artist Tintoretto Ottoman Empire was
demonstrates the new realistic style of the Renaissance. made according to Persian
However, the theme of the painting, St. George slaying The Globe Theater, where Shakespeare's political and styles, but also depicted
social plays were performed, was built in London in 1599. European themes.
the Dragon, is traditionally religious.
Architecture 1461-1600
Building design was developing worldwide, and the
most exciting advances were in Renaissance Europe,
where new architectural styles were emerging.

D uring the Renaissance period the

Europeans started overtaking the
previously more advanced cultures of
China, India, and the Muslim world.
This was true not only in architecture,
but also in the arts, and science and
technology. In Europe, the nobility and
the rich started building themselves
comfortable palaces and stately homes,
instead of the fortified castles of the
Middle Ages. Townhouse design
was also developing. The improved
technology of glass-making meant
windows could be larger. In England,
some large buildings such as Hampton
Hampton Court Palace is a classic English Tudor building.
Court were built with handmade
It was built by Cardinal Wolsey and given to Henry VIII.
bricks, while others were still made The fortified appearance represented past medieval
largely of wood. This was a fire hazard styles rather than a need for defense.
in towns, where narrow streets allowed
flames to spread quickly from building Across the world, many new buildings
to building. Waste and sewage disposal were larger and grander. Italian cathedrals,
English and Dutch
townhouses in the 1500s
was not yet developed. Japanese castles, Mogul buildings in India,
were being built up to five Inside the houses, furniture was made Ottoman architecture in Istanbul, and
stories high. Windows from wood and was often ornately carved. Persian buildings in Isfahan reached new
had many small panes of
Walls were paneled with wood, and heights of elegance. New capital cities
glass, and woodwork was
often elaborately carved. ceilings were decorated with plaster. were planned, and thousands of builders
In Amsterdam, many of Formal gardens were first laid out at and craftspeople were employed to build
these houses still survive.
this time. Especially popular were herb them. However, at the same time, the
gardens, which provided flavorings vast majority of people still lived in
for food and cures for ailments. the simplest of dwellings.

Catholic churches of the

Renaissance period, such
as this one in Pavia, Italy,
were very ornate and
Mortise Dovetail complex. This elaborate
and tenon style was also used in
the building of Catholic
▲ The strength of a churches in Latin America.
timber-framed building Protestant churches
was in the joints between were much plainer ¥
the timbers. If these were and simpler in style.
made correctly, the
building would hold
together even if it was
pushed over. The most
used joints were mortise
and tenon, and dovetail.

236
► The dome of the cathedral ► The Golden Temple was built
in Florence was designed by in Amritsar, India, to serve as
Brunelleschi in the 1430s. the spiritual center for the
The tower was so large that no new Sikh religion. Sikhism
one knew how to build a dome had developed in the
to cover it. Brunelleschi solved Punjab during the
the problem by studying Mogul period
ancient Roman architecture, of religious
and erected a crane on tolerance.
the top to complete
its construction.

THE PRECISION OF THE INCAS

One of the most interesting architectural
developments took place in South
America before the Spanish invasion.
Many of the Inca people lived in
mountainous areas, where building was
very difficult. The temples, palaces, and
houses of the Inca city of Machu Picchu,
high in the Andes, were built with stone
blocks, which fit together ingeniously
without the use of mortar. This took
tremendous patience and skill, especially
since the Incas only used tools made
of stone. The ruined city is still
one of the architectural
marvels of the world.

▼ The Incas built on simple

lines, usually based on squares
and rectangles. They had no
rounded arches or carvings
to decorate their buildings,
and the stones were joined
together without mortar. Inca
cities were carefully planned.

▲ Inca stonework was

shaped very precisely
with stone hammers. This
was followed by polishing
and sanding down to
make the fit between the
stones exact. This helped
make buildings both
earthquake-proof
and very durable.

237
 _ _ UJM WL JLJl.

Science and technology 1461-1600

In contrast to the rest of the world, a new spirit of By 1500, windmills had become more
advanced, and were used for grinding
inquiry was awakening in Europe. This gave birth to grain and pumping water. The Dutch
a growing revolution in science and technology. used them to drain and reclaim the

I n much of the world, research

and development of new ideas and
wetlands of the Netherlands.

technologies was slowing down. Ming

China was in decline and becoming
isolated, and India, Persia, and the Ottoman
Empire were not as inventive as they had
been previously. However, when European
travelers arrived on their shores, Asians
were interested in the new
An astrolabe ideas and inventions—guns,
astronomical knowledge,
clocks, new tools, and shipbuilding
methods—that they brought with
them. The Koreans invented ironclad ships,
based on the ideas brought in by a Dutch
Nfe, visitor. Meanwhile, Native American
A backstaff
cultures, before the European settlers
arrived and destroyed them,
tended to adapt and improve the
technologies of their forefathers.
Both the Aztecs and the Incas fully
exploited these improvements when
building their great cities.

A magnetic compass

▲ Long sea journeys

r
required improved rCCMr»K«>V

navigational aids for

calculating position and
direction. The astrolabe
was Arabic and, with the
backstaff, was used to
p figure out a ship's latitude.
The compass, first used
. J,. ... .... ^

pi';
it by the Chinese in the
1100s, was used to
keep a ship on course.

► The Italian Leonardo da

Vinci was both an artist
and an inventive genius. ■WoV. j 1-»*]«*• JL* C
Among his many designs U- j E " # f. m •»., -tr*. fj*., ,

are these sketches for \aoh„ v^ j’

making flying machines.
Although in practice they
V
5„ r A
«« iK*''*»' *• V.^r/-t <r
f, »
S'

did not work, and it was j*** Ikr j»| kT. w ' V ‘A AV La.
not until 1902 that
TbT by»**■ f.A,tZ<?,r^
humans could fly, his
work pointed the way 1 *^p
d J
T.
St
nr
/'■ *
to the future. 11 - 4
i c
A REVOLUTION IN EUROPE
The revival of learning in Europe during
the 1400s and 1500s led people to start
observing the world around them. They
explored and experimented to find out
how things really were, rather than just
accepting what they were told by
the Church. Sometimes this led
to clashes with the Church,
as was the case with Galileo
in 1615, after he had invented
thermometers, telescopes, and
developed ideas about gravity,
mathematics, and astronomy. Many
outstanding ideas and inventions
were produced at this time. The first
successful watch was invented in
1504, and the microscope in 1590.
People studied the structure of the Tycho Brahe (1546-1601)
human body, and in 1543, Andreas carefully mapped and
studied the heavenly
Vesalius published some of the first
bodies. The king of
accurate descriptions of human anatomy. Denmark had an
observatory built for
him on the island of
Traditional medieval ideas about
Hveen, complete with
alchemy, astrology, geometry, and instruments, library,
herbal medicine also thrived, led laboratory, and living
quarters. The telescope
by such thinkers as Paracelsus,
had not yet been invented,
Kepler, and Nostradamus. Scientific but Brahe established
and exploring societies were founded. the positions of 777
Some inventors such as Leonardo da stars by naked-eye
observation.
Vinci were even thinking about airplanes,
helicopters, and submarines. This flourishing
of genius in Europe marked the beginning
of a scientific and technological revolution,
which was to continue into the future.
Although the pace of development had slowed T During the Renaissance,
It laid the foundations for today’s scholars began to study
considerably, the Chinese still produced beautiful
porcelain. This Ming porcelain bowl, depicting modern world. mathematical theory. This
boys playing, was made in the late 1400s. was essential for their
scientific experiments.

WHEN IT HAPPENED
1492 Martin Behaim makes the first globe
1504 Peter Heinlein invents the watch
1512 Nicolaus Copernicus suggests that
the Earth moves around the sun.
1518 Royal College of Physicians founded
in London
1528 First manual on surgery is published
1540 Michael Servetus discovers the
circulation of the blood
1546 Mapmaker Gerardus Mercator
identifies the Earth’s magnetic poles
1600 William Gilbert writes about
magnetism and electricity
Trade and
Empire
1601-1707
The Europeans were now beginning to take
over the world. The biggest impact was in the
Americas. British and French settlers occupied
the east coast of North America, and Spanish
conquistadores had already taken over Mexico
and South America. European trading posts
were now dotted around the world—only Japan
kept them out. In Europe, this century brought
a tragic mixture of wars, revolution, and
devastation, as well as enormous growth
and progress in the sciences and arts.

A In 1620, a ship called the Mayflower sailed from Plymouth in England,

carrying pilgrims to a new life in North America.

◄ The Taj Mahal, near Agra in India, was built in the 1600s by Shah
Jehan as a mausoleum for his wife, Mumtaz Mahal.

241
The world at a glance 1601-1707
T he 1600s were the age of the absolute ruler.
In Europe, India, China, and Japan, power was
Many thousands of Europeans sailed across the
ocean to North America to seek a better life, or
concentrated in the hands of the kings, emperors, to try to set up communities where they could
and shoguns who ruled the land. The great exception worship as they wished, free from the interference
was England where an elected, rebellious Parliament of hostile governments.
overthrew and executed the king, Charles I. Although The 1600s also saw another kind of movement
his son, Charles II, was later invited to take the of people. The terrible trade in slaves tore millions
throne, he was only granted limited powers. of Africans from their homes and transported them
At this time, although embroiled in wars, Europe across the Atlantic to work on American plantations.
spread its influence worldwide, while countries such
as India and China enriched Europe with their
products, art, and ideas.

— —

NORTH AMERICA
The first European colonies in North America
were founded in Virginia and Quebec, and others
soon followed. By 1700, the early colonies in North
America were well established and attracting more
and more people. At first, the settlers were cautiously
accepted by the Native Americans, but soon the
settlers were shooting at them, or selling them
guns with which to fight each other. Initially, the
settlers had a limited impact, but the Native
Americans soon found themselves losing
land. Sometimes they rebelled, but this
was increasingly unsuccessful. In
West, life went on as before for
Native Americans. The white man
had not reached that far yet.

LATIN AMERICA
V;'

LATIN AMERICA
This region was now dominted by the Spanish and
Portuguese, and the plantations, mines, and cities
grew in size and number. The colonial governments
were ruthless, and missionaries undermined and
deliberately destroyed native cultures. Many
indigenous peoples felt their gods had
left them and accepted their fate in
despair. They were often forced to
work for their invaders, or to retreat
to remote places. For the Spanish,
there was unlimited wealth.

242
 EUROPE
During the Thirty Years' War, many countries in Europe were devastated by ASIA
troops and cannons, as rulers fought for power. Rivalry between Catholics
The Manchus invaded China and set up the
and Protestants caused much bloodletting, and in England, a civil war.
Qing dynasty, which would last until 1911. But
Yet rulers, while causing much of the turmoil of this
Europeans were knocking at their door, looking for
century, also grew rich and powerful. They built
trade. Japan kept them out, India and Southeast
great palaces and estates and became patrons
Asia let them in, and China allowed access only to
of music, science, and the arts. Underneath,
Canton. A fight for control of India and the East
European society was transforming itself, with
Indies broke out between rival European trading
people moving into cities, reading more books,
companies. In India, friction between Hindus and
and exchanging new ideas in the streets and
Muslims grew stronger, and the Mogul Empire
coffeehouses. Their attitudes were changing faster
weakened. Asian products were sought by
than those of their rulers, which would lead to
Europeans, bringing wealth and major changes to
trouble. The ports, banks, and warehouses became
the affected countries. In the more isolated parts
busy as Europe's trade with the world expanded.
of Asia, though,
people had not
yet encountered
Europeans.

AUSTRALASIA
Australia, called Terra Incognita
(meanding "unknown land”), and
H ■ New Zealand were first visited
AFRICA by Dutch sailors in the 1600s.
However, life for the Aborigines,
Maoris, and Polynesians carried
on undisturbed. This relatively
isolated part of the world was still
untouched by Europeans or Asians.

AFRICA
Africa lost much of its population
.through the slave trade, though its MIDDLE EAST
chiefs gained in wealth as a result,
The Ottomans and the Safavids in Persia continued
and new trading nations grew,
to dominate the Middle East, though both were now
such as Ashanti and Congo.
past their peak. The Ottoman Empire was beginning
European settlers moved into
a very long, slow decline, which was to be
South Africa, and trade with
gradually worn away from the inside as well as the
Europe, particularly in West
outside. The Persians thrived on contact with India
Africa, increased.
and Asia, but had little to do with Europeans.
 10,000 5000 3000 1500 500 300 100 B.C. A.D. 100 2001 350 I 500 700 |

Japan in isolation 1603-1716

The Tokugawa shoguns brought stability to Japan
after years of chaos. Fearing disruptive influences from
foreigners, they sealed Japan from the outside world.

I n 1603, Tokugawa Ieyasu (1543-1616],

head of a powerful family, became
Japan is a fertile and well-
populated country, with
many valleys and plains
shogun—largely by political maneuvering separated by mountains. JAPAN
and military force. Edo (later renamed These geographical Honshu
Tokyo), the small fishing village that had extremes made it
difficult to unify
been his headquarters, became his capital.
during this period.
Here, Ieyasu began to build what became
the world’s largest castle. He retired in
Shinto religious traditions 1605, and made his son Hidetada shogun.
remained strong under But Ieyasu continued to control the
the Tokugawas, but the
role of the temples
government until his death.
in politics and the Ieyasu thought that there were two
economy was reduced. threats to Japan: the violent rivalry
• Dflshima
between daimyos (lords) that had caused
great instability, and the growing foreign
influence. He placed the daimyos under
constant watch in Edo and kept them When the foreign missionaries and
so busy organizing—and paying traders began to involve themselves
for—the building of the palace in Japanese politics, Ieyasu realized that
there, that they had no time their ideas could lead to more violence.
to make trouble and no For the sake of harmony, the shogun
money for soldiers. placed restrictions on them. The strongest
Christian influence was in
Nagasaki. In 1638, after a
revolt there, the shogun
had 37,000 converts
killed, and banned
▲ There were important
technical and cultural Christianity.
advances in Japan during
this time. However,
because of Japan's "closed
door" policy to foreigners,
these advances were not
seen by the outside world.
These exquisite Japanese
porcelain figures date
from this period.

► Nijo Castle in Kyoto

was built in the 1600s
for the Tokugawa Bakufu,
the ambassador to the
emperor. Even though
the emperor was by now
largely powerless, it was
still important for the
shogun to remain on
friendly terms with him.

244
900! 1100 : 1200' 1300 1400 1500 5 1600 1700 1750 1800 1850: 1900 1950 I 2000

JAPAN BECOMES PROSPEROUS

Following the rebellion by Japanese
Christians in Nagasaki, only a few Dutch
and Chinese traders were allowed into
Japan. Japanese people were not allowed m k-i |1 f-'J .''•Ift.jfps
9 pi mywzm
to go abroad, and those who lived away
from the country were not allowed to
return. Christian priests were ordered to
leave or be killed, and their churches
were torn down. Japanese Christians were
executed. Life became strictly regulated,
and the country was sealed off from
outside influences. Tokugawa rule gave
Japan almost 250 years of peace.
Japan grew more prosperous because it
now operated as one country. Merchants
and farmers were encouraged to expand
their businesses, and traditional daimyos
and samurai warriors lost their positions
and grew poor. Like Europe, Japan was ▲ The Tosho-gu Temple at
changing from a feudal society into Nikko, built during the 1600s,
a trading economy. Cities and towns was dedicated to leyasu, who,
after his death, was looked
grew larger, and the population expanded
on as a saint.
greatly during the 1600s and 1700s.
Though Japanese society still kept its ◄ Sumo wrestling began
strict rules of behavior, people were in 1624. It was encouraged
as an alternative to
becoming better educated. samurai warriors killing
There were temporary setbacks to each other. Wrestlers
Japan’s growth during this period. In were selected when
young. They trained
1684, the fifth Tokugawa shogun,
for many years.
Tsunayoshi, introduced some reforms
inspired by Buddhist scholars of the
1100s. They were not popular. In 1703,
the capital, Edo [Tokyo], was destroyed by
an earthquake and fire. However, in 1716,
a reforming shogun, Yoshimune, came to
power and Japan’s isolation from the rest
of the world began to break down.
A The Dutch were permitted to occupy the island of
Deshima in Nagasaki Bay as a trading base. A few ships
were allowed to visit each year, exchanging foreign goods
for Japanese silks and other products. The Dutch were
not allowed to cross onto the Japanese mainland.

KEY DATES
1603 leyasu founds the Tokugawa Shogunate
1609 Small Dutch trading base established on
the island of Deshima in Nagasaki Bay
1612 Persecution of Nagasaki Christians begins
1637 Portuguese traders banned and expelled
1637-38 The Shimabara Rebellion in Nagasaki
1684 Hardship after Tokugawa Tsunayoshi's reforms
1703 Edo (Tokyo) destroyed by earthquake and fire
1716 Yoshimune, a reformer, comes to power

245
 10,000 5000 3000 1500 500 300 100 B.C. j A.D. 100 200 350 500 700

The stuarts 1603-1649

The Stuart dynasty came from Scotland. In England,
they faced a complicated political situation that led
to six years of civil war and the downfall of a king.

Q ueen Elizabeth I, the last Tudor

monarch of England, died in 1603
without an heir. James VI of Scotland, son
of Mary, Queen of Scots, succeeded her as
James I of England. James was descended
from Henry VIII’s sister and Elizabeth’s
aunt, Margaret Tudor, who had married
the Scottish king, James IV, in 1503. His
Apparently, James I (1566-
family, the Stuarts, had ruled Scotland
1625) stammered and since 1371.
dribbled. But he was an England and Scotland now had the
intelligent king who did
same king, but they still remained separate
his best in a difficult As England's prosperity grew under Tudor and Stuart rule,
situation, and during his countries. James dreamed of uniting them, many towns were renewed. They were not planned, but
time, England and but many English and Scottish people rebuilt along existing winding streets.
Scotland moved closer to
were opposed to this. He tried to make
being united. He was not
popular. He believed in
peace between Catholics, Anglicans, and JAMES THE SPENDER
divine right, which Puritans. The Puritans were extreme James made peace with Catholic Spain to
claimed that a ruler could Protestants who wished to abolish church try and ease tensions between European
do as he wished and was
responsible only to God.
ceremony and music, bishops, church Catholics and Protestants, and Britain
hierarchies, and other “popish” traditions. was at peace for 20 years. But in 1624
James angered them by refusing to go as James was drawn into the Thirty Years’
far as they wanted. But he ordered a new War in Germany on the Protestant side,
translation of the Bible, the King James supporting his son-in-law, Frederick. James
Bible, to try to bring Christians together. fell deeply into debt. The cost of running
the country was growing and James
THE GUNPOWDER PLOT himself was a lavish spender. He believed
Catholics in England were frustrated by Protestant intolerance toward them, and, Parliament should obey him without
although James I tried to please everyone, opinions pulled in conflicting directions. Some question and grant whatever he asked for.
Catholics saw violence as the only way to gain toleration for Catholicism, though many
But Parliament and the king’s ministers
disliked this idea. A small group plotted to kill both the king and parliamentarians by
blowing up Parliament during its ceremonial opening on November 5, 1605. One of had grown stronger in Tudor times, and he
the conspirators was Guy Fawkes, who was discovered guarding barrels of clashed with them when his demands for
gunpowder in the cellars of Parliament. He and the other plotters were
money were refused.
arrested, tortured, and put to death.
After this, attitudes toward
Catholics hardened.

246
900 1100 1200; 1300 ! 1400 1500 1700 1 1750 ! 1800 1 1850 ; 1900 1950 2000

The King James Bible,

or Authorized Version, KEY DATES
published in 1611, was
1603 James I becomes king of England
carefully translated under
1605 The Gunpowder Plot to blow up Parliament
James I's guidance, in order
1608 James disagrees with Parliament over money
to serve as the one Bible
1621 James again disagrees with Parliament
for Anglicans, Puritans, and
Catholics. It was admired 1625 Charles I becomes king
because of the beauty of 1629 Charles closes Parliament
its language, and has 1637 Charles's court splits after a crisis
survived to this day. It is 1640 Charles recalls Parliament-clashes follow
still used in some churches. 1642 The English Civil War begins
1649 Charles I is executed by parliamentarians

C ontcvning the Old TeftamentJ Charles left London and raised an army. T During Tudor and
A ND THE NEW.'
Stuart times, the wealthy
N.'irh Trtinfijt.'J OH tf&r OrviiuU He was defeated in 1646, and handed
Lmxta:& mlh tkrfinmr Tnufljtim* gained more power and
Jthgntly jnJ nvftl kkt
M jatfherjpftuH CmmJmcnl. I
power to Parliament, but he then escaped influence. However,
| v^Wwtai* to continue the Civil War. Finally, Charles disagreements increased
' fmpnnU'J jt ky ($,*,7? I was recaptured, brought to trial, and between the different
dhrCr. (Jmitr /«’ tk$hux groups, especially over
jfu/t executed in 1649. For 12 years following money, business, and
AnnoDom. 1011. the English Civil War, England had no king. religious matters.

CHARLES I
James I tried to please everyone. He
was unpopular in England because he
made mistakes, and because he was
Scottish and his Danish wife, Anne,
was Catholic. His belief in the rights
of the king was also disliked. When
he died in 1625, his son Charles became
king and inherited his lack of popularity.
Charles I (1600-1649} also disliked
parliamentary interference, and handled
situations badly. People took sides and
supported either the king or Parliament.
This became a battle between traditional
and modern ideas. When, in 1629,
Parliament refused to give Charles
more money and allow him to rule in
his own way, he sent the parliamentarians
home and tried to govern without them.
Charles ruled without Parliament for
eleven years, but his court and ministers
were divided over many important
questions. Charles also angered the Scots,
who thought he had become too English,
and lost their support. Parliament, called
back in 1640, united against him. It tried to
limit his powers and suppress his supporters.
In 1642, Charles tried to arrest five
parliamentary leaders, but Parliament,
including the nobility, opposed him fiercely.
247
 10,000 5000; 3000 I 1500 1 5001 3001 100 B.C. | 0! a.d. 1001 2001 3501 500 | 700

Early American settlers 1607-1650

When the first Europeans arrived. Native Americans Hudson
were unsure about them. Little did they know that Bay

CANADA Gulf of
these settlers would eventually come in their millions. St. Lawrence

F or a century after John Cabot

discovered Newfoundland in
Great
Lakes
Quebec •
.Montreal
.Plymouth
Nieuw Amsterdam
1497, most Europeans regarded (New York)
North America as unimportant. •Jamestown

They did not appreciate its

% < Virginia

potential, and saw little economic Louisiana

value there. Their main interests were
in finding a sea route to Asia and Gulf of
acquiring easy riches by raiding Mexico

The Plymouth Colony Spanish galleons laden with gold in the

settlers were hardy, but Caribbean. Early explorers returned home
not farmers. They would The place names of modern northeast America show that
have starved if a Native
without finding the gold, exotic cities, and most of the successful early European settlers came
American named Squanto sea passages to Asia that they had sought. from either England or France.
had not made friends with Both Cartier’s French colony at Quebec
them and showed them
(1534-1541) and Raleigh’s English colony The first successful English colony,
how to survive by growing
corn and catching fish. at Roanoke (1584-1590) failed. However, founded in 1607 at Jamestown, Virginia,
a Spanish settlement founded in 1565 at was almost wiped out by disease, hunger,
St. Augustine in Florida survived. Only in and troubles with the Native Americans,
1607-1608, when new colonies were but it survived. The colony’s leader, John
founded at Quebec and Jamestown, did Smith, wrote a book that attracted even
the Europeans realize that the new lands more settlers.
might be valuable. From 1600 onward,
many Europeans, wishing to escape
religious strife and war
at home, sailed to
North America to
start a new life.

A A group of Puritans, known

as the Pilgrim Fathers, landed at
Plymouth, Massachusetts, in
1620 and founded the first
permanent colony in North
America. The colony
flourished and gave
rise to a new
nation founded on
the principles of
liberty and justice.

► The Mayflower carried 102 Puritan

colonists and 47 crew members in
cramped conditions. Escaping from religious
persecution, they set out from Plymouth, England, in
1620 and landed near Cape Cod. There they founded
a small settlement which they also named Plymouth.
 ;

900 1100 1200: 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1750 1 1800; 1850 1900 1950 2000

▲ When the Puritans

landed in America in
1620 they knew nothing
about living in this new
Fur trading, particularly in beaver
wilderness. Food ran short,
skins, became profitable because of the and many of the settlers
high demand in Europe. From the 1630s died from disease and
onward, more Puritan refugees and exposure. Nearly half
of them died during the
migrants from England arrived. They had first winter, and only
THE NEW AMERICANS no hope of return, and, though life was 54 were still alive the
English colonist John Rolfe introduced hard, the New England colonies thrived. following spring.

tobacco growing to the settlers in 1612.

The crop earned them money and
Jamestown prospered. As the demand for
tobacco increased, the tobacco growers
needed more land, which they took from
the native people. This struggle for land
led to bitter wars between colonists and
Native Americans. The arrival in
Massachusetts of the Pilgrims in 1620
marked a turning point—they had come
to stay, and to live according to Puritan
principles. In 1625, the Dutch established
a colony on Manhattan Island, today’s
New York City. French colonists also
arrived, settling north of the St. Lawrence
River in what is now Canada.

_KEY DATES_
1492 Columbus arrives in the Americas
1497 Cabot lands in Newfoundland
1513 Spanish Ponce de Leon explores Florida
1540 Coronado (Spanish) enters New Mexico
1534-41 Cartier (French) explores the St. Lawrence
1584-90 Raleigh's English Roanoke colony (fails)
1607 Jamestown, Virginia (English), founded
1608 Champlain establishes Quebec and By 1700, there were about 400,000 Europeans in North
America, and the New England colonies were well established.
New France
Whole communities had moved there from Europe, and before
1620 Arrival of the Pilgrims in New England
long they were self-supporting. Harvard College was founded
1625 Dutch settle in New Amsterdam (New York)
near Boston in 1636.

249
 ■ 1 500 700
10,000 5000 ; 3000 : 1500 : 500: 300 100 B.C. | 0 A.D. 100 200 350

The Swedish empire 1560-1721

Sweden's greatest king, Gustavus Adolphus, and his
reforming chancellor, Axel Oxenstierna, made Sweden
into a great, modern Protestant power.

I n 1520, Sweden, led by King Gustavus

Vasa, rebelled against Denmark and
gained independence. The Swedes then
started to break the dominance of the
Hansa League over the Baltic Sea region.
Although Sweden was sparsely populated,
it had a strong government and a growing
trade with England and Holland. The
Gustavus Adolphus (1594- Swedes fought in Estonia, eventually
1632) was a brave and conquering the country by 1582. In later
inspiring leader, and he
governed Sweden well. He
campaigns they gained Karelia, east of
made a modernized state Finland, and Lapland in the north.
Gustavus Adolphus built a great fleet and made Sweden
with impressive cities, Gustavus Adolphus was born in 1594. He the dominant Baltic state. His flagship, the Vasa, however,
industries, and a strong
became king of Sweden in 1611, at the age capsized and sank on its maiden voyage in 1628.
army. He ruled for 21
years from 1611. of 17. He was to become Sweden’s greatest
king. A devout and educated Protestant, he Gustavus’ fellow Protestant princes in
spoke many languages. He had Sweden’s Germany faced defeat in the Thirty Years’
towns rebuilt, and its industries flourished. War. If Germany became Catholic, then
Its frontline army was only 40,000 strong, Sweden would be isolated, so Gustavus
but Gustavus made it the best in Europe. Adolphus declared war on Emperor
By 1629, he had defeated the armies of Ferdinand II of Austria. In July 1630,
Denmark, Russia, and Poland, making Gustavus landed an army in Germany.
Sweden the leading military power In 1631, at Breitenfeld near Leipzig, the
in northern Europe. Swedes defeated the emperor’s army.

▲ Count Axel Oxenstierna

(1583-1654) was Sweden's
chancellor for 42 years
from 1612. He was a
great reformer. After
Gustavus Adolphus'
death, Oxenstierna ran
the country for a further
22 years under Queen
Christina. He master¬
minded Sweden's
growth into a modern
Protestant power.

'Djrhifjt hiii': t'prri. T’OCHOLM'

2iifn>nyau i sJioituj.

► The island city of

Stockholm was one of
Europe's finest capitals.
It is shown here in an
engraving by Franz
Hogenberg, made around
1579, during Stockholm's
years of greatness.

250
900 11001 1200 i 1300; 1400! 1500 1600 1700 I 1750 1800 | 1850 1900 1950 2000

SWEDEN'S ERA
In the spring of 1632, the Swedish army
occupied Munich and advanced against
Vienna, Ferdinand’s capital. At the battle
of Liitzen, the emperor’s forces retreated
in disorder, but Gustavus died in battle.
There was a temporary setback in 1634
when the Swedes were defeated at the
battle of Nordlingen. Their fortunes soon
turned when they defeated the Catholics
at Jankau in 1645. In 1655, they entered
Poland, and in 1658 took southern Sweden
from the Danes. Under Charles XII, they
overcame the Danes, Russians, Poles, and
Saxons. But in 1709 they ventured too
far—into the Ukraine. Tired and far from
home, they were defeated by the Russians
and, by 1721, all Swedish gains south of
the Baltic and in Russia had been lost. a Tido Castle in Sweden was built
around 1620. During this period, Sweden
developed from a simple agricultural
_KEY DATES_
nation into a great European power.
1520 Sweden gains independence from Denmark
1523-60 Gustavus Vasa modernizes Sweden
1580 Sweden conquers Estonia ► Gustavus Adolphus equipped
1611-32 Gustavus Adolphus reigns as king of Sweden his army with new guns which
1620s Sweden becomes the leading northern power could be easily transported
1630-34 Sweden successful in the Thirty Years' War and manhandled by the soldiers.
1643-45 Swedish victories against Denmark and Austria Through their extensive knowledge
1697-1708 Many Swedish victories throughout Europe of mining, the Swedes had become
masters in metallurgy and the
1709 Swedes defeated by the Russians
use of explosives. They applied
1721 Sweden in retreat-the end of its period
this knowledge to war.
of dominance

THE BATTLE OF LUTZEN

The Swedes fought alongside the Protestant Germans against the Catholic
forces of imperial Austria at Lutzen. The Catholic army was much larger,
and the Protestant attack was delayed by foggy conditions. But good
tactics and bravery helped the Protestants break through and rout the
Catholics. Gustavus Adolphus, who always led his troops from the front,
was killed. However, his fellow general, Bernard, Duke of Saxe Weimar,
kept fighting, and after a full day's battle, the Catholics fled in chaos.

251
 3000 1500 500 300 100 B.c. A.D. 100 200 350 500 700
10,000 5000

The thirty years’ war iais-1648

The Thirty Years' War was the world's first modern war.
Starting as a religious conflict between Catholics and
Protestants, it ended as a fight for power in Europe.

I n 1618, tensions exploded in Bohemia

between Catholics and Protestants, and
between the Hapsburgs and other royal
houses. Ferdinand II, the Holy Roman
emperor, had inherited the Bohemian
throne in 1617 and two years later, in
1619, the Austrian throne. Until that time,
the Hapsburgs had been neutral in matters
of religion. Bohemia had long been
Protestant, but Ferdinand was Catholic,
The use of guns and cannons increased the destruction
and he unwisely forced Bohemia to
and cost of the war. The matchlock musket was improved
Ferdinand II of Austria become Catholic. This resulted in the by the Swedes to make it lighter and faster to reload.
(1578-1637) was a
Bohemians revolting against him.
Catholic. He tried to
impose his religion In 1619, the German rulers who elected SWEDEN ENTERS THE WAR
on all his subjects. the Holy Roman emperor met at Prague. Frederick fled and a Catholic prince,
They deposed Ferdinand II as king of Maximilian of Bavaria, was appointed
Bohemia and made Frederick, a Protestant, king of Bohemia. The struggle then
king in his place. This resulted in a series moved northward. Led by Wallenstein,
of wars, fought mainly in Germany, which the emperor’s army defeated the Danes
eventually involved most of Europe for and overran northern Germany. It seemed
the next thirty years. that nothing could stop Ferdinand from
At first, the Catholics won most of the forcing Germany to become Catholic until,
battles, with Spanish Hapsburg help and in 1630, Protestant Gustavus Adolphus
money. In 1625, the Danes joined the of Sweden entered the war. He took back
Protestants, but to no avail. The Catholics northern Germany, soundly defeating the
Frederick (1596-1632), had two outstanding generals, Count Catholics in battles at Breitenfeld and
the "Winter King" of
Wallenstein and Count Tilly, whose troops Liitzen. But the battles took their toll.
Bohemia, was the son-in-
law of England's James I. fought well, and by 1629, the Protestant Tilly was killed at Breitenfeld, and
allies were in trouble. Gustavus Adolphus died at Liitzen.

THE DEFENESTRATION OF PRAGUE

In Prague, in 1618, a group of Bohemian Protestant nobles met with representatives of

the Catholic Hapsburg emperor. Their arguments became so heated that the Bohemians
threw the emperor's men out of a window-in other words, defenestrated them-of
Hradcany Castle, the Hapsburg stronghold. This violent action is known as
the "Defenestration of Prague" and sparked the Thirty Years’ War.

252
 J m^m 1
900 1100! 1200 1300 I 1400 1500 S 1600 1700 1750 1 1800 1850 | 1900 1950 I 2000

The French entered the war in

1635, a year after the Swedes were
beaten at Nordlingen. The French
minister Cardinal Richelieu already
supported the Protestants because he
opposed the ambitious Hapsburgs. The
same year, the German Protestant princes
withdrew from the war, bankrupt and
defeated. Many alliances switched, and
the conflict grew even more complicated.
The French advanced into Catholic Bavaria
to overcome the Spanish Hapsburgs and
Sweden defeated the Austrian Hapsburgs.
When the French and Swedes were poised
to take over Bavaria and threaten Austria,
the Hapsburg emperor asked for peace.
A One of the worst events
THE RESULTS OF THE WAR of the Thirty Years' War
was the destruction of the
During this long war, large guns and
German city of Magdeburg
mercenary troops had been used. This by the Catholics under
had been expensive and caused great Count Tilly in 1631. Until
then, Tilly had been highly
devastation. Troops looted whole areas
respected across Europe.
of Germany and at times even switched
sides. Germany was ruined, and the ► The Catholic Count
Netherlands and Switzerland gained Albrecht Wallenstein
(1583-1634) was an
independence; however, France, Sweden,
outstanding general.
and Holland grew stronger. Some states He became rich from the
gained land and others lost it. One German war, and tried to build his
state, Brandenburg-Prussia, grew stronger own empire in northern
Germany. This made him
and was to become even more important. very unpopular with the
The Hapsburgs lost their power, and the emperor, and eventually
Holy Roman Empire grew weaker. led to his downfall.

Germany broke down into 300 small

states. Many European governments T Wallenstein and his
became secular, which meant that they men were murdered at
Eger in Germany in 1634,
no longer forced religious beliefs on their
when it was discovered
subjects. The Peace of Westphalia, which that he was using the
ended the war, was the first major war as a way of creating
European treaty of modern times. power for himself.

_KEY DATES_
1618-20 Bohemian revolt against Austria
1625-27 Denmark joins the Protestants
1629 Protestant Germans losing the war
1630 Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden joins the war,
overrunning northern Germany
1631 Tilly storms and destroys Magdeburg
1631-32 Protestant victories at Breitenfeld
and Liitzen
1634 Protestants are defeated at Nordlingen.
Count Wallenstein is murdered
1635 Protestant Germans make peace-France joins
the war
1645 French and Swedish victories in Germany
1648 The Peace of Westphalia treaty ends the war

253
 10,000 5000; 3000 ; 1500 500 300 100 B.C. j 0 A.D. 100 ! 200! 350! 500 700

France and richelieu 1624-1661

Louis XIII became king at the age of nine. He later
appointed as his chief minister the man who was
to make France the leading nation in Europe.

I n 1624, Louis XIII of France appointed

Cardinal Richelieu as his chief minister.
They worked together for eighteen years.
Richelieu’s ambition was to unify France
into one centrally ruled country and make
it great. Regional dukes held a lot of
power, so he set out to reduce their
influence. In 1628, he also dealt harshly
with the troublesome French Protestant
Huguenots. Richelieu was disliked by
The clothing of the French nobility was elaborate. Wigs,
Catholic leaders, nobles, and judges hats, and clothes were a sign of status. This was a French
Marie de Medicis (1573-
1642) was queen of
because he stopped many of their army officer's clothing when on campaign.

France, then regent to her privileges, and the high taxes he levied
son Louis XIII. She clung caused mass revolts. He believed in strong Abroad, Austria and Spain were the main
to power, but was banished
control, and used force to get his way. threats to France. The Hapsburgs ruled
in 1617. Richelieu helped
her make peace with her both countries and, if they joined forces,
son in 1620. But when she France would be vulnerable. By 1631,
tried to replace Louis in
during the Thirty Years’ War, Hapsburg
1630, she was permanently
exiled to Brussels. Austria controlled most of Germany and
threatened to dominate Europe.

CARDINAL RICHELIEU
Armand du Plessis, the Duke of Richelieu (1585-1642), became a bishop
in 1607 and a cardinal in 1622. He entered the council of the regent,
Marie de Medicis, in 1616, and became chief minister in 1624. Richelieu
believed in absolutism-the right of the king to do what he wanted. He
believed the king was responsible to God, not to the Church, the
nobility, or the people. Richelieu used spies effectively and
suppressed all opposition. He trained his successor,
Cardinal Mazarin, who continued Richelieu's
policies and ruled as regent for the young
Louis XIV until 1661. In many European
Louis XIII (1601-1643)
countries, this was a time when chief
was the son of Henry IV
ministers were very powerful.
and the second king of the
Bourbon line. He became
king as a boy in 1610 and
assumed power in 1617.
He was very influenced by
Cardinal Richelieu, but he
outlasted Richelieu by one
year, and left the throne
to his young son,
Louis XIV.

254
 1 j | { j j
—i 1
1100 | 12001 1300 | 1400 : 1500 | 1600 | 1700 ! 1750 j 1800 j 1850 j 1900 j 1950 ! 2000 i

La Rochelle was
the stronghold
of the Protestant
Huguenots, who had
developed their own army and navy.
Richelieu besieged the port in 1628 and broke
their power. In this painting, Louis XIII is depicted
visiting the scene of the siege in October of that year. ► The royal flag of the ruling Bourbon kings of
France acted as the French flag until 1790,
FRANCE BECOMES STRONGER the time of the French Revolution.

To weaken Austria, Richelieu paid

▼ Richelieu allowed the Protestant Huguenots
Sweden, the Netherlands, and Denmark religious freedom, but he fought to break their
to fight a common enemy, the Hapsburgs. political and military power. This grisly massacre
In 1635, France declared war on Spain of Huguenots was initiated by Richelieu.

(which ruled Belgium and Burgundy). The

fighting went on until 1648 and outlasted
Richelieu, but his plans succeeded. He
tried to extend France to what he thought
were its natural frontiers—the Pyrenees in
the southwest and the Rhine in the east.
When Richelieu died in 1642, his
follower Cardinal Mazarin continued his
policies. France replaced Spain as Europe’s
greatest power. A revolt by the French
nobility, called the Fronde, was put down
in 1653. When Louis XIV came to the
throne he was only five, and Mazarin ruled
as regent. By the end of Mazarin’s life, in
1661, France had changed greatly. It had
grown larger, stronger, and richer; its
armies had become the finest in Europe,
and Louis XIV was to be its greatest king.
255
 700

Decline of Spain 1598-1700

After a century of greatness, Spain went through a long, The most famous Spanish author at
this time was Miguel de Cervantes
slow decline that arose from its refusal to recognize the (1547-1616), who wrote Don Quixote.
changing times, and its failure to adapt to them. The book tells the story of a foolish

W hen Philip III became king of Spain

in 1598, his country was bankrupt.
landowner who sees himself as a
brave knight and has a series of
amusing adventures
with his squire, the
The Spanish army was outdated, and the peasant Sancho Panza.
government was corrupt and incompetent.
Spain had amassed great riches from the
Americas, but their value had decreased
because Europe was by now flooded
with Spanish gold and silver.
The opportunity to make easy fortunes
had rotted Spanish society, and sensible
ways of making money, such as promoting
and developing trade, education, and
Philip III (1578-1621) crafts, had been ignored. Yet Spain’s
became king of Spain, empire was still the largest in the world,
but his real interests
were religious, not
consisting of most of South and Central
political. During his reign, America and a large part of North The Moriscos were Muslim Moors
Spain began to lose its America, as well as the Philippines and who had stayed in Spain and converted
place in the world as
settlements in Asia and Africa. Philip had to Christianity. Lerma suspected that they
a great European and
colonial power. no interest in politics, and Spain was run were plotting against the government.
by his ministers. The first of these, the However, the Moriscos were extremely
▼ Wealth from the New Duke of Lerma, used his position to make hardworking and skilled, and Spain
World was not just spent
himself very rich. His greatest mistake could not afford to lose them.
on wars. Philip II had built
the magnificent palace at was the Moriscos in 1606. At this time, the Roman Catholic
El Escorial, near Madrid, Church was more powerful even than
at the end of the 1500s. Its
the king or his ministers. Through the
library housed a priceless
collection of Greek, Latin, Inquisition it supervised and controlled
and Arabic manuscripts. every aspect of Spanish life. Religious
issues were considered to
be more important than
any economic interests,
and the nation grew
steadily poorer.

256
900 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000

THE END OF THE HAPSBURGS

In 1621, Philip III was succeeded by his
son Philip IV. His reign was disastrous.
The Spanish support of the Catholic
cause in the Thirty Years’ War and the
wars against Richelieu’s France had all
proved very costly, and Spain had gained
little. By now the flow of treasure from
America had dwindled. At home, a revolt
in Catalonia plunged Spain further into
debt. In December 1640, a mass rising
in Portugal ended its union with Spain,
leading to further losses. However, fighting
continued and Spain did not recognize
Portugal’s independence until 1668.
Philip IV was followed in 1665 by his
four-year-old son, Charles II, the last
Hapsburg king of Spain. When Charles
grew up he failed to produce an heir
and was succeeded by Philip of Anjou,
grandson of France’s Louis XIV.
Philip V introduced a new order into
Spain, but the country was now no
longer a great power. A European war
was fought over who should rule Spain—
the Hapsburgs or the French Bourbons.
The result, in 1713, was that Spain lost SPANISH DECLINE Charles II, who was king
its possessions in Italy, as well as Gibraltar Spain had experienced one century of for 35 years until his
death in 1700, was
and Belgium. The Hapsburg dynasty brilliance and wealth, and one century of depicted in paintings as
lost Spain to the Bourbons. decline. It had failed to recognize the new a grand monarch, but his
order in northern Europe, with the great reign was not successful.
He failed to produce an
economic development led by Protestants.
heir and was the last
The Catholic order in Spain had failed to Hapsburg king of Spain.
modernize itself, and tried to keep power
in the hands of nobles, bishops, and kings.
As a result, Spain failed to develop after
its spectacular growth around 1492, and
by 1700 other European countries
had surpassed it.

KEY DATES
1598 Spain loses war with France after interfering
in French affairs
1598—1621 Philip III is king of Spain
1606 Expulsion of the Moriscos from Spain
1621-48 Spain loses the Netherlands
1621—65 Philip IV is king of Spain
1640 Portugal and its empire separate from Spain
1648 Spain finally accepts Dutch independence
1665—1700 Charles II reigns as the last Spanish
This painting shows
Hapsburg king
Charles II receiving
1701—13 The War of the Spanish Succession-
Holy Communion at
El Escorial, with a pomp Spain loses possessions in Italy, Belgium,
and splendor that was and Gibraltar
at odds with the reality 1700—46 Philip V is the first Bourbon king of Spain
of a country in decline.

257
 I
10,000 5000 3000 1500 500 300: 100 B.C. j 0 A.D.J00 200 350 500 700

East indla. companies 1600-1700

The East India Companies were powerful trading
organizations set up by the English, Dutch, and French
to protect their business interests in southeastern Asia.

I n 1600, the English East India

Company was formed in London. Its
purpose was to unite the English traders
doing business in southeastern Asia. There
was cut-throat competition for trade in
this area which had first been controlled
by the Spaniards and the Portuguese.
During the 1600s, the contest for this
In the 1600s, many European travelers visited India.
lucrative trade with the East was between Through them, knowledge of the impressive history
the Dutch, English, and French. and culture of India began to reach Europe.

The Netherlands followed England and

set up a Dutch East India Company in The English lost the contest to control
1602, with its headquarters in Amsterdam the spice trade in the East Indies to the
The ships of the East India and also at Batavia (Jakarta] on the island Dutch. India then became the center of
Companies, first used for of Java. The French formed their own English activities, and by 1700, they had
trading, were also
converted into warships
East India company later, in 1664. sole trading rights in India, with a number
for use against pirates, These organizations became immensely of key ports, notably Calcutta, Madras,
Asians, and ships from powerful. Trading was only one of their and Bombay. The Dutch had ports on the
other companies.
activities—they also had a political Cape in South Africa, in Persia, Ceylon,
influence. They armed their ships to fight Malaya, and Japan, and also dominated the
at sea and maintained private armies. The Spice Islands (now Indonesia). The French
East India companies set up military as were less successful in their attempt to
well as trading bases and made treaties dominate India. Many private fortunes
with local rulers around them. They were made. Sailors and traders often died
waged war on neighboring nations of disease or fighting. Some made homes
and on each other. In many ways they in Asia, founding European centers in
behaved like independent states. India, Southeast Asia, and China.

t-si® f, ■
[rjefajf; I £$22 ■
‘ |Bja Ji| JfcL'kiA His®*
M j./. ■ m
•■ffiiisprtip."

▲ In 1652, the Dutch ► The English colony of

founded a base at the Madras was a major port
Cape of Good Hope(Cape for exporting cotton goods.
Town) as a staging post It was also the center of %M .msMm
a j'vCrJ -
for ships on the long a region noted for making
voyage from Europe to cloth with brightly colored '. bj 4 ■. -L

the Far East. This later designs and scenes from i-1.. At -Jv- v,'

became a Dutch colony. Indian life.

258
900 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 ; 1700 I 1750: 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000

The dutch empire 1660-1664

The Dutch Empire was founded on worldwide trade.
During the 1600s, their huge merchant fleet helped
the Dutch to become a powerful trading nation.

B y 1600, Amsterdam was Europe’s

busiest port, with warehouses, banks,
and trading houses, as well as a large fleet
of ships. Frustrated by their exclusion
from South America by the Spanish and
Amsterdam was the center of European banking in the
Portuguese, the Dutch headed for the 1600s. A bank was founded there in 1609 that deposited
Far East. They founded an East India and loaned money to finance trade.
Company for their traders. They took
control of trade from the Spice Islands EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION
or “East Indies,” seizing Java and the The huge merchant fleet of the
▲ Peter Stuyvesant Moluccas from the Portuguese. Netherlands was also busy elsewhere.
(c.1610-1672) was the
The Dutch East India Company In 1621, the Dutch West India Company
harsh governor of the New
Netherland colony in established its headquarters at Batavia was founded across the Atlantic. By 1623,
North America from 1647 (Jakarta] on the island of Java (now part 800 Dutch ships were engaged in the
to 1664. He was against
of Indonesia) in 1619. The company Caribbean, trading in sugar, tobacco,
religious freedom. He was
hated both by the Native maintained an army and a powerful fleet animal hides, and slaves. The company
Americans and the of ships that drove the English and the established a colony in Guiana, and
colonists. In 1664, they Portuguese out of the East Indies and they captured Curasao. For a while, they
surrendered without
a fight to a small
seized Ceylon, the port of Malacca, and controlled northeastern Brazil.
English fleet. several ports in India. The company even In North America, the company founded
set up a trading post in Japan—the only the colony of New Netherland along the
Europeans allowed to do so. Hudson River in 1624. From there they
▼ The Dutch Adrian
In 1652, the Dutch occupied the Cape exported furs, timber, and other goods
Reland made this folding
map of Java around 1715. of Good Hope on the southern tip of bought from Native Americans.
Java had been ruled by Africa, as a midway point on the long Eventually, the Dutch lost their naval
many different local rulers journey from the Far East to Europe. supremacy to the English and their empire
until the Dutch East India
From there, Dutch ships were able to suffered. They lost Ceylon, Malacca, and
Company took control in
1619. Java remained a take the shortest route to the East Indies, the Cape to the English, and were left
Dutch colony until 1949. straight across the Indian Ocean. with just their Southeast Asian empire.

259
 A.D. 100 : 200 350 500 700
10,000 5000 3000 1500 500 300 100 B.C. »

English civil war 1642-1660

The English Civil War was fought between supporters ■ Parliament’s
V/ i
Headquarters
of the king and supporters of Parliament. For five years SCOTLAND
▲ Royalist
the country was run by a dictator, Oliver Cromwell. Headquarters

T he English Civil War was fought

between supporters of King Charles I
Marston Moor

Preston
and supporters of Parliament. Like his ENGLAND
father, James I, Charles believed in divine Nottingham A
right, claiming that his right to rule came ofi> Naseby
directly from God. This belief put Charles Worcester ▲ «&> Edgehill
at odds with Parliament. Oxford
u /.
Charles became king in 1625 and ■ London

immediately began to quarrel with

Charles I (1600-1649) came Parliament over his right to imprison
to the throne of England in people who opposed him over religion, Isle of Wight
1625, the same year that
he married Henrietta Maria
and taxes. In 1629, he dissolved Parliament,
of France. His belief in the and, for 11 years, tried to rule alone. During the Civil War, the west and north generally
divine right of the king supported the king, and the south and east supported
In 1637, Charles attempted to impose
first led to clashes with Parliament, though there were local divisions across
the Anglican form of public worship on the country. The first major battle took place at Edgehill
Parliament and eventually
to the English Civil War. the Scots. The Presbyterian Scots rebelled, in 1642; the last at Worcester in 1651.
raising an army that, in 1640, occupied
part of northern England. Charles recalled The king made Oxford his capital,
Parliament to ask for money to put down and his forces at first held the advantage.
the rebellion by the Scots, but Parliament However, Parliament secured the support
demanded reforms. Civil war broke out of the Scottish army, and in the long run,
after Charles tried to arrest his five leading proved superior, for it had the money to
parliamentary opponents. In 1642, fighting maintain a professional army. This New
broke out all over the country between Model Army led by Sir Thomas Fairfax
Royalists (supporters of the king), known decisively defeated Charles’s forces at
as Cavaliers, and supporters of Parliament, Naseby in 1645. The king surrendered in
▲ Oliver Cromwell (1599- known as Roundheads. 1646, after Oxford fell to the Roundheads.
1658) went to college in
Cambridge and studied
law in London. He was Roundheads
first elected to Parliament
in 1628, representing
Cambridge. He recruited
and trained Parliament's
New Model Army. He
was a strict Puritan
and believed that God
had chosen him to
perform His will.

► The king’s Cavalier forces

were crushingly defeated
by the New Model Army
of the Roundheads at the
battle of Naseby in 1645.
This was the decisive victory
for Parliamentary forces
during the English Civil War.

260
 Mi
900 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1 1600 1700 1750 : 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000

Charles was imprisoned on the Isle of THE TRIAL OF CHARLES I

Wight, where he plotted to start the war
Charles was unpopular because he married a Catholic. He also imposed high
again with Scottish help. A second phase taxes to pay for wars that people did not want, as well as trying to limit the powers of
of fighting broke out, with Royalist risings Parliament—he dissolved it for 11 years. At his trial and execution, he behaved with great
dignity, and this won him some sympathy. At his execution, Charles put on an extra shirt
and a failed invasion attempt by the Scots.
so that people would not think that, when he shivered from the cold, he was shivering
In 1648, parliamentarians who still with fear. His body was secretly buried by his supporters at Windsor Castle.
respected the king were removed from
Parliament by Oliver Cromwell. The
remaining Rump Parliament, as it was
called, found Charles guilty of treason
and executed him in 1649.

OLIVER CROMWELL
After Charles’ execution, Parliament
abolished the monarchy, and England
became a Commonwealth. Parliament
governed the country, but had an ongoing
struggle with the army. In 1653, Oliver
Cromwell emerged as a strong leader
and ruled the country as Lord Protector.
Cromwell clashed with some
◄ The seal of the House
parliamentarians and was forced to govern of Commons depicts the
with the help of army generals. He fought Commonwealth Parliament
a war with the Dutch over trade and in session in 1651.

control of the seas, took control of Ireland,

and planned colonial expansion.
His dictatorship was not universally
▼ Shortly after the end
popular because of his use of force and of the Civil War, there
high taxes he imposed. But he introduced were two disasters in
London. The first was
education reforms and gave more equality
the Great Plague, which
to the people. In 1658, Cromwell died arrived from Europe, and
and was succeeded by his son Richard. He killed about 20 percent
was not an effective ruler and the army of London's population in
1665. Then, in 1666, the
removed him. The English people wanted Great Fire destroyed
a king again, and in 1660, the son of most of the city.
Charles I took the throne as Charles II.

261
 10,000 5000 3000 1500 500 300 | 100 B.C. 0 A.D. 100 200 350 500 700

China: the qing dynasty i 644-i 770

MANCHURIA
The Qing dynasty was founded by the Manchus,
a Siberian people who lived in Manchuria. The Qing
dynasty would rule China from 1644 to 1911.

T he Ming dynasty of emperors had

ruled China since 1368. But heavy
taxation had made their rule unpopular
and rebellions broke out all over the
country. The last Ming emperor,
Chongzhen, hanged himself as peasant
rebels overran his capital, Beijing. In the
confusion that followed, the Manchu The Manchus came to conquer China from lands lying
north of the Great Wall. During the Manchu period,
chieftain Dorgon led an army south from
the size and population of China grew, and the
This intricate gold flower¬ Manchuria. He occupied Beijing and set troublesome Mongols were finally defeated.
shaped brooch was made up the Qing (“pure”] dynasty. His nephew
during the Manchu period
and was exported to Europe.
Shunzhi was the first Qing emperor.
Resistance to the Manchus continued in However, both Chinese and Manchus
▼ The grand houses China’s southern provinces, and 40 years were employed as civil servants to run
and ornamental gardens went by before all of China submitted to the empire. As time passed, the Manchus
of the upper-class Qing
their rule. The Manchus lived separately adopted Chinese customs and were
Chinese are depicted
on this ebony paneled from the Chinese in closed-off areas. eventually accepted. They were few in
Coromandel screen, made Marriage between Chinese and Manchus number, so they had to be careful not to
in 1672. Such screens was forbidden. Chinese men were even be too excessive in their treatment of
could have up to 12
panels and were shipped
compelled to wear their long hair in the Chinese. They brought new life
to Europe from the queues (pigtails] to show that they and efficiency to the country without
Coromandel coast in India. were inferior to the Manchus. disturbing the nation’s customs.

262
900 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1750 1800 1850 I 1900 1950 2000

A RICH AND POWERFUL EMPIRE

At first China prospered under Qing
rule. The empire grew and trade increased,
particularly with Europe. Chinese silk and
porcelain were considered the finest in
the world, and their cotton goods were
inexpensive and of high quality. Huge
quantities of Chinese tea were sold
abroad when tea drinking became
fashionable in Europe in the 1700s.
The empire became so rich and powerful
that its rulers were able to treat the rest of
the world with contempt. Under Emperor
Kangxi’s rule (1661-1722), foreign traders
were forced to kneel whenever his
commands were read out. The Manchus
also forced several nations into vassal ▲ Tibet (Xizang) was
status, including Tibet, Annam (now ruled by a Buddhist
leader called the Dalai
Vietnam), Burma, Mongolia, and Lama. The third Dalai
Turkestan, making the Chinese Empire the Lama rebuilt the Potala
world’s largest at the time. They made a monastery in Lhasa,
the capital, as his
deal with the Russians over land and trade.
residence in 1645.
Early on, there were some rebellions in The Dalai Lamas came
southeast China and among ethnic under the influence of
the Mongols, but the
minorities, who protested against Chinese
Qing army invaded
people moving into their areas. But, on and by the mid-1700s,
the whole, the Qing period brought peace, Tibet was part of the
prosperity, and security to China. The Chinese Empire.

population grew dramatically from 100

million in 1650 to 300 million in 1800,
and Chinese (Han) people spread out to
the west and southwest of China. In the
late 1700s, however, corruption and
decline began to set in.
◄ This enameled porcelain
vessel from the late 1600s
imitated the shape and
design of the bronze
ritual vessels of ancient
Shang China.

KEY DATES
1644 The Manchus found the Qing dynasty in Beijing
1644-60 Manchu forces conquer most of China
◄ The Chinese silk 1661 The island of Formosa is captured from the
industry employed Dutch by supporters of the defeated Ming;
thousands of workers, Kangxi becomes second Qing emperor
especially women, to 1674-81 Rebellions in the south, soon suppressed
weave silk into cloth on
1683 Manchu forces capture the island of Formosa
looms. Silk cloth was
from supporters of defeated Ming
made for use in China
and for export to Europe. 1689 Russians swap Siberian land for trade in China
Cotton was also imported 1696 The Manchus defeat the Mongols in Mongolia
and then made into cloth 1717-20 War against the Mongols for the control of
for export. The weavers Tibet
of the port of Su-Chou 1750s Chinese invade Tibet and Turkestan
were particularly famous 1760s Chinese invade Burma, making it a vassal state
for their silks.
 10,000 5000 3000 1500 500 300 100 B.C. A.D. 100 200 350 500 700

The sun king 1643-1715

Louis XIV was determined to make France a great
nation. The whole life of France revolved around him
and he became the most powerful ruler in Europe.

L ouis XIV (1638-1715) became king

in 1643 at the age of five. His mother,
Anne of Austria, ruled as regent on
his behalf for eight years until
1651. In 1648, the people of Paris,
burdened for many years by heavy
taxes, rose in revolt. Louis was
forced to flee the city. The revolt,
called the Fronde, collapsed in 1653.
Louis XIV sent his general, the Due de Vendome, to
Louis decided this would never happen help the Bourbon king of Spain, Philip V. Here, Vendome
again and, in 1661, at the age of 22, inspects Austrian banners after the battle of Villaviciosa.

took control. He turned France

into an absolute state, ruled solely As Louis grew older, he came under
by the king. In 1665, Louis the influence of others and became more
appointed Jean Colbert as rigid, especially in his religious beliefs.
his Controller-General of Conflict developed. In 1685, he revoked
Finance. Colbert made the Edict of Nantes, and no longer showed
France the best-run tolerance toward the Huguenots.
country in Europe. He reorganized To Louis, France’s natural boundaries
taxes and reformed laws. New were the Alps, the Pyrenees, and the
industries were set up. He had roads, Rhine. He plunged France into war to
canals, and bridges built, and he greatly expand it to these borders. The French
expanded the French navy and merchant army became the largest, most formidable
fleet. Louis and the royal family moved fighting force in Europe. But Louis lost
into a magnificent new palace at Versailles most of the land he had gained. He left
in 1682. Heads of the noble families of his grandson and heir, Louis XV, a
France were also made to live there so country under rigid control and nearly
that Louis could keep an eye on them. bankrupt from war.

▲ Louis XIV wanted France to be a

great cultural center. He helped develop
the arts, including ballet. In 1661, he set
up the Royal Academy of Dance. Here
the king himself dances as the sun god
Apollo in The Ballet of the Night in
1653-an event that lasted an incredible
twelve hours. It is because of this
performance that Louis came
to be called the Sun King.

► Louis built the most

magnificent palace in Europe
at Versailles, near Paris. It took
36,000 workers 47 years to complete.
The king and court were waited on by
15,000 guards, courtiers, and attendants.
900 ] 1100: 1200’ 1300! 1400: 1500: 1600 ! 1700 1750 : 1800 ! 1850! 1900 i 1950 ! 2000

Decline of mogul india 1605-1707

After the death of Akbar the Great, the Mogul Empire
began to decline. The warlike Marathas and the British
eventually caused its disintegration.

A kbar, the founder of the Mogul

Empire in India, died in 1605. His
son Jahangir (1569-1627) succeeded him,
but was not interested in ruling. He
preferred the company of painters and
poets, so he lavished his energies and
money on constructing splendid buildings
and elaborate gardens. Meanwhile, his
beautiful, ambitious wife, Nur Jahan, ruled
the country. Shah Jahan (1592-1666)
succeeded his father Jahangir as emperor
Mumtaz Mahal was Shah in 1628. He extended the empire, and by
Jahan's favorite wife. She 1636, he had conquered the Deccan in
died in childbirth in 1629,
after 19 years of marriage.
central India. His end was tragic. In 1657, Shah Jahan conquered the Deccan in central India
he fell ill, and his four sons quarreled over and rebuilt Delhi as the capital of the Mogul Empire.
The magnificent Taj Mahal,
Imprisoned by his son in 1657, he died in captivity.
a masterpiece of Mogul his succession. Aurangzeb (1618-1707),
architecture, was built
the third son, imprisoned his father, killed
in memory of her.
his brothers, and seized the throne. Aurangzeb conquered much of the
rest of India, but he could not overcome
the warlike Marathas on the west coast.
TAJ MAHAL He was a fanatical Muslim. Most of his
Shah Jahan built the Taj Mahal near Agra subjects were Hindus, and he persecuted
as a tomb for Mumtaz Mahal ("Chosen them without mercy. Opposition to him
One of the Palace"). The beautiful
grew. The Marathas overran the Deccan,
building was made of white marble
inlaid with patterns of semiprecious and revolts broke out across India. After
stones, and took 11 years to build. Aurangzeb died in 1707, the empire began
The whole complex took a total to break up. The 1700s saw many wars,
of 22 years to complete.
and the provincial governors (nawabs)
became more independent.
The Marathas and the
British began to take
over the Mogul lands.

KEY DATES
1605 Jahangir, emperor
for 23 years
1608 The English arrive
in India
1611-22 Nur Jahan,
Jahangir's wife, rules
1628 Shah Jahan, emperor
for 30 years
1658 Aurangzeb, last great
Mogul, 49 years
1660s Rise of the
Marathas, the
Moguls' opponents
1707 Beginning of decline
of the Moguls

265
 10,000 5000 3000 1500 500 300 i 100 B.C. ; A.D. 100 I 200 350 500 700

The Ottoman empire 1602-1783

After the reign of Suleyman the Magnificent, the THE EMPIRE FADES
Ottoman Empire entered a long and slow decline. The Thirty Years’ War in Europe gave the
Ottomans some peace. But when, in 1656,
Nevertheless, the empire survived until 1923.
they tried to invade Crete, the Venetians
n 1565, Suleyman the Magnificent blocked the Dardanelles (the narrow sea
I: decided to invade Malta, occupied
at the time by the Crusader
passage from the Mediterranean to the
Black Sea), threatening Istanbul itself. This
Knights of St. John. Although caused panic, and the sultan, Ibrahim, was
the Turks greatly outnumbered deposed by army officers. A new grand
the Knights, their invasion was vizier (chief minister), Mehmet Kuprili,
SC* not successful, and they had took charge. He reformed the economy
to withdraw after several and army, and Ottoman fortunes revived.
$
months. Suleyman died in The next vizier, Kara Mustafa, tried to
1566. In 1571, when the invade Hapsburg Vienna for a second time
Ottomans tried to invade in 1683. The defenders of Vienna held out
Venetian-ruled Cyprus, their for two months until an army of Germans
invasion force was destroyed by and Poles arrived to defeat the Turks. The
a combined fleet from the navies Austrians invaded Hungary, the Venetians
of Venice, Spain, and the Papal took part of Greece, and the Russians
States, at Lepanto off the coast of threatened Azov in the Ukraine. Another
Sultan Osman II (1603- Greece. In 1602, a long and costly war vizier, Mustafa Kuprili, took office in
1622) ruled from 1618. He broke out with Safavid Persia, with no 1690. He managed to drive back the
was young, strict, and fond
of archery. He restricted the
gain. Plagues and economic crises also Austrians, but he was killed in 1691.
power of the Janissaries hit Istanbul. Once-profitable trade routes During the 1690s, the Ottomans finally
(senior army officers), but linking Asia, Africa, and Europe were lost Hungary and Azov. Their European
they took over, had him
bypassed as new sea routes around Africa empire was saved only because Austria
killed, and replaced him
with Mustafa I. and land routes through Siberia opened. went to war with France.

Vienna*
Buda ••Pest
HUNGARY to Russia
to Hapsburgs Caspian
1699 Sea
Black
• Belgrade Sea
ALBANIA .Istanbul ► Trebizond

• Smyrna
Morea
Tunis •1 SYRIA
ALGERIA Mediterranean
Sea CYPRUS
Safavid
Persia
^•Baghdad
• Cairo
\3>
Independent EGYPT -o-
<S>
1714 m.
X
ARABIA *u/f

G>O-
Ottoman Empire CP
A Sultan Mustafa I ► The Ottoman Empire <s>
<$>
(1591-1639) was mentally was still large, but it
unstable. He ruled twice- was slowly falling apart Ottoman territories lost
between 1617-1618 and at the seams as its
again between 1622-1623. prosperity dwindled.

266
900 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1750 1800 18501 1900 1950 2000

THE EMPIRE SHRINKS ► A Turkish miniature,

made in 1610, shows
Between 1710 and 1720, the Ottomans
a festival of musicians
regained Azov and Greece, but they lost called to entertain the
Serbia and parts of Armenia. They also sultan in Istanbul. To keep
the sultans separate from
lost control of most of northern Africa—
politics and the people,
Algeria, Tunisia, and Libya. Officially, they were looked after
these countries were still Ottoman, but lavishly. The authority of
were actually independent. In 1736, the the sultans was finally
weakened by a series of
Russians attacked again, and by 1783, bloody contests for power
they had taken the Crimea and most of among the ruling families.
the Ukraine—the Ottomans no longer
controlled the Black Sea. In Anatolia, ir jjlr bmfu ' i "

local chiefs were rebelling, and in Istanbul,

people were worried about the future.
▼ The siege of Vienna in
The Ottoman Empire was still strong,
1683 marked the farthest
but it had lost much of its trade and point of the Ottoman
wealth. The progress made in the early Turks' advance into Europe.
The defenders of Vienna
days of the Ottoman Empire in religion,
held out for two months,
the arts, and social advances, slowed. just long enough for a
The Ottomans’ only friends, the Moguls, slow-moving army of
were also in decline, while the Europeans Germans and Poles to
arrive. The Turks were
were advancing rapidly. But the Ottoman utterly defeated in a
Empire was not yet finished. 15-hour battle on r / V A.

Mil

—is
1
-.
September 12, 1683. Nfi T..I

267
 10,000 5000 3000 1500 500 300 100 B.C. A.D. 100 200 350 500 700

The age of reason 1600-1750

By the mid-1600s, the ideas of the Renaissance had
spread through most of Europe. New discoveries were
being made about the world and human beings.

W ithin a few hundred years, the

people of Europe had witnessed
great changes. Ships were now traveling
to far-off lands, bringing back goods and
knowledge from other cultures. Europe
had become a money-based economy,
with new and larger cities and towns.
Literature, theater, and opera had made
great strides. Kings and nobles lived on
New ideas in science elegant estates, isolated from the rest of
and philosophy were the population. Ministers and civil servants
debated in salons such as
that of Ninon de Lenclos
controlled governments. New thinkers
(1620-1705). Such salons had introduced radical ideas.
were the breeding-ground Life was now very different for everyone, Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727) produced a reflector
for the Age of Reason telescope that sharpened and magnified the vision of
rich and poor. People began to question
in Europe. distant stars. Astronomy became a more accurate science.
and doubt the truth of many commonly
held ideas. The words of the Bible and the
philosophers of ancient Greece no longer Travelers went to Japan, Armenia, Mexico,
satisfied everyone. Many people began to Arabia, and Africa, to explore and report
believe in their ability to think things out back on what they found. New medicines
for themselves. At the same time, new (as well as diseases] arrived from far-off
discoveries were being made about the lands. Doctors began opening corpses to
world and the heavens, and about other study the body’s organs and their functions.
countries and human beings. There was Botanists collected and started to classify
an urge to examine, research, experiment, plants; chemists experimented with
and discuss anything and everything, to compounds. During the 1600s, telescopes,
John Locke (1632-1704) cross a new frontier of scientific inquiry. barometers, pendulum clocks, calculating
was an English philosopher
This revolution in scientific methods machines, and air pumps were all invented.
who examined the nature
and scope of human and ways of thinking became known
understanding. as the Age of Reason.

THE ROYAL OBSERVATORY

The Royal Greenwich Observatory was founded by Charles II, himself
an astronomer, and was built by Christopher Wren in 1675. The first
Astronomer Royal was John Flamsteed, a noted astronomer of the
time. The observatory was built to produce accurate star charts and
tables of planetary motion for sailors. Greenwich became a center
for the study of time. Greenwich Mean Time, the world's
time standard, was established in 1880. For centuries,
Greenwich was a leading observatory-
until London's pollution and electric
streetlighting in the 1900s made
it necessary to move its
astronomical work to
other, less polluted
places in England.

• vi 1 . i '• • viq11

WA-A?--

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900 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 | 1700 1750 | 1800 1850 1900 j 1950 2000

LOGIC AND NEW IDEAS

Mathematicians such as Leibnitz and
Descartes worked with geometry and
calculus. Galileo and Newton studied
gravity, and Kepler worked on planetary
motion. Tycho Brahe cataloged the
stars; Snellius, Huygens, and Grimaldi
researched the behavior of light; and Boyle
studied gases. Mechanical objects followed
a logic that made sense, and this logic was
also applied to human society and politics.
Francis Bacon developed the idea of
the perfect state. Others wrote about
government, the rights of people, and
the “contract” between rulers and ruled.
New institutions grew up where these
ideas could be discussed. Cardinal
Richelieu’s Academie Frangaise was
founded in 1635. Early members of the
Royal Society in England were the chemist
Robert Boyle, the physicist Isaac Newton, In 1652, the first coffeehouse was opened in London.
the diarist Samuel Pepys, and the architect People discussed business and politics and exchanged
information. The most famous was Lloyd's coffeehouse,
Christopher Wren. In the new smoke-
which served people who insured shipping.
filled coffeehouses and teahouses around
Europe, people were talking to each other
as never before. A new, nonreligious,
“rational” way of seeing things took shape.
The work of Rene Descartes, Isaac
Newton, Francis Bacon, Galileo, and
many others formed the foundation Galileo Galilei (1564—
for today’s knowledge of the world. 1642) was an astronomer,
mathematician, and
physicist. He offended
T The first orrery was built in 1700 to demonstrate the
the Catholic Church by
movements of the planets around the sun, and moons
teaching that the Earth
around the planets. A handle turns the planets.
revolves around the sun.
Until the 1600s, the Church forbade people to cut open
human corpses for study. This painting by Rembrandt
shows Dutch doctors examining the dissection of a body.

KEY DATES
1608 Hans Lippershey, a Dutch optician, invents
the first telescope
1609 Galileo studies the heavens; Kepler formulates
Laws of Planetary Motion
1628 Harvey discovers blood circulation
1635 Academie Fran^aise founded
1637 Descartes' Analytical Geometry explained
1644 Evangelista Torricelli, an Italian scientist,
publishes his theory on the barometer
1647 Pascal invents an adding machine
1657 Huygens builds a pendulum clock
1660 A barometer is used to forecast the weather
1666 Newton formulates Laws of Gravitation
1673 Leibnitz invents a calculating machine
1705 Edmund Halley predicts return of comet in 1758
Galileo's early telescopes
1735 Carl Linnaeus classifies plants and animals
were primitive, but they
1742 Anders Celsius devises Celsius scale
helped him discover four
of temperature
of Jupiter's moons.

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Slavery and pirates 1517-1810

The early development of many colonies in the
Americas was carried out by pirates, the owners of
sugar plantations, and millions of African slaves.

W
NORTH
AMERICA
ithin a hundred years of
Columbus’ landing in 1492, most
JAMAICAx^S,
AFRICA
of the native peoples of the Caribbean
Caribbean
islands, the Arawaks and Caribs, were Sea Elmina
dead as a result of European
mistreatment and diseases. By the SOUTH
early 1600s, the Caribbean was a AMERICA

battleground. The Spanish, French,

English, and Dutch all fought for the From ports such as Bristol, finished goods were shipped
for sale in West Africa. Once the goods had been sold in
islands they called the West Indies. Some
Africa, the ship would be loaded with slaves to take to
West Africa was rich in islands changed hands several times in a the West Indies. The final leg of the voyage would
gold. Arabs called the area fierce contest for trade and for land to bringa cargo of sugar back to Europe.
"Guinea" and Europeans
borrowed the word. In
establish European colonies.
1663, a guinea coin of English, French, and Dutch privateers THE SLAVE TRADE
Guinea gold was issued became pirates to make their fortune. In Europe, tea and coffee were becoming
by order of Charles I.
They were often sponsored by their fashionable, and this led to a huge demand
governments, since they caused trouble for for sugar to sweeten them. Sugar grew well
the Spanish, captured islands, established in the climate of the West Indies, but its
settlements, and made good profits. Some cultivation needed many workers. Local
were later sent out as admirals or colonial labor could not be found, because many of
governors. Francis Drake sailed around the the original islanders had died, and so the
world between 1577 and 1580, raided colonists imported slaves from West Africa.
Spanish ships, and returned home rich. Europeans saw nothing wrong with using
Captain Kidd was enlisted to help control Africans as slaves. They were bought
pirates, but joined them instead. Edward cheaply, crammed into ships, and then sold
Teach [Blackbeard] and Captain Morgan to plantation owners. Two thirds of them
raided Spanish settlements and galleons died, either on the voyage or from disease,
Newly captured slaves in the Caribbean. They paved the way for harsh treatment, and overwork. Even so,
were chained together
the establishment of colonies. The Spanish by 1800, there were nine million African
by the neck or feet. Iron
collars stopped the slaves lost gold to the pirates, but this did not slaves in the Americas.
from running away. stop them from colonizing the Americas.

A Iron manacles (handcuffs)

that could not be opened
without special tools were
used to hold slaves'
arms together.

► Whole families and

villages of Africans were
shipped to the Americas
as slaves. Many did not
survive the journey. West
Africa, the Congo, and
Angola lost much of
their populations.

270
!900 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 .
|
1600 1700 1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 : 2000 I

,:A 1

Slaves harvested the sugarcane on plantations in the Caribbean.

Landowners grew wealthy. They often returned to Europe where they
lived well, and left their plantations in the hands of managers.

THE TRIANGLE OF TRADE

The European-owned sugar plantations in
the Caribbean were often very large. They
► Long before
had warehouses, boatyards, churches, slave Europeans arrived,
quarters, and the landowner’s grand house. the Arabs had traded
slaves on the eastern African coast.
A triangle of trade developed, taking
When the Portuguese arrived they used
finished goods from Europe to West Africa, the slaves in their colonial ventures.
slaves from West Africa to the Americas
(the Middle Passage), and plantation
products back to Europe. The profitable
markets in Europe for sugar, tobacco, oils,
and other products were exploited. Piracy,
plantations, and slavery were driven by
the urge for profit. Slavery continued
into the 1800s. Most of today’s
African-Americans are the
descendants of slave ancestors.

HENRY MORGAN
Welsh Captain Morgan (1635-1688),
pirate, was the scourge of the Caribbean
between the 1660s and 1680s. He
organized fleets of buccaneers, attacked
Spanish galleons in midocean, and seized
their treasures. Much of the booty went
to England, to reward investors who
sponsored his voyages. He captured
Porto Bello in 1668, sacked Maracaibo
in 1669, and took Panama in 1671.
Later, he was knighted for his services
against the Spanish, and was made
lieutenant governor of Jamaica in
1674. He died in 1688, aged 53.
Buccaneers like Morgan helped
England's economy to prosper.
 10,000 5000 | 3000 I 1500 | 500 300 : 100 B.C. 0 1 A.D. 100 I 200 | 350 500 700

African states 1550-1700

In the 1600s, Africa was a patchwork of different Sahara Desert

peoples and kingdoms. Each had its own customs,

form of government, language, and gods.
Hausa

D uring this period, the nations of

Africa were developing rapidly.
Dahomey • Katsina
states

Ashanti • Kano ,
If the Europeans had not arrived, the
Benin
African nations would probably have
advanced their cultures much farther.
Although Europeans did not have a great
influence until the 1800s, they bought
Atlantic
gold, exotic items, and slaves, and sold Ocean
guns, cloth, tools, and finished goods.
By doing so, traditional African trade
and society were changed. Some areas,
such as West Africa, lost many people
to slavery. Social divisions increased as Gao, Katsina, and Kano adopted the Muslim faith,
chieftains and traders made profitable brought to West Africa across the Sahara by the Arabs.
The coastal kingdoms kept their own religions. Much
The West African kingdom deals with the Europeans. Some chiefs of northeast Africa was under Ottoman control.
of Benin is famous for its even sold their own people into slavery.
bronzes. This ram's head
was made in the 1600s for
The largest African state was Songhay. In the east, Christian Ethiopia was
a chief, who would have European traders on the coast took the surrounded by Muslim countries. Muslims
worn it on his belt. gold and slave trade away from Songhay, in some parts of the country rebelled,
and its wealth collapsed. In 1591, a ravaging Ethiopia. The Portuguese arrived
Moroccan army crossed the Sahara and and drove out the Muslims in 1543, and
invaded the country. South of the Sahara, Ethiopia was left in peace. Along the east
new states had emerged, including Mossi, and west coasts, the Portuguese built forts
the city-states of Hausaland, and Kanem- and slave depots. These attracted Africans
Bornu, and Darfur. These Muslim states to the coasts and encouraged chiefs to
traded with the Ottomans and Arabs. grow rich by joining in the slave trade.

▲ This Ashanti helmet

was decorated with gold
animal horns and charms.
Europeans were unable
to buy slaves with gold
from the Ashanti because
they had all they needed.
Instead they paid for them
with guns that increased
Ashanti military power.

► The Portuguese built

forts around the coast of
Africa. This pictorial map,
made in 1646, shows the
fort at Mombasa on the
east coast (now in Kenya).

272
900 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 i 1600 1700 1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000

DAHOMEY AND ASHANTI

A number of states occupied the forest
zone along the west African coast. In
1625, a new kingdom called Allada was
founded by King Akaba. Between 1645
and 1685, it merged with two other
kingdoms to become Dahomey. This new
state grew wealthy from the gold and slave
trades. Dahomey was overrun in 1747 by
Yorubas from Oyo (now in Nigeria).
Dahomey became notorious to Europeans
because, when its chief died, thousands
of slaves were sacrificed so they could
accompany him to the afterlife.
West of Dahomey lay Ashanti. In 1689,
Osei Tutu founded the powerful Ashanti
confederacy and built its capital at
Kumasi. It grew wealthy from trade in
cola nuts, gold, and slaves. The important
Portuguese-controlled fort and trading ▲ A tribal celebration in
the kingdom of Lovango in
post at Elmira in Ashanti was taken
the Congo region in 1686.
over by the Dutch in 1637. After the arrival of the
Africa provided the slaves needed to Europeans, tribal security
and unity gradually gave
work the rapidly growing plantations in
way to increased social
the Americas. Millions were shipped across distrust and control
the Atlantic. Many died either during slave by greedy chiefs.

wars between African states to capture

slaves or on the terrible voyage across the
Atlantic ocean—the Middle Passage. To
lose such an enormous number of its
people was a catastrophe for Africa. ► A European trader
offers brandy to the chief
of the Alcaty tribe, in
KEY DATES Senegal, West Africa,
in exchange for water,
1570 Rise of Kanem-Bornu as a major nation
around 1690.
1575 Portuguese first settle in Angola
1588 The English Guinea Company is founded
1600 Mwenemutapa at its zenith
1625 New kingdom of Allada set up by King Akaba
1637 Dutch drive Portuguese from the Gold Coast
1652 Dutch East India Company founds Cape Town
◄ Here an oba (ruler) of Benin rides in a
1660s Rise of Bambara kingdoms in West Africa
procession of his people. Once the richest
1685 Founding of Dahomey from three kingdoms
state in West Africa, by 1700, the kingdom of
1689 Osei Tutu founds the Ashanti Empire
Benin was on the wane. It was overwhelmed
1701 Military expansion of Ashanti by Osei Tutu by the growing strength of the Yoruba
people and the kingdom of Oyo.

273
 10,000 5000 3000 1500 500 300 100 B.C. o A.D. 100 200 ; 350 500 700

Ireland 1540-1800
English Protestant rule in Ireland was finally and PLANTATIONS AND REVOLT
forcibly imposed during the 1600s. There was The established hold of the English
was further extended in 1580. English
resistance, but this was brutally crushed by the English.
colonists were promised wealth and
T he Irish never liked English rule.
Henry II of England had conquered
opportunity, and they quickly developed
the land and new towns. But their colony
most of Ireland in 1171, and for the was destroyed in 1598 by an Irish attack.
next 400 years English monarchs A revolt broke out in Ulster, a purely Irish
had struggled to maintain their area, but was suppressed by 1603. The
authority there. Relations became English started a plantation there, mostly
more strained as time passed. The with Puritan Scots settlers, strengthened
problem was mainly religious. by fortified towns such as Londonderry.
The Irish were Catholic and the Some Irish fought back, but many left.
English had become Protestant. By the mid-1600s, the Catholics of Ulster
Irish priests encouraged rebellion were outnumbered by Protestants.
by teaching that the English were In 1642, an Irish uprising began, and
heretics with no rightful authority thousands of Protestant settlers were
over Ireland. But the English took killed. Engaged in the English Civil War,
strong measures to keep the Irish under Cromwell did not tackle the uprising until
▲ James Butler, the Duke their control. They dissolved many old 1649. He arrived with a large army and
of Ormonde (1610-1688),
monasteries and sold the land to families crushed the Irish with a brutality that has
governed Ireland for
Charles I of England. who supported their rule. The Irish never been forgiven. Local people were
reacted with frequent revolts. In 1556, moved to poor land in the west of the
▼ The town of Drogheda
was beseiged in 1641 by
Mary I sent troops into central Ireland to country, and English soldiers were given
Catholic Irish forces led forcibly remove some of the native Irish the land to settle. Catholics now owned
by Sir Phelim O'Neill. and give their land to English settlers. less than half the land in Ireland.

274
900 ; 1100 1 1200 ! 1300 : 1400 1500 1600 i 1700 I 1750 j 1800 ] 1850 1900 1950 2000

HARSH PROTESTANT RULE

Irish hopes were briefly raised when
Catholic James II became king of England.
His daughter married William of Orange
from Holland, commander of a grand
alliance of countries fighting France.
William became king of England in 1688.
James, the “Old Pretender” escaped to
Ireland. Eventually James’s army (the
Jacobites) met William’s at the battle of
the Boyne in 1690, and William triumphed.
This series of events marked a turning
point in Irish history. Harsh laws were
introduced that banned Catholics from
owning guns. They were also forbidden
to be involved in politics, to hold land,
to receive education, and even to own
large horses. Catholics converting to the
Protestant faith were given land taken from
those that remained Catholic. Communities This map of Ireland was made by a Frenchman in 1635.
broke apart, with some Irish accepting their Fourteen years later, Cromwell arrived with a large army and
brutally suppressed an uprising against English rule. Many
lot, others resisting, and yet more leaving Irish people were moved to poor land in the west.
the country. But, while the 1700s were
relatively peaceful, new trouble was KEY DATES
brewing. When Wolfe Tone led a rebellion 1556 Mary I starts Protestant plantations in Ireland
in the 1790s, many Irish people were killed, 1580 Further plantation settlements established
a French invasion was fought off, and the 1598 Revolts across Ireland, especially in Ulster
1642 Irish uprising against English control
rebellion cruelly crushed. However, the Being Catholic, James II
1649 Cromwell's suppression of the Irish revolt
English were forced to realize that the was the great hope of the
1690 Battle of the Boyne-a Protestant victory
Irish Catholics. Flowever,
Irish Catholics were there to stay. 1798 Wolfe Tone's nationalist rebellion European power politics
became caught up in the
Irish question, and the
THE BATTLE OF THE BOYNE English, under William
had to defeat James.
This decisive battle took place near Drogheda in 1690. The army of the recently deposed
James II, last of the Stuart kings, was outnumbered by the Protestant army of William III
When William's troops crossed the Boyne River, James's
troops fled. James went into exile in France,
and William's rule in England was
strengthened by the victory.

£t I

275
 3000 1500 500 300 I 100 B.c. 0 A.D. 1001 200 350 500 700
10,000 5000

Russian expansion 1613-1725

At the beginning of Peter the Great’s reign, Russia was
a backward state. Peter began the process that turned
Russia into one of the world’s superpowers.

I n 1682, at the age of ten, Peter I, known

as Peter the Great, became joint czar of
Russia with his half-brother Ivan V. Their
half-sister Sophia Alekseyevna ruled as
regent while they were young. Ivan was
feebleminded, which Peter found very
frustrating. In 1689, Peter seized complete
control. At the beginning of his reign,
Russia was a relatively backward state
Peter the Great compared with the countries of western
(1672-1725) is here Europe. Peter’s ambition was to make
portrayed as a cat.
Russia a great European power.

◄ Peter encouraged
fine craftsmanship. The boyars had been Russia's ruling class since the 900s.
He gave this jeweled When Peter returned from Europe, he abolished their
cup to his son Alexis powers. He made them cut off their beards as part
in 1694. He could of his plan to modernize Russia.
also be cruel. In
1718, he imprisoned
and tortured Alexis RUSSIA LOOKS WESTWARD
to death. Russia was a vast and potentially wealthy
country. Its explorers were pushing east
► Czar Peter had enormous energy and was
constantly at work making laws, drilling troops,
into Siberia. The Ural Mountains, rich in
planning towns, building ships, and even extracting minerals, had been opened up, bringing
teeth. He was careful with money, and gave most new resources. Peter wanted to shift
of his income to the state. He died after diving
Russia's focus away from the East, and
into the Neva River in the winter to rescue
some drowning sailors. to make it look westward. This involved
reducing the power of the boyars [nobles].
The boyars had been the hereditary ruling
class in Russia for 700 years, and they
wanted to preserve tradition and
further their own interests.
Peter realized that Russia would remain
in isolation until it secured an outlet to
the West, either through the Baltic, which
was dominated by Sweden, or the Black
Sea, which was dominated by the
Ottomans. Russia had no ports except
Archangel in the far north, which was
frozen solid during the winter months.
To gain a warm-water port, Peter set out
to conquer coastal territory. He captured
Azov on the Black Sea from the Ottomans
[though he later lost it again). In 1700, he
went to war against Sweden, defeating
Charles XII at Poltava in the Ukraine. In
the peace treaty that followed he gained
Estonia and Livonia. This gave him the
foothold he needed on the Baltic coast.

276
900 : 1100 1200 1300 ; 1400 1500 1600 1700 1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000

PETER AND THE WEST

Peter centralized the government, and
brought the Orthodox Church under
state control. He changed the role of the
nobility, and required them to serve him.
In 1697, Peter began an 18-month tour
of western Europe, especially Holland and
England, seeking to learn the ways and
skills of the West. He traveled widely,
disguised as an ordinary citizen, and visited
factories, hospitals, almshouses (houses for
the poor), and museums. To learn the art of
shipbuilding, Peter worked as a carpenter in
various European shipyards. Subsequently,
he hired hundreds of the craftsmen and
technicians to teach their skills to
the Russian people.
On his return to Russia, Peter
created a new civil service organized
along European lines, and made his
courtiers adopt Western dress and manners.
A When Peter the
He built factories, canals, and roads, and Great visited England,
founded new industries. He improved few knew that he was
the czar of Russia. He
the army and built a navy, and founded
was an inquisitive man
St. Petersburg as his new capital. and questioned everyone
Although Peter was very enthusiastic, he met. He enjoyed the
he could also be forceful and cruel, which practical aspects of
woodworking and
lost him support. Peter's plan was only shipbuilding.
half-complete when he died in 1725, but
he had started a process that was later to
turn Russia into one of the superpowers
of the modern world.

T Peter the Great brought many European architects ◄ In spite of Peter's many
and craftspeople to build his grand new capital at reforms, Russian peasants
St. Petersburg. It was designed in the new Baroque continued to live in poverty.
style which was spreading across Europe. He is shown They often starved during the
here discussing the plans with an architect in 1703. long, harsh Russian winters.

277
 10,000 : 5000 3000 | 1500 500 300 I 100 B.C. 0 A.D. 100 I 200 500 700|

The great northern war 1700-1721

Following a war between Sweden and other northern
European countries, Sweden lost most of its empire,
and Russia became the leading power in the Baltic.

he Great Northern War

T! was fought between
Sweden and other northern
NORWAY

European powers, led by Peter

the Great of Russia. At stake
rg
was control of the Baltic Sea
Narva
and the lands around it. In
1700, Sweden was attacked by
Denmark, Saxony, Poland, and DENMARK
RUSSIA
_1 Russia. Sweden’s Charles XII
This painting shows King was only 18, and his enemies hoped to
Charles XI of Sweden take advantage of his inexperience. But POLAND
(1655-1697) and his
family. The future
Charles proved to be a born leader. He
Charles XII (1682-1718) defeated the Russians at Narva in Estonia, This map shows the Swedish Empire at its greatest
is held by his mother, forcing Saxony, Poland, and Denmark out extent in 1660. Sweden was the largest military power
Queen Eleonora. in northern Europe and was in an ideal position to
of the war and putting a new king on the invade Russia in 1708.
Polish throne. Eight years later, Charles
^ invaded Russia. But the bitter winter of At the battle of Poltava in June 1709,
^ 1708-1709 set in, and the Russians the Russians beat the Swedes, and Charles
retreated, destroying everything as fled to Turkey. He returned to Sweden in
they went. The Swedes ran short 1714, and beat off a Danish invasion in
of food, and struggled against 1716. He invaded Norway and was killed
repeated Russian attacks. By there in 1718. Without Charles, and
the spring, Charles’s army exhausted by 20 years of fighting, the
was just half its original size. Swedes agreed peace terms in 1721.

▲ This bronze plaque

shows the taking of Narva
in Estonia by the Swedes.
During the battle, 40,000
Russian soldiers were
crushingly defeated by
an army of 8,000 Swedes.
This was a tremendous
victory for the young
Charles XII of Sweden.

► The Battle of Poltava,

near Kiev, in the Ukraine,
in 1709, brought Sweden's
power and dominance
in the region to an end.
Peter the Great's army
was larger and better
equipped, and the Swedes
were tired, hungry, and
far from home.

278
i iioo!
1100; 1200
1200;1 1300
1300; 1400 | 1500 1600'1
1600 1700 1750:
1750 1800 1850 1900
1900 1950
1950 2000 1

The Spanish succession 1701-1713

When Charles II of Spain died in 1700 he left no
heir. The question of who should succeed him led
to the War of the Spanish Succession.

T he French Bourbons and the Austrian

Hapsburgs both claimed the Spanish
throne. Before Charles II died in 1700,
they had signed an agreement dividing his
empire. But Charles’s will left his lands
to Philip of Anjou, the grandson of Louis
XIV of France. Louis ignored his earlier
agreement with the Hapsburgs, and chose
to back Philip instead. But an alliance
between France and Spain was not
John Churchill, Duke of
Marlborough (1650-1722), acceptable to every country in Europe.
commander of the allied By 1701, western Europe was at war.
forces, won great battles
Organized by William III of England, At the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713, France retained her
at Blenheim, Ramillies,
England, the Netherlands, most German frontiers. Austria took the Spanish Netherlands and
Oudenarde, and Malplaquet.
Naples, England gained Gibraltar and Newfoundland.
states, and Austria formed a grand alliance Philip V remained king of Spain.
against France. In 1704, a French army was
overwhelmed at Blenheim by a combined The allies then invaded Spain, but the
force under the Duke of Marlborough. He French forces pushed them out again,
won three more victories over the French leaving Louis’ grandson Philip V on
in the Spanish Netherlands. In 1706, an the Spanish throne. The long war had
Austrian army under Prince Eugene of exhausted both sides and, in 1713, a
Savoy drove the French from Italy. peace treaty was signed at Utrecht.

THE BATTLE OF BLENHEIM

Prince Eugene of Savoy In 1704, the Battle of Blenheim was fought in Bavaria among four
(1663-1736) fought the armies and several nations. The French and Bavarians were marching
Turks at the siege of on Vienna. The armies of Marlborough and Eugene intercepted them
Vienna in 1683. By at Blenheim, and in the ensuing battle, 12,000 allies and 30,000
1701, he had become French and Bavarians were killed. Flowever,
commander-in-chief of it was a victory for Marlborough
the Austrian forces and and Eugene, and Vienna
fought at the battles of was saved.
Blenheim and Oudenarde.

279
 10,000 5000 3000 1500 500 300 j 100 B.C. 0 A.D. 100 200 500 700

Colonial America 1600-1700

Settlers were arriving on the North American continent
in large numbers. These European peoples shaped the
character of future life in the “New World.”

T he French and Spanish made up

the majority of the early European
settlers, but they were later overtaken by
the English and Germans. The majority
were Protestants who had suffered
persecution. Within 20 years of the first
Puritans arriving, there were 20,000 English
people living in Massachusetts. The colony
developed rapidly, with Boston as its
▲ William Penn (1644- capital. Some of these colonists preferred
1718) was a wealthy
the land in Connecticut. Others founded
Quaker who founded
Pennsylvania in 1681. He Rhode Island because they disliked
set out to welcome people Puritan religious restrictions.
who had suffered religious
In 1625, at the mouth of the Hudson
persecution and hardship.
River, New York had started out as a Dutch
colony. When the English took over in
Settlers worked hard to build a new life. This is a small
1664, English, German, and a variety of
family farm in Maryland (previously New Sweden). The
▼ The Quaker Society
other nationalities settled there. It soon family kept cattle, pigs, and chickens and grew
of Friends was founded in
England in the mid-1600s.
grew into a large cosmopolitan city of wheat, vegetables, tobacco, and cotton.

They were Puritans and traders and craftspeople. Farther down the
disliked priestly control coast in 1681, in repayment of a debt, the Farther south, the Carolinas and Virginia
of the Church. Quakers,
English king gave Pennsylvania to a group grew in size after the English Civil War,
including women, were
encouraged to preach of Quakers led by William Penn. Penn was when King Charles II granted land there
and speak out. a religious idealist and dreamed of a “holy to his royalist supporters. They established
experiment”—a new society. He helped profitable plantations growing tobacco,
poor people from Europe settle in the cotton, rice, and indigo. The settlers
colony. Many English, Scottish, imported slaves from Africa to work
Irish, and German settlers moved the land from 1619 onward. Soon the
there to start a new life. majority of the people were slaves.

The Puritans of New England had a high regard for

education. In 1636, the Massachusetts government
founded Harvard College in Cambridge.

280
900 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1750 1800 1850 2000
1900 1950

▼ The first elected representatives of the colony of

PIONEERING SETTLERS Virginia, together with its governor and council,
In the southwest, Spanish-Mexican met in 1619 at Jamestown to make the laws.

pioneers pushed up into New Mexico,

and built a capital at Santa Fe in 1609.
This was a colony of forts, mines, and
trading posts. With Florida also in their
hands, the Spanish might have taken all
of North America, but Spain lost its
control over the seas and they missed
their chance. The French had settled
around the St. Lawrence, the Great Lakes,
and the Mississippi. As colonists, traders,
fur-trappers, and pioneers, they were
few in number. By 1700, there were 12
English colonies along the Atlantic coast,
with some 250,000 English compared
to only 20,000 French. Germans, Dutch,
Swedes, Lithuanians, Bohemians, and other ▼ Fur was an important commodity that the settlers
exported to Europe. Here, two French fur traders
nationalities all found homes in different meet Native Americans near Lake Superior.
areas. The new America was being built by
hardworking, ordinary people rather than
distant European governments.

NATIVE PEOPLES
At first, the Native Americans and
European settlers both gained from
mixing together and in some cases,
coexisting peacefully. But as more settlers
arrived, native lands were seized. There
were several atrocities, and native distrust
of and resistance to the settlers grew. Local
conflicts arose, leading to war in the 1670s.
The settlers won, and native resistance
declined. Some native peoples were actively
driven from their homelands. As European SALEM WITCH TRIAL
takeover became certain, a gradual tide In 1692, several young girls in the town of Salem, Massachusetts, claimed that they had
of Indian migrations began. been bewitched by a West Indian slave, named Tituba. Most people of the time believed
in witchcraft and the Puritans of Salem took fright. This led to the trial and execution
of 14 women and 6 men accused of witchcraft. Several people died in prison, and
150 more awaited trial. Eventually, the madness was stopped by the governor,
William Phips, and by a respected Congregational preacher, Increase Mather.

281
 -

| The arts 1601-1707

In the 1600s, a new style of art and sculpture called
Baroque developed in Europe. Many new forms of
music also began to appear during this period.
In Europe, in the Ottoman Empire,
and in Japan and China, differences
between the culture of ordinary
people and that of the ruling classes
were widening. Ordinary Asian
people’s culture went unrecorded,
but a lot is known about Asia’s high
»- culture. However, in Europe, popular
*. 4
culture was increasing, due to the
development of printing, theater,
I and town life. In Italy, there was
■' -a
a new kind of pantomime, called
*■ Moliere (1622-1673) commedia dell’arte, in which a company
.*
wrote plays to entertain of actors would make up their lines
*v
the court of Louis XIV
of France. Best known
as they went along.
Meanwhile, there was a new style In Japan, even lunchboxes were works of art. This black
are his comedies, which
i* laugh at human failings
lacquer lunchbox, with figures painted on it, and several
u- developing among rich Europeans called compartments, was made in the 1600s.
:s such as stinginess and
Baroque. Painters, sculptors, and architects
snobbishness. Some said
he couldn't take anything used it to produce spectacular grand Authors such as Cervantes, Milton,
seriously. Both the Church effects and also to represent reality. Artists Pepys, and Bunyan wrote popular books
and people who were
such as Rubens, Rembrandt, and Van Dyck about issues of common concern. Musical
powerful in society saw
s this as dangerous. from the Netherlands and Velazquez from instruments such as lutes, harpsichords,
p Spain were in demand to paint portraits in organs, and violins became common.
JS
an almost photographic style. Ruisdael of Upholstered, polished, and highly
the Netherlands, Salvator Rosa of Italy, decorated furniture was made. European
si and Claude Lorraine of France were the composers wrote the first orchestral
t-- t> leading landscape painters of the day. concertos, sonatas, operas, and oratorios.
?-;v *i

%L = This picture shows

'ry an opera production
I -1
&>rl in the 1600s.

■-■'

■—V,
*■»*«
E
jk

A Ballet and opera grew from court entertainments.

Kabuki drama was developed in Japan in Ballet was developed during the 1600s in France, by court
the 1600s. It was extremely formal, combining composer Jean-Baptiste Lully and dancer Pierre Beauchamp.
dialogue, songs, music, and dance. Men took Women did not dance roles until 1681. Opera began in Italy,
all the parts in the plays, many of which and the first public opera house opened in Venice in 1637.
are still performed in Japan today. Italian composers brought opera to Germany and France. Early ballet dancer
 . ?• ' ... . A'.: .r'.r,: • , ■ ■ m -*'$**. «? * ' - - % * «. %» :■' "kX*j
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▲ "Belshazzar's Feast" was painted by the Dutch artist

Rembrandt van Rijn (1606-1669). It shows the last king
of Babylon seeing a vision at a banquet. In it, Belshazzar
-
◄ This is "David Slaying foresaw his own death and the fall of his empire. This ■:rJi
Goliath" by Giovanni Bernini exotic and magical theme illustrates the growing
(1598-1680), who was the interest in unconventional ideas in the late 1600s.
leading Italian sculptor and
architect of his day. Bernini
designed and decorated •.?
churches, chapels, and
monuments, as well ■A
as the tombs of eight
of the popes.

s. --

m-
The Ottomans were notable for their
elaborate palaces, mosques, and state
buildings. Qing royalty in China, detached
from ordinary Chinese life, developed
► This elaborate cloisonne
elaborate styles, fashions, and customs, ATT!
book cover was made in
which, by 1800, became more rigid and China in the late 1600s.
unconnected with reality. Tokugawa Japan Cloisonne is a method of
decorating metal surfaces.
was slightly different, because the country
The design is outlined with
had undergone a modernization. Here, thin wires and the spaces
Kabuki drama, novels, and new forms in between are filled with
of entertainment were developing. different-colored enamels.

* «■?

i ' : •••'• •• -
Architecture 1601-1707
Like the art of the 1600s, the architecture that
developed in western Europe is called Baroque. Cities
worldwide were largely rebuilt in this grander style.

D uring the 1600s, great

building projects were
T1 set in motion, both for practical
reasons and for show. In India,
1 K
the vast and elegant mosques,
: parks, and palaces of the Moguls
= ip —
hi K| took Islamic architecture to
ijtt a new peak. In Qing China, a
==
lilt? lit dramatic rise in the size of the
HI LJ
population led to the building
of new cities and public works. In
the Ottoman Empire, the great architect
Sinan had died in 1588, but during the
In England, Holland, and 1600s his students built new mosques,
Germany, glass windows bazaars, palaces, and public buildings
became more common
in the late 1600s. Small
in the style that he had initiated.
panes of glass were held Europe was the scene of the greatest
Townhouses in Amsterdam were made of brick and finely
together by strips of lead. change. London was rebuilt after the carved stonework. The Dutch built tall houses close
In the 1700s, improved
Great Fire of 1666 by architects such together because land for building was scarce.
production techniques
meant that larger panes as Sir Christopher Wren. At Versailles,
of glass could be used. southwest of Paris, a royal city was built Functional buildings also took on a
for Louis XIV in the Baroque style. St. new look as European cities grew larger
Petersburg, Russia’s new capital, was and more modern. Brick and stonework
designed and built by Europe’s best homes, warehouses, and streets, as well as
Baroque architects; and in Berlin, capital public buildings and churches, displayed
▼ The College of William of Brandenburg, new palaces, government distinctive, modern styles that departed
and Mary in Williamsburg,
buildings, and academies sprang up. from the architecture of the past.
Virginia, was founded
in 1693. Originally
named Middle Plantation,
Williamsburg got its name
in 1699, after Jamestown
burned down and the
capital was moved there.
The name was changed
in honor of King
William III.

284
 New town buildings featured large glass ▲ A renewed interest in
classical art resulted in
windows, straighter lines, bigger rooms, and
many public buildings in
well-designed fronts, reflecting a new sense Europe being modeled on
of respectability among Europe’s growing Greek temples. The grand
Baroque style of the Old
middle classes. The Puritan influence led
Museum in Berlin uses
to pleasingly simple, yet stylish buildings, Greek-style columns to
as seen in colonial North America. In give an appearance of
Amsterdam, Stockholm, Cologne, and power, age, and authority.

Vienna, townhouses and streets took on

a new shape. This set the patterns for
the architecture that we know today.
This period is considered the
“early modern” period.
The Blue Mosque in Istanbul was designed by Mehmet
Agha (pupil of the great Turkish architect Sinan) and built
between 1606 and 1616. The complex, with its fine domes
and courtyards, included a college, hospital, and libraries.

◄ After the Great Fire of London in 1666, Sir

Christopher Wren was commissioned to rebuild
St. Paul's Cathedral. Begun in 1675, the cathedral
took 35 years to build, and was his masterpiece.
Combining Renaissance and Baroque architecture
at its finest, it towered proudly over the city.

Sir Christopher Wren

(1632-1723) rebuilt
more than 50 churches
in London, England
after the Great Fire.

285
fi
w
ip mu

I Science and technology 1601-1707

%
In the 1600s, scientists began to understand how nature
worked and how they might control it. They made
discoveries that led to great advances in technology.

I n the early 1600s, Francis Bacon, the

great English philosopher, saw science
as a study of God’s creation by means of
experimentation. In this way he forced a
path between the religious beliefs of the

I
:U
t
past and the rise of reason and scientific
inquiry. This century was an age of
intellectual activity with science at its
The French Rene Descartes (1596-1650) argued
that only ideas that could be proven by evidence
or reasoning were true. This diagram illustrates his

I
f
core. Until then, most thinkers rejected
ideas if they broke with accepted religious
theory about the coordination of the senses.

Early industrial machines, beliefs. In the Age of Reason, unusual All across Europe, new scientific
I
i
such as this screw press,
made it much easier to
ideas and new information became ideas led to a flood of practical inventions.
acceptable. All the conclusions drawn These were sought after by sailors, traders,
1 handle large quantities
of materials. from them were to be tested by generals, and kings, and there was a great
experiment and observation. deal of money to be made. Mechanical
Scientists now specialized in particular devices such as clocks, pumps, orreries,
subjects. Notable breakthroughs were cannons, textile machines, and engineering
made by Robert Boyle in chemistry, tools were developed—sometimes by
William Harvey in medicine, and Sir Isaac solitary geniuses, with little support.
Newton in physics and mathematics.
Newton’s idea that everything in heaven
and on Earth could be understood by
Jethro Tull (1674-1741), a reason gave science a new, almost religious
prosperous English farmer
meaning. Meetings of scientists became
and student of agricultural
methods, invented the seed popular in the 1640s. Academies, such
drill in 1701. The drill sowed as the Royal Society in London and the
seed evenly in straight lines
Royal Academy in Paris, were given royal
that allowed weeding
between each row. It was patronage by the 1660s and led the way
the first farm machine. for the next 200 years.

Galileo realized in 1582 that a swinging pendulum keeps

accurate time, but it was not until 1657 that Christiaan
Huygens designed the first successful pendulum clock.
 Indian soldiers of the 1600s
fought their battles dressed
in coats of thick, quilted cloth. Thermometer
The cloth was tough enough
Barometer
to deflect the edge of a sword
but still allowed the wearer
to move easily.

The microscope, thermometer, and barometer all came

into widespread use in the 1600s. They helped scientists
carry out experiments more accurately.

Microscope
SCIENTIFIC ADVANCES
For the first time, heat could be T Firearms such as
accurately measured with the newly these kept monarchs
safely on their thrones.
invented thermometer. Advances in
Only kings could afford
mathematics kept pace with those to equip their armies with
in science. The invention of calculus, them. As a result, many
logarithms, and the slide rule enabled kings grew too powerful
to be overthrown by
scientists to make detailed calculations to rebel subjects.
support their theories. Electricity was first
identified by William Gilbert in 1600, but
it was not until the 1800s that it was put
to practical use. More great breakthroughs
in steam engines, textile looms, and other
Double-barreled, wheel-lock pistol
machinery were to come in the 1700s.
All this arose out of the ideas of the
Renaissance and the research of the
Age of Reason, which, as each century
Flemish matchlock
moved forward, laid the foundations
of science and technology.
Revolution and
Independence
1708-1835
The 1700s are often called “the century of
revolutions.” Between 1708 and 1835, there
were revolutions against governments and
growing colonial power in many parts of the
world—some were successful, some were not.
Political revolutions happened because people
were dissatisfied with the way their countries
were run. There were also revolutions in
farming techniques, and industry, in science,
technology, and medicine, in transportation,
and in the arts—especially literature.

▲ The Jacobite Rebellion against Hanoverian rule in England ended

at the Battle of Culloden in 1746, when the Jacobites were defeated
by English troops led by the king's son, the Duke of Cumberland.

◄ Generals Rochambeau and Washington give orders for the attack

at the siege of Yorktown during the American Revolution in 1781.

289
The world at a glance 1708-1835
I n North America, the United States won its
independence from British rule, but this brought
In Africa, the Fulani, Zulu, and Buganda peoples
established new kingdoms. African states in the north
problems for the Native Americans. Many people threw off Ottoman control. The Mogul Empire in
emigrated from Europe and took up more and more India collapsed and Britain and France fought for
land. In Mexico and South America, the colonies control of its land. China conquered Tibet, but faced
fought for freedom from Spain and Portugal and won. problems at home. Japan banned contact with the
In Europe, Prussia and Russia rose to become major West. In the Pacific, the arrival of Europeans
European powers, while the French Revolution of threatened the traditional way of life.
1789 marked the end of the monarchy in France.

NORTH AMERICA
The 1700s saw the birth of the United States of
America and of Canada. The American Revolution
had been caused by bad British colonial government.
The United States became the world's first democratic,
constitutionally ruled country, with a declaration of
rights embracing everyone (except Native Americans
and slaves). A declaration of independence was made,
and after a while, the new republic began to spread
its wings westward, reaching toward the Pacific
Ocean. Migrants from war-torn Europe, seeking a
NORTH AMERICA
new future, swelled the population. American towns,
trade, and culture took shape and grew larger and
'mImi i *
richer. The British held on to Canada, which eventually
gained greater control of its own affairs. Meanwhile,
many Native Americans in the East were A v .

thrown off their lands, and made to mm

migrate westward. In the South,
slaves worked the cotton and
tobacco plantations, catering for
the appetites of Europe and fueling
the wealth of their landowning masters.

LATIN AMERICA

V iii
LATIN AMERICA
The Napoleonic Wars in Europe forced Latin Americans to think for
themselves, and in the early 1800s, new independence movements
fought against the Spanish and Portuguese for control of their
colonies. The riches of the mines and slave-run plantations had
declined in importance, and Latin Americans now had to fight for
a place in a fast-changing
world. But the independence
movements were run by the
landowners, so there was
little gain for ordinary people.
Native peoples suffered greatly
under the rule of Europeans.

290
 EUROPE
For much of the 1700s, a gap was developing in European society. Wealthy,
ASIA
autocratic rulers lived in great palaces, while the growing middle classes with
"new money" developed a different, forward-thinking outlook. Society changed During this time, India was slowly taken over by

greatly. Cities grew, bankers and inventors were busy, foreign goods and ideas the British. China resisted such changes, growing

arrived. New inventions enabled factories to start making manufactured goods in conservative and refusing to entertain new ideas
and foreign contact. Japan was still isolated, yet
large quantities. During the Napoleonic
modernizing faster than China. Other Asian
Wars, the old order was swept away
countries found themselves with both new
across much of Europe, and the rule of
friends and new enemies in the Europeans,
law and business grew stronger. Russia
who meddled in their affairs-always to their
expanded into the Far East, knocking
own advantage. Rivalry between Russia,
on China's door. Europe now dominated
China, and Britain for control of
the world, mainly as a result of trade,
central Asia grew stronger. Asian
industry, bravado, and cannons, and
traditions and stability were
its influence was still growing.
being undermined, and if
Asian rulers resisted, the
Europeans came in
the back door.

EUROPE

AUSTRALASIA
Following the explorations
of Captain Cook, Australia and
New Zealand became targets
for British colonization. Settlers
started arriving in the early
1800. The Maoris, who were
warriors, fought back, but the
Aborigines of Australia, who
lived simpler lives, were
easily controlled

AUSTRALASIA

AFRICA
Though Europeans and Arabs controlled
a few. coastal colonies, many African
nations were now strong. However,
their power came from trade with
Europeans. Some tribes dominated
MIDDLE EAST
others, and some, such as the Zulus The Middle East was weak at this time because
and Ashanti, were aggressive toward of the decline of the Ottomans. In North
their neighbors. African disunity made Africa and Egypt, Ottoman control was
it easier for Europeans to turn one lost. Persia remained stable, largely
nation against another. unaffected by outside influences.

291
 10,000 1500 500 300' 100B.C. | 0 A.D. 100 200 350 500 700

Austria and Prussia 1711-1786

The Austrian Empire was by now passing its peak, and
Brandenburg-Prussia was growing stronger. They both
sought to dominate the other states of Germany.

C harles VI, Archduke of Austria,

became Holy Roman Emperor in
1711. This made him the most powerful
man in Europe, and added the lands of the The enormous Schonbrunn Palace in Vienna, built
between 1696 and 1730, is a grand example of
Holy Roman Empire to Austrian territory.
decorative Rococo architecture.
After he died in 1740, three men claimed
that they, not Charles’s daughter Maria
Theresa, should be crowned. The rivals BRANDENBURG-PRUSSIA
were Charles of Bavaria, Philip V of The Hohenzollern dynasty of Brandenburg
Maria Theresa (1717- Spain, and Augustus of Saxony. inherited Prussia in 1618. By 1700,
1780) was Hapsburg The situation became more complicated Brandenburg-Prussia had become
empress from 1740.
She slowly improved
as other European states got involved. a leading Protestant power, with Berlin
conditions in the Austrian The War of the Austrian Succession as its capital. Its electors (kings) built
Empire with the help of (1740-1748) began when the Prussians an efficient government and helped its
well-chosen ministers,
invaded the Austrian province of Silesia. industries thrive. Prussia’s rise to power
and reformed local
government, education, Prussia was supported by France, Bavaria, began under Frederick William I. He
and the army. Saxony, Sardinia, and Spain. But Britain, reigned from 1713 to 1740 and built up
Hungary, and the Netherlands backed the army. His successor, Frederick the
Maria Theresa. In the end, Maria Theresa Great, used the army to challenge Austria,
kept her throne, but Austria was France, and Russia. During his reign, he
weakened, and Prussia kept Silesia. The doubled the size of Prussia, improved
balance of power in Germany shifted to its business and industry, and made it a
Prussia, and the Holy Roman Empire cultural center of the Enlightenment.
declined. Over a century later, in 1870, Over the next 100 years, Prussia gained
it was Prussia which united Germany, more lands, and increasingly dominated
and Austria was left out. Poland and northern Germany.

Frederick the Great (1712-

1786) became King of
Prussia in 1740. He
was stern, brave, and
ambitious. Under his
leadership, Prussia
became a strong nation.
He established religious
tolerance in Prussia and
freed his serfs. But many
men died as a result of
the wars he entered.

In the Battle of Fontenoy

in Belgium, in 1745,
France had a major victory
over Austria and its allies.
In this painting, the
French king Louis XV,
points to the victor of the
battle, Marshal de Saxe.

292
900 1100: 1200 1300 1400: 1500: 1600 1700 ! 1750 1800 1850 ! 1900 1950 I 2000

Scotland: the jacobites 1701-1746

During the early 1700s, the grievances of the Scottish The Jacobites supported James Stuart.
people and Stuart claims to the English throne led They planned rebellions both in England
to two fateful and bloody Scottish rebellions. and Scotland, but these failed. James

S cottish Highlanders, many of whom

were Catholic, felt threatened by Mary,
returned from France in 1715, but it
was too late; 26 soldiers were executed
and 700 sent to the West Indies as
daughter of James II, and the Dutch and punishment. In 1745, there was another
Protestant William III on the throne. They uprising. James’s son, popularly known
actively supported the return of a Scottish as “Bonnie Prince Charlie,” or the Young
Stuart. To control such sentiment, the Pretender, landed secretly in Scotland. He
English tried to break down the Highland overran Scotland, then invaded England.
clan system. The lairds (clan chiefs) were They got only as far south as Derby. In
forced to live in Edinburgh or London. As 1746, the Jacobites were cruelly defeated
Charles Edward Stuart a result, they needed more money. They at the Battle of Culloden.
(1720-1788), or "Bonnie
raised rents and cleared people from the Bonnie Prince Charlie fled, and returned
Prince Charlie" was half-
Scottish, half-Polish, and
highlands so that they could create large to France in disguise. The English gained
raised in Rome. He led a areas of farmland to increase production. control of the Highlands, and their
rebellion in Scotland and Family feeling in the clans broke down, revenge was severe. Highland lairds were
was beaten at the Battle
and relatives just became tenants, executed and clansfolk disarmed. Until
of Culloden in 1746.
without any clan rights. 1782, they were forbidden to wear kilts
When Mary’s sister Queen Anne died or play bagpipes. Over the years, clan
in 1714, her German cousin, George of lands were forcibly cleared of people to
Hanover, became king. He was the great- make way for grazing sheep, in order to
grandson of James I and a Protestant, but earn money by supplying wool to the
a foreigner. Some people felt that the woolen mills of England. Clansfolk were
Scottish James Stuart (1688-1766), son sent to live in the cities, Northern
of James II, had a better claim. Many Ireland, and the colonies.
Scottish people were also unhappy ▼ Bonnie Prince Charlie traveled from France and
about being joined with England in landed secretly in the Hebridean Islands off northwest
Flora Macdonald (1722— Scotland on his way to lead the rebellion of 1745.
the “United Kingdom” in 1707.
1790) was the daughter of
a laird who worked with the
English, but she supported
Bonnie Prince Charlie
and helped him escape,
disguised as her maid.

▲ The Jacobites were

beaten at Culloden by
English troops led by
the Duke of Cumberland.
He had all the wounded
killed, and the others were
chased and punished.

293
 10,000 5000 3000 i 1500 300 100 B.C. 0 a.d. 100! 200 i 350; 500 700 i

Agricultural revolution 1650-1800

During the 1700s, the landscape changed dramatically
in parts of Europe as profitable new farming methods
were introduced.

E uropean farming methods had not

changed for centuries. But by 1700,
landowners, botanists, and breeders,
particularly in England, were discussing
better ways of running farms and growing
crops. Scientists did research into
animal breeding, land management,
and raising crops. Cities and industries
were rapidly growing larger, and there
was more money to be made in farming.
As profits rose, landowners studied and
This cartoon shows a experimented even more. All this led
farm worker carrying al to an agricultural revolution.
the tools he needed to
use on the new farms
New plows were designed, and in 1701, The rural landscape changed greatly
of the 1700s. the English farmer Jethro Tull (1674- during the 1700s. In many parts of
1741) invented the horse-drawn seed drill, England, land had been farmed in large,
which allowed the mechanized planting open medieval fields. Villagers rented
of seeds in rows for ease of weeding. By strips of these fields, where they worked
rotating crops, soil fertility was increased, alongside their neighbors. This system
and by careful breeding, animals were provided enough food to keep people
improved. These methods all required alive, but it did not produce a surplus
financial investment and larger farms. to sell to town dwellers for profit.

▲ Thomas William Coke

(1752-1842), Earl of
Leicester, was a wealthy
landowner and a member
of Parliament. He was
famous as a leader in the
Agricultural Revolution.
He changed the way soil
was treated and the kinds
of crops that were grown.

► Each year, Thomas Coke

held a conference at his
country house, Holkham
Hall. Landowners and
breeders from all over
Europe met to discuss
new farming and breeding
methods. Here, he inspects
some of his sheep with a
visiting sheep breeder.

294
900 1100 1200 1300 | 1400 1500| 1600 | 1700) 1750 | 1800 | 1850 1900 1950 2000

The British Royal Agricultural

Society held outdoor meetings
each year, to show pedigree
animals and discuss farming.
This meeting, near Bristol
in southern England, took
place in the early 1800s.

THE ACTS OF ENCLOSURE

Landlords decided that their fields
could be farmed more efficiently if they
were enclosed. Hedges and walls were
built across fields, to create smaller
units that were easier to work. The
Acts of Enclosure, passed by Parliament
between 1759 and 1801, also meant
that common grazing land was enclosed.
In total, 7,400,000 acres (3 million ha]
of English land were enclosed during
the Agricultural Revolution.
Many tenants lost their livelihoods,
and had to move to towns. Rich landlords
established enormous estates with grand KEY DATES Experimental breeding
houses. Their farms grew large, and some of farm animals produced
1701 Jethro Tull invents seed drill for faster planting
new, improved strains,
estates were redesigned as beautiful 1730 Lord Townshend introduces the system of four-
such as this Old English
parkland by landscape gardeners like crop rotation
breed of pig.
1737 Linnaeus develops a system of plant classification
Lancelot (“Capability”) Brown. This was
1754 Charles Bonnet publishes a study of the food
all supported by the government, which value of various crops
itself was made up of landowners. But it 1804 French scientist Sussure explains how plants grow
brought hardship to ordinary farmers.

Growing the same crop every

year eventually weakens the soil.
Using crop rotation increases
soil fertility, especially if clover
is sown every fourth year.
This enriches the soil and
lets it rest. Crops planted
in the next three years
grow better.

295
 300 100 B.C. A.D. 100 : 200 ! 350 I 500 700
10,000 5000 3000 1500 500 !

Industry: early revolution 1708-1815

The Industrial Revolution began in Britain in the The fantail windmill was invented
by Edmund Lee in 1745. The top
cotton industry. It brought a wealth of change—a rotated, steered by the fantail,
rapid growth of cities, mines, canals, and factories. so that the sails always turned

D uring the early 1700s, most people

made goods in a traditional way,
toward the wind. It was used
to pump water and grind grain.

usually by hand, at home or in small

workshops. The men were carpenters,
blacksmiths, and weavers. Others
were farm laborers, who worked on
the land to grow crops to feed their
families. Women worked at home,
looking after the animals, cleaning
sheep fleeces, and spinning wool
into yarn for clothes. The Industrial
Revolution changed all this. Many people
began to move into towns to work for
The cotton gin was patented
by Eli Whitney (1765-1825), wages where employers were starting
in 1794. It was used to larger-scale production to increase profit.
remove seeds and impurities
The Industrial Revolution began in
from cotton fibers.
Britain in the textile industry. Machines,
powered by waterwheels, speeded up
the spinning, weaving, and finishing of
cloth. Larger mills and factories were
built. New towns sprang up in areas
such as Yorkshire and Staffordshire
in England, and the Ruhr Valley in
Germany. Industrial cities such as
Newcastle, Lille, Leipzig, and Rotterdam
expanded rapidly. A network of canals was Britain became known as the “workshop
▲ The first multireel
thread-spinning machine, built to transport goods efficiently. Soon, of the world.” The Industrial Revolution
the spinning jenny, steam engines were developed. Newcomen began there because, unlike much of
was invented by James
built a steam engine in 1712 for pumping Europe, it was not ravaged by war. It had
Hargreaves (1720—
1778) in 1764. water from mines, but it was not until plentiful supplies of iron ore and coal; it
1774 that James Watt and Matthew was quick to develop a canal system; it
▼ This is a flax mill from
around 1800, where flax
Boulton built engines to power machines. had plenty of cheap labor [because of
fibers were spun and In 1709, Abraham Darby began to smelt enclosures of farmland}; and plenty of
woven into linen. iron in a blast furnace using coke. money was available from colonial profits.

296
900 ! 1100 1200 1300 1400i 1500 1600 1700 1750 j 1800 i 1850 1900 1950 2000

The first steam

engine, built by Thomas
Newcomen (1663-1729) in
1712, pumped water out of
mines. Later designs were
used to power factories.

KEY DATES
1709 Abraham Darby
invents blast furnace
1712 Newcomen
builds a steam engine
for use in mines
1730 John Kay
introduces mechanical
textile machines
1759 Wedgwood's
porcelain factory opens
1764 Hargreaves
invents spinning jenny
1769 Thomas
Arkwright invents
a water-powered
spinning machine
1769 Nicolas Cugnot
builds a steam-
BRITAIN'S INDUSTRY BOOMS The Agricultural and early Industrial
powered vehicle for
By 1815, Britain’s output of coal, textiles, revolutions went hand in hand. The the French army
and metals was equal to that of the rest of factories supplied new machines and tools 1773 Arkwright builds
Europe. It had taken a century to reach to farmers, and farmers became more like his first spinning mill
that point. Tremendous social changes businessmen who sold their products to (factory)
1794 Eli Whitney
took place as people moved from the growing populations in the towns. The
patents the cotton gin
country to the towns—families and personal relationships of local country life
1807 Robert Fulton's
villages broke up, and workers were and local trade gave way to financial deals, steamboat makes
exploited by powerful factory owners. middlemen, and contracts. The “dark, first trip
Many children died working in mines satanic mills” commented on by the
and mills. A new class of rich industrialists poet William Blake were taking over.
gradually evolved, as well as managers and
professionals. London became the financial
capital of Europe. Manufactured products
were exported around the world, and
raw materials such as silk, cotton,
and timber were carried to new
ports such as Liverpool and
Glasgow, then taken
inland by canal.

The invention of the

steam engine allowed
railroads to be built to
transport coal from mines
to factories. In 1812, John
Blenkinsop (1783-1831)
designed steam rack
locomotives that were
used on the Middleton
Railway in England.

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 10,000 5000 I 3000 ! 1500 1 500 1 300 I 100 B.C. 0 I A.0. 100 200 350 500 700

India in transition 1707-1835

During the 1700s India suffered great devastation British territory 1763
because of war and foreign interference. The Mogul
Delhi
Empire was replaced by the British Raj.

I n 1707, the Mogul emperor Aurangzeb

died. During his long reign he had spent
Mogul
Agra#

Empire
^
Buxorcffo
Bengal
Patna
Plassey
Chandenagore • .Calcutta
many years trying to maintain power and INDIA
Fort William
hold the empire together. The religious Arabian
Sea Yanaon Bay of
tolerance that his predecessor Akbar had Bengal
Masulipatamo& •
once encouraged had broken down. After Madras
Aurangzeb’s death, India began a century Wandewash
of war as different groups tried to gain Pondicherry
Kariki
control. Local rulers, who were entrusted fW
CEYLON (SRI LANKA)
Robert Clive (1725- by Mogul emperors with responsibility
1774) was a soldier for the protection of distant states, built War in Europe between Britain and France spread
and administrator for overseas. Several major battles involving French, British,
the British East India
up their own private kingdoms in Oudh,
and Indian troops took place in India from 1756 to 1763.
Company in the 1750s Hyderabad, and Bengal instead. In western
and 1760s. By winning India and the Punjab, rebellions were
key battles against the
organized by the Hindu Maratha In 1739, the Persians under Nadir Shah
French and Indians, and
by diplomacy and bribery, states and Sikh princes. invaded the north and sacked Delhi, the
he strengthened the From 1740 to 1760, the Hindu Marathas Mogul capital, killing 30,000 people. The
British hold on India.
conquered central India, taking over most Sikhs of the Punjab had established virtual
of the Mogul lands. But their attempt to independence by 1762. The Nizam of
take over the Mogul Empire in 1761 Hyderabad took various lands in central
was thwarted by invading Afghans. and southern India. India was in chaos.

▲ As governor general
of the French East India
Company, Joseph-Frangois,
Marquis de Dupleix
(1697-1763) built up
a sepoy (native Indian)
army and challenged
British interests in
southern India. The
appointment of Robert
Clive as commander of
British troops finally
defeated the French plans.

► The ruler of Persia

(today's Iran), Nadir Shah
(1688-1747), was a brilliant
but ruthless general. In
1739, he led his troops in
a successful attack on
Delhi, the Mogul capital.

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900) 1100; 1200! 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700: 17501 1800 | 1850 1900 1950) 2000

THE BRITISH TAKEOVER

The fragile Mogul Empire was also
threatened by ambitious Europeans. The
British and French East India Companies
had acquired vast possessions in India,
centered on their profitable trading posts.
They made alliances with discontented
Indian leaders, using a mixture of
diplomacy, bribes, and bullying. The
French were given Mogul land in southern
India by the Nawab (local ruler) of
Hyderabad, in return for military support.
The British allied with the Marathas and
Mysore. The British general, Robert Clive,
fought and defeated the French in 1752.
Then, in 1756, the ruler of Bengal seized
the British base in Calcutta. The following
year, the British victory at Plassey gained
them Bengal. By 1761, the British had INDIA’S DOWNFALL Robert Clive met Mir Jafar,
seized the French base at Pondicherry, From 1707 to 1858, India went through a Mogul general, in 1757,
and offered him money
and ended the French influence in India. a period of war and upheaval, followed and other advantages if
During the next hundred years, the by a gradual takeover by the British. In he changed sides. Mir
British East India Company gained ever- the early 1800s, the British overcame the Jafar's support helped the
British win power in India.
larger territories, or forced independent Marathas and invaded central India, Sind,
states to obey them. It was only in 1858 and the Punjab (now Pakistan). Christian
that the Indian Raj, the company’s rule missionaries were allowed in from 1813,
in India, was taken over by the British roads were built, and a new class of
government. Queen Victoria was made English-educated Indians emerged to help
empress of India. run the vast country. There were many
small independent states, but they
survived only if they obeyed the
British. India was not united,
but it was under
British control.

▲ Ivory carving is an
ancient Indian art form.
This ivory comb, made
in Mysore, in the 1700s,
shows Lakshmi, the
goddess of good fortune
and prosperity.

◄ When the British took

control, they tried to
stop the feared practice
of thuggee, in which
members of a Hindu
sect (thugs) attacked
travelers and strangled
them as a sacrifice to
Kali, the goddess of
death and destruction.

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 10,000 5000 3000 1500 500 300 ! 100 B.C. 0 A.D. 100 200 350 500 700:

The SEVEN YEARS’ WAR 1756-1763

The Seven Years' War was a battle between the SWEDEN British territory
European powers for continental dominance, Prussian
territory
and for control at sea and of overseas colonies.
Austrian
D uring much of the 1700s,
Austria, Prussia, Russia, and
GREAT BRITAIN
PRUSSIA
Hapsburg
territory
Han°VeZo^orf ^Leuthen RUSSIA
France each wanted to take control SILESIA
Paris, - BOHEMIA
of Europe. This was unfinished
business left over from the War FRANCE
STRIA
/
of the Austrian Succession, which / HUNGARY
ended in 1748. But none of the
European powers was strong SPAIN
enough to win on its own, so they
made alliances. As a result, there
William Pitt, the 1st Earl was an uneasy balance of power.
of Chatham (1708-1778) The Seven Years’ War involved many nations, each with
Austria, France, Sweden, Russia,
was British secretary of its own aims. Prussia and Britain gained the most. Prussia
state from 1756 to 1761.
and Spain were opposed to Prussia, Britain, kept Silesia, and Britain gained greater control of
He directed the British and Flanover. Austria wanted to recapture Canada, India, and the seas.
involvement in the Seven Silesia from Prussia, and England and
Years’ War with a sharp
France were already fighting over their Then the British, under secretary of state
sense of strategy.
Indian and Canadian colonies. But wars William Pitt (“Pitt the Elder”), joined the
▼ The Seven Years' War was were expensive in time, money, weapons, Prussians. Prussian victories in 1757 at
costly in lives and money and lives, and they drained the warring the battles of Rossbach (against France),
for all the participants and states’ resources. Fighting started in Leuthen (against Austria), and Zorndorf
fought on a large scale,
as this skirmish involving
1756 and lasted for seven years. At (against Russia), along with British success
Prussian and British first, it seemed as if the Austrians against the French at Plassey in India and
soldiers demonstrates. and French would win. in Quebec, restored the balance of power.

300
900 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 : 1600 1700 1750 1800 1850 I 1900 1950 2000

HOW THE WAR ENDED Ministers and diplomats now In the Battle of Quiberon
In 1759, a British-Prussian army defeated controlled governments and, after Bay, off Brittany in
November 1759, the
the French at Minden in Germany and the prolonged deprivation, many countries British navy defeated the
British navy defeated the French fleet at preferred to talk rather than make war. French and, from then on,
Quiberon Bay northwest France. In 1760, In the Treaty of Paris in 1763, it was dominated the high seas.

the British took Montreal in Canada. agreed that Britain would get French lands
Then, in 1761, William Pitt was forced to in Canada and India, and the Prussians
resign because his policies were unpopular would keep the rich province of Silesia.
with other politicians. Elizabeth, the
czarina of Russia died in 1762, and the KEY DATES
new czar, Peter III, withdrew Russia from 1740-48 War of the Austrian Succession
the war. However, this did not bring an 1756 The Seven Years' War breaks out

end to the hostilities. What actually 1757 Battle of Plassey—British control of

India grows
ended it was the expense and destruction
1757-58 Prussia battles for survival-victories
it brought to all sides as they ran out of at battles of Rossbach and Leuthen
This medal was made
in honor of the alliance
money and military materials. 1759 British gains in Canada and at sea;
forged at Versailles in
Battle of Minden—British-Prussian victory 1756 between Austria
▼ The Battle of Zorndorf was fought between the
1760 British take Montreal, Canada and France.
Russians and the Prussians in 1758. The battle was fierce,
1762 Russia withdraws from the war
and neither side really won, but Prussia benefited most,
1763 Treaty of Paris ends the war
since it fended off a Russian invasion.

301
 10,000 i 5000 3000 ! 1500 500 300 1 100 B.C. ! 0 A.D. 100 200 350 500 700

North America 1675-1791

The mid-1700s saw a conflict for control of North
Miquelon
America between settlers and the Native Americans,
CANADA
and between the English and the French.

F rench and British colonists had been

fighting for many years. First came St. Pierre
0K0 Quebec
King Philip’s War (1675-1676), in which Great Lakes Montreal
the New England Wampanoag tribes rose NORTH Fort Oswego o/i> •Boston
AMERICA • Philadelphia
up against the settlers. The Wampanoag
Fort Duquesne o
lost, but not before killing 10 percent of
the adult males in Massachusetts. King Yorktown
British
William’s War (1689-1697), between
English and French settlers, did not French
Louisiana
achieve much. In Queen Anne’s War S Spanish
(1702-1713), the English took Acadia
Joseph Brant, also Indian
known as Thayendanegea, (Nova Scotia) and destroyed Spanish territory
(1742-1807), was a St. Augustine in Florida. Finally, in King wfefv
Mohawk. Fie was
George’s War (1744-1748), the British
befriended by an English
official, who gave him captured Louisbourg, a French fort, but European possessions in North America at the beginning
an English name and it was returned in 1748 in exchange of the Seven Years' War in 1756. By the end of the war
education. Brant fought in 1763, Britain controlled most of France's lands.
for Madras in India.
with the British when he
was just 13, and became These wars were all related to European PONTIAC'S REBELLION
a captain in 1775. Fie conflicts. Each side had one long-term In 1763, there was a Native American
later visited London and aim: they wanted to control North uprising. Pontiac (1720-1769) was chief
was received at the
British court.
America. Each side was helped by Native of the Ottawa and of a confederacy of
Americans, who fought in all the wars, Algonquin tribes. To drive the British out,
hoping to receive support in their own the tribes attacked places from the Great
disputes with colonists in return. But Lakes to Virginia. Some 200 settlers were
the Native Americans generally lost out to killed. The British retaliated, and in 1766,
the settlers, who did not respect them. For Pontiac made peace. He was assassinated
example, between 1730 and 1755, in Illinois in 1769 by a British-paid
the Shawnee and Delaware Native American.
peoples were forced
from their lands. CAPTURE OF ACADIA
Acadia, or Nova Scotia, was claimed by the French
in 1603 and settled by them. Britain also claimed
it, and attacked it several times during the 1600s.
Finally, they captured it in 1710, though the
French held on to nearby Cape Breton Island. In
the late 1750s, the British threw out 10,000 of the
Acadians. Many went to Louisiana, settling around
the mouth of the Mississippi, where they became
known as Cajuns. Nova Scotia was then
populated by Scottish people, many
of whom had lost their lands in
the Highland Clearances.

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900 ! iioo i 12001 1300 1400) 1500 1600 ! 1700 i 1750 ! 1800 1850| 1900 1950 | 2000

The British taking of Quebec in 1759 meant

the beginning of the end of New France.
The battle took place in the fields
outside the city. The British and
French generals, James Wolfe
(1727-1759) and the
Marquis de Montcalm
(1712-1759), both
died during the
fighting.

CANADA After the American Revolution,

The French and Indian War (part of many colonists loyal to the crown,
the Seven Years’ War) was fought from but with strong feelings about
1754. French colonists had settled in the freedom, moved north to Canada.
Ohio Valley, and the British claimed it So, in 1791, the British
for themselves, so the French built a chain Constitutional Act split
of forts and refused to leave. The French Quebec into English-speaking
won some important battles in 1755 (Fort Upper Canada (Ontario) and
Duquesne) and 1756 (Fort Oswego). But French-speaking Lower Canada
the British captured Acadia in 1755, (Quebec). The Act set up a
Quebec in 1759, and Montreal in 1760. government with an elected
The Treaty of Paris in 1763 gave Britain body in each of the two provinces. Through the death
many former French colonies, and New The British hoped that this would satisfy of General Montcalm
near Quebec in 1759, the
France became British. Britain now the growing demand for a government French lost their military
controlled all of the lands east of the in which people felt they had a say. The leadership, and thus lost
Mississippi River, and some French French were also guaranteed continuing control of Canada.

lands were given to Spain in exchange freedom of religion.

for Florida, which became British. KEY DATES
1675-76 King
Philip's War
1686-97 King
William's War
1710 Acadia taken
by the English
1739-41 The British
fight Spanish Florida
1744-48 King
George's War
1754-63 French
and Indian War
1760 British gain
control of Canada
In 1775, Ethan
1763-66 Pontiac's
Allen (1738-1789)
Rebellion
and the Green Mountain
1775 American
Boys attacked the British
garrison at Fort Ticonderoga. Revolution begins
This was the first colonial victory
in the American Revolution.

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 10,000 5000 i 3000 1500 500 300 100 B.C. i 0 a.d. 100 I 200 350 500 70'

Trade with china 1700-1830

Trade with China was profitable, but the government
there did not want “barbarian” influences introduced.
European merchants looked for other ways to trade.

T hroughout the 1700s, Chinese

silk, cotton, tea, lacquerware,
and porcelain were highly prized in
Europe. They were expensive and in
short supply. Merchants from Portugal,
Britain, Italy, and the Netherlands tried
to expand trade with China. But the
powerful Chinese emperors, who
controlled all contact between their
people and foreigners, were simply
not interested. Qianlong (Ch’ien-lung),
emperor for 60 years, was a scholar
and traditionalist who had no time for China reached its largest size during the reign of
Qianlong, spreading its tentacles into central Asia and
“barbarians.” The Europeans’ problem
Tibet-but this expansion was expensive and brought few
Qianlong (1711-1795) was that they had to pay for everything benefits except keeping out the British and the Russians.
ruled China for 60 years in silver, because Chinese traders were not
from 1735. He was a
philosopher-emperor
allowed to exchange foreign for Chinese THE OPIUM TRADE
who supported the goods. Also, Europeans were permitted Opium had long been used in China
arts, wrote poetry, to trade only in Guangzhou (Canton), for medicinal purposes. Since European
and created libraries.
where they were penned up in “factories” merchants were looking for other ways to
(fortified warehouses), and trade, they established links with Chinese
forced to trade through drug dealers, and sold them vast quantities
Chinese intermediaries. of opium (5,000 barrels every year by the
European traders 1820s), from countries such as Burma.
were competitive, In return, they received precious Chinese
and fought to get the goods for Europe. The trade grew
best Chinese goods steadily in the late 1700s, and the Qing
and to ship them government tried to stop it. By the 1830s,
to Europe quickly to opium use was spreading through China,
fetch the highest prices. making people lazy, harming society and
the economy, and costing China dearly.
▲ These Chinese maps
from around 1800 show
China, the "Middle
Kingdom," sitting at the
center of the world. At
the time, China was
isolated-but the world
was knocking at its door.

► In 1793, the British

diplomat Lord Macartney
visited the Chinese
emperor to encourage
trade relations. Such
relations were rejected,
so people resorted to
illegal deals. China and
Britain had little respect
for each other.

304
THE QING DYNASTY EUROPEAN INTERVENTION The foreign trading
The Qing emperors were not keen to The Qing emperors believed that stations or "factories"
at Guangzhou were the
develop trade because they had urgent China was the center of the world— only places where trading
problems at home. Years of peace and “the Middle Kingdom, surrounded with China was permitted.
prosperity had led to huge growth in the by barbarians.” When a British Europeans could not travel
outside their compound,
population (400 million by 1800], and ambassador traveled to Beijing in
and they could trade only
there were now food shortages. Taxes 1793, Qianlong refused to discuss during certain months.
were high, corruption was growing, and the trade. From then on, foreigners
population was moving from place to place. decided to get their way by other
The Qing were very conservative, means, and the opium trade increased.
remote, and stubborn. As as result, By 1800, life was oppressive for many
there were protests and uprisings, often Chinese. They were heavily taxed,
organized by secret societies with political and He Shen, a corrupt official, had
ambitions. The White Lotus sect caused a gained power. Smoking opium
peasant rebellion which lasted from 1795 provided an escape. In 1839, when
to 1804. The effect of this was to weaken the Chinese tried to stop the trade,
people’s respect for the Qing dynasty. the British went to war. Even control
Foreigners—Russians, Japanese, of the world tea supply was almost
Tibetans, and other ethnic at an end. During the 1840s, Robert A The Temple of Heaven
was rebuilt in 1751 during
minorities, as well as the Fortune stole several tea plants in
Qianlong's reign. The
Europeans—were also China, took them to India, and set wooden prayer hall was
nibbling at China’s edges. up rival plantations. enormous and highly
decorated, and the roof
was covered with blue
ceramic tiles.

◄ Macao was a
Portuguese colony on a
peninsula not far from
Guangzhou.It had been
established in 1557, with
imperial permission, and it
was a center for Chinese
and Japanese trade.

305
 300! 100 B.C. A.D. 1001 200! 350 5001 700
10,000 5000 3000! 1500! 500

The age of logic 1700-1789

The pursuit of logic and reason during the 1600s gave
rise to further new social and political ideas in the
1700s. This is often called 'The Enlightenment."

T he German philosopher Immanuel

Kant wrote “Dare to know) Have
the courage to use your own intelligence!”
People were no longer interested in
traditional beliefs. The scientific research
of the 1600s had begun a widespread
process of examination and exploration
of the world and, as a result, in the 1700s
great encyclopedias were published that
recorded this knowledge.
A Voltaire (1694-1778) Between 1751 and 1772, Denis Diderot
was one of France's
compiled the 28-volume Encyclopedia, with
greatest thinkers and
200 contributors. In 1755, Samuel Johnson This cartoon of
authors. He wrote poetry,
Thomas Paine (1737-
plays, philosophical works, published his Dictionary of the English 1809) shows him as a
and the novel Candide. His
Language, and the Encyclopedia Britannica champion of liberty. Paine
openly critical attitude
was published between 1768 and 1771. supported and provided
meant that he fell out of
many of the ideas which
favor with the French court. The Enlightenment also represented a
lay behind both the
search for happiness, justice, and knowledge, American and French
▼ An imaginary portrait by in music, romance, travel, philosophy, and revolutions.

the British artist and poet politics. Many absolute rulers and powerful
William Blake (1757-1827). landowners enjoyed new ideas, but they THE SPREAD OF IDEAS
It shows Sir Isaac Newton
calculating how the
feared the consequences of ordinary people The Enlightenment was led by philosophers
universe is held together reading and talking about them. Such ideas such as Kant and Voltaire, the economist
by the law of gravitation. would soon lead to revolutions. Adam Smith, the composers Haydn and
Mozart, and political thinkers such as
Rousseau, Locke, and Paine. Voltaire was a
French writer who criticized intolerance, and
rewrote the history of the world, as well as
writing dramas and essays that commented
on society and politics. Adam Smith, a
Scottish economist, described the workings
of modern economies and free markets. The
French political thinker, Jean-Jacques
Rousseau, wrote about social equality and
democracy. Thomas Paine, a British-born
revolutionary writer who visited America
and France, wrote The Rights of Man which
strongly influenced popular ideas.
It was also a time when people began to
find things out by scientific experiment and
observation. During this period, the basics
of modern chemistry were established, and
advances were also made in biology. These
developments would help scientists in the
future. Literature became more realistic as
the first modern novels appeared. More
people than ever could read, so new
ideas spread more rapidly.
306
900 1100| 1200) 1300 1 1400 1500 I 1600 1700 1 1750 1800 1850 I 1900 | 1950 2000

◄ The French philosophers

and encyclopedists, Voltaire
(with his hand up), Diderot,
Abbe, Maury, Condorcet,
and others, meet for dinner.
In addition to compiling the
Encyclopedia, they became
the mouthpiece and focus
for radical social ideas, and
they criticized the ancien
regime (the old order) for
its conservative and
authoritarian ways.

In a Europe battered by war, heavy ► Denis Diderot (1713-

1784) was the editor
taxes, inequalities, and oppressive
of the Encyclopedia,
governments, freethinking and freedom¬ published between
seeking aspirations were becoming more 1751 and 1772. The
28 volumes included
prevalent. The first result of this bid for
17 books of text and
freedom occurred outside Europe, in the 11 books of pictures.
colonies of North America. Unexpectedly, Each volume was
censored by the
a revolution was brewing there, which
publishers if they
would encourage another revolution did not agree
in France and further radical changes with his views.
across the continent of Europe.

KEY DATES
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
(1712-1778) was another 1721 J. S. Bach composes Brandenburg Concertos
of France's leading 1730 Peak of Rococo architecture
Enlightenment thinkers. 1743 American Philosophical Society founded
In 1762, he wrote The 1749 Fielding's novel Tom Jones published
Social Contract in which 1750s Capability Brown, landscape artist, at work
he emphasized the rights 1751 Publication of the Encyclopedia starts
of people. In his novel 1752 Benjamin Franklin identifies electricity
Emile, he proposed a 1760s Rousseau at work in France
new theory of education.
1768 Royal Academy of Arts founded in England
1770s Goethe, German poet and dramatist, at work
1776 American Declaration of Independence
1780s Mozart and Haydn, composers, at work
1781 Kant's Critique of Pure Reason written
1790s French Revolution takes place
1807 Abolition of slavery in England

307
 10,000 5000 3000 15001 500 300 100 B.C. 0 a.d. 100: 200 i 3501 500 70C

Africa 1700-1830
Africa was now strongly affected by its increasing
trade with Europeans and Arabs. Many African
kingdoms grew strong and rich as a result.

D uring the 1700s, the continent of

Africa was relatively peaceful. In
the north, the Ottoman Empire, which
controlled Egypt, continued to decline.
The Ashanti people on the west coast
grew increasingly rich by selling slaves. In
the southeast, the Portuguese were slowly
building up a colony in Mozambique. The
lands of the east coast [now Kenya) were
ruled from Oman, a kingdom to the north,
on the Arabian Sea. At the southern tip,
Shaka Zulu (1787-1828) the Cape of Good Hope, Dutch settlers
became Zulu leader in
1816. He taught them
began to explore the inland territory. Many new states were growing in Africa, and there was
much movement of peoples. Europeans and Arabs had
battle skills and expanded
small coastal colonies, but their influence inland was
their lands in
mainly felt through trade, rather than invasion.
southeastern
Africa.

NEW AFRICAN STATES

During the 1700s, an average of 35,000
slaves each year were being sent from
western Africa to the Americas. But, by
the end of the century, the British were
having second thoughts, and in 1787,
tlrey established Sierra Leone as a refuge
for freed slaves. In 1822, Liberia was
founded for freed slaves from the United
States. Most European countries stopped
trading in slaves in the early 1800s, but
Portugal continued until 1882.
The Yao and Nyamwezi empires in
eastern Africa virtually emptied that
area to provide slaves. Ashanti and Oyo
dominated the West African slave trade
into the 1800s, then they started selling
timber, ivory, hides, gold, and beeswax to
the Europeans instead. This changed the
West African farming practice of growing
cash crops for export. Meanwhile, in
eastern Africa, slaves continued to be sent
by the Omani Arabs to Arabia and India.
The Zulu nation in southern Africa, led
Zulu warriors
by King Shaka, fought constantly with its
were armed with
stabbing spears known neighbors. The bloodshed was so great
as assegai. They wore that the years from 1818 to 1828 became
battle headdresses and known as mfecane, or the time of troubles.
ornamental shields to
frighten their enemies
There were migrations from the Sudan,
and also to recognize the Tutsi moved into Rwanda, and the
each other in battle. Masai into Kenya from farther north.
308
 1 J j
900 1100! 1200 ! 1300j 1400! 1500 ! 1600 1750 1800 | 1850 1900 | 1950 1 2000

AFRICAN MUSLIM STATES ▲ In 1809, the Hausa

city of Kano in northern
On the southern edge of the Sahara,
Nigeria was captured
there was an Islamic revival. Many Muslims by the Muslim leader
expected a mahdi, or savior, to appear, and Usman dan Fodio, of
the Hausa kingdom of
various African caliphs, moved by this
Gobir. The Hausa cities
possibility, founded new, well-organized converted to Islam, and
states such as Sokoto, Mossi, Tukulor, and became part of an Afro-
Samori in inland West Africa. In Egypt, Islamic state called the
Sokoto Caliphate. Mehmet Ali Pasha (1769-1849) was the Ottoman governor
Mehmet Ali Pasha took control from the
of Egypt, but he made Egypt virtually independent of the
Mamluks in 1811, modernized the country, Ottomans and invaded the lands up the Nile River in
and invaded Sudan in the 1820s. Sudan, making Egypt the leading power in the eastern
Africa was changing rapidly. Most Mediterranean. He ruled Egypt from 1805 to 1848.

of it still belonged to Africans,

MASSACRE OF THE MAMLUKS
but they were not united against
their common threat, the Arabs The Mamluks were originally slaves, captured in the 800s by Muslim armies in the
Caucasus and Russia. They were mostly Cossacks and Chechens by origin, trained to
and Europeans. As a result,
serve as soldiers and administrators in Egypt. By 1200, they had become palace
Africa was vulnerable. guards and ministers. They then overthrew the sultan and ruled Egypt from
1249 to 1517. When the Ottomans took Egypt, the Mamluks became the
ruling class under the Ottomans. As Ottoman power declined in
the 1700s, they regained power in Egypt. After Mehmet Ali
Pasha conquered the Mamluks in 1811 and took
control of Egypt, he invited all the surviving
Mamluk commanders to a banquet in
»' t Hi
Cairo where he had them massacred

>2

309
 0 A.0. 100 I 200 j 350 500 700
10,000 5000 i 3000 | 1500 j 500 ! 300 } 100 B.C. |

Modernizing Russia 1730-1796

The rulers who followed Peter the Great continued
his strategy of westernization and expansion, making
Russia into a great European power.

W hen Peter the Great died in

1725, his wife became Czarina
Catherine I. However, she died after only
a few years. Anna Ivanovna ruled for ten
years from 1730, continuing Peter’s pro-
Western policies, and welcoming many
foreigners at court. The Russian people
themselves suffered. The czarina’s court
in St. Petersburg cared more about music,
Peter III (1728-1762) poetry, and wars against the Ottomans
was czar for half a year. or the Europeans, than about the
A grandson of Peter the
welfare of the peasants.
Great, he did not have the
character to be czar, and From 1741, Peter’s daughter, Elizabeth
he was not liked. Czarina (1709-1762), made Russia even more
Elizabeth forced him to
westward-looking and industrial, and she
marry Catherine.
declared war on Prussia in the Seven Years’
T Winter was often a War. In 1745, she forced her son Peter, the
good time to travel in heir to the Russian throne, to marry
Russia, because the snow Catherine, who was from a poor but noble
made progress faster.
Catherine the Great
Prussian family. The marriage was not a Catherine the Great (1729-1796) ruled Russia for 34
happy one. When Elizabeth died in 1762, years. Other European leaders respected Catherine for her
traveled in an enclosed
achievements in foreign policy, but feared her power.
sled drawn by horses. Peter III ruled briefly.

CATHERINE THE GREAT

Peter III was a weak man, and Catherine
despised him. Six months after his
coronation, he was deposed and murdered.
Catherine declared herself empress and
ruled in his place. Although she was
intelligent and cultured, she carried her
private ruthlessness into public life.
To support Catherine’s wars and her
lavish court, Russia was drained of wealth
in tax and young men. She planned to
improve education and social conditions,
but there were few educated officials to
carry out these plans. So she asked the
nobility for help, and gave them extra
powers. This made the peasants’ situation
even worse, and led to Pugachev’s
Rebellion in 1773-1774. Rebels took the
city of Kazan, and promised to abolish tax,
serfdom, landlords, and military service.
But Pugachev was brutally crushed.

◄ From the 1500s to the 1700s, the Russian Empire had

more than doubled in size. During Catherine's reign, it
gained ports on the coasts of the Baltic and Black seas.
900 11001 12001 1300 | 14001 1500 1 1600 ! 1700 1750 1800 1850! 1900! 1950 2000

FOREIGN POLICY
Catherine’s appointment of a reform
commission in the 1760s failed, so she
chose autocratic rule, and divided the
country into regions, each ruled by
nobles. Then she left the nobles to
take care of Russia’s internal affairs.
Her claim to greatness comes from the
way she expanded Russia’s lands. This
strategy of expansion was masterminded
by two ministers, Count Alexander
Suvarov and Grigori Potemkin. In the
north and west, new lands were won
from Sweden in 1790. Most of Poland
was seized when it was partitioned
(divided). These gains gave Russia
important seaports on the Baltic coast.
In the south, Russia took Azov from
the Ottomans, then the Crimea, and,
by 1792, the whole northern shore of
the Black Sea. The Ottomans no longer
controlled the Black Sea and Russia Life at the Russian court
was rich and elegant,
built up a powerful navy. To the east,
sheltered from reality, and
Russia’s gradual development of KEY DATES out of touch. In contrast,
Siberia was also stepped up. 1741 Elizabeth becomes czarina the peasants lived in
But Catherine was very cruel. Courtiers 1756-63 Russia joins the Seven Years' War poverty. When Catherine
the Great traveled through
were flogged, and peasants who dared 1762 Catherine the Great becomes czarina
Russia in 1787 to see how
1772 First partition of Poland
to complain about their situation were her subjects lived, the
1783 Russia annexes the Crimea
punished. Many poor people faced streets of the towns were
1792 Russia gains Black Sea coast lined with healthy, well-
starvation, yet Catherine continued 1793-95 Second and Third partitions of Poland dressed actors. The real
to collect heavy taxes to pay for her 1796 Death of Catherine the Great peasants were kept
wars and extravagant lifestyle. hidden from view.

pu.
fyfij

wm w
HMiSfl SIX
1 j )jl
d/jfl
This painting of the inside
IT!>. Pm
of the Winter Palace
in St. Petersburg shows
how impressive life
in St. Petersburg was.
Tropical plants thrived
indoors, while people
sometimes froze to death
just outside the palace.

311
 10,000 5000 3000 1500 500 300 100 B.C. A.D. 100 200 350 500 700

Exploration in Oceania 1642-1820

The exploration of Oceania came about quite late
compared with other parts of the world. It was
pioneered by Tasman, Cook, and other explorers.

D uring the 1600s, Dutch seamen

explored the southern Pacific and
Indian oceans. By the 1620s, they had
found the northern and western coast
of Australia, naming it “New Holland.”
In 1642, the Dutchman Abel Tasman
[1603-1659] discovered the island of
Tasmania. He had sailed from Mauritius
and traveled so far south that he did not On Cook's first voyage, he sailed from the tip of South
America to New Zealand and proved that there was no
Between 1768 and 1779, sight Australia. Farther to the east, Tasman
large continent in between as many people thought.
the navigator Captain reached the south island of New Zealand.
James Cook (1728-1779)
made three voyages of
After a fight with its Maori inhabitants,
discovery to the Pacific. he returned to Batavia in the Dutch East The first scientific exploration of these
In 1770, he landed at Indies, and discovered Tonga and Fiji on southern lands was undertaken by Captain
Botany Bay and claimed
the way. The next year, he sailed along James Cook, who made three voyages. The
Australia for Britain.
the northern coast of Australia. first voyage (1768-1771) took him around
In 1688 and 1699, the English navigator New Zealand. Then he landed at Botany
William Dampier (1652-1715) explored Bay in Australia, claiming it for Britain.
the western and northwestern coastline On his second voyage (1772-1775), he
of Australia. These explorers proved that explored many Pacific islands and
Australia was an island, but they did not Antarctica. On his last voyage, started
settle there. The Pacific remained largely in 1776, he visited New Zealand, Tonga,
unknown since it was too distant and too Tahiti, and finally Hawaii, where he was
poor to attract European trading interest. killed in a quarrel with the islanders.

THE VOYAGES OF CAPTAIN COOK

Jean-Frangois La Perouse
Captain Cook was commissioned to sail to Tahiti to observe the passage
(1741-1788) was sent by
of Venus in front of the sun. After this, he was secretly sent south to
Louis XVI to sail around
chart New Zealand and Australia for the British government. On his
the world on a scientific
second voyage, he was the first explorer to visit the Antarctic, but he
expedition. He traveled
was driven back by pack ice. Cook discovered the value of carrying
the oceans with a crew
vegetables and fruit for his sailors, so preventing scurvy (caused
of scientists, charting,
by lack of Vitamin C). He also took well-trained
observing, and collecting
artists with him because he was determined
samples while visiting
that the findings should be scientifically
Canada, Siberia, and
recorded. He died in Hawaii, in 1779,
Australia. His ships
while on his third voyage.
disappeared in 1788.
900 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 I 1600 1700 1750 1800 1850 ! 1900 1950 2000

NATIVE PEOPLES
The “new” lands explored by Cook
had been inhabited for hundreds of years.
The Maoris lived in New Zealand, and
the Aborigines lived in Australia. Both
peoples lived according to ancient
traditions. Understandably, they were
wary of Cook and his men—the first
Europeans that they had ever seen.
Aborigines had lived in Australia for
thousands of years, spread out over a
vast continent. They lived by foraging
and hunting, and using their advanced
knowledge of nature. They were so
different from Europeans, and there
was such a culture clash, that Aboriginal
culture was almost entirely destroyed.
The Maoris, it is thought, had sailed to
Aotearoa (New Zealand) from Polynesia
around A.D. 750, and were farmers,
warriors, and village dwellers. They
resisted the efforts of the Europeans
▲ The Maoris were skilled
to move into their land. KEY DATES sailors and craftworkers
The first settlers in Australia arrived 1642-44 Tasman's voyages to Tasmania and who decorated their
in 1788. They were convicts who had New Zealand canoes with elaborate
religious carvings. When
been transported there from Britain 1688/1699 Dampier explores western and
Cook arrived, there were
as punishment. Free settlers started to northwestern coastline of Australia
about 100,000 Maoris in
1766-68 Bougainville discovers Polynesia
arrive in 1793. In New Zealand, whalers, New Zealand. Many were
and Melanesia killed in later wars against
hunters, and traders were soon followed 1768-71 Cook's first voyage British settlers and troops.
by missionaries. Many of the early settlers 1772-75 Cook's second voyage
came from Scotland, Ireland, and Wales. 1776-79 Cook's third voyage
The settlers introduced diseases that 1829 Britain annexes all of Australia
1840 Britain claims New Zealand
often killed the local peoples.
In 1779, while on his third voyage to the Pacific, Captain
Cook was killed in a skirmish with Hawaiians over the theft
of a boat. Initially, the British had been welcome, but after
v --
this event, his crews had to sail home without their captain.

.:V

313
 10,000 5000 3000 1500 500 300 100 B.C. A.D. 100 200 350 500 700 I

Japan and southeast asia 1603-1826

Europeans were gradually making headway into Asia,
as they sought to dominate trade. During the 1700s,
these trade links turned into political battles.
S ince 1603, Japan had been dominated
by the Tokugawa shoguns, who ran
the country very strictly, isolated from
other lands. But they also brought
peace and security. The country
prospered under their rule. The
population grew from 20 to 30 million
in 150 years, and the output of farmers
increased greatly. Towns flourished, and The Japanese had very advanced ideas about cleanliness
and hygiene. Public baths were very popular and socially
with them trade and the merchant classes.
acceptable in Japan.
Sword guards protect Skilled craftworkers made beautiful goods,
the hand during fighting. especially clothes and fabrics in colored
This decorative Japanese
sword guard dates
silks. Many Japanese people received SOUTHEAST ASIA
from the 1700s. a good education. In Southeast Asia, there was no such
But Japan also had problems. Many ban on traders. Arabic and European spice
Japanese had left the land, crowding into traders had visited the area since medieval
the cities, and the samurai class had fallen times, and later, Europeans had established
into debt. Heavy taxes led to riots, and trading posts. The Dutch dominated the
many minor crimes were punished by area, controlling Java and creating trading
death. In the 1740s, the enlightened posts on many of the islands. Several
shogun Yoshimune (1684-1751) lifted Muslim-dominated states in the East
many harsh laws and allowed European Indies were either friendly with or
books into the country. But the 1760s under the control of the Dutch.
brought famine, earthquakes, and During the 1700s, trade links turned
frequent uprisings, and an anti¬ into political battles. The British were
shogun movement developed. gaining more interest in the area. In 1762,
A small number of Dutch they forced the Spanish to give up their
traders were the only foreigners monopoly over the sea route to Latin
allowed into Japan. They were treated America. In 1786, they took control of
A Men below samurai scornfully, but they made so much money Penang in Malaya, and in 1795, they took
rank were not allowed
that they put up with the insults. the port of Malacca from the Dutch.
to wear jewelry. Netsuke
figures in wood or ivory
were used to attach things
like tobacco pouches to
the obi (sash) of their
robes. Netsuke have
become prized art objects.

► This 1815 Japanese

woodblock shows
Minamoto Yoshitsune,
a famous shogun of the
1100s. He continued to
be popular long after his
death, and many stories
sprang up about his
exploits. In one legend,
supernatural spirits
called tengu, who live
in the mountains, taught
Yoshitsune the skills he
needed to be a warrior.

314
900 ■ 1100 1200! 1300 I 1400! 1500! 1600 1700; 1750 I 1800 1850 1900 1950 I 2000

During the Napoleonic Wars; the British

occupied Batavia, the Dutch capital in
Java. Later, they returned it, after the
Dutch recognized their control of Malaya.
The British established Singapore as a free
port in 1819, giving special privileges to
their own traders. This became a crucial
stopover port for Chinese trade, and it
quickly turned into the region’s main
commercial center. Goods from Britain
and India traveled east, and goods from
China and the East Indies went west.

LOCAL WARS
European nations became involved in
wars between the Southeast Asian states.
They used these local conflicts to settle
European disputes among themselves. The
British, French, and Dutch all fought in ▲ The Dutch had a "factory," or trading post, at
Desima Island near Nagasaki in southern Japan.
Siam (today’s Thailand) at different times,
This was the only foreign trading post allowed in
though Siam remained independent. From the country. There, the Dutch exported silks and
1824 to 1826, an Anglo-Burmese war other fine Japanese products in exchange for silver.
flared up after Burma supported Britain’s
enemies, who lived close to the rich
British-ruled lands of Bengal. The
Europeans did not colonize mainland
◄ Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles (1781-1826)
Southeast Asia, but they gradually made
founded the British colonial port of Singapore
these countries dependent on them. in 1819. He worked hard to increase British
By 1820, the Europeans had a very power in Southeast Asia, and Singapore soon
strong hold on Southeast Asia. became the business center of the region.

THE CAPTURE OF RANGOON

In 1824, the British commander Sir Archibald Campbell led 11,000
soldiers on a river journey of 400 mi. (640km) to capture the Burmese
capital, Rangoon. The raid was planned in revenge for the
Burmese king's attack on British lands in India.

315
 10,000 5000 3000 1500 500 : 300 100 B.C. 0 A.D. 100 200 350 500 700

The BIRTH OF THE U.S.A. 1763-1789

People in the Thirteen Colonies in America were
dissatisfied with British rule. They fought for their
independence, and a new nation was born.

A t the end of the Seven Years’ War

in 1763, both the British government
in London and the English colonists in
America felt satisfied. They had defeated
France and gained territory from them
in Canada, as well as land as far west as
the Mississippi River. With the French
threat gone, the colonists no longer
needed the British to defend them.
George Washington (1732- But the British wanted to govern the
1799) was an officer in the old French territories and collect higher
British army and a wealthy
landowner. He was made
taxes to pay for soldiers to defend these The Boston Tea Party,
commander in chief of newly won lands, so they raised taxes in in 1773, was a protest
the new American army, the 13 colonies. Local colonial assemblies against British taxation.
fighting the British. In A band known as the Sons
argued that it was unfair for Britain to tax of Liberty, led by Samuel
1789, he became the
first president of the the American colonies, since they had no Adams (1722-1803),
United States. say in running the British government. dressed up as Mohawks,
boarded two ships in
They said “taxation without representation
Boston Harbor, and threw
is tyranny.” The colonies decided to ban tea chests into the sea.
all British imports. On July 4, 1776, The British closed Boston
Harbor until the lost
representatives from all 13 colonies
tea was paid for.
adopted the Declaration of Independence,
claiming the right to rule themselves.

A The British soldiers

were well-drilled
professionals, while the
Americans were mostly
volunteers. But the
Americans were highly
motivated because they
felt strongly about their
cause. On the left is
a uniformed British
grenadier, and on the
right is an American
revolutionary soldier.

At the Battle of Bunker Hill, near Boston, in

1775, the British lost twice as many men as
the Americans. It took three uphill assaults
for the British to win.

316
900 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 16001 1700 1750; 1800 18501 1900 1950 2000

INDEPENDENCE THE U.S. CONSTHTJTION

Guided by the ideas of Thomas Jefferson, At first, the United States of America
and influenced by the Enlightenment, the was run by the governing body that was set
American Declaration of Independence up during the Revolution, the Continental
stated: “We hold these truths to be self- Congress, under the laws called the Articles
evident, that all men are created equal, of Confederation. But the Congress was
that they are endowed by their Creator weak. It was little more than an assembly
with certain inalienable Rights, that among of representatives from the states and could
these are Life, Liberty, and the Pursuit only make decisions that affected all of the
of Happiness.” A Liberty Medal was
states. It could borrow money, for example,
made to mark the victory
The American Revolution had begun in but could not collect taxes from the states of the Americans over
1775. At first the British were successful, to raise money to repay the loan. the British in 1781.
despite the problems of fighting nearly Some thought a whole new system
3,000 mi. (5,000km) from home. But the of government that would unite the states
Americans had an advantage because they into a nation was needed. In May 1787,
were fighting on home territory, and they at the Constitutional Convention in
believed in their cause. Six years after the Philadelphia, they designed this system.
conflict began, the British army surrendered They decided to have a president, elected
at Yorktown, Virginia, having been defeated every four years. He would rule with the
by Washington’s troops. Britain eventually help of a Congress (consisting of a House
recognized American independence of Representatives and a Senate, made
in the Treaty of Paris in 1783. up of representatives from every state),
and a Supreme Court.
The Liberty Bell in
KEY DATES In addition, each of the states would Philadelphia symbolizes
1763 End of the Seven Years' War; British troops have an elected assembly, and run their American independence.
sent to North America state government as they liked. A system
1764 Sugar Act taxes imported molasses of checks and balances would make sure
1765 Stamp Act adds tax on documents that neither the president, the Congress,
1775 American Revolution begins; Battle
nor the Supreme Court would be allowed
of Bunker Hill takes place
1776 Declaration of Independence
to control the federal government.
1781 British army surrenders at Yorktown Finally, many people worried that the
1783 Britain recognizes American independence Constitution did not protect all the rights
1787 Draft American Constitution drawn up they had fought so hard for. So, in 1791,
1789 American Constitution becomes law; George
ten amendments were added to the
Washington becomes first president
Constitution. They are the Bill of Rights.
1791 Bill of Rights is adopted

The draft Constitution was worked out at the

Thomas Jefferson (1743—
Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia in 1787. Fifty-
1826) became the third
five delegates attended, 39 signed the document. Copies
president in 1801. He was
were sent to each state to be agreed by its leaders.
a political leader whose
ideas greatly affected
American politics.

317
 10,000 5000 30001 1500 500 300 i 100B.C. I 0) A.D. 100 j 200) 350 500 700

The french REVOLUTION 1789-1799

In 1789, the discontented people of France overthrew
their king, demanding freedom and equality. The
revolution that followed changed France forever.

T he French Revolution had

been building up for years. It was
caused by bad government and enormous
differences between the rich and the poor,
encouraged by new Enlightenment ideas
about people's rights, and influenced
by the American Revolution.
In the 1700s, France was in crisis.
Food was scarce, prices were high, and
the government was facing bankruptcy.
Marie Antoinette (1755- To get more money, Louis XVI could
1793) was Louis XVI's either borrow it or raise state taxes. But
Austrian wife. The people
thought she was arrogant
first he needed approval and support
and extravagant. from a traditional assembly, the Estates-
General, which had not met for 175 years.
Louis XVI (1754-1793) became king in
At the assembly, the representatives of 1774. He was shy and not a strong ruler.
the professional classes rebelled against His wrong decisions led to the Revolution.
the nobles and clergy. They took an oath
to start a new National Assembly and When the citizens of Paris heard this,
demand reform. They wrote a new they rebelled. On July 14, 1789, a mob
constitution that abolished the old stormed the Bastille, the king's prison in
order, nationalized Church lands, and Paris. The riot marked the beginning of
reorganized local government. Louis sent a bloody revolution in which the rebels
troops to try and dismiss the Assembly. demanded “Liberty, Equality, Fraternity.”

A Maximilien Robespierre
(1758-1794) became the
leader of a revolutionary
group called the Jacobins
in 1793. He was the head
of the Committee of
Public Safety and backed
the execution of the king
and queen. Executions
grew so frequent that
this time was known
as the Reigin of Terror.
Robespierre may not have
been responsible for this,
but he did make enemies.
In 1794, he was accused
of treason and executed.

► On July 14, 1789, the

people of Paris stormed
the Bastille, a prison
where many popular
leaders had been
imprisoned by the king.
This was the real outbreak
of the Revolution.

318
 ■M
00 noo! 1200 i 1300' 1400! 1500 1600 ] 1700 | 1750 1800 ! 1850| 1900 | 19501 2000

THE STRUGGLE FOR POWER During the Terror, around 18,000

In 1791, Louis XVI fled, but was captured people were guillotined. Soon, one man,
and imprisoned. In 1792, the monarchy Robespierre, wielded dictatorial power.
was abolished, and the following year, Even he was not safe, and in 1794, he
Louis and his wife were tried and was accused of treason and executed.
executed. By this time, the revolutionary
government was at war with most other THE DIRECTORY
European states, who were afraid that A new constitution was written in
revolution might spread to their countries. 1795 and a weak government, called The
Predictably, chaos broke out, and there Directory, was formed. War had already
was a struggle for power. The new broken out, and French revolutionary
revolutionary government began rounding armies had conquered the Netherlands
up its rivals, royalist or popular, calling and south Germany. A young general,
them “enemies of the revolution.” There Napoleon Bonaparte, took over the army,
was a political battle between two groups, and invaded Italy, Switzerland, and Egypt
the Jacobins and Girondins, which the The Directory came to rely on him. He
Jacobins won. They then dominated a grew popular and powerful. In 1799, he
new ruling body, called the Committee of removed the Directory and took control.
Public Safety. The committee mobilized
French armies against foreign invasion, _KEY DATES_
and from September 1793 to July 1794, 1788 Estates-General called to a meeting The so-called sansculottes
(named because they did
they executed all who opposed them in 1789 National Assembly and storming of the Bastille;
not wear knee-length
Declaration of the Rights of Man
what is known as the Reign of Terror. pants, like the middle
1791 The New Constitution and Legislative Assembly
class and aristrocracy),
1792 The Revolutionary Wars and French Republic preserved public order
1793-94 The Reign of Terror in the streets during the
1794 Robespierre's dictatorship; Holland invaded Reign of Terror. Many
1795-99 The Directory rules France people lost their lives as
1796 Napoleon becomes chief army commander a result of the hatred of
1799 Napoleon takes power_ the sans culottes.

THE REIGN OF TERROR

After Louis XVI had been executed in 1793, the Committee started
to attack and execute anyone suspected of opposing the revolution.
A Tribunal was set up to bring "enemies of the revolution” to trial, but
these trials were often hurried and unfair. Aristocrats, royalists, priests,
and any suspected people went to the guillotine. Once Robespierre
had rid himself of rivals in the Committee of Public Safety, he
ruled alone for a short time, until he too was sent to the
guillotine in July 1794. The Reign of Terror then ended.

Here, people celebrate the end of the

Reign of Terror by dancing around a tree
decorated with rosettes in red, white,
and hiue thp national colors.

319
 I
3000 I 1500 500 1 300 100 B.c. ! 0 A.D. 100 200 500 700
10,000 5000

The NAPOLEONIC WARS 1797-1815

Restoring order after the French Revolution, Napoleon
attempted to change the whole of Europe. But Britain
stood against him and Napoleon was finally exiled.

N apoleon was born in Corsica, the

second son of an Italian lawyer. As
a young man, he had joined the French
army, and his courage and quick thinking
led to rapid promotion. At the age of 24,
he became a general. He led a number of
successful campaigns, capturing northern
Italy in 1797. The new government, the
Directory, feared his popularity and
power. They offered Napoleon In 1799, Napoleon (1769-1821), already a war hero, took
the job of invading Britain, but over the government by force. Many disagreed, but France
was in disorder and Napoleon became first consul.
he suggested invading Egypt to
disrupt Britain’s trade route to India.
In 1789, he did invade Egypt, but his He was a brilliant general, who moved his
plan failed after the British, led by troops quickly and used new battle tactics.
Lord Nelson, destroyed his fleet. He also had a very large army, because
In this 1803 cartoon,
Napoleon is shown In 1799, Napoleon returned to France Robespierre had introduced a draft system
straddling the world while and seized control. He dismissed the in which all adult men were forced to
the comparatively tiny
government, and appointed three consuls serve. The army numbered 750,000
John Bull (representing
Britain) tries to fight (officials), to run the country. He made soldiers in 1799, and another two million
him off alone. himself first consul, and ruled for 15 years. men joined up between 1803 and 1815.
In 1804, he crowned himself emperor. Napoleon used this massive force to
Napoleon introduced many lasting try to conquer Europe.
reforms that brought new laws, a
better educational system, a reorganized THE BATTLE OF MARENGO
government, and a new national bank. One of Napoleon’s many military successes, the Battle
of Marengo was fought against the Austrians in Italy in
1800. Napoleon was a brilliant leader, inspiring his troops
with speeches, "leading from the front,” and using very
innovative tactics. He modernized warfare, used
cannons and large armies, and outwitted
his opponents. His control of Europe
pushed many countries into
the modern world.

Napoleon wanted to create

a society based on skill
rather than on noble birth.
To encourage achievement
he founded the Legion
of Honor in 1802 "for
outstanding service to the
state.” Members of the
Legion received a medal
and a pension for the
remainder of their lives.

320
900 1100 1 1200! 1300 1400 1500 1600 1 1700 1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000

THE NAPOLEONIC WARS

Napoleon defeated Austria and Russia
at Austerlitz in 1805, Prussia at Jena
in 1806, and Russia faced a second
defeat at Friedland in 1807. Napoleon
created new republics allied to France
and ruled by placing his relatives in
positions of power. He also created
Europe-wide laws and governments—
known as the Continental System.
In 1805, Britain won a major sea battle
against France at Trafalgar in Spain. The
British admiral, Horatio Nelson (1758-
1805) died, but his victory saved Britain
from invasion. In 1808, Napoleon invaded
Spain. This began the Peninsular Wars in
which Britain supported Spain and Portugal
The British sent troops led by the Duke
of Wellington to Spain. There, he won
battles at Salamanca (1812) and Vittoria
(1813), pushing the French out of Spain.
Napoleon’s disastrous invasion of Russia
in 1812 left over 500,000 French dead of
Napoleon believed Russia
cold or hunger, or killed. In 1813, he was KEY DATES had allied with Britain,
also crushed at Leipzig by a combined 1796-97 Napoleon invades Italy so he invaded. When his
European force, led by the Prussian general, 1798 Campaign in Egypt army reached Moscow,
the Russians had already
von Blucher. Finally, in 1814, France was 1799 Napoleon takes over French government
burned it down. Eventually,
1804 Napoleon crowns himself emperor
invaded, and Napoleon was exiled. He the winter took its toll.
1805 Battle of Austerlitz against Austria and Russia;
escaped and was defeated by Wellington Napoleon entered Russia
Battle of Trafalgar—British sea victory
with 510,000 men-but
and von Blucher at Waterloo in Belgium. 1807 Peace of Tilsit with Russia and Prussia left with only 10,000.
He died in exile on the remote South 1812 Russian campaign
Atlantic island of St. Helena in 1821. 1813 Napoleon loses Battle of Leipzig;
Spain freed at Battle of Vittoria
1814 France invaded; Napoleon exiled to Elba
1815 Napoleon's last battle, at Waterloo

The Battle of Waterloo in Belgium, in 1815, was

closely fought. It was Napoleon's last battle,
fought against Wellington of Britain
and von Blucher of Prussia.

Irish-born Arthur Wellesley,

Duke of Wellington (1769-
1852), fought Napoleon's
armies in Spain where it
took four years to push out
the French. Wellington was
involved in the Congress of
Vienna after the Napoleonic
Wars. A national hero, he
became prime minister
of Britain in 1828.

321
 10,000 5000 I 3000 1500 500 j 300 | 100 B.c. | 0 : A.D. 100 I 200 I 350 I 500 1 700

The END OF SLAVERY 1792-1888

The European colonies in the Americas depended
heavily on slave labor. But by the mid-1700s, many
people were questioning the morality of this.

T hroughout the 1700s, Britain,

France, and Spain grew rich on taxes
and profits from their colonies. Much of
this wealth was created by slave labor.
Denmark, Sweden, Prussia, Holland, and
Genoa (Piedmont) also traded in slaves.
Africans were sold to Europeans by slave
dealers and local rulers, who saw slave
trading as a means of punishing criminals, Before abolition, slave ships followed a triangular
Atlantic sailing route, taking goods to Africa, slaves to
getting rid of enemies, disposing of
the Americas, and products such as sugar back to Europe.
William Wilberforce captives, and getting rich. Nobody knows
(1759-1833) was the how many slaves were sold in all, but
member of Parliament
for Hull, a busy slave
historians have estimated that 45 million ENDING THE SLAVE TRADE
trading port. The trade slaves were shipped between 1450 and Between 1777 and 1804, slavery was
horrified him. He and 1870, although only 15 million survived— made illegal in the northern United States.
other humanitarian
many died on the voyage across the Denmark withdrew from the slave trade
Christians campaigned
against the slave trade Atlantic. Many Europeans disapproved in 1792, and Britain in 1807. But slave
from 1788 onward. of the slave trade, but they believed it smuggling continued. The British navy
was the only way to supply labor to clamped down on slave trading from
colonial plantations. 1815, but slavery was still legal elsewhere.
However, some protested, saying A slave revolt in the French colony of
it was against God’s law and human Santo Domingo in 1791-1793 led to
decency. Rousseau, a French abolition by France but, in 1803, they
philosopher, wrote in The Social made slavery legal again. In 1831, a slave
Contract, in 1762, “Man is born free, uprising in Virginia led by Nat Turner led
but everywhere he is in chains.” His to harsh laws and increased support for
writings inspired the revolutions slavery among white southerners.
in America and France, and
individual freedom became regarded as
a social right, not a gift from a king.
Rousseau’s ideas also inspired people
to fight on behalf of others who were
unable to help themselves. Politicians,
clergy, and ordinary people began to
think how they might help the
▲ Some slaves escaped slaves. But moral arguments did
from plantations and set
up their own villages in
not have as much force as the
remote areas. In 1739, profits that slavery generated.
a group of escaped
Jamaican slaves, called
the "Maroons," rebelled
against the British.

► Conditions on slave
ships were appalling and
unhealthy, and many
slaves died. Slaves were
stacked on dark shelves
and floors in the holds of
ships, hardly able to move.

322
900 1100! 12001 1300 [ 1400! 1500 1600 1700 | 1750 1 1800 1850 i 1900 1950 2000

◄ The leader of the

PHILANTHROPY Virginia slave revolt
In Britain, Thomas Clarkson (1760- of 1831, Nat Turner
1846) and William Wilberforce had led (1800-1831), killed his
master and 60 whites,
an antislavery campaign, which resulted in
and encouraged 75 slaves
the abolition of slave trading in 1807. to revolt. Their revolt
However, slaves were not actually freed lasted for some weeks.
He and his followers
for some time. Wilberforce died just
were eventually captured,
before all of the slaves in British hands tried and hanged.
were freed. Europeans had by now grown
disgusted with slavery, and the British
navy blocked slave-trading ships.
Slavery continued in Cuba, Costa Rica,
Brazil, and the southern United States.
The plantations had been built on slave
labor. There was a thriving market in
Europe for cheap, slave-grown cotton KEY DATES
and tobacco, and plantation owners 1517 Regular slave trading started by Spain
were reluctant to change. 1592 British slave trading begins
In the U.S., the northern states supported 1739 Jamaican "Maroon" slave revolt
1760s Slave trading at its peak
freeing the slaves, but the situation in the
1791-1804 Santo Domingo slave revolt
South grew worse. Nat Turner’s 1831
1792 Danish slave trade abolished
revolt in Virginia led to new laws designed 1807 British slave trade abolished The economy of the
to control the slaves. Slavery finally ended 1834 Slavery abolished in British colonies southern states relied
on black slave labor.
in the United States in 1863, in Cuba in 1865 13th Amendment abolishes slavery in U.S.
Cotton picking was
1886, and in Brazil in 1888. The Arabic 1888 Slavery abolished in Brazil
one of the slaves' main
slave trade in Africa ended in 1873. jobs. The cotton was
profitably exported to
THE SLAVES’ REVOLT IN SANTO DOMINGO supply the cotton mills
of industrial Europe.
The French Revolution spread to French colonies overseas. In 1791,
the National Assembly in Paris decided to give the vote to slaves in
Santo Domingo (now Haiti) in the Caribbean. Plantation owners refused
to obey. When they heard this, about 100,000 slaves rebelled. Many slave
owners were killed, houses destroyed, and sugar and coffee plantations
set on fire. Napoleon sent troops to the island and there was
a long civil war led by Toussaint I'Ouverture (1746-1803),
an ex-slave who declared himself ruler of the
island in 1801.

323
The BRITISH IN INDIA 1774-1858
The hold on India by the British East India Company
Punjab TIBET
gradually grew stronger. The British came to dominate
Delhi
Indian society, becoming its ruling caste.
B y 1750, the British East India
Rajputna

Bengal
Company controlled the very TJ?
profitable trade between Britain,
India, and the Far East. Its officials
Gujarat
Kingdom
of Marathas
Plassey
Kir
Bombay Peshwa
were skillful businessmen who Bay of
had built up a knowledge Bengal
Hyderabad
of Indian affairs, especially
Goa
through the Indians they Nellore
Mysore British territory
employed. They made friends • Madras 1805
This mechanical toy, called with Indian princes, and struck bargains
Ma,abar TanfoTe
"Tipu's Tiger," shows a tiger with both the friends and the enemies
devouring a European. It ura
of the declining Mogul rulers. Many
was made for Tipu Sahib \
of Mysore. Between 1767 British people in India lived like princes I CEYLON
i
and 1799, with French themselves. By working for the East India
support, Mysore tried
Company many became very rich. Some By 1805, the British controlled the rich clothmaking
to resist British control
of these “nabobs” (from the word nawab, districts of Bengal in northeastern India, as well as
of its lands.
the prosperous coastal lands in the south.
for local ruler or rich man) built fine
houses; they were designed by British However, some British people were
architects, and furnished with luxuries attracted to Indian art, culture, and
from England, India, and the colonies. architecture, even wearing Indian clothes,
In Calcutta, they held horse races, tea at least at home. They learned Indian
parties, and dances. Gradually, wives and languages and studied Indian religions
families arrived to share this way of life and writings. They took Indian ideas
and a community developed. back to Britain when they went home.

▲ Tipu Sahib (1749-1799)

of Mysore owned an ivory
chess set which was made
up of pieces with Indian
princes and men on one
side, and East India
Company administrators
and soldiers on the other.

► At first, the British

mixed easily with
Indians. Here, the
Scottish governor Sir
David Ochterlony
smokes a water pipe
at an Indian musical
performance.

324
900 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1750 1800 1850 1900 2000
1950

BRITISH EXPANSION
By 1780, the East India Company
controlled many of the more prosperous
parts of India, but in 1784, the British
government decided to stop it from
expanding any further—a policy the
company’s managers were not happy
about. Around 1800, the British were
frightened by Napoleon’s ambition
to build an empire in India, and the
government changed its policy. From
1803 to 1818, the company fought
the Marathas, who ruled central India,
and broke their power. In many cases,
they took a soft approach, and used trade
to favor certain Indian states, stationing
troops there “for their protection.” THE INDIAN MUTINY Some Indian rajahs and
The company fought in Burma, where Trouble broke out among the sepoys, princes made friends with
the British and gained
the local rulers threatened Bengal, as the Indian soldiers in the company’s army. many advantages as a
well as on the Northwest Frontier and in Sparked by a terrible famine, a mutiny result. To be protected by
Afghanistan, where they feared Russian started in 1857. Several towns, including British soldiers guaranteed
a prince's power, and the
influence. Between 1843 and 1849, they the capital, Delhi, were captured by the
British gained from the
annexed Sind and the Punjab. Whenever sepoys, and British men, women, and deal by having easy
a dynasty failed, or if a state was weakly children were massacred. The mutiny influence and trade in
a prince's state, without
governed, the company moved in. During was suppressed violently by British troops.
having to govern it.
the 1830s, the company’s governor had Each side now became suspicious of the
arrogantly overruled local traditions, and other side. The British started to live a
brought in missionaries to convert Indians more separate life, and Indians were “kept
to Christianity. The company built roads, in their place.” The British government
railroads, and buildings, and expanded took control of the East India Company in
British businesses. They insisted on using 1858, and closed it down. While India was
English as the language of education and perhaps the richest and most developed
business. As a result, Indian opposition European colony of all, the British had
gradually grew stronger. to work very hard to control it.

HOMES FOR NABOBS

Nabobs were officers of the East India Company who had made fortunes in India.
Many nabobs had themselves grown up in tough conditions, and had gone to India
$ to escape hard times, seek a fortune, or build a new life. They worked hard, risking
their lives through war or disease. They lived in conditions that reflected the
opulence of Indian rulers and combined them with the trappings of the British
aristocracy. They built great mansions in cities like Calcutta and Delhi,
and often had many servants.

325
 100 0 A.D. 100! 2001 350! 500 700
10,000 5000 3000 B.c

Revolt in lattn America isos-1825 -

While Europe was fighting the Napoleonic Wars,
V VENEZUELA
the settlers of Latin America grew restless, and MEXICO \ 1830
1821 \ BRITISH GUIANA
an independence movement gathered strength. <-*" \

E ver since Portugal and Spain had

divided the New World between them
CENTRAL AMERICAN
FEDERATION 1821-1838 ( \
N.

COLUMBIA 1819 '

| DUTCH GUIANA
FRENCH
N (sUguiana

in 1494, they had both ruled vast colonies ECUADOR 1,830\

in North, Central, and South America. For BRAZIL
PERuC
centuries, the colonies had suffered from 1822
1821 j
distant European rule. In 1807-1808, / )
Napoleon had marched into Portugal and BOLIVIA/
1825 PARAGUAY
Spain, and they became a battleground, as f TT 1811
British, Spanish, and Portuguese troops CHILE]
'
\ URUGUAY
1818 \
Simon Bolivar drove the fought against French soldiers. This period / 1828
Spanish from Colombia ARGENTINA
of confusion gave the colonies their chance. X 1810
and Venezuela, and joined *
with San Martin to free
They began their fight for independence in
Peru. He became president 1808, refusing to accept Napoleon’s
of Gran Colombia, but he brother Joseph as the new Spanish king,
could not stop its breakup
and their ruler.
in 1830 and resigned.
Between 1808 and 1830, 13 former colonies in South
America won their independence. However, wealthy
INDEPENDENCE colonial settlers still owned most of the land and
Argentina declared itself free of Spanish governed it for their own profit.
rule in 1810, followed by Paraguay in 1811.
Mexico became independent from Spain in In 1819, Bolivar and other Venezuelan
1821, as did Peru, and Brazil finally broke aristocrats defeated the Spanish in New
free from Portugal in 1822. Venezuela Granada (Colombia) and Peru. In 1824,
finally gained its independence in 1830. Bolivar met up with San Martin, who
The independence movement in South had marched across the Andes to liberate
America owed a great deal to two energetic Chile. In 1826, Bolivar proclaimed the
leaders, Simon Bolivar (1783-1830) and Republic of Gran Colombia (Venezuela,
Jose de San Martin was Jose de San Martin (1778-1850), both of Colombia, Ecuador, and Panama), but the
a revolutionary who whom were inspired by the ideas of the republic later broke up. In 1825, Upper
joined the Argentinean
independence movement.
French Revolution. Peru took the name of Bolivia in his
He marched his troops honor. Both Bolivar and San Martin had
▼ Simon Bolivar's revolutionary troops won an important
over the Andes to Chile, fought under very difficult conditions.
victory over the Spanish colonial government of Peru at
liberating it in 1818. In
Ayacucho in 1824. This was the final decisive battle But, in spite of independence, conditions
1820, he took Lima, Peru.
of the Latin American wars of independence. did not really improve, because power
was still held by the plantation owners.

326
900: 1100 1200 1300: 1400 1500 1600 i 1700 1 1750: 1800! 1850 1 1900: 1950 2000

Unrest in Britain 1811-1832

In the new industrial society of “dark, satanic mills/'
British workers were badly treated. They demanded
better pay and improved working conditions.

T he years of peace following the end of

the Napoleonic Wars were a time of
discontent. There was unemployment, and
high food prices. The British government
feared the growing trade union movement
(workers who bargained for better
working conditions], and in 1800, unions
were made illegal. Life in industrial towns
was grim, with poor housing, frequent
Working conditions in
accidents, and disease. But events abroad
factories were appalling. had shown British workers that they had
Women and children often a right to make their voices heard. They
worked for 12 hours every
demanded improved working conditions
day, in dangerous jobs,
for pitiful wages. Many and pay, as well as a say in government.
workers died young. However, not all the protesters wanted Many people were destitute and not used to living in
change. From 1811 to 1813, craftsmen cities. Some turned to drinking gin to drown their sorrows.
This engraving by William Hogarth, made in 1751,
known as Luddites (after their leader, was called "Gin Lane."
Ned Ludd] smashed new machinery
in factories in northern England. Limited trade union activity was
They feared they would lose their jobs permitted from 1824. Many people
to machines. Six years later, a group of campaigned for “one man, one vote.”
workers known as Blanketeers, wrapped In 1832, the law was changed to reform
in the woolen cloth they wove, marched election to Parliament, but it was still
from Manchester to London to ask the only men who owned property that
Prince Regent for his support. were allowed to vote.

Cfuf t£om^ Cl/tUrtz., doaurit. ffe, c^foccc^j core, no-t

Ctmned, courage, rriAj t ctm-d Aoy*, Co l/dte,

oj tyfiomhs, fie pftxvt ff&fjd . 6fre wd* u ,

a/ruf Vcrwr W-ffc-ota J&all tiAJ-e. for in cl 'Song, cr Jcccm c)

P'-ZHace-.

▲ This Luddite protester

is dressed in women's
clothes as a disguise.
The Luddites were skilled
craftworkers who opposed
the introduction of new
machinery that replaced
their jobs. They were
active from 1811 to 1813.

► The Peterloo Massacre

took place in St. Peter's
Fields, in Manchester,
England, in 1819. Soldiers
charged into a crowd of
unarmed men and women
who had gathered to
listen to Henry Hunt, a
famous campaigner for
political change. Eleven
people were killed and
more than 400 injured.

327
 10,000 5000 3000 1500 500 300 100 B.C. 0 A.D. 100 200 350 700

Westward migration 1776-1845

After independence, the fledgling United States started
to develop rapidly. New immigrants spread westward,
and took the lands of the Native Americans.

I n the early 1800s, the United States was

still small and very much affected by
European politics. During the Napoleonic
Wars, Britain took control of the seas
and blocked most sea traffic between
Napoleonic Europe and the United States.
This meant that Napoleon could not
protect French Louisiana. Since the French Daniel Boone (1734-1820) was held captive by a group of
Shawnee Indians. As a test of courage, he was forced to
controlled trade on the Mississippi River,
Meriwether Lewis run the gauntlet between two rows of fierce warriors.
the Americans held discussions with them.
was commissioned by
President Jefferson to
Napoleon decided to sell them Louisiana
explore the West with for $15 million. The Louisiana Purchase MIGRANTS AND SETTLERS
William Clark. more than doubled United States territory. Settlers flocked to the United States after
its independence in 1776. They came from
THE WAR OF 1812 all over Europe, seeking a new life in this
The British blockade of Europe was land that seemed to promise freedom. The
disastrous for American trade. In 1812, American population was around four
the United States declared war on Britain. million in 1803, but by 1861 it was 31
The Americans tried to invade Canada, but million. The first arrivals settled in the
without success. They won a few battles on northeastern states, but as their numbers
the Great Lakes, and the British burned grew, they moved south and west.
William Clark, traveling
down Washington, D.C., the new capital. The United States was like a new empire,
with Lewis, reached the Little progress was made, and, weary of rich in land and resources. Suddenly, the
west coast in Oregon war, they signed a treaty in 1814 that back country of the former eastern
in 1805 and returned to
returned all territories. The British blockade colonies became the new frontier. By
report on their findings
the next year. was lifted, because the Napoleonic Wars 1820, this frontier crossed the Mississippi
were ending, and the United States was River. However, for Native Americans,
to restore its trade and economy. American expansion meant hardship, and
the settlers’ prosperity and liberty became
poverty and confinement for them.

The Lewis and Clark expedition left St. Louis in 1804 and spent the winter
in the Dakotas before crossing the Rocky Mountains to Oregon in 1805.
Sacajawea, a woman of the Shoshone tribe, traveled with the expedition and
helped them communicate with other Native Americans they encountered.

328
900 1100 1200! 1300| 1400! 1500 1600! 17001 1750! 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000

THE TRAIL OF TEARS

The Native Americans had been promised
that their traditional lands would become
available for white settlement only with
their permission. But the Northwest
Ordinance Act, in 1787, paved the way
for westward expansion—a direct threat to
the tribal lands. Native Americans decided
to confront the white settlers. A series
of wars followed in the early 1800s.
In 1830, Congress passed the Indian
Removal Act. This led to great suffering.
The Five Civilized Tribes—the Cherokee,
Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, and
Seminole—refused to leave their lands
and be placed in a so-called Indian The U.S. economy grew, and this
Territory. The Cherokee won a Supreme benefited the growing towns in the east,
Court decision to stay on their lands, where industries and businesses were
but President Jackson ignored it. In located. The east was the backbone of
1838-1839, the army moved the five the United States, and the west its empire.
tribes 800 mi. (1280km) west to A new state could join the Union when it
Oklahoma. Thousands of helpless, had a population of 60,000, and by 1821,
betrayed Native Americans died of there were 23 states in the Union.
hunger and exhaustion on what has
become known as the Trail of Tears. KEY DATES Andrew Jackson
(1767-1845), was
As the new country grew, more settlers 1783 British withdrawal from the Thirteen Colonies
president from 1829 to
arrived, looking for new land—always at 1803 Louisiana Purchase from France
1837. He fought in the
1805 Explorers Lewis and Clark reach the Pacific
the expense of the Native Americans. War of 1812 and invaded
1812-14 The War of 1812 against Britain Florida in 1818 in a war
New migrant trails such as the
1819 Spain gives Florida to the United States against the Seminoles.
Cumberland Road from Baltimore to 1820 Settler frontier reaches the Mississippi River He believed in developing
St. Louis opened. Lewis and Clark 1830 Indian Removal Act allows their legal eviction; the frontier in the west,
headed farther west. The army protected Chief Black Hawk leads a war against settlers encouraging settlers, and
1838-39 The Cherokee "Trail of Tears" to Oklahoma supporting them against
settlers and the government passed
1845 The United States annexes Texas the Native Americans.
laws protecting their land claims.

BATTLE OF LAKE ERIE

The Battle of Lake Erie was fought between British troops and the small American navy
in September, 1813. The Americans won the battle, led by Oliver Perry (1785-1819), here
shown rowing through the battle to another American vessel after his own ship had
been sunk. He then announced, “We have met the enemy, and they are ours."

329
 <
The arts 1708-1835
Increased trade and travel in the 1700s opened Europe
up to new influences. This happened at a time when
Europe was reaching new cultural peaks of its own.

I n terms of power and innovation,

Europeans now enjoyed worldwide
dominance. European ideas and standards
were entering other cultures, and the
European style of moneymaking and
trade affected far distant lands. Yet
this trade also brought exotic, fresh
influences into Europe.
Oriental china, African carvings, and
Jane Austen (1775-1817) Indian cotton goods arrived in Europe.
was the daughter of an Ideas, inspiration, and knowledge were
English clergyman. She
wrote six novels that
drawn from the Far East, and from
commented on the society the new cultures of the Americas. Scenes from the four seasons decorate this elaborate
and manners of her time. German ornamental shield from the 1700s. It shows a
Painters, designers, and craftspeople
Her novels, including romantic interest in nature that was common at the
found fresh inspiration in other countries time. Small, round shields like this were called bucklers.
Ss Emma, Sense and
Sensibility, and Pride and combined them with their own.
and Prejudice are still European ceramics adopted Chinese
read and enjoyed today.
styles, and textile designs featured Indian
patterns. Many people welcomed these The musical genius
changes, but many others remained Wolfgang Amadeus
Mozart (1756-1791)
untouched by them or simply
was already famous
ignored the growing trend at the age of six,
toward modernization. after playing for
Maria Theresa,
the empress
of Austria.

◄ For many years, Europeans

tried to copy the techniques
used by Chinese porcelain
makers. This figure was made
in the Meissen factory near
Dresden in 1765.

▲ This is a clavichord from the 1720s.

It produces a clear, light, delicate sound.
German composer Johann Sebastian Bach
wrote many pieces of music especially
for the clavichord.
 'The Great Wave of
Kanagawa", a famous
Japanese color woodblock
print made by Hokusai
(1760-1849) in 1831.
It graphically records
a tsunami (tidal wave)
that had hit Japan just
before that date.

The 1700s saw great achievements in art

of all kinds. In China, jade carving showed This Japanese netsuke
great skill. In Japan, woodblock printing object demonstrates
the fine, detailed skills
grew more advanced, and haiku poetry
of Japanese carvers
became popular. of the 1700s.

EUROPEAN CULTURE
In Europe, three major influences were
▼ This painting by French
at work. The rich upper classes built
artist Jacques Louis David
extravagant mansions and opera houses, (1748-1825) shows the
and paid artists large sums for portraits Tennis Court Oath, one
of the key events that
and records of scenes and events. In
sparked the French
cities, pamphlets, coffeehouses, and Revolution in 1789. Only
street life bred a new popular culture. In This Chinese carved jade pot from the 1700s was 100 years later, important r
the factories, new mass-produced products made during the Manchu period to hold brushes historical events would be
that were used in calligraphy (decorative writing). recorded by photography.
changed the designs and uses of everyday
items, making them available to the
growing populace. Society was changing,
and so were its tastes.
In Europe, the composers Handel, -f
Beethoven, Haydn, and Schubert wrote
brilliant orchestral works. Constable,
Ingres, Goya, and other painters were
the famous artists of the day. Novelists,
essayists, journalists, and publishers
introduced new styles of writing.
Neoclassical poets aimed for elegance,
and the Romantics chose bold, emotional
styles. In the theater, ballet developed
and operas attracted enthusiastic
audiences who demanded realistic
plots and characters. t.
Architecture 1708-1835
The year 1800 marked a turning point in architecture.
Traditional styles gave way to more modern buildings
constructed using new technologies.
A cross the world, most cultures by
now referred back to tradition to
define their architecture—inventiveness
and creativity were not at their
height, except in Europe. Yet, even
in Europe and North America,
architectural innovations tended
In 1784, the British government introduced a tax on
to imitate earlier styles such as windows. In order to save money, many people, especially
those of Greece and Rome, or to the rich, blocked up some of their windows.

adopt exotic styles copied from

The outside of the the colonies, especially India. An urge to try out new industrial
Brighton Pavilion was Two main influences were at work in techniques led architects to design new
completely rebuilt in 1818
by the fashionable English
European architecture. First, the growth types of buildings, using new materials. In
architect John Nash of country estates and townhouses, where 1779, cast iron was first used to construct
(1752-1835) for the Prince grand architecture with large windows a bridge over the Severn River in England.
Regent, the future George
was the fashion. Second, the influence of This trend toward the use of new
IV. He based his designs
on Indian architecture, but new industries, for which large factories materials was to flower
added many extravagant and cities were built. European and during the Victorian
ideas of his own. The
American cities grew, and with this came period in
interior design and
furniture show clear new building styles, such as Georgian the 1800s.
Chinese and Japanese architecture in England and the Palladian
influences.
style in the United States.

▼ In southern Africa, the Zulus lived in

stockaded settlements gathered around a central
cattle pen, or kraal. The huts were built with
wooden poles covered with matting and straw.
There was one for each wife of the man who
built the kraal, plus some for storing grain.

▲ The building of the English city of Bath, near the port of

Bristol, was financed with profits from the colonies and the
slave trade. John Wood the Elder (1705-1754) was
responsible for much of its design. The Royal
Crescent is a group of
30 houses built in the late
1700s from plans by his
son, John Wood the
Younger. He was
strongly influenced
by classical
Greek designs.

332
1

Russian settlers moved eastward into the vast

lands of Siberia. Peasant houses were made
of raw timber from the forests, built cheaply
and easily in traditional, simple styles.
They were decorated with local
designs. Similar construction
methods were used by early
settlersin the American
West for their log cabins.

In many parts of the world traditional ► In the southern states,

plantation owners, many
designs using local materials remained
of them descended from
popular. Settlers were building housing rich Europeans, built
in the new territories of the United States impressive Greek-style
mansions. This emphasized
and Russia, and in the growing European
their superiority in a
colonies in India, Africa, and South society where, in many
America. In most cases, this was practical, places, the majority of
basic, and traditional. But the governors, people were black slaves.

bosses, and plantation owners also built

grand houses to remind everyone
of their wealth and status.
The first cast-iron bridge in the world was built across the
Severn River in England in 1779. The builders used the same
methods of construction that they used for wooden buildings
because they were not sure how cast iron would behave.

333
 — _

;’*4
Science and technology 1708-1835
\tv'
In Europe, major breakthroughs were being made in
science and technology. New machines and processes
brought revolutionary changes to people’s lives.

T here were many developments in

science and technology, particularly
in Europe, during this period. Discoveries
were of two kinds: theoretical and practical.
Throughout the 1700s, mathematicians,
scientists, and philosophers researched,
discussed, and published their
investigations into how the world
worked, while engineers and inventors
developed new and successful
machines and processes.
■
- The latest theories inspired greater In 1763, John Harrison (1693-1776) won a prize from the
ii Lady Mary Wortley invention, and more technology British government for inventing the marine chronometer.
This accurate clock meant that for the first time sailors
Montagu (1689-1762) encouraged theoretical scientists to make
pioneered vaccination could measure their exact position at sea.
against smallpox, which
further discoveries in medicine, biology,
killed thousands every mechanics, physics, and chemistry. By
year. However, it was 1800, the new machines had brought
originally the Ottomans
revolutionary changes—to the workplace,
who discovered it.
transportation and communications, and
eventually to the home.
Some of these inventions simply made it
easier to produce things on a large scale—
such as textile machines and foundries,
which produced large quantities of cloth
and metal objects quickly and cheaply. But
some inventions brought completely new
possibilities—such as the first batteries,
steamboats, and locomotives. It would
take decades for some of these inventions
to make a big impact on the world. Yet
j§ In 1800, Alessandro Volta
their creation, and the sheer amount of
imagination and risk-taking involved,
■
(1745-1827) designed the
marked the beginning of a modern,
v>y. first electric battery, the
.
Voltaic pile. This was the
global, technologically-based economy
beginning of a century of the kind that we live in today.
during which electrical
technology was developed.

► The metric system

was introduced in France
in 1795. It used liters to
measure liquids, grams
and kilograms for weight,
and meters for length,
with the number 10 as the
standard scale. Napoleon
introduced this system to
Claude Chappe (1763-1805) devised a system for sending
the European countries
messages, using semaphore signals and relay towers. The
that he conquered.
French used Chappe's system until 1850.
 Paddle steamships like these were used to
carry goods along rivers in the 1800s.
Robert Fulton (1765-1815) built the first
successful commercial steamboat, the
Clermont It made its first trip in 1807,
and was used on the Hudson River in
New York State. Although one crossed
the Atlantic Ocean in 1819, long sea
journeys did not suit this type of ship.

The English scientist

Michael Faraday (1791-
1867) invented the first
dynamo in 1831. It
WHEN IT HAPPENED produced a small, steady
1752 Benjamin Franklin identifies supply of electric current.
electricity in an experiment with lightning
1769 James Watt’s steam engine patented
1796 Edward Jenner gives first smallpox ◄ In 1801, the French
inventor Joseph-Marie
vaccination Jacquard (1752-1834)
1800 Volta’s electrical battery designed the first
1803 Gas lighting introduced automatic pattern loom.
It used punched cards to
1804 Trevithick’s steam
control the design. This
locomotive invented was a very early kind of
1807 Launch of Fulton’s computer programming.

steamboat
1831 Faraday’s electric
▲ In 1815, Humphrey
Davy (1778-1829) devised
a safety lamp for use in
mines. It warned miners of
the presence of firedamp,
an explosive gas made up
of methane and air. The
lamp saved many lives.

◄ George Stephenson
(1781-1848) designed
the Rocket and won a
competition in 1829 to
find the fastest locomotive
for the Liverpool and
Manchester Railway, the
world's first all-steam
public railroad.
mmm
Umfication and
COLONIZATION
1836-1913
The world map changed dramatically during this
period—new nations were formed and some
were unified. Africa was carved up by nations
seeking new colonies, and China's power was
fractured. There were more revolutions in
Europe. The United States, Canada, and Russia
expanded to the farthest frontiers of their
countries. Railroads, telegraph wires, and
steamships suddenly made the world seem
smaller. New cities such as New York, Buenos
Aires, Johannesburg, Bombay, and Shanghai
became centers in a new global order.

A The coming of the railroad opened up North America, but also led to
the first national strike. The strike spread along the railroad, from coast
to coast, uniting the workers in their fight for decent wages.

◄ During the Second Boer War in South Africa, the Boers (Dutch
settlers) were finally defeated by the British in 1902.

337
The WORLD AT A GLANCE 1836-1913
I n North America, settlers moved west to colonize
the vast lands taken over by the United States
Africa, European powers quickly established colonies
throughout the continent. The power of the great
and Canada. However, the opening up of these trading nations of Europe grew.
new territories caused much hardship for the native In Asia, Europeans also took control of India, Burma,
peoples, whose way of life was being threatened. and Southeast Asia, and began to trade with China
In Africa, religious wars strengthened the influence and Japan. Europe’s expansion into other continents
of Islam in the kingdoms of the north. European did not stop internal conflicts, and many wars were
explorers and missionaries began to visit lands in the fought between countries or empires that wanted
interior. Led by a desire to exploit the resources of more power and territory.

NORTH AMERICA
The United States grew strong during this period. Its
territories now extended west to Texas and California,
and the Wild West was being opened up by railroads,
settlers, and soldiers. This took place at great cost to
the Native Americans, who were killed or squeezed
into small, isolated reservations. Despite attempts to
revive their fortunes, their culture was dying, and it
gained little respect from the new Americans. In the
1860s, the Civil War broke out, a destructive, modern-
style war over political principles. One result of it was
NORTH AMERICA
the abolition of slavery. The cities of the East and the
Midwest then grew larger and more industrial, and
more settlers arrived from Europe. Canada was
united, and it pushed west, too, becoming a
prosperous independent dominion within the
WM J
British Empire. By 1900, North America had
become wealthy and strong. The United
States became an imperial power itself.
Its financiers, corporations, and armies
were to help it dominate the world
from the 1900s onward.

LATIN AMERICA

LATIN AMERICA
Latin America developed more slowly than North America,
partly because of its dictatorial governments and controlling
landowners. After the independence wars of the 1820s,
a second wave of changes came about between the 1860s
and 1880s, when South American countries fought each
other. There followed a spate of development brought
by railroads, population growth, and increasing wealth
earned from exports. But the old Spanish ways lived on, in
the form of tough governments, rich landowners in their
haciendas (ranches), and a large mass of poor people.

338
 EUROPE
This was Europe's century. Europe's incessant wars almost stopped, and its armies
went overseas, staking out claims to empires elsewhere. Industrial cities grew large,
Trouble hit China and Japan in the mid-1800s.
linked by railroads and telegraph wires. Politicians, industrialists, and the middle
Foreign traders forced their way in, and in China,
classes gained increasing power. The new working classes formed workers'
major rebellions broke out. China's, isolationist
movements, leading, by 1905, to the first-unsuccessful-workers' revolution, in
Qing dynasty eventually fell in 1911. Japan,
Russia. Immense achievements were made in engineering, science, ideas, the arts,
inspired by the West, began modernizing. In India
and in exploring the world. Europe now governed
British rule became total-though not without
and financed the world, and grew rich as a
being challenged by an Indian mutiny first. The
result. Yet times were hard for some-
West now dominated the East. For some Asians,
there were famines, strikes, economic \
employed by Westerners, this was advantageous.
downturns, and mass emigrations.
These hardships eventually led to —-* ,1 But many Asians simply became cheap labor on
plantations and in Asian colonial cities.
another new invention-social — "
Railroads, missionaries, soldiers, CZ
welfare systems for the poor.
and traders opened up the .Hi
interior of Asian countries. But ^i[T
Asian traditions survived ;
better than those of other Ktz J
cultures elsewhere. JMmii' \

EUROPE

AUSTRALASIA
MIDDLE
British settlers took over most
EAST of Australasia, and, in growing
numbers, overwhelmed the
AFRICA indigenous peoples. Australia
and New Zealand made a name
for themselves as exporters
of food, wool, and gold.

AUSTRALASIA

AFRICA
First came explorers, then
traders, missionaries, governors,
and administrators. In the 1880s,
Europe carved up Africa and MIDDLE EAST
took over. Gold rushes made
The long, slow decline of the Ottomans
South Africa rich, though ruled
continued, and the Persians had to fight
by whites. The slave trade had the British to fend them off. The Middle
now ended, but all of Africa fell
East became something of a backwater,
to European exploitation and
held in check by traditional rule, and
government instead,dominated
untouched by change. By the same token
by the British and the French. though, it also avoided colonialization.

339
 10,000 5000 3000 1500 500 300 100 B.C. I 0 A.D. 100 200: 350 500 700

Industrial revolution 1836-1913

The continuing revolution in industry was shaping a new
world. The rapid growth of opportunities for employers
and workers also brought exploitation and injustice.

D uring the 1700s, many people

in Britain worked at home,
usually producing goods by hand.
There were also many farmers and
farm laborers who worked on the
land to grow crops to feed their
families. By the middle of the
1800s, all this had changed. Many
British people now lived in towns
Many children worked and worked in enormous factories, or Jobs in factories, such as textile mills, often required
in mines and factories, skill rather than strength. This gave women a chance
in stores, offices, railroads, and other
but this was banned in to earn a living wage, both in the towns of the
most countries by 1900.
businesses designed to serve the New England states and in the north of Britain.
inhabitants of these industrial centers.
Leading the world, British inventors Four factors brought about the change:
continued to develop revolutionary coal mining, a canal system, capital
new machines that performed traditional (money), and cheap labor. Coal was used
tasks such as spinning and weaving much to smelt iron and steel and to make steam
faster than they could be done by hand. to power the new machines. Barges carried
Machines were also used to make iron and raw materials and finished goods along the
steel. These metals were, in turn, used to canals. The profits from Britain’s colonies
make more machines, weapons, and tools. gave businessmen the money to invest.
The British inventor
And badly paid farmworkers flocked
Isambard Kingdom ▼ New factories were built near rivers or canals and
Brunei (1806-1859) built railroads This meant that raw materials could be to the towns for better paid work.
railroads, bridges, tunnels, delivered, and finished goods taken away. Houses
train stations, ports, and for workers were often built close to the factory.
the world's largest ship.

340
900 1100] 1200] 1300: 1400! 1500 1600 1700 ! 1750 I 1800 1850 I 1900 ] 1950 2000

BUSINESS BOOM
New coal mines were dug to supply coal
for steam engines and coke for ironworks.
By the mid-1800s, Britain’s canal and rail
systems linked all the major industrial
cities. The new machines made goods
faster and more cheaply. Factory and mine
owners made huge profits, some of which
they spent on more machines, so creating
new jobs. Investors saved small amounts of
money in banks. The banks then lent large
amounts to industrialists. This developing
capitalist system raised money to build
factories, offices, and houses.
For many workers, life in the factories In time, laws to shorten working hours The arrival of the railroad
and mines was hard and dangerous. Men, and prohibit child labor were introduced. opened up North America
but also led to the first
women, and children worked 12 or more Trade unions, at first banned, campaigned national strike-the Great
hours a day, often for low wages. Many for better pay and conditions for workers. Strike of 1877. When
workers were killed or injured by unsafe Reformers won better working conditions, railroad workers had their
wages cut, their protests
machinery before new safety laws were and schooling for all children. Slums were
stopped the trains.
enforced. Towns grew rapidly and without cleared and new laws were brought in to
any real planning, leaving some areas control factories and houses.
without drains or clean water. Diseases
such as cholera (from dirty water) became ► A big step forward
in steelmaking was made
common and killed thousands of people.
by Henry Bessemer (1813-
1898). In a Bessemer
Converter, hot air was
In 1842, James Nasmyth blasted through melted
(1808-1890) invented the iron to convert it into
steam hammer, used to steel. Steel was stronger
make parts for the and more useful than
new steamships. iron, but before Bessemer's
invention in 1856, it was
very expensive to make.

_KEY DATES_
1838 Brunei builds the steamship Great Western
1842 James Nasmyth invents first steam hammer
1865 George Pullman invents railroad sleeping car
1869 George Westinghouse invents air brake;
Suez Canal completed, easing travel to India
1886 Samuel Gompers sets up American Federation
of Labor
1893 Frank Sprague invents electric trolley
1900 United States and Germany both overtake
Britain's steel production_

341
 10,000 5000 3000: 1500- 500 i 300 i 100 B.C. 0 A.D. 100 200 350 500 700

Texas and Mexico i 835-1848

Gaining independence from Spain in 1821, Mexico
soon found itself in conflict with Texas over
land ownership. The conflict led to war.

A t the time Mexico gained its

independence, its borders stretched
much farther north and covered many
areas now in the southern United States.
Many U. S. citizens settled in Texas,
which belonged to Mexico. In 1835,
Texas declared its independence. The
Texans appointed Sam Houston as their
military commander. He captured the
town of San Antonio. His opponent, the
Sam Houston (1793—
1863) was twice elected
Mexican General Santa Anna, then led
president of the a large Mexican army into Texas to crush The land that the Texans and the Mexicans fought over
Republic of Texas. He lay between the Rio Grande and the Red River. In 1848, a
the rebellion. He laid siege to the Alamo,
became governor of treaty gave the United States large tracts of land.
a mission in the center of San Antonio,
the state in 1859.
and won the town back. Davy Crockett
was one of the defenders of the Alamo, WAR AND PEACE
which was sometimes used as a fort. It President James Polk sent troops to the
became a symbol of Texan resistance Rio Grande, invading land still claimed
during the war against Mexico. by Mexico. The Mexicans resisted, and the
Santa Anna was later defeated by Mexican-American War broke out. U.S.
Houston’s forces at the battle of San troops captured the capital, Mexico City,
Jacinto in 1836. Texas then became in 1847, and the Mexicans surrendered.
independent, and was known as the The treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo, in
Lone Star Republic. After a few years of 1848, gave the United States huge new
independence, the people of Texas voted territories, including the modern
to join the United States. In 1845, Texas states of California, Nevada,
▲ A contemporary became the 28th state. Clashes between Utah, Arizona, and some
cartoon shows the Aztec
Texans and Mexicans continued as of New Mexico, as
symbol for Mexico-a
proud eagle perched on Texas tried to increase its territory. well as Texas.
a cactus. Mexico’s vast
territories shrank after the
United States gradually
annexed the northern
areas in the mid-1800s.

► Davy Crockett (1786-

1836) was one of the
defenders of the Alamo,
a mission in San Antonio.
In 1836, 186 men held
out against the 5,000
strong Mexican army of
General Santa Anna.
Only two women and two
children survived. Other
heroes killed were Jim
Bowie and William Travis.
In the end, they ran out
of ammunition and had
to use their guns as clubs.

342
900 1100 1 1200! 1300 I 1400! 1500 1 1600 I 1700 ! 1750 1800! 1850 1900 1950 2000

South Africa 1814-1910

South Africa saw enormous struggles for power and
territory in the 1800s as the British, the Boers,
and the Zulus all competed with each other.

I n 1836, the Cape Colony at

the southern tip of Africa was
ruled by the British. Dutch settlers,
known as Boers (literally “farmers”),
disliked British rule. The Boers left
the Cape Colony and set out on the
Great Trek. They traveled northward
to the areas now known as Natal
and the Orange Free State, and
defeated the African people
Cecil Rhodes (1853-1902) who lived there. The British
was prime minister of the
took over the Boer republic
Cape Colony from 1890
to 1895 and sought to
of Natal in 1843, but they gave
unite all of Africa under independence to the Transvaal
British rule. and the Orange Free State. A
three-way struggle developed, with
the British against the Zulus, and
both groups against the Boers.
In the Zulu war of 1879, the Zulus
defeated the British at Isandhlwana,
but lost to them at Rorke’s Drift and
Kambula. The Zulus were organized
into impis (regiments) and fought bravely
before their defeat. In 1880, the British
tried to take over the Transvaal, and the Although only armed with simple weapons such as spears
Cetewayo (1826-1884) First Boer War broke out. The Boers and knobkerries (round-headed clubs), the Zulus were often
was king of the Zulus successful in inflicting heavy losses on their opponents.
defeated the British, and the Transvaal
from 1873 to 1879. He
led his people in the Zulu
remained independent.
wars against the British. CECIL RHODES
The prime minister of the Cape Colony
at that time was Cecil Rhodes. He wanted
to create a British Empire in Africa that
would stretch from the Cape to Cairo, in
Egypt. Rhodes planned the Jameson Raid,
which was designed to overthrow the Boer
government of the Transvaal. The raid
failed, but in 1899, the Second Boer War
broke out. Although the Boers won some
of the early battles, such as Spion Kop,
they were defeated by the British in 1902.
The Peace of Vereeniging was signed in
May 1902, and the Boer republics became
part of the British Empire in exchange for
a guarantee of self-government. In 1907,
The Great Trek is an important event in Boer this promise was honored, and they
history. A group of Boers left the Cape Colony joined Natal and the Cape Colony as
with all their belongings loaded onto wagons,
and traveled northward into the areas
the founding provinces of the Union
where the African peoples lived. of South Africa in 1910.

343
 10,000 5000 | 3000 1 1500 500 i 300 ! 100 B.C. 0 A.D. 100 200 350 500 700

The opium wars i83o-is64

European merchants used the addictive power of
opium to gain important trading links with China—
a country that wished to remain closed to foreigners.

T he Chinese had almost

no contact with the rest of
the world for centuries. Many
European merchants were eager
to trade, especially in the rare The wife of an opium smoker publicly destroys her
husband's pipe. The sale and smoking of opium had
Chinese silks and porcelain
been banned in China from the early 1700s, by order
that were so popular in Europe. of the emperor.
However, the Chinese
government allowed trading TREATY OF NANJING
to take place at only one port, The war was one-sided. The British
Guangzhou (Canton). To get had superior forces, and they bombarded
around this problem, foreign traders Guangzhou and captured Hong Kong
Ships, like this British began to smuggle the drug opium into the from the Chinese. When this first war was
merchant ship in Lintin country, so that the Chinese would trade over, the British forced the Chinese to sign
Harbor, in 1834, would their precious goods in exchange for the the Treaty of Nanjing (Nanking), which
have carried quantities of
opium. Foreign merchants
drug. The Chinese government tried to opened up Chinese ports to Britain. China
traded the drug for the stop this. In 1839, Chinese officials, under also had to pay compensation and give
precious goods that were the orders of Lim Tse-hsu, the Chinese the island of Hong Kong to the British.
so greatly desired by
high commissioner of Guangzhou, visited Britain’s aggressive approach to the
customers in Europe.
British warehouses where they seized and Chinese owed a great deal to the British
burned up to 20,000 chests of opium. foreign secretary Henry Temple, 3rd
The British would not tolerate what they Viscount Palmerston. He was always
saw as the confiscation of private property. ready to use force in what he saw as the
In response, they sent warships that defense of British interests overseas. In
threatened the Chinese and besieged the this, and later treaties, the Chinese were
port. The Chinese refused to pay forced to give in to European demands.
compensation, banned trade with Britain, The Chinese, however, continued to fear
and fired on the British forces. Thus that foreign trade meant that the country
Hong Kong Island became started the First Opium War (1839-1842) would come under foreign influence.
a British colony in 1842. It fought by the Chinese and the British.
soon grew into a center of
trade. In 1860, the Kowloon
Peninsula was added, and
in 1898, the British gained
the New Territories on
a 99-year lease.

344
900 1100 1200 1300; 1400 1800; 1600' 1700 1750! 1800 1900 1950 2000

Britain's vastly superior

SOCIAL UNREST _KEY DATES_ navy could easily destroy
Trouble, largely promoted by the British, 1839 Chinese officials destroy British opium stocks; Chinese junks during
erupted again in the mid-1850s and Outbreak of First Opium War the opium wars.
1842 Chinese sign the Treaty of Nanjing
resulted in the Second Opium War (1856-
1844 Treaty of Wanghia with the United States;
1860). This war was also eventually won Treaty of Whampoa with France The Taiping Rebellion
by the British and it ended with another 1851 The Taiping Rebellion breaks out
(1851-1864) was
crushed by the Chinese
treaty. The Treaty of Tianjin (Tientsin) 1856 Outbreak of Second Opium War
with help from foreign
was signed in 1858, and it forced the 1858 Chinese sign the Treaty of Tianjin
powers who wanted
1898 Britain obtains 99-year lease on New Territories
Chinese to open even more ports to Qing rule to continue.

trade with European merchants. Other

countries, including France and the
United States, also signed treaties, which
gained their citizens special rights and
increased Western influence in China.
Eager traders and missionaries rushed in.
At the same time, the huge Chinese
Empire was gradually breaking down.
The ruling Qing dynasty was faced with
rebellions started by starving peasants.
The Taiping Rebellion (1851-1864) was
begun by people who wanted the land to
be divided equally among ordinary people.
The foreign powers helped to crush the
rebellion because they wanted the Qing
dynasty to continue so that the treaties
would be honored.
345
 10,000 5000 3000 1500 500 I 300 100 B.C. A.D.100 200 350 500 700

Europe: year of revolution i848

In 1848, protests broke out all over Europe.
They demonstrated how unhappy people
were with how they were governed.

T he reasons for many of these

rebellions were similar to those
• Centers of Revolution
in 1848

that sparked the French Revolution.

One of the main factors was that
Tipperary*
people in many countries in Europe
began to feel that they should have •Warsaw
a say in their own government. In Russian
response to the rebellions and Empire

violent protests, many rulers just

Giuseppe Mazzini (1805- ignored the pleas of their people
1872), seen here in prison, and tried to restore older systems of Catalonia
was a tireless campaigner • Rome Ottoman
for democracy and the
government, but the events of 1848 Empire
unification of Italy. showed that change was inevitable. it
• Palermo

Revolution in Europe had been simmering since 1815, and in 1848,

most European countries experienced rebellions. The map above
shows where the most serious outbreaks were.

One powerful reason for the revolutions

of 1848 was nationalism—the desire of
people who spoke the same language to
form their own independent nations.
Nationalism was especially strong in Italy
and Germany, which were divided into
many small states, and in parts of the
Austrian Empire. Other rebellions were
▲ Paris revolutionaries led by people who wanted cheaper food,
demanding "Bread
or Death" stormed
or changes in laws that would give
government buildings in land to working people.
Paris. They overthrew the
king, Louis-Philippe, and
declared a republic with
Louis Napoleon, nephew
of Napoleon Bonaparte,
as “prince president."

► The People's Charter,

drafted by William Lovett
(1800-1877) in 1838,
demanded political reforms,
including votes for all men.
It gave its name to the
Chartist movement. The
last and biggest Chartist
demonstration took place
in London, in 1848.

346
 i
900 11001 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1750 1 1800 1 1850 j 1900 1950 2000

The rebellions in Vienna and other cities

CHARTISM
resulted in the resignation of the Austrian
In some countries, people were demanding chancellor, Prince Metternich, in March
the right to vote. This was one of the 1848. Emperor Ferdinand abdicated in
favor of Franz Josef in December 1848.
reforms that the Chartist movement in
Britain wanted. The People’s Charter
was first published there in May 1838. A
petition said to have 1,200,000 signatures
on it was handed in to Parliament in June
1839, but was rejected a month later.
By February 1848, and following the
revolution in France, a final petition was
formed. When it was complete it was
said to have over 3,000,000 names on
it. On April 10, 1848 a mass march
traveled across London to the Houses
of Parliament to present the petition.
Again, it was rejected, and Chartism
lost its momentum.
Recent changes had made rebellion
easier. More people were now able to
read and newspapers told them what was
happening in other countries. Few police
forces existed, so troops had to be used
against rioters. Most of the revolts of 1848
failed in their immediate demands, but
over the next few years, nationalist feeling
grew stronger, and many governments
began to see that democratic reforms
would soon be necessary.

REVOLUTION IN EUROPE
In France, the Second Republic was
founded with Louis Napoleon, nephew
of Napoleon Bonaparte, as “prince
president.” In the Italian states, revolts
were widespread, but were crushed
by the end of the year. The Austrian
chancellor, Prince Metternich,was
forced to flee, and the emperor
abdicated in favor of Franz Josef.
There were uprisings in Berlin,
Vienna, Prague, Budapest, Catalonia,
Wallachia, Poland, and Britain. In
Germany, the National Assembly met
in Frankfurt, and in the Netherlands,
a new constitution was introduced.
In Belgium, the Communist Manifesto,
written by Karl Marx and Friedrich
Engels, was published. Elsewhere, the
armies and peasants remained loyal
to their monarchs. Revolts were
crushed in Prussia and Italy, but
there were some reforms.

347
 300 100 B.C. A.D. 100 200 350 500 700
10,000 5000 3000 1500 500

NEW ZEALAND 1792-1907

Having been the sole occupants of New Zealand for
nearly a thousand years, the Maori people suddenly
found themselves in competition for land.
T he first people to inhabit New
Zealand were the Maoris, who
had begun to settle in the early
800s, having arrived from other
Pacific islands in their seagoing
canoes. They settled mainly along the
coast and rivers of North Island, but
also established communities on
Whalers were among South Island in smaller numbers. From
the first European settlers the end of the 1700s, more and more
in New Zealand and the
surrounding islands of
settlements and trading posts were being
the Pacific Ocean. established by missionaries and whalers,
despite the objections of the Maoris.
By the 1830s, the growing number of
European settlers on New Zealand’s
North Island was beginning to cause
problems. The settlers needed large
areas of land to graze sheep. The Maoris, Ko Tauwaki, chief of the Tukanu tribe of the Maori
on the other hand, grew crops in people. Maori folklore says that the North Island of
New Zealand was created by the legendary hero Maui.
addition to fishing and hunting, and
they welcomed trade.
▼ Before the arrival of
Maori folklore says that the North BRITISH SOVEREIGNTY
the Europeans, the Maoris
had no outside enemies, Island of New Zealand was created by the By the 1830s, the Maori numbers had
but different tribal groups Maori hero Maui. They believed that all been reduced by the diseases that the
were often at war with land should be held in trust for the next Europeans accidentally introduced. Both
each other. Tribes usually
lived in fortified villages,
generation, so selling land went against the settlers and the Maoris wanted the
such as this one above their tradition. This is why they did not British to provide strong laws and they
Lake Rotorua. want to sell land to the Europeans settlers. appealed to Britain for help.

348
900 1100 ! 1200 | 1300 ! 1400 I 1500 1600! 1700 1750 1800 ■ 1850 ! 1900 1950 2000

In 1840, a representative of the The ceremony of ongi, or

pressing of noses, is practiced
British government, together with 50
by Maori women at Taranaki on
Maori chiefs, signed the Treaty of Waitangi. the west coast of New Zealand's
The treaty set out that if the Maoris gave North Island. The 8,258-ft.
control of New Zealand to the British (2517-m) peak of Mount Egmont
can be seen in the distance.
Empire and accepted Queen Victoria as
their sovereign, the British would protect
all Maori land ownership rights. Under this
agreement, New Zealand also became a
dependency of New South Wales in
Australia. The Europeans continued to
take Maori land. Many thought they had
bought it legally. But because there were
two versions of the treaty, the Maoris
thought that they had only agreed to
give the British “governorship.” There
were several violent Maori uprisings
between 1845 and 1847.

KEY DATES
1790s First European settlers arrived, often whalers
1839 New Zealand Company established in London
1840 Treaty of Waitangi signed by British and MAORI WARS
Maoris
In 1860, war broke out between the
1841 New Zealand becomes separate Crown colony
Maoris and the colonists. Although they
1845 First serious unrest breaks out among Maoris
1860 Full-scale war breaks out fought bravely, the Maoris were forced
1871 Peace permanently established to retreat to the mountains. Peace was
1882 First refrigerated ships allow export of meat established in 1871. In 1907, New Zealand
1907 New Zealand becomes a dominion within became a dominion of the British Empire.
the British Empire
New Zealand prospered, and the numbers
of Maoris began to grow again.

▲ Maori tribal groups

often fought each other.
Maori warriors decorated
their faces with elaborate
tattoos to identify
each other in battle.

◄ Maori uprisings occurred

between 1845 and 1847,
and again between 1860
and 1870. After that date,
the colonial settlers made
concessions and a lasting
peace was established.

349
 10,000 5000 3000 1500 500 300 100 B.C. | 0 A.D.100 | 200; 350 700

The CRIMEAN WAR 1853-1856

One of the few wars involving European nations in this
period took place in the Crimea. It was sparked off by
a struggle for the territory of the old Ottoman Empire.

T he Crimean War was originally a

conflict between Russia and Turkey.
r The Russians felt that the Muslim
Turks had failed to deal fairly with
Christians in their Balkan territories
or in the question of access to holy
places in Palestine. In addition, the
Russians also wanted access for
their warships through the Black
Sea via the Bosphorus and the
Dardanelles. Negotiations between
Turkey and Russia broke down, and
A defenseless Turkey is the Turks, encouraged by the French, Most of the fighting during the war took place in
caught up in the merciless declared war on Russia. Russia then won the Crimean Peninsula, which projects southward
grip of Russia; Russia from Russia into the Black Sea.
was seen as the main
the naval battle of Sinope, in the Black
aggressor in the buildup Sea, in 1853. Britain and France were Russia also had quarrels with France,
to the Crimean War. concerned that Russia wanted to expand mainly to do with commercial and
into the collapsing Ottoman Empire. religious rivalry. The Turks were anxious
They accordingly sent their fleets into to get rid of the strong Russian influence
the Black Sea to protect Turkish coasts, in their Balkan territories of Moldavia
and quickly became Turkey’s allies. and Wallachia.

CHARGE OF THE LIGHT BRIGADE

During the Battle of Balaklava on October 25, 1854, the British Light Brigade was
ordered to charge an enemy position. The battle was won by the British, but
because of the confusion of their officers, nearly 250 of the 673 men in
the Light Brigade were killed or wounded during this misjudged
engagement. The commanders thought that they were charging
an isolated enemy outpost, but they were in fact charging
a heavily fortified position.

Florence Nightingale
(1820- 1910) founded
the first training school for
nurses in London in 1860.
This was a direct response
to the terrible sights she
and other nurses had
seen while serving in
the Crimea. Some
4,600 British
soldiers died in
battle, and a
further 17,500
died of disease.

350
 ■
900 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 I 1700 i 1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 ! 2000

_KEY DATES_
May 1853 Russians occupy Moldavia and Wallachia
Oct. 1853 Turkey declares war on Russia
Mar. 1854 France and Britain declare war on Russia
Sept. 1854 Allies win Battle of the Alma River
Oct. 1854 Siege of Sevastopol begins; Battle of
Balaklava and Charge of the Light Brigade
Nov. 1854 Russians heavily defeated at Inkerman
Sept. 1855 Fall of Sevastopol
Feb. 1856 Fighting stops
Mar. 1856 Treaty of Paris signed

THE ALLIES
Anxious to put a check on Russia’s plans
for expansion, Britain joined France in
declaring war on Russia toward the end of
March 1854. They were also supported by The Crimean War marked the first The Battle of the Alma
actual forces from Piedmont-Sardinia, and time that the public was kept informed River in September 1854
was one of the earliest
were politically supported by Austria. The about the war by photographs and reports encounters of the war. It
allied armies fought a bloody battle at the sent back by telegraph. Perhaps the most was a clear victory for the
Ama River, and, in October, laid siege to influential newspaperman was W. H. Allied forces over Russia.

the town of Sevastopol. Attempts by the Russell of The Times in London—the first
Russians to relieve the siege led to the “war correspondent.” Because of these
battle of Balaklava, with the disastrous reports in the British press, the war
charge of the Light Brigade, followed by became notorious for the general level
the battle of Inkerman in early November. of incompetence shown by political
Ml three of these major engagements leaders, and led, in January 1855, to
were won by the Allies. Mthough they the fall of the British government.
were partially successful in recapturing
◄ The bombardment of
Sevastopol, they were unable to take Sevastopol by the Royal
the dockside area, and it was not until Navy in October 1854
September 1855 that Sevastopol finally was not enough to retake
the whole town, and it
fell. The Russians were held back because was not until September
a lack of railroads prevented supplies and 1855 that it finally fell.
reinforcements from getting through.
The war ended with the Treaty of
Paris on March 30, 1856.

The British Rifle Brigade fought at the

Battle of Inkerman in November 1854. This
was another victory for the Allies. Cholera
and frostbite took a far greater toll
than the Russian forces.

351
 100 B.C. 0 A.D. 100 1 200 I 350 I 500 700
10,000 I 5000 ! 3000 | 1500 500

Japan 1853-1913
Under the Tokugawas, Japan had been closed to
foreigners for more than 200 years. In the early
1800s, it began to experience Western influence.

D uring the first half of the

1600s, Japan’s rulers decided
that contact with the West must
end. In particular, they feared that
Christian missionaries might bring
European armies to invade Japan.
They therefore banned almost all
foreigners from entering Japan and
the Japanese from leaving their own
country. As a result, people in the
West were unable to appreciate the
great beauty of the Japanese art of this
period until the mid-to-late 1800s. In
1853, Millard Fillmore (1800-1874),
After 1868, the Meiji the 13th President of the United States,
government improved sent four warships, under the command
educational standards.
By 1914, the Japanese
of Commodore Matthew Perry, on an
were among the best- important journey to Japan designed to
educated people in bring about the opening of trade there.
the world.
The warships anchored in Tokyo Bay.
The threat of American naval power The ships of Commodore Perry's fleet were the
helped Commodore Perry persuade first steamships that the Japanese had ever seen.
They realized that they would be unable to beat them.
the Japanese to resume trading
with the West. The Japanese were
impressed by Perry’s steamships and Soon, similar treaties had been signed
by the other machinery he showed with Britain, the Netherlands, and Russia
them. The two countries went on to The Tokugawa were criticized by their
sign the Treaty of Kanagawa a year opponents for allowing these treaties to
later, in 1854, in which they agreed be signed, and for many other problems
to open two ports to American trade. they could not solve.
▲ U.S. Commodore
Matthew Perry (1794-1858)
is known as the man who
opened up Japan to trade
with the rest of the world.
In 1853, he sailed to Japan,
and in 1854, signed the
Treaty of Kanagawa with
the Japanese.

► This Japanese woodblock

print shows Yokohama
Harbor in the late 1800s.
Following the Treaty of
Kanagawa, the Japanese
agreed to open ports to
trade with the United
States and several
European countries.

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900 1100 1200 ; 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000

RESTORATION OF THE EMPEROR

People were tired of the near total
isolation that the Tokugawa family
had imposed for so long. In 1868, the
Tokugawa were finally overthrown and
the emperor, Mutsuhito, was restored as
ruler (the Meiji Restoration). Now that
their country had opened up to the West,
the Japanese began to modernize.
Although the Japanese wanted to keep
some of their own traditions, they were
also eager to learn from the industrial
nations of the West. They changed and
adapted both their government and their
schools. Improved education meant that
by 1914 the Japanese were among the
best-educated people in the world.
They began to import machines and
introduced new industries such as
cotton manufacture. Many Japanese
people adopted European fashions in
music and clothes. At the same time,
foreigners gradually learned to respect
Japanese success and culture.
With industrialization, the Japanese
soon began to expand their country.
They tried to take over Korea, which led
to a war with China in 1894. Japan also
fought Russia over this issue in 1904-1905
and finally annexed Korea in 1910. This ▲ Russian soldiers flee after the Battle ▼ In May 1905, Japan's fleet, led by
of Mukden, in northeast China, in which Admiral Togo, annihilated the Russian
helped make Japan the most powerful
the Japanese won a decisive victory fleet. This led to the Treaty of Portsmouth
nation in its region. By 1913, Japan had in March 1905. and gave the Japanese control over Korea.
become an industrial power of great
importance—the first country in
Asia to make such advances.

353
 10,000 5000 3000 1 1500 ! 500 i 300 I 100 B.C. I 0 ! A.D. 100 ! 200 j 350

American civil war 1861-1865

By the mid-1800s, the United States was badly divided. Union soldier

The North and South strongly disagreed about

questions of states' rights and ownership of slaves.

I n 1850, the North had almost all of

the manufacturing industries, thriving
cities, and a growing railroad system. The
South was a land of farms, and of large
cotton and tobacco plantations that
relied on slave labor. Slavery had long
been banned in the northern states.
This division caused hostility between
North and South. The Kansas-Nebraska
Act (1854) gave new states the right
Confederate
to choose whether or not they allowed soldier
Ulysses S. Grant slavery. The Compromise of 1850 helped
(1822-1885) was northern states protect the rights of
appointed commander
of the Union forces in
runaway slaves—the South felt threatened.
1863. He was a tough The southern states were sure that the
and determined general economy of the South would be ruined
Union soldiers wore the
if the slaves were freed. Furthermore, the blue uniform of the U.S.
southern states believed that they had the army. The Confederates

right to make their own laws without usually wore gray.

interference from the federal government.

In 1860, Abraham Lincoln (1809- by Jefferson Davis (1808-1889), they
1865) was elected president. He belonged announced in December 1860 that they
to the Republican Party, which opposed were seceding from (leaving) the Union
slavery, although he himself was not an and forming the Confederate States of
abolitionist. Many southern states refused America. The United States government
to live under such a government, and led declared they had no right todo this.
Robert E. Lee (1807-1870)
was in the U.S. army when BATTLE OF GETTYSBURG
civil war broke out. He
resigned, and first advised, The Battle of Gettysburg (July 1-3, 1863) was a turning point in the Civil War. The battle
then took command of, was the bloodiest ever fought on American soil, but was an important Union victory by
the Confederate troops. General George Meade. He stopped an invasion of the North by General Robert E. Lee’s
Confederate army. From this point onward, the South's chances of winning the war declined.

354
 ■■
900 1100 1200! 1300 1 1400;! 1500 | 1600 | 1700 | 1750 ! 1800 1 18501 19001 1950 1 2000

l >.

York

ishington, D.C.
> Richmond
tersburg

Cha ttanooaa

:ksburg • • Montgomery Atlantic ◄ This shows the division ▲ The Battle of

Ocean of the United States at the Spotsylvania, Virginia, in
beginning of the Civil War. May 1864, was one of
Eleven of the 34 states the many Union victories
States of the Union made up the Confederacy. of the Civil War. In all,
Most of the battles were more than 600,000
Confederate States fought in the east and soldiers died on both
southeast. sides in the conflict.

THE TWO SIDES The South won the first battles in ft

The North (Union), made up of 23 states, 1861, including Fredericksburg and

had more men, more money, and more Chancellorsville, but the turning point
industry than the South. The North also in the struggle came in July 1863, when
controlled the navy and started a naval the North won the biggest battle of
Union flag
blockade that prevented the South the war, at Gettysburg. The Union
from receiving help or supplies from forces, under the command of General
abroad. The 11 states of the South (the George Meade, stopped an invasion of
Confederacy) were much weaker, but the North by General Robert E. Lee's
they had the benefit of good generals and Confederate army. Each side had over
a great fighting spirit. Civil war broke out 20,000 soldiers killed or wounded.
on April 12, 1861 when the forces of the
South opened fire on Fort Sumter in During the Civil War,
South Carolina. The Confederates won For the first time in history, the Confederates rejected
the Stars and Stripes and
a number of victories early in the war. railroads played a vital part
in warfare by moving troops, adopted their own flag.
ammunition, and supplies
swiftly over great distances.

Harriet Tubman (1820-

1913) was an escaped
slave who made trips
through southern territory,
helping slaves escape.

355
 5000 3000 1500. 500: 300 f 100 B.C. 0 A.D. 100 350 500 700
10,000 :

The END OF THE CIVIL WAR 1865

Slavery was completely abolished in 1865, with the
13th Amendment to the Constitution. The country
was reunited, but new problems emerged.

I n 1864, despite Lee’s skillful tactics,

General Grant captured Richmond, the
capital of the South. General Sherman
marched through Georgia and the other
southern states, capturing Atlanta. He
followed this victory with a “march to the
sea,” during which he destroyed towns and
farms. Short of men, money, weapons, and
food, Lee surrendered on April 9, 1865,
ending the Civil War. More than 600,000
soldiers had died, many from diseases such
as typhoid and dysentery. Five days later,
Abraham Lincoln was assassinated.
The Civil War settled two important General Lee surrendered to General Grant in the
courthouse at Appomattox, Virginia, on April 9, 1865.
questions. First, it confirmed that the
His men were outnumbered, exhausted, and starving.
United States of America was a single
nation and that no state had the right to
General Lee's presentation break away. Second, it brought slavery in The people of the South resisted most
sword was not handed the southern states to an end. After the aspects of Reconstruction. Many former
over during the surrender
ceremony, as was
Civil War, arguments raged over how the slaves who had fought on the Union side
customary. Instead, it South should be “reconstructed.” Ideas returned home expecting more freedom
remained by his side. included the opening of schools and the in the South. However, the Ku Klux Klan
building of railroads. Abraham Lincoln’s and other racist organizations began a
successor, Andrew Johnson (1808-1875), campaign of murder and terrorism in
a Democrat, wanted better conditions for 1866 that tried to stop black Americans
black Americans. The Republicans wanted from enjoying civil rights. Northern
a harsher policy, and it was they who troops withdrew, Reconstruction ended,
won the argument in the end. and the Democrats took over the South.

THE GETTYSBURG ADDRESS

In November 1863, President Lincoln was invited to make a "few appropriate
remarks" at the dedication of a national cemetery at Gettysburg. His speech lasted
about two minutes and is today regarded as a masterpiece. Abraham Lincoln
summed up the central issue of the war-the survival of a nation
dedicated to freedom.

Abraham Lincoln
(1809-1865) was the
16th President of the
United States. Many
people believe he was
the greatest of all of the
presidents. "Honest Abe"
was known for his
integrity and the force
of his arguments.

356
900 iioo: 1200! 1300! 1400! 1500 1600 1700 ! 1750! 1800! 1850: 1900: 1950! 2000

Canada 1763-1913
The peace terms of 1763 effectively gave Canada over to
British rule. In 1791, the British Constitutional Act split
Canada into British- and French-speaking territories.

O pposition to British rule

in Canada grew during the
1830s. Rebellions broke out in
both Upper and Lower Canada
in 1837, led by William Lyon
Mackenzie and Louis Papineau
respectively. The rebels wanted
self-government and, although
they had some support, the most Winnipeg, a center of the fur trade, was still a small
influential people in the colonies did not town in 1870. In that year, the settlement became
the capital of the province of Manitoba.
Louis Joseph Papineau agree with them. The rebels were soon
(1786-1871) was a
defeated by British troops. The British
French-Canadian
politician. He led the
government sent Lord Durham to Canada WESTERN TERRITORIES
French-speaking to investigate the causes of the rebellions. The vast lands to the west, which
Canadians' demand for His report said that Upper and Lower belonged to the Hudson’s Bay Company,
reform and equality.
Canada should be united and should later also became part of Canada. The
have control over their own affairs. Northwest Territories joined the dominion
The 1840 Act of Union united the in 1870, and the Yukon Territory in 1898.
two colonies, which became known as The Yukon had been the location of a
the Province of Canada. However, many gold rush in 1896, which led to tens of
Canadians still felt that these reforms did thousands of hopeful prospectors making
not go far enough. This was partly because their way over the Rocky Mountains
the Canadians were concerned that the to the goldfields and, they hoped, great
United States might invade if Canada wealth. Completion of the Canadian
looked weak. In 1867, the British North Pacific Railway in 1885 united the
William Lyon Mackenzie America Act was passed, and Canada country. Unlike the American railroads, it
(1795-1861) was a member formed one continuous system from the
became self-governing. The act united
of Canada's Reform Party.
He wanted Canada to have
four Canadian provinces in a dominion. St. Lawrence River to the Pacific Ocean.
more freedom from British The French Canadians of Quebec were
rule. He led the 1837 promised equality, and'French and English
rebellion in Upper Canada.
became the official languages.

Alaska

Northwest Territories North

(1870)

North Hudson
Pacific Bay
Ocean
/Alberta / Saskafchewai
i Wl905) / (1905)1 / Quebec
/ Mpnitot a Ontario ◄ The British North ▲ The Canadian Pacific
- Nova
America Act of 1867 united Railway was completed
Scotia the provinces of Nova Scotia, in 1885. It linked the
New Brunswick, Ontario east and west coasts,
Railroai
New (formerly Upper Canada), reducing the journey
(TES OF AMERICA Brunswick and Quebec (Lower Canada) time from five months
in the Dominion of Canada. to five days.

357
 5000; 3000 1500- 500 : 300! 100 B.C. A.D. 100 200 350 500 700
10,000

Italy i833-i878
The birth of the Italian nation was brought about with
the help of an aristocrat, Count Camillo Cavour, and
a man of the people, Giuseppe Garibaldi.

In the early 1800s, Italy was made up of

a number of small states. Apart from
the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia and
Rome, which was ruled by the pope, these
states were governed by foreign countries.
In the 1830s, an independence movement
known as the Risorgimento (“resurrection”)
began to grow. In 1848, many revolutions
against foreign rule broke out, but they
Victor Emmanuel II (1820- were quickly suppressed. In 1849,
1878) was the popular Victor Emmanuel II became king of
king of Piedmont-Sardinia.
He eventually became
Piedmont-Sardinia (a northern state in
king of all Italy. the Piedmont region, which also ruled
the island of Sardinia), and made Turin
his capital. He was a very popular man, The rebellion in Venice in 1848 was one of the last in
▼ Piedmont-Sardinia took at least in part because he restricted the Italy to hold out. Severely weakened by hunger and
the lead in uniting Italy disease, the people of Venice gave up in August 1849.
in 1859-1860. Nice and
powers of the clergy, who were less well-
Savoy were given to regarded in the north than in the south.
France in 1860. He was known as “the cavalier king.” SKILLFUL POLITICIAN
Count Camillo Cavour, an Italian
Savoy aristocrat with very liberal views,
(to France 1 became the chief minister of the Kingdom
J'ti.
1m
of Piedmont-Sardinia in 1852. He made
an alliance with France in 1858. Together,
Lomba Venice
| \ \ (1859) (1866)
they defeated the Austrians in 1859.
Kingdom ol Austria ceded Lombardy to France who
, Piedmont-
v Sardinia \ Parma then handed it to Piedmont in exchange
(I860) for Savoy and Nice. Most of northern Italy
Modena
V / (1860)
then joined with Piedmont-Sardinia.
In 1860, rebellion broke out in southern
San Marino
Nice Tuscany Italy, which was part of the Kingdom of
(to France 1860) (1860) the Two Sicilies. Giuseppe Garibaldi led
— Papal States
(1860) a revolt and conquered the kingdom.
His men were known as “red shirts”
because of their dress, and faithfully
Papal States followed their romantic and patriotic
(1870)
leader. It took them a mere three
months to conquer all of Sicily.
Kingdom of
Piedmont- Cavour was now very concerned that
Sardinia Garibaldi, and his seemingly unstoppable
men, would attack Rome, which might in^,.
turn lead Austria or France to come to
Kingdom of the
Two Sicilies the aid of the pope. Cavour invaded the
(1860), Papal States (but not Rome) and then
Mediterranean marched his army south. Garibaldi’s
Sea
forces had taken Naples, and Cavour,
being careful to go around Rome itself,
finally met up with him.
358
900 I 1100 1200! 1300 I 1400 1500 1600 i 1700 1750 I 1800 1900 I 1950 I 2000

Giuseppe Garibaldi
(1807-1882) was a
patriot who fought
against foreign rule in
Italy. With his "red shirts,"
he conquered the kingdom
of the Two Sicilies in
I860, and it became part
of the Kingdom of Italy.

Count Camillo Cavour

(1810-1861) was the
politician who made most
of the plans for a unified
Italy. He was also able to
harness the talents of
AGREEMENT AND UNITY KEY DATES
Giuseppe Garibaldi to
Count Cavour reached a detailed 1830s Mazzini founds the “Young Italy" movement help his own plans.
agreement with Garibaldi and his red-shirt 1848 Revolutions break out in Europe
soldiers that allowed the Kingdom of 1849 Victor Emmanuel 11-King of Piedmont-Sardinia

Piedmont-Sardinia to take over Sicily, 1852 Cavour-chief minister of Piedmont-Sardinia

T A meeting between
1859 Piedmont-Sardinia and France defeat Austrians
Naples, and the Papal States. In February Victor Emmanuel II
1860 Garibaldi and his army conquer Sicily and Garibaldi at Teano,
1861, the first national parliament was 1861 First national Italian parliament held northeast of Naples, in
held in Turin and, one month later, 1870 Rome joins greater Italy 1860 eventually led to
Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed the unification of Italy.

king of all Italy.

Two small areas were not included.
Venice was still part of the Austrian
Empire and Rome was ruled by the pope
but occupied by France. Venice was given
to Italy after Austria was defeated in the
Austro-Prussian War [1866]. In Rome,
Pope Pius IX was totally unwilling to bend
to what he still saw as a northern king.
The Franco-Prussian War of 1870 forced
the French to withdraw their garrison in
Rome for other duties, and the Italian
army immediately took over Rome. The
city then became the capital of Italy. Pope
Pius would not negotiate and thought of
himself as a prisoner in the Vatican until
he died in 1878. The people of Rome
wanted unity and so it was that the ruling
house of Piedmont-Sardinia reigned over
a totally united country.

359
 10,000 5000 3000 1500 500 300 100 B.C. A.D. 100 200 350 500 700

Germany i848-i87i
In the second half of the 1800s, the military might WHO WOULD LEAD GERMANY?
of France was overtaken by a German state, Prussia. In 1866, Bismarck dissolved the German
Confederation, and Austria declared war
A new and powerful Germany emerged.

A fter the failure of the revolutions

of 1848, the German Confederation,
on Prussia, confident of victory. They had,
however, not taken sufficient account of
the skill and strength of the Prussian army.
made up of over 40 states, stayed as The Prussian forces swept through the
disunited as it had been for centuries. The Austrian territory at an alarming speed.
two strongest states, Austria and Prussia, The power of the Austrian Hapsburg
jostled for power over all of Germany. Empire was forever weakened when they
Although weaker at first, Prussia’s trade were defeated on July 3, 1866 at the
and industry grew in the 1850s. Its Battle of Sadowa. Bismarck then set up
increasing strength was supported by the North German Confederation, with
the Prussian kaiser and his new prime Prussia as the most powerful member.
minister, Otto von Bismarck. The Peace of Prague was an excellent
Austria and Prussia went to war against example of the skillful diplomacy and
The diplomatic skills Denmark over control of the duchies of statesmanship of Bismarck. He knew that
of Otto von Bismarck Schleswig and Holstein. Although both it would be dangerous to humble Austria,
(1815-1898), prime
minister of Prussia, kept
duchies belonged to the royal family of and he wanted to make an ally and not an
his enemies isolated. Denmark, many Germans lived there. enemy. Accordingly, the Hapsburgs only
Denmark was defeated, and both duchies lost the two duchies, which they did not
now came under German control. But really want anyway, and Venice. Prussia
Austria and Prussia soon clashed over did, however, make huge gains within
how they should be administered. the rest of Germany.

A Napoleon III (1808-

1873) became emperor
of France in 1852. Fie was
captured at the Battle of
Sedan during the Franco-
Prussian War and sent
into exile in 1871.

► In September 1870,
during the Franco-Prussian
War, the Prussian army laid
siege to Paris. Rather than
make a full assault on the
city, the Prussians simply
surrounded it and waited.
The poor were soon facing
starvation, and the wealthy
were reduced to eating the
animals from the Tuileries
Zoo. Peace came in
May 1871.

360
 I
900 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 | 1600 I 1700 | 1750 ! 1800 1900 ! 1950 2000

THE BATTLE OF SEDAN

The Battle of Sedan, in northern France, on September 1-2, 1870,
was the scene of an unequal conflict between Prussian forces
and the French. The French
forces were outnumbered
two to one. Although
Leboeuf, the French war
minister, had claimed that
the French preparation
was total, once the battle
began, it was found that
not all of the French
riflemen even had a
rifle. Surrounded and
unable to break out,
Napoleon III, along
with 85,000 French
troops, was forced
to surrender.

THE FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR

The French emperor, Napoleon III, a DENMARK

poorly supported, ill-advised leader, felt ^ Km

Schleswig
threatened by Prussia’s increasing power.
Holstein
He demanded Germany hand over some
of its territory to balance out the Prussian
NETHERLAI Berlin*
gains. Bismarck ignored this demand, and RUSSIA
Napoleon’s threats only served to bring BELGIUM Dominated by Prussia

the previously reluctant southern German POLAND

states behind Prussia. Sedan

Bavaria
Bismarck provoked the French when and AUSTRIA
Southern
he altered the report of a conversation States
between the Prussian king and the
French ambassador so that it looked like German Confederation
an insult to France. When the document, North German Confederation 1866
the “Ems Telegram,” was published in German Second Empire 1871
1870, Napoleon III was furious and __
declared war. In the Franco-Prussian ▲ The North German
Confederation, dominated
War, Prussia defeated France in 1871
by Prussia, was formed
and took over Alsace and Lorraine. The in 1867. It was a union
remaining German states also joined in of states in which the
1871. Bismarck then formed the German members kept their own
governments, but military
Second Reich, with the king of Prussia and foreign policy was
[William I) as emperor. decided by a federal
government.

KEY DATES
1852 Napoleon III becomes emperor of France
1862 Bismarck becomes Prussian prime minister
1864 Danish plans to take over Schleswig-Holstein
1866 Schleswig-Holstein taken over by Prussia
1867 North German Confederation formed
◄ This cartoon shows
1870 Outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War
Bismarck and Kaiser
1870 French defeat at the Battle of Sedan, Wilhelm riding on
Napoleon III captured Napoleon III as a pig
1870 Prussian siege of Paris begins as they make their
1871 Franco-Prussian War ends at Peace of Frankfurt triumphal entry into
1871 Second German Reich proclaimed at Versailles Paris in 1871.

1873 Napoleon III dies in exile

361
 10,000 5000 1 3000 1 1500 1 500 1 300 I 100 B.C. 0 A.D. 100 200 350 500 700

Scramble for africa 1880-1912

With their greater wealth and technology, the major
European powers were able to conquer large parts
of the world. They claimed the territory as their own.

T oward the end of the 1800s, the

European powers ceased to squabble
among themselves for territories and
trade within Europe itself. With
the sudden emergence of the new
force of Germany under the political
control of Otto von Bismarck, all
European nations looked farther afield
for economic gain. Rival European nations
now rushed to carve out their respective
colonies in Africa. This process became
known as the “scramble for Africa.”
Dr. David Livingstone, lost while seeking the source of the
This cartoon shows the Britain and France undoubtedly led Nile, had a historic meeting with Welsh-born American
German eagle, poised to the scramble, but Germany, Belgium, and journalist H. M. Stanley by Lake Tanganyika in 1871.
take as much of Africa as
it can. Germany was just
Italy were very close behind. Numerous
one of many European conflicts flared up between Britain and THE SUEZ CANAL
powers seeking new lands. France over colonies in West Africa. Opened in 1869, the Suez Canal cut
Where Britain had been happy to control the sea journey between Britain and
▼ During the latter a relatively small number of coastal towns India from three months to three weeks.
part of the 1800s, rivalry and ports, by the end of the century they The Khedive of Egypt was in financial
between the different
European powers played
had taken over all of what is now Ghana difficulties, and the British bought his half
a large part in the and Nigeria, and effectively controlled of the shares in the Suez Canal in 1875.
scramble for Africa. Sierra Leone and The Gambia. Relations between Britain and France
worsened when the British occupied
— ——
m
Ottoman
Egypt in 1882 to protect their interests
SPANISH MOROCCO V TUNISIA
Empir during a local uprising against the
,MOROCCO Europeans. In 1885, General Gordon and
ALGERIA LIBYA
many British soldiers were killed when
the Mahdi, the leader in Sudan, took
FRENCH WEST AFRICA
Khartoum on the White Nile. The Italians
invaded Eritrea (now part of Ethiopia),
ANGLO
TOGO,
EGYPTIAN and King Leopold of the Belgians took
SUDAN
PORT over the Congo.
iUINEA NIGERIA
SIER ETHIOPIA Europeans traded guns in
LEONE IERUN
exchange for gold and ivory.
1ALIAN
LIBERIA GOLD COAST BRITISH The guns had a devastating
IALILAND
iENCH rSJ AFRICA. effect in Africa.
BELGIAN
CONGO
1 I British
1 I French
i 1 German ANGOLA
' NORTH—
Italian RHODESIA

■■ Belgian
GERMAN SOUTHERN
f i Portugese SOUTHWEST RHODESIA/
AFRICA
HI Spanish BECHUANALRND

1 I Independent
UNIOrTOF SOUTH AFRICA

362
900 1100 1200 1300 1400; 1500! 1600 1700 | 1750 1 1800 ! 1850 ! 1950 2000

CONSTANT EXPANSION
The scramble for Africa became a
formal process at a conference in Berlin
in 1884. The rival European countries
cut up Africa like a cake. Only Liberia
and Ethiopia, which held off an Italian
invasion, remained independent. The
colonization of Africa had a number of
effects on Africans. The Europeans took no
notice of the different African nations and
tribal boundaries when the new borders
Mi jj
M
were drawn. They brought new forms of J>m 3"S|L
government to Africa, but few Africans xj
could vote. Profits from the colonies went
back to Europe, and European colonists
often took the best farmland.

KEY DATES
1869 Suez Canal opens to shipping
1871 Stanley meets Livingstone at Lake Tanganyika
1876 Leopold II of Belgium takes over the Congo
1882 British occupy Egypt to protect the Suez Canal
1884 European nations meet in Berlin to divide
Africa among themselves
1885 The Mahdi besieges Khartoum
1898 British defeat the Mahdi's troops at Omdurman
1893 The French take Timbuktu, Mali, West Africa
1899 British—Egyptian rule of Sudan
1912 The African National Congress (ANC) forms in
South Africa

▲ The French conquest

of Mali in West Africa
was symbolized by the
raising of the French flag
in Timbuktu in 1893. Their
advance along the Niger
River was held up by the
resistance of the local
people, the Mande.

◄ Designed by French
engineer Ferdinand de
Lesseps (1805-1894), the
Suez Canal considerably
reduced the journey from
Britain to India, and helped
trade goods reach England
more quickly. In 1875, the
British, under the leadership
of Disraeli, heard that the
Khedive (viceroy) of Egypt
faced bankruptcy, and they
bought his share of the
canal for £4 million.

363
 10,000 5000: 3000 1500 500 300 100 B.C. 0 A.D. 100 2001 350 500 700

Ireland 1800-1913
Ireland went through a period of great suffering when
disease struck the potato, the staple food of the poor.
At least a million people died, and a million emigrated.

M ost of the people of Ireland

made a living by farming small
plots of rented land or working on large
estates for Anglo-Irish landlords. They
were desperately poor and depended on
potatoes, which were cheap, to feed large
families. In 1845 and 1846, potato blight,
a type of fungus, spread rapidly across the
land, turning the potatoes black, diseased,
and inedible. Famine relief, paid for by On May 6, 1882, in Phoenix Park in Dublin, Lord Frederick

charities and public fund-raising, was Cavendish, the Irish chief secretary, and T.H. Burke,
his undersecretary, were stabbed to death by Irish
David O'Connell (1775— too little and came too late. The Nationalists. Five were later hanged for this offense.
1847) was a fighter for government system for the relief of
the rights of Catholic
people in Britain. He was
property was badly planned and run,
the first Irish Catholic to and it broke down under the pressure. IRISH EMIGRATION
be elected to the British The authorities believed that the To escape the famine, hundreds of
Parliament. He served
food supply would adjust itself to meet thousands of Irish people emigrated,
from 1829 to 1847.
the demand, and they opposed the mostly to the British mainland, but great
distribution of free food until it was too numbers also went to the United States
late. Efforts to bring down the price of and Canada. Blight also hit potato crops
wheat by repealing the Corn Laws also in Britain and other countries. But only
came too late. Because landlords evicted in Ireland did it have such disastrous
tenants who could not pay their rent, consequences, including the shadow it
entire families were left to starve to was to cast over Irish-British relations in
death by the side of the road. future generations.

▲ Irish tenant farmers

were ruined when the
potato blight struck in
1845. The harvest was
poor and they could not
pay their rent. Many of
the farmers and their
families starved to death.

► Most Irish people lived

a hard life with little food
and comfort. Their homes
were usually not very
different from the barns
in which their Anglo-Irish
landlords kept their cattle.
900 1100 1200 1300 1400 j 1500 1600 1700 1750 ! 1800 1850 { 1900 j 1950 2000

During the potato famine, many Irish people had to choose between
possible starvation or leaving their country. About one million people
starved to death and another million emigrated over the next five
years, mostly to England, Scotland, and Wales, as well as the
United States. A typhoid epidemic in 1846-1847 is thought
to have killed another 350,000 Irish people.

Charles Stewart Parnell

was the leader of the Irish
Nationalists in the British
Parliament. He led the
struggle for Irish home
rule and supported the
Land League, which
wanted land to be
given to Irish farmers.

The Irish Republican

Brotherhood, or Fenians,
was founded in 1858
by James Stephens
IRISH LEADERS However, these reforms were not enough (1825-1901). It was an
The demands of Irish politicians, to keep the Irish happy with British rule. organization that wanted
to set up an Irish republic.
particularly Charles Parnell [1846-1891], Almost all of the Irish wanted home rule,
became increasing vocal in the British or self-government. After the failure of
Parliament. Parnell had entered Parliament both the 1886 and 1893 Home Rule Bills,
▼ The Fenians sometimes
in 1875, and became president of the Irish the British Parliament finally passed the resorted to acts of violence
Land League in 1879. His party demanded third Home Rule Bill in 1912—but it in Britain. In 1867, they
attacked a police van in
rent reductions and resisted the evictions was not put into operation because of
Manchester to rescue
of tenant farmers. The Irish politicians, and the outbreak of World War I, in 1914. some of their members.
the strength of public feeling among the
Irish, led to some law reforms, especially
relating to land ownership rights.

KEY DATES
1801 Irish Parliament abolished by the British
1829 Daniel O'Connell enters the British Parliament
1845 First potato blight leads to widespread famine
1846 Second potato blight causes worse famine
1846 Typhoid epidemic kills 350,000 Irish people
1875 Charles Parnell enters the British Parliament
1879 Parnell becomes president of the Land League
1912 Third Home Rule Bill passed, but not enacted

365
 5000 ! 3000 I 1500 300 100 B.C. 0 A.D. 100 ; 200 | 350 I 500 700
10,000

Southeast asia 1800-1913

Southeast Asia was dominated by the Dutch, French,
and British in the late 1800s. They grew rich on the
profits from crops grown by local people.

S outheast Asia was colonized by

Europeans who set up plantations
that were worked by the native
SiV population. The French colony
of Indochina included Cambodia,
Laos, and Vietnam. The French
gradually conquered the area
In Malaya, the British ruled during the 1800s, despite local resistance.
through the local sultans. In Annam, the emperor, Ham Nghi, waged
This beautiful mural of the
tree of life comes from a
a guerrilla war until 1888.
family home in Sarawak, The Dutch had been established in
now part of Malaysia. Indonesia since the 1620s. They had
Rubber packing in Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) in the late
already taken over Indonesian trade, and 1800s. Rubber plants were introduced to Southeast
from 1830, they also took over agriculture. Asia by the British from seeds collected in Brazil.
The peasant farmers were forced to
grow the crops the Dutch wanted, The Burmese resisted British rule in a
especially coffee and indigo (a plant series of bloody wars between 1824 and
from which a blue dye was made). 1885, but by 1886, Britain controlled
By 1900, a nationalist movement the whole country and made it into a
was growing in Indonesia itself. province of India. It was not until 1937
The Indonesians made efforts to that Burma was separated from India
improve education and to regain and regained some independence.
The merchant ships of some control over their business and trade. In Malaya, the situation was calmer
the British East India Faced with Burmese expansion at the because of British rule through the local
Company were known
as East Indiamen.
end of the 1700s, the British colonized sultans. During the early part of the
Burma and the Malay Peninsula during 1800s, the British East India Company
the 1800s because they wanted to protect had set up trading posts; in 1826,
India, which they regarded as the most Singapore, Malacca, and Penang were
valuable part of their empire. united to form the Straits Settlements.

▲ Indonesian princes and

Dutch colonists benefited
from the profits made by
growing cash crops on the
islands. For ordinary
Indonesians, this way of
life meant great hardship.

► Tea was one of the

important cash crops
grown on large British-
owned estates in India.

366
900 1100 j 1200 I 1300 1400 ; 1500 1600 1700 i 1750 ; 1800 1850 1900 I 1950 2000

_ - —

BRITISH INFLUENCE S
V CHINA M
In later years, the British went on to
become responsible for other states in the
Malay Peninsula and formed the Federated South
Malay States in 1896, with the capital at INDIA China
Sea
Kuala Lumpur. Demand for rubber grew PHILIPPINES
rapidly in the 1800s, but the only source
Cambodia
of supply was South America. Rubber INDOCHINA
Indian
seeds were collected in Brazil and shipped Ocean Cochin China
North Borneo
to Kew Gardens, in London, where they TrA

were raised. In 1877, 2,000 young plants MALAYA Sarawak)^ Moluccas

Singapore Islands
were shipped and distributed to countries
Borneo Celebes
such as Ceylon, Malaysia, and Indonesia, Sumatra DUTCH
where the plants flourished. EAST INDIES
By the 1880s, British engineers, Java
surveyors, and architects were helping to
build railroads, roads, bridges, factories,
Southeast Asia was
and government buildings in Southeast KEY DATES dominated by three
Asia. They drew on the experience gained 1813 East India Company's trade monopoly ends European powers in the
from the Industrial Revolution in Britain. 1819 Thomas Raffles of the East India Company late 1800s-the French,
founds Singapore as a free port British, and Dutch
Banking and investment were geared
1824 British and Dutch interests settled by treaty controlled every
toward financing the empire by trading country except Siam.
1859 French naval forces capture the citadel in
raw materials from the colonies for Saigon
homemade manufactured goods. 1867 Singapore and the Straits Settlements apply
The British also figured out how to to be a Crown colony
improve the techniques used for mining 1877 Brazilian rubber plants, grown in Kew Gardens,

the large deposits of tin and other in London, exported to Southeast Asia ▼ The French gradually
1884-1885 Chinese-French War conquered Indochina
precious metals that had been discovered during the 1800s. Their
1885 At the Treaty of Tientsin China recognizes
in Malaya and other countries. Toward French rule over Annam and Tonkin forces captured the citadel
the end of the 1800s, many people went in Saigon, Annam, on
1886 British annexe Upper Burma
February 17, 1859. In
to live and work in Southeast Asia as 1887 Union of Indochina formed from Vietnam,
1862, the French
traders, soldiers, engineers, diplomats, Cambodia, and Laos
signed a treaty with
1898 U.S.A. takes Philippines from the Spanish
and government administrators. the local leader, Tu Doc.

367
 300 ! 100 B.C. A.D. 100 200 | 350 i 500 700
10,000 5000 3000 1500 | 500 I

THE BRITISH EMPIRE 1815-1913

During the 1800s, the British extended and
consolidated their empire. Britain took over
more land than any other nation in history.

A t its height, during the reign

of Queen Victoria, the British
Empire included a quarter of the
world’s land and people. From the
end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815
to the start of World War I in 1914, Soldiers from the countries that were part of the British
Empire were frequently used to make sure that British
Britain acquired so many new
power and influence continued and expanded.
colonies that the empire stretched
around the world. Britain was able
to control this vast empire by its RAW MATERIALS
domination of the seas and world The empire provided the British with raw
When William IV died in trade routes. Throughout the 1800s, materials for manufacturing, and British
1837, the English crown British naval strength was unbeatable, demand for colonial products such as silk,
passed to his niece,
and its boats constantly patrolled spices, rubber, cotton, tea, coffee, and
Victoria (1819-1901),
who was just 18 years countries that belonged to the empire. sugar led to the gradual takeover of many
old. When Victoria died, Because the empire covered both countries. Several countries became
her reign had lasted
hemispheres it was known as “the empire colonies when the British government
63 years, the longest
in British history. on which the sun never sets.” Colonies in acquired a bankrupt trading company.
the Caribbean, Africa, Asia, Australasia, India was an example of a country where
and the Pacific were ruled from London, the British had come to trade and stayed
T Between 1870 and and were all united under the British to rule. It was the most prized colony
1913, the British Empire
monarch. Strategic harbors such as in the empire. In 1850, India was still
expanded further to take
in land in Africa and Gibraltar, Hong Kong, Singapore, and under the rule of the British East India
Southeast Asia. This Aden came into British hands. Vital trade Company. After the rebellion, of 1857,
provided jobs for many routes such as the Cape route to India, or India was placed under the rule of the
British people. At its
height, it included a
the Suez Canal (via Egypt) to the spice British government, and its policies were
quarter of the world's and rubber plantations of Southeast Asia more cautious. British officials left control
land and people. were also controlled by Britain. of local affairs to the Indian princes.

fcGREAT
0 Britain
GIBRALTAR MALTA
CYPRUS
BERMUDA
/ KUWAIT
BAHAMAS
JAMAICA
T l .HONG KONG
OMA|N
BRITISH HONDURAS,
.BARBADOS
4*E5en
TOBAGO &
BRITISH(| TRINIDAD Amalia ceyl^n mal^ya ^British SOLOMON
COOK GUIANA , BORNEO ISLANDS
SIERRA Indian Ocean
ISLANDS LEONE G0LD \ PAPl^fV. I _
FIJI
Jf
COAST
Pacific Ocean
XSEYCHELLES \
BECHUANALAI ' 'MAURITIUS
AUSTRALIA
Extent of the Atlantic Ocean N. RHODESIA
UNIOI
British Empire 1914 SOUTHERN S. RHODESIA :wV
NEW
FALKLAND AFRICA ZEAL.AND
TASMANIA
_ ISLANDS

368
900 1100] 1200] 1300 1400! 1500j 1600] 17001 1750 ] 1800 1850 j 1900 | 1950] 2000

CONSOLIDATION
The British took over Egypt in 1883
to guard the Suez Canal and the route
to India. After a rebellion in the south of
Egypt led by a religious leader, the Mahdi,
Britain entered Sudan in 1898. The British
set up trade links throughout the empire
by appointing an agent in every port.
They organized local produce for export
and markets for British imports. The
British navy protected their interests and
kept the sea routes safe for shipping.
British influence extended into mainland
settlements in Central and South America,
and into China where it had trading
outposts. Queen Victoria, herself empress
of India since 1876, was a keen supporter
of a foreign policy that pursued colonial
expansion and upheld the empire.
As more British people emigrated to END OF EMPIRE The British government
countries within the empire, these lands Toward the end of the 1800s, some passed the Australian
Colonies Government
were given more freedom to govern colonies began to break away from British Act in 1850. This gave
themselves. Many colonies, notably rule. Home rule was granted to Canada in limited independence
Canada, Australia, and South Africa, 1867, and independence to Australia in to the country. In 1901,
the colonies of New
became dominions rather than colonies 1901. Both countries became dominions
South Wales, Queensland,
and were allowed self-government. although they remained part of the British Victoria, South Australia,
Empire. The gradual loosening of ties with Western Australia, and
Tasmania became the
KEY DATES the British Empire reflected the fact that
Commonwealth of
1824 Penal colony established in Brisbane, Australia Britain had ceased to be the leading Australia.
1829 Britain claims West Australia industrial nation in the world. Germany
1837 Victoria becomes queen of England and the United States had overtaken it,
1850 Australian Colonies Government Act gives
with France and Russia close behind.
limited independence to Australia
1852 New Zealand is granted a constitution
1857 Indian mutiny against British rule begins ◄ This cartoon from the
1800s shows the colonies
1867 British North American Act grants home rule
of the British Empire
to Canada
constantly worrying
1875 Britain buys controlling interest in Suez Canal
the imperial lion.
1876 Queen Victoria becomes empress of India
1884 Britain annexes southeastern New Guinea
1890 Zanzibar becomes a British protectorate T In 1897, Victoria
1901 New South Wales, Queensland, Victoria, South celebrated her Diamond
Australia, Western Australia, and Tasmania Jubilee. The guests of
become the Commonwealth of Australia; honor included Indian
princes, African chiefs,
Queen Victoria dies
Pacific Islanders, and
1907 Dominion of New Zealand is founded
Chinese from Hong Kong.

369
 1500: 500 300 100 B.C. A.D. 100 200: 3501 500 700:
10,000 I 5000 ! 3000

The plains wars 1849-1913

The plains of the American Midwest had once seemed
vast and endless. In the 1800s, they became the scene
of a struggle for land ownership.

M any groups of Native Americans

lived on the Great Plains of the
American West and had done so for
thousands of years. This vast area stretched
from the Mississippi River in the east to
the Rocky Mountains in the west, and
from Canada in the north to Texas in the
south. Until the 1600s, many Plains tribes
were farmers. They grew corn, beans, and
The Pawnee were one of
the Plains tribes. They
other food, but they also hunted buffalo,
lived by hunting buffalo. on foot, using bows and arrows. Their
way of life on the plains began to change
during the 1600s when the Spanish Native Americans depended on buffalo for their food,
introduced the horse. clothing, and shelter. Many buffalo were also killed to
supply meat to workers laying track for the railroads.
With horses, the Native Americans
could easily follow the buffalo. The buffalo
not only provided them with meat, but SETTLERS MOVE WEST
also with tools and weapons fashioned The government encouraged people to
from the animals’ bones, and tepees and migrate westward. Under the Homestead
clothing made with the skins. Some of the Act of 1862, a family could have 160
General George Custer
(1839-1876) died in the larger tribes of Native Americans became acres [65ha] for a small fee, as long as
Battle of the Little Bighorn. known as the Plains tribes. Early white they did not sell the land for five years.
settlers forced some tribes to move west More land was given to those who made
from their original homelands east of improvements by drilling wells or planting
the Mississippi River. trees. The Act encouraged farmers to
move into and settle on the Great Plains.
WESTWARD HO! The government also encouraged the
After the Civil War, the land between the Mississippi River building of railroads, which carried people
and the Rocky Mountains was thought of as a wilderness into unsettled regions. It gave land to the
of plains and mountains. The government encouraged
railroads so generously that many lines
pioneers to migrate westward. Settlers traveled west
together in wagon trains for protection on the long were built simply to obtain land. By 1869,
Sitting Bull (1831-1890)
was a Dakota (Sioux)
journey across plains, rivers, and mountains, which the Union Pacific Railroad was finished—
could take up to eight months.
medicine man and connecting America from coast to coast.
war chief.

■M 7

Sr-**' Wj '4* itsi

*'w 3 ^r,
WT'jBrj? m- -■ 4'ImR ’ • \I ,'i^v
Ky PfS I f : ’ \|f . ?*■» . . -I®', j i'M

■■■HP
pi-
S - \ Vkl W \w V j 3

370
900 ! 1100! 1200! ■
1300 1400 1500 1600! 1700 I 1750 | 1800; 1850 1900 | 1950 | 2000

STRUGGLE FOR SURVIVAL

The expansion of the railroads soon
changed the face of the United States.
They brought even more settlers to the
Native American homelands. The two
cultures came into conflict. Local Native
American chiefs made land agreements
with the settlers, without realizing that
they were signing away their rights. The
settlers’ idea of private property meant
nothing to the Native Americans. They
thought they could continue to hunt on
the land. Many bought guns and attacked In 1848, gold was
discovered at Sutter's Mill,
the settlers’ homesteads, their wagon in California, and the gold
trains, and the railroads. Virginia City in Nevada began in 1859 when gold and silver rush started. By 1855, San
Between 1860 and 1885, the number were found. By 1876, it was a large town, but when the Francisco's population had
gold and silver ran out, it became a ghost town. grown from 800 to 50,000.
of buffalo was reduced—largely by white
hunters—from 15 million to only 2,000.
Starting in 1866, a series of wars took The Native Americans were used to
place. The goal was to claim land for white hunting and did not want to be farmers.
settlers. To do this, the Native Americans They were not allowed to become
were driven onto reservations, or American citizens and had few civil rights.
destroyed if they resisted. President Fierce battles with soldiers resulted in the
Rutherford B. Hayes (1822-1893) said, deaths of thousands of Native Americans.
in 1893, “Many, if not most, of our Indian The last battle was at Wounded Knee in
wars had their origin in broken promises South Dakota, in 1890, when soldiers
and acts of injustice.” By then, it was too slaughtered 200 Sioux. Soon, all the
late-—the few survivors of the Plains tribes tribes were moved onto reservations,
had been forced onto the poor quality and the Native American way of life
land of the reservations. was changed forever.
▲ The possibility of
making their fortune
attracted people of
many nationalities to
the American goldfields.
Thousands of Chinese
people traveled to
California in the 1850s
and the 1870s to work
as laborers.

◄ In the 1830s, the

Chickasaw tribe was
forced to move to a
reservation in Oklahoma
where they were told that
the land was theirs "as
long as the grass grows
and the waters run." But
the central and western
parts were thinly
populated, and very
sought after by white
settlers. In 1906, the
Chickasaw rose up to
stop their land from
being taken, but were
suppressed by the
United States Cavalry.

371
 10,000 5000 3000 1500 500 300 100 B.C. 0 A.D. 100 200 350 ; 500 700 i

The boxer rebellion 1900

Under the weak Manchu government, the Chinese THE END OF THE MANCHUS
Empire appeared to be breaking up. Discontent at In 1900, the Boxers attacked the
European embassies in Beijing. They killed
Western influence led to the Boxer Rebellion in 1900.
many Europeans, especially missionaries,
M uch of the Chinese Empire under
the weak and corrupt Manchu
as well as Chinese Christians. They held
a number of embassies under siege for two
government was dominated by competing months. An international force was set up,
European powers. Many powerful groups made up of American, British, French,
struggled to preserve the country from German, Japanese, and Russian soldiers.
Westerners, but the Chinese recognized An earlier, smaller, less well-equipped
that they would have to copy Western unit was unable to take Beijing, but in
ways and set up new industries. the summer, a second force successfully
In 1898, the reformers gained power freed the embassies.
for a brief time. New laws were passed Having crushed the rebellion, the
to turn China into a modern state. They Chinese government was unable to
sought to change the civil service and to prevent foreign interference. They were
deal with the day-to-day problems rather obliged to punish officials thought to be
The last emperor of China than rely on ancient and outdated texts. involved, to pay an indemnity payment,
was P'u-yi (1906-1967). They founded a university in Beijing and to allow foreign troops into the
He became emperor at the
age of two and lost the
(Peking) and started to reform the army. embassies. Educated Chinese began to
throne when he was six. But the “Hundred Days of Reform” ended plot the overthrow of the Manchu regime.
when the dowager empress, Cixi (also In 1905, Sun Yat-sen founded what
known as Tz’u-hsi), regained power. became the Chinese Nationalist Party,
KEY DATES Many reformers were executed. or Kuomintang. Plots and rebellions were
1898 The Hundred In 1900, a revolt began in northern organized by other groups. The Manchu
Days of Reform end China against all foreigners, but especially government steadily lost control of the
when Empress Cixi Christians. It was led by a secret country. In 1911, a powerful general,
comes to power.
organization—the Society of Harmonious Yuan Shikai, gave his support to a
Britain gains Hong
Fists, or “Boxers.” They were secretly nationalist rebellion. Manchu authority
Kong on a 99-year
lease from China.
supported by the Manchu government. collapsed, and a republic was declared.
1900 Foreign
embassies in Beijing
are besieged by Boxer
rebels. American,
Japanese, and
European troops end
the rebellion. The
empress flees Beijing.
1905 Sun Yat-sen
founds a group that
becomes known as the
Chinese Nationalist
Party, or Kuomintang.
1911 The army backs
a nationalist rebellion.
Manchu rule ends, and
a republic is declared.
Sun Yat-sen becomes
provisional president.

This Chinese woodcut of

1902 shows Boxer rebels
storming and taking a
mountain fortress in Tien
Shin in northwest China.

372
 1100 1200 : 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1750 1800 1850 | 1900 : 1950 2000

Woman suffrage i848-i928

During the 1800s and early 1900s, men and women
in countries around the world were waging a campaign
for woamn suffrage—the basic right of women to vote.

D uring the early 1800s, only men who

owned property could vote. The
poor, women, and slaves were excluded.
There were groups demanding reforms,
but only to extend the vote to all men. In
the mid-1800s, some people began to say
that everyone should be able to vote.
On July 20, 1848, a large group of men
With her daughter, and women met at Seneca Falls, New
Christabel, Emmeline
York. The two organizers, Elizabeth Cady
Pankhurst (1858-1928)
founded the National
Stanton and Lucretia Mott, had met some
Women's Social and years earlier while campaigning against
Political Union, in 1903, slavery. But the fight for women’s rights
and campaigned for
became their life’s work. Improvements Many suffragists were arrested and sent to prison for
women's rights in Britain.
came in many small steps. In 1869, the disturbing the peace, often going on hunger strikes
to continue to draw attention to their cause.
Wyoming Territory gave women the right
to hold public office. The same year, Susan
B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton New Zealand had been the first country
founded the National Woman Suffrage to grant women voting rights in 1893.
Association. In 1872, another organization Finland was the first country in Europe
even nominated a woman to run for to do so, in 1906. In Britain, voting rights
president. The campaign gained support in for women came in two stages: in 1918,
the 1900s. In 1920, the 19th Amendment for those over 30, and in 1928, for those
granted voting rights to women. over 21 (the same age as for men).

With Lucretia Mott,

Elizabeth Cady Stanton
(1815-1902) organized
the first women's rights
convention in the United
States, in 1848. She went
on to help found the
National Woman Suffrage
Association in 1869. The
foundations of women's
suffrage were laid in the
face of fierce opposition.

► To draw attention
to their cause, women
in Britain (suffragettes)
and the United States
(suffragists) took to
the streets in peaceful
demonstrations to gain
public support for their
campaign to give
women the vote.

373
 10,000 5000 3000 1500 500 i 300 100 B.C. A.D. 100 200 I 350 500 ! 700

Australia 1788-1913
Darwin*
The original inhabitants of Australia, the Aborigines, Gulf of
Carpentaria
faced a growing threat to their way of life, as white
Northern
settlers encroached ever farther into their territories. Territory

D uring the 1800s, the new nation

of Australia was created. More
Part of South
Australia
(1863-1911)
Queensland
(1859)
Western
than 174,000 convicts had been Australia South Brisbane.
(1890) Australia
shipped from Britain to Australia, (1836)
New South
mainly to Sydney, to serve their Wales
sentence in work gangs, for periods Perth (1788) syiney
varying from a few years to life. jberra#

Transportation to the colonies, which

Melbourne
had begun in the reign of Elizabeth
I, was an extension of the older Tasmania
Aborigines led a way of punishment of banishment, and it did
life based around tribal not end until 1868. The colonies were granted self-government by 1890.
territories and customs. New South Wales originally occupied all of eastern
Although the spread
For many convicts, Britain held only
Australia, but was eventually divided.
of white settlements bitter memories, so many of them chose
destroyed much of this, to settle in Australia after their release.
they still kept a strong
cultural identity.
Early settlements were founded along the ABORIGINAL PEOPLE
coast, but explorers gradually opened up Australia’s first inhabitants, the Aborigines,
the interior. They were followed by arrived from Southeast Asia 50,000 years
pioneers looking for grazing land for the earlier. They lived in nomadic groups,
ever-growing flocks of sheep. traveling around their territories, hunting
As the wool industry grew, so did the with spears and boomerangs, fishing
demand for land. Many drove their from canoes, and gathering fruit and
sheep beyond the official settlement vegetables. They had no written language,
limits, earning themselves the name but passed on valuable knowledge by
“squatters.” Though they were later word of mouth and in song.
granted grazing rights, the name When the British settled in Australia,
stuck. These early farmers gradually Aboriginal culture was threatened and
spread into the interior, acquiring their land was taken over by squatters.
land as they went. But eventually In the late 1700s, there were more than
they came into conflict with the 300,000 Aborigines. Many were killed or
native Australians, the Aborigines. driven off their land by settlers, and the
▲ Robert O'Hara Burke population fell to under 45,000.
(1820-1861) and William
Wills (1834-1861) were
the first white men to
cross Australia. Their
expedition contained
18 men and set out in
1860 to travel north from
Melbourne to the Gulf of
Carpentaria. They suffered
terribly from starvation
and exhaustion on the
way back and only one
man survived.

► On arrival in Australia,
immigrants were housed
at first in large wooden
buildings. This one was
designed to accommodate
more than 70 people.

374
900 1100 I 1200 I 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1750 1800 1850 ; 1900 1950 2000

In Van Diemen’s Land, later renamed

Tasmania, the Aboriginal population was
completely wiped out by the 1870s. Some
had perished from European diseases, and
white settlers had murdered the rest.

THE GOLD RUSH

In 1851, many people rushed to Australia
at the news that gold had been found in
New South Wales and Victoria. This
event became known as the Gold Rush.
Melbourne, the capital of Victoria, became
a wealthy city, and Australia’s population
more than doubled. In 1854, gold miners
at the Eureka Stockade rebelled against
their colonial rulers, and put on pressure
for reform and self-government.

GROWING UNREST
Squatter settlement also created ▲ In 1851, thousands of ► Ned Kelly (1855-1880) and
problems when the immigrants and ex¬ people from many countries his gang of bushrangers roamed
moved to Australia after the country staging holdups
convicts demanded that land be made they heard that gold had and bank raids. Kelly, who
available for farms. Many failed to gain been found in New South often wore homemade armor,
land because of opposition from existing Wales and Victoria. was hanged in 1880.

squatters. At the same time, a sense of

nationalism was growing. Britain had _KEY DATES_
granted self-government to all her 1797 Sheep ranching introduced to Australia

colonies by the 1890s, and the leaders 1836 City of Adelaide founded
1851 Gold Rush starts in New South Wales
of the colonies had come to realize that
1854 Rebellion of gold miners at Eureka stockade
some form of union was needed. 1855 Van Diemen's Land renamed Tasmania
None of the Australian colonies were 1860 Burke and Wills set out to cross Australia
willing to give up their individual 1868 Britain stops sending convicts to Australia
independence, so in 1890, after fierce 1880 The outlaw Ned Kelly is captured and hanged
1901 Commonwealth of Australia declared _
arguments, the colonies agreed to unite
in a federation. The Commonwealth of
Australia was proclaimed on the first day SHEEP RANCHES
of 1901, and the city of Canberra was Introduced to Australia in 1797, sheep ranching became the major agricultural activity
chosen as the federal capital. in the country. Because the land was often far from fertile, enormous areas of pasture
were needed to keep the sheep healthy and well fed. This meant that more
and more land was taken from the Aborigines.

375
 10,000 5000 3000 1500 500; 300 100 B.C. I A.D. 100 I 200 i 350! 500 ! 7001

The BALKAN WARS 1821-1913

The Balkan states in the southeastern corner of Europe The Balkan Peninsula 1912
had long been an area of turmoil. As the Ottoman RUSSIA
m.
Empire shrank, they wanted independence. STRIA-HUNG ARY

T he decline of the Ottoman Empire

led to demands from the Balkan states
ROMANIA
Black
V Bosnia^PStfyC Sea
for independence. There was also a rise RIA
montenecsroS
in nationalism, which was encouraged by • Istanbul
Albania*.
both Russia and Austria-Hungary, who ITALY Macedc
\ ' 1 '
did not want to see the other increase its GREECE Ottoman Empire
Ionian GF
influence in the region. .- / Sea ♦ Athens
Britain and Germany supported
Mediterranean Sea
Austria-Hungary, because they wanted to
stop Russia from gaining access to any The Balkans had long been a turbulent area. The power of
the Ottoman Empire was fading, and Russian power was
Peter I (1844-1921) was more ice-free ports in the Mediterranean
elected king of Serbia in growing. Austria-Hungary was trying to hold its own.
or Black seas. Greece was the first to rebel,
1903. He was exiled to
Greece in 1916, but he
declaring independence as early as 1829.
returned in 1918 and was In 1878, Serbia, Montenegro, and Romania Serbian nationalists in the region. Albania
proclaimed king of the also became independent and Bulgaria and Macedonia remained under Ottoman
Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes.
gained self-government. Austria-Hungary control. When Italy attacked the Turkish-
occupied the Ottoman territory of Bosnia- held territory of Tripoli (Libya) in 1912,
Herzegovina in 1908, so that it would not it showed how weak Turkey was militarily.
fall under the growing power of the The Treaty of Ouchy gave Tripoli to Italy.

▲ In 1906, Ferdinand I
(1861-1948) proclaimed
Bulgaria independent from
the Ottoman Empire and
became king. In 1912, his
country joined the Balkan
League against Turkey.

► The Ottoman Turks

were defeated by the
Balkan League in 1912,
because they were also
fighting the Italians in
North Africa. The Young
Turks movement was also
battling against the ways
of the old regime.

376
900! 1100! 1200i 1300 1400 1500 i 1600 i 1700 ! 1750! 1800 I 18501 1900 I 1950 ! 2000

_KEY DATES_
1829 Greece declares its independence
1878 Montenegro, Serbia, and Romania declare
their independence
1903 Peter I elected king of Serbia
1908 Austria-Hungary occupies Bosnia-Herzegovina;
Bulgaria proclaims independence;
Ferdinand I becomes king of Bulgaria
1912 Balkan League formed by Bulgaria, Serbia,
Greece, and Montenegro
1912 First Balkan War
1912 Italian-Turkish War ended by Treaty of Ouchy
1913 Second Balkan War

FIRST BALKAN WAR

In March 1912, Serbia and Bulgaria made
a secret treaty to join forces to attack
Turkey and divide the Ottoman territory
between themselves. The Balkan League of
Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece, and Montenegro
was formed in October. By the end of the
month they were all at war with Turkey.
The First Balkan War ended in 1913 with
the signing of the Treaty of London, after
what appeared to the rest of the world as
the easy defeat of the Turks. In many ways,
the First Balkan War merely served to
increase the rivalries of the Balkan states.
Serbia and Greece gained territory in
Macedonia, while Bulgaria extended its SECOND BALKAN WAR In November 1912, during
territory to the Aegean Sea. Albania had declared itself an independent the First Balkan War, the
Bulgarian army captured
Muslim principality in December 1912. Kirk-Kilisse from Turkish
Austria-Hungary supported Albanian forces. The Bulgarians
independencein order to stop Serbia were allied with Greece,
Serbia, and Montenegro.
expanding to the Adriatic. The peace
settlement led to disagreements among
the victors. Bulgaria had gained far more
territory than Serbia, which wanted
more in Macedonia. Its three former /
allies combined against Bulgaria.
The Second Balkan War broke out
in June 1913, when Bulgaria declared
war on Serbia and Greece. Romania
and Turkey fought against Bulgaria.
The Bulgarians were surrounded and
overpowered. In August, the Treaty of
Bucharest was signed. Macedonia was
divided between Greece and Serbia,
and Romania gained some of Bulgaria.
This settlement greatly increased the size
In this cartoon of the
of Serbia. Count Otto von Bismarck had time, the Balkan countries
declared, before either of the Balkan Wars, were seen by Europe as a
boiling pot of troubles.
that the next major European war would
During the Second Balkan War (June-August 1913),
Bulgarian forces bombarded the Turkish town of
be caused “by some foolish thing in the
Adrianopolis (now known as Edirne). Balkans.” He words proved to be correct.

377
 : • „ • ; - ^ - •- - - .r —..w— wr-:* v; - ■ - *■- —

The arts 1836-1913

For all the arts, the period between 1836 and 1913
* was a time of change and experiment. Painting and
music in particular developed and flourished.

I n the late 1800s, the French

impressionists such as Claude Monet,
Auguste Renoir, and Edgar Degas
developed spontaneous styles, filling their
canvases with bold strokes of color in an
attempt to capture the fleeting effects of
light. In England, a group of artists, poets,
and writers called the Pre-Raphaelites
rejected the position of Raphael as
This lamp by U.S. designer
the ultimate master of painting.
Louis Comfort Tiffany In European literature, more and more
(1848-1933) is in the Art novels were being written for a growing
Nouveau style, popular
from about 1890.
number of readers. Romantic adventure
stories were written by novelists such as
Sir Walter Scott—lvanhoe—and Jules
Verne—20,000 Leagues Under the Sea.
This English daguerreotype (early photograph) is from
The wretched life of the poor in the cities about 1885. Three years later, George Eastman's Kodak
was described with great skill by Charles box camera made photography available for everyone.
Dickens in novels such as Oliver Twist.
William Thackeray evoked an image Wagner developed a new form of grand
of country and town living among the opera, and the Russian ballet changed
middle and upper classes in Vanity Fair, ideas about dance. Beethoven’s dramatic
and Elizabeth Gaskell depicted life in and expressive music had opened the way
the new manufacturing cities of the for the romantic period with composers
Mark Twain, the pen north in books such as North and South. such as Schubert, Mendelssohn,
name of Samuel Langhorne Schumann, Chopin, Berlioz, Verdi,
Clemens (1835-1910), was
a writer and humorist who T This is a scene from David Copperfield by Charles
Brahms, and Tchaikovsky producing
wrote The Adventures of Dickens (1812-1870). Dickens's writing entertained works full of passion and drama.
Tom Sawyer. and enlightened his readers about social problems.
Giuseppe Verdi (1813-1901)
was one of the greatest Italian
composers of opera. His works
include Rigoletto, La Traviata,
 . . .. , - _• * -*"• - --"
v.
.- - G.A XAA£%
>' ’ ■■---. * II /M#aj M

▲ "Dante's Dream" was painted by ► Johann Strauss the Younger (1825-1899)

Dante Gabriel Rossetti (1828-1882), toured Europe and the United States with
an English artist and poet who helped his own orchestra. He was famous for his
form the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood. waltzes, such as The Blue Danube.

Drama became more realistic with plays ► This bronze sculpture, The Thinker,
by Ibsen, Chekhov, and George Bernard by Auguste Rodin (1840-1917)
went on show in France in 1904.
Shaw. In 1877, the British-born American His figures were expressive,
photographer Eadweard Muybridge conveying the power of emotion.
created the first motion picture sequences,
and by the early 1900s, an entirely new T Claude Monet (1840-1926)
was the leader of the impressionists.
form of performing art had appeared: the
He frequently worked outside and
movies. Hollywood, in California, soon painted landscapes and scenes
became the center of moviemaking. of simple middle-class life.
___

Architecture 1836-1913 The Statue of Liberty, in New York Harbor,

Architecture during the late 1800s reflected a new was a gift from France in 1884. It is
freedom of expression and a willingness to use made from copper sheets on an iron
framework, designed by Gustave Eiffel.
modern technology. The statue-the work of sculptor Frederic

T he style of architecture used for a

building can depend on several factors.
Bartholdi-rises 307 ft. (93.5m) from the
bottom of the pedestal to the tip of the
torch, and weighs 254 tons. A famous
poem by American writer Emma Lazarus
One consideration is that of the materials
is on a plaque at its base.
available to the builders. Another is the
purpose to which the building is to be
put. Equally important is the imagination
of the architects and their clients. The main
feature of architecture in Europe and
North America during the 1800s was
a willingness to use all the great styles
of the past, from ancient Greece to the
1700s. Sometimes, very different styles
were used in the same building.
Later in the century, a new kind of
architecture developed. It was based on
the use of steel to form the framework,
or “skeleton,” of a building. Since the
walls did not have to support their
own weight, buildings could be higher.
Steel-framed skyscrapers were first made
The Eiffel Tower, practical in the United States by the
named after its designer,
elevator, invented in 1852 by Elisha Otis
Gustave Eiffel (1832-
1923), was built for the (1811-1861). In 1884, William Le Baron
Paris Exhibition of 1889. Jenney (1832-1907) built the world’s first
It is 989 ft. (300 m)
skyscraper in Chicago. At ten stories, it
high, made from iron,
and held together by would not be a skyscraper today, but its
2.5 million rivets. metal-frame structure set a new trend.

Isambard Kingdom Brunei (1806-1859) designed

the Clifton Bridge to cross the Avon River in
England. It was completed in 1864. The road
is suspended on cables high above the river.

As towns and cities became more

and more densely populated, it was vital
that services such as fresh water and
removal of sewage were adequate. New
water pipes were built under cities, and
when cast-iron pipes became available
it became easier to build drains. As
engineering knowledge improved, it
was also possible to built bridges
that spanned ever greater distances.

380
 ◄ Opera became very
popular during the 1800s,
and many elegant opera
houses were built. This
opera house is at Manaus,
in the Brazilian jungle. The
town was very rich for a
short time thanks to
profits from the local
rubber industry.

NEW TECHNOLOGY ► The ten-story steel¬

framed Home Insurance
The architecture of the late 1800s was
Building in Chicago is
adapted to make use of the discoveries of often described as the
engineers and the availability of iron and first skyscraper. After a
fire destroyed most of the
steel. In addition to skyscrapers, the use of
original city in 1871, the
steel frames also made possible structures price of building land
such as the Eiffel Tower in Paris, built for increased-if buildings
the great exhibition of 1889, and the were taller they needed
less land.
Statue of Liberty in New York Harbor, a
gift and symbol of friendship from the
people of France to the people of the
United States to celebrate the centennial However, the use of reinforced concrete
of the Declaration of Independence. in the early 1900s brought about a major
The railroad age brought with it many change in architecture. Building design
new opportunities for architects and began to become simpler and less
builders. Railroad stations, symbolizing the decorative. This “modern” style
wealth of the new industrial age, were was to develop significantly
built in cities around the world. These after the end of World War I.
grand edifices combined the new
technologies of iron and steel with
styles from bygone periods.

iiiiiiii.j § ■] ■, in11 \ j iuiiilii.iiii'..'

rywyfc11 wwmssaLyj
▲ During the 1800s in
Europe and the United
States, the prosperous
middle classes lived in
imposing townhouses set
in quiet, tree-lined streets.

◄ The main railroad

station in Bombay was
opened in 1866. It was
built in a mixture of the
European Gothic and
Renaissance styles, but
the domes are Indian.
 _ o
m/,',
_
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Tz^hm
__
sw ?L
■■■■
_

Science and technology 1836-1913

Technological progress continued at an ever-increasing
pace. Major developments in communications and
transportation were to change the world forever.

I ndustry continued to develop, with new

inventions, new products, and factories
producing new types of goods. In 1850,
coal and steam engines still provided the
power for machinery, but by the early
1900s, electricity and oil were being used
instead. In 1859, Edwin L. Drake found
substantial reserves of oil at a depth of
only 69 ft. (22m) in Oil Creek,
Pennsylvania. Oil was to provide the fuel
The first bicycles were uncomfortable and dangerous.
The telephone was for the internal combustion engine. This,
The "penny farthing" was invented by James Starley in
invented by Alexander in turn, led to the invention of the the early 1870s, and had solid tires and no brakes.
Graham Bell in 1875. The
first public telephone
first automobiles.
exchange opened in The German engineer Gottlieb The Scottish-born American inventor
Pittsburgh, in 1877. Daimler invented the high-speed internal Alexander Graham Bell invented the
combustion engine in 1887. This was to telephone, and the first public exchange
prove convincingly better than the steam opened in Pittsburgh in 1877. That same
engines that had been used previously. year, prolific inventor Thomas Alva
In the United States, Frank and Charles Edison produced the phonograph. This
Duryea produced their first vehicles in enabled sound to be recorded and
1892, and Henry Ford made his first played back on a foil-coated cylinder.
experimental car in 1893. Oil products
also played a large role in the
new chemical industry.
They made possible the
development of a huge
range of materials such
An American, Whitcomb as plastics, detergents,
Judson, invented the
fertilizers, paints, dyes,
zipper in 1891. The first
one, called a clasp locker,
nylon, artificial rubber,
looked like the hooks and and explosives.
eyes that it replaced.

The daguerreotype
camera appeared in 1838.
It was not until 1888 that Henry Ford (1863-1947) began producing cars
George Eastman made like this Model T in 1908, using an assembly line.
photography available to By 1914, his factory was producing a car every
all with the first roll film 90 minutes. During 19 years in production,
camera, the Kodak box. around 15 million Model Ts were sold.
 & '\ih'

◄ Balloons were used

for observation in the
American Civil War. One
of the observers was a
retired German army
officer named Zeppelin.
He was an inventor
of airships, which are
sometimes called
Zeppelins after him.
Airships were more
useful than balloons,
because they could move
under their own power.

T Wilbur and Orville

Wright used gliders to
test their experiments
in controlled airplane
flight. They made the
first powered flight on
December 17, 1903, at
Kitty Hawk, North
In 1879, Edison demonstrated the Carolina.

electric lightbulb, and in 1882, the

world’s first large-scale electric power
station, designed and installed by Edison,
was completed in New York City. The
kinetoscope, used to produce moving
pictures, was invented in 1891, again by
Edison, and he was able to synchronize
this with his phonograph to produce the
first talking motion pictures in 1913. Thomas Edison was a
pioneer of the electric
lightbulb. In 1880, his
▼ An early radio, called a wireless, had glass tubes. system was first used
No one knew that radio waves existed until German to light a steamship.
scientist Heinrich Hertz
(1857-1894) proved it in WHEN IT HAPPENED
1888, by transmitting
1837 Samuel Morse invents Morse Code
and receiving them
in his laboratory. 1856 Bessemer converter invented
1859 First oil well drilled in Pennsylvania
1867 Nobel invents dynamite
1868 Frenchman Georges Leclanche
invents the dry-cell battery
1869 Mendeleyev devises periodic table
1875 First telephone call made by Bell
1877 Nikolaus Otto patents four-stroke
internal combustion engine
1877 First public telephone exchange Scientists believed that all
1882 First hydroelectric power plant things were made up of
atoms. Proof was provided
uses water to generate electricity
by Ernest Rutherford’s
1885 First automobiles built in Germany discovery of the atomic
1887 Dunlop invents pneumatic tire nucleus in 1911.

1896 Marconi invents first radio system

1903 First powered and controlled flight
by the Wright brothers
1909 Leo Baekeland invents the first
plastic, Bakelite
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■
The World
at War
1914-1949
In the years from 1914 to 1949, the world went
through a period of rapid, intense, and painful
change. The Great War, the "war to end all wars,”
was followed by a massive worldwide influenza
epidemic. The 1917 Bolshevik Revolution made
Russia the world's first socialist state. Then came
the Great Depression, a collapse of capitalism
that led to mass unemployment worldwide.
This, followed by World War II, meant that
European world dominance was replaced by
that of the United States and the Soviet Union.

▲ World War I saw the first widespread use of aerial warfare. These
early airplanes were used to spy on enemy positions and drop bombs.

◄ After the defeat of Nazi Germany in 1945, the victors, Marshal Zhukov
(U.S.S.R.), General Eisenhower (U.S.A.), and Field Marshall Montgomery
(Britain) meet in the ruins of Berlin.

385
The world at a glance 1914-1949
A lmost the whole world was affected by World
War I, the Great Depression, and World War II.
collapsed after World War I, and Israel was founded
in 1948 as a homeland for the Jewish people.
In North America, the United States adopted a policy Italy’s attempts to build an empire in Africa failed.
of isolation between the wars, but joined the Allies Many countries began clamoring for independence.
in World War II. In South America, right wing India gained independence from Britain, but it was
governments came to power in Argentina and Brazil. partitioned to form Pakistan. Civil war divided China,
In Europe, civil wars broke out in Ireland, Spain, while Japanese expansion was one of the causes of
and Greece, and revolution in Russia led to civil war World War II, with the Pacific becoming a battle zone.
there, too. In the Middle East, the Ottoman Empire Science, in the form of the atom bomb, ended the war.

NORTH AMERICA
The United States, which had kept out of European
affairs, was drawn into World War I, and in doing
so discovered its power. The West was now modernized,
A
and the United States was a great industrial power with
»>■■ • -a
a large, growing population. It was the home of many
innovations-mass-produced cars, motion pictures, and
many new technologies. But when the Wall Street Crash
came in 1929, American money markets collapsed, and
with them world trade and prosperity. In America, the
Great Depression led to poverty and much despair. It
AMERICA
was rescued by Roosevelt's New Deal, a government
spending program designed to revive the economy.
Sni 'll ^ i
But then, Japan and Germany started wars in Asia
and Europe. The United States held back until
\WM ¥
Japan attacked Pearl Harbor. By the end
of World War II, the United States had f*
emerged as a world superpower I 'C’V
along with its future enemy,
the Soviet Union.

/
LATIN
AMERICA

LATIN AMERICA
In the 1930s, revolutions took place in Brazil and Argentina,
and a war broke out between Paraguay and Bolivia. Brazil,
Chile, and Argentina later became modernized industrial
economies and were relatively prosperous. South America's
economy collapsed when the Great Depression hit, and
it was slow to recover. It managed to stay out of
World War II, but was overseen and influenced by
the United States, which interfered in its politics.
American corporations came to dominate Latin
America, yet the greatest single influence across
the continent was still the Catholic Church.

386
 EUROPE
The fall of the Hapsburgs and the Ottomans put many new countries on the map.
ASIA
Ireland gained independence and Poland reappeared as an independent country. The
Bolshevik Revolution turned the Soviet Union into a massive After the Chinese Revolution of 1911, life for
power, with large-scale industrialization and collectivization the people did not improve. In the 1930s, China
of farms under the dictatorship of Stalin. Germany, though it became a dictatorship, opposed by Mao Zedong's
lost World War I, grew strong again under Hitler, taking over communists. The Japanese invaded in 1937, and
much of Europe in World War II. Europe was vulnerable as a China was devastated. Mao's communists fought
result of the Depression, and there was a desire to keep back and took power in 1948. Before World
peace and to appease the Nazis. Despite these difficulties, War II, Japan had risen to military and industrial
Europe came to lead the way in the creation of social welfare, greatness. Its aggressive expansion during the
social insurance, and education systems. After World War II, war was finally halted by two atom bombs and
much of Europe was devastated, and American aid was occupation by the United States. India avoided the
necessary for its recovery. Overseas colonies were made war, but Indians could no longer
independent, public opinion held sway, and Europe approached tolerate British rule, and in
1950 shell-shocked by the violence of the previous decades. 1947, India and Pakistan
separated and gained
independence. Indonesia
and the Philippines also
gained independence.

EUROPE

AUSTRALASIA
Jr V MIDDLE As more settlers arrived, Australia
and New Zealand became richer,
EAST exporting agricultural products
and metals. Auckland, Sydney, and
AFRICA Melbourne joined the list of world
cities. After World War II, many
European immigrants moved there.
Polynesia suffered
because of the
If war-the islands
were dragged
into the modern
world.

AUSTRALASIA

AFRICA
Under colonial administration, African states were
rapidly modernized. South Africa became a strong
white-ruled nation. Except in North Africa, World MIDDLE EAST
War II did not greatly affect the continent.
After the fall of the Ottoman Empire, the Middle
East was split up into separate countries, governed
by the British and French. The discovery of oil
made Iraq, Iran, Kuwait, and Saudi Arabia
economically important. British and French rule
ended after World War II, and the Arab states
became independent. Controversially, the Jewish
State of Israel was formed in their midst.

387
 10,000 5000 3000 1500 500 300 100 B.C. 0 A.D. 100 200 350 500 700

The start of world WAR I 1914

The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir
to the Austro-Hungarian Empire, in Sarajevo in June
1914, triggered the bloodiest conflict in human history.

J
ealous of Britain’s trade and
colonies, Germany—which already
had the world’s largest army—had
begun to build up its navy. Kaiser
Wilhelm II’s ambition to acquire
more colonies overseas, along with
his aggressive foreign policy, worried
other European countries. In the
years leading up to 1914, Britain and World War I began after Serbian terrorist Gavrilo Princip
Germany competed to build bigger killed the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Archduke
and better ships for their navies. The Franz Ferdinand, in Sarajevo on June 28, 1914.

rivalry of other European countries

over trade, colonies, and military HOW THE WAR BEGAN
power had also been growing, and the The war began when a Serbian terrorist,
A British recruiting poster Gavrilo Princip, assassinated the heir to
European powers had grouped together
at the start of World War I
featured the War Minister, in defensive alliances. the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Archduke
Lord Kitchener. Franz Ferdinand, and his wife in Sarajevo
DEFENSIVE ALLIANCES on June 28, 1914. This led Austria to
The main alliance was the Triple Alliance: declare war on Serbia on July 28. Russia’s
Germany, Italy, and Austria-Hungary. An Czar Nicholas II mobilized his country’s
attack on any one country would bring troops to defend Serbia from Austria. In
its allies to its defense. The purpose of the return, Germany declared war on Russia
alliance was to block Russian aggression on August 1. Russian armies were defeated
in the Balkans (mainly the European by the Germans at Tannenberg and in
areas of the old Ottoman Empire). the Battle of the Masurian Lakes. To the
The Triple Entente, between Britain, south, the Austro-Hungarian armies were
Under Kaiser Wilhelm II
France, and Russia, was not a military defeated by the Russians in September.
(1859-1941), Germany
built a battle fleet to alliance, but its members had agreed to
rival Britain's navy. cooperate against German aggression. A WAR ON TWO FRONTS
Germany had always dreaded a war on
two fronts, so it put the Schlieffen Plan
into operation. Drawn up by General
von Schlieffen, the plan aimed to defeat
France in six weeks, so that Germany
could concentrate its forces against Russia.
On August 3, Germany declared war
on Russia’s ally, France. When the German
army marched into neutral Belgium to
attack the French from the north, they
were faced with determined Belgian
resistance. This slowed down their advanc^
and allowed the French, under General
Joffre, time to reorganize their forces.

◄ In 1914, Europe was divided in two. Britain, France,

and Russia, known as the Allies, combined to fight the
Central Powers, comprising Germany, Austria-Hungary,
and its allies. Fighting took place simultaneously on
an eastern front and a western front.

388
 i
900 1100 1200: 1300 1400 1500 1600 ! 1700 1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000

◄ After the outbreak of

GERMANY INVADES FRANCE war, there were drives to
The British then acted on the Treaty recruit every available
of London [1839], in which they had man to fight in Europe.

agreed to protect Belgian neutrality.

It was on these grounds that Britain
declared war on Germany on August 4.
Britain went to Belgium’s defense and sent
the 100,000-strong British Expeditionary
Force to France to help slow the German
advance at Mons and Charleroi.
However, in the face of a determined
German advance, Joffre retreated until
he was behind the Marne River. Here,
the French forces halted the Germans
on September 8. Both sides then took
up defensive positions and within three The French army had the
months, a line of trenches was dug from difficult task of defending
hundreds of miles of
the English Channel to the Swiss frontier.
frontier against the enemy.
During the war, Britain, France, and
Russia were known as the Allies, or Allied
Powers. Germany, Italy, Austria-Hungary,
and their allies were known as the Central
Powers. Both sides raced to produce more KEY DATES
and more deadly weapons, such as poison June 28 Archduke Franz Ferdinand assassinated
gas. They thought that by using these in Sarajevo by a Serbian terrorist

weapons they would shorten the war, July 28 Austria declares war on Serbia; Russia
mobilizes its troops to defend Serbia
but it lasted for four years and was the
Aug. 1 Germany declares war on Russia
bloodiest conflict in human history. It has Aug. 3 Germany declares war on France
been estimated that the war cost the Aug. 4 Germany invades Belgium;
United States alone over $20 billion. The Britain declares war on Germany
total number of men killed or wounded Sept. 8 German advance on Paris stopped
The German army was the
at the Marne River
amounted to about 30 million. largest and best trained
in the world.
need vou
3 CALL 10 ARMS

Britain had the smallest

army, but it consisted
of professional career
soldiers.

◄ Motivated by patriotism
and inspired by the call for
volunteers to defend their
countries in August 1914,
millions of men of all ages
across Europe joined up
to fight the enemy.

389
 3000 1500 500 300 100 B.C. 0 A.D. 100 200 350: 500 700
10,000 5000

Battles of world war i 1914-1917

In a series of horrific battles along the Western Front,
Jutland <X>
millions of lives were lost to gain only a few miles.
The land war soon reached a stalemate. Western Front

uring World War I, fighting took GREAT

place in several areas. The Western BRITAIN

NETHERLAN

rass?)hendaele

Somme^ GERMANY

'erdun

LUXEMBOURG Marne

FRANCE
Gas masks were
introduced in World
War I to protect the
troops against poison
The Western Front stretched across Belgium and
gas attacks by
northeastern France. Millions of soldiers were killed
the enemy.
in battles along it between 1914 and 1918.

For four years, the Western Front did

not move more than 20 mi. (32km) in any
direction. Barbed wire and machine-gun
and artillery defenses made attack futile.
Tanks, first used in 1916, could crush
barbed wire or machine guns, but were
unreliable. Aircraft were more successful,
and were used to spot enemy troops,
target shells, and drop bombs. The Eastern
Front ran from the Baltic to the Black Sea
▲ Only 12 years after the and also had lines of trenches, to which
Wright brothers made their
the Russians retreated in September 1914.
pioneering flight in North
Carolina, aircraft were being
used in warfare. Although
control of the air was not
a deciding factor in World
War I, the war led to
many advances in
flight technology.

► In September 1914, the

German advance toward
Paris was stopped short of
the capital when the Allies
precariously held the line
of the Marne River. The
French government fled
to Bordeaux. The Allied
line held, and in their
great counterattack,
known as the First Battle
of the Marne—regarded as
one of the decisive battles
of the war—the Allies drove
the Germans back to the
line of the Aisne River.

390
900 11001 ■
1200 1300 1400 i 1500 1700 ! 1750 1800 | 1850 1 1900 1 1950 1

The war along the Western Front was fought from trenches guarded by barbed wire
and machine guns. The conditions were appalling, with knee-deep mud, constant
shelling, sniping, and raids. The battles of the Somme and Verdun in France in 1916
cost over two million casualties, but neither side was
able to advance more than a few hundred yards.

Invented by two British scientists,

Tritton and Wilson, the first tanks
were used in the Battle of the Somme
in 1916. These vehicles, fitted with
machine guns, terrified the German
soldiers, but suffered from too many
mechanical failures to be fully effective.

THE WAR AT SEA

There were only two significant sea battles <

in World War I. The first, in 1914, was \ (

when a German fleet was destroyed by Jutland was the

the Royal Navy off the Falkland Islands. In major sea battle
of World War I.
1916, the Battle of Jutland took place and
Although the
both Germany and Britain claimed victory. German fleet inflicted
However, the German fleet did not leave far more serious losses
than they sustained,
the port of Kiel again until the end of the
Britain and Germany both
war, when it surrendered to the Allies. claimed victory. After the
German submarines, called U-boats, battle, on May 31, 1916,
the German fleet
attacked ships bound for Britain and
escaped in darkness
France. U-boats sank hundreds of Allied and returned to
ships, nearly crippling Britain. When the port, where they
U.S.S. Housatonic was sunk in 1917, the remained for the
rest of the war.
United States declared war on Germany.

DISASTER AT GALLIPOLI
During 1915, in an attempt to assist the Russians on the Eastern Front, Allied forces bombarded
Turkish forts guarding the Dardanelles. Allied troops, including ANZAC forces from Australia
and New Zealand, then landed at Gallipoli to try to capture the strategic
positions overlooking the narrow straits. But the Allied powers
grossly underestimated the strength of the Turkish
Turkish forces. Almost 15 percent of Australian
officer deaths in the war came
from this battle.

Australian
private

391
 10,000 5000 3000 1500 500 300 100 B.C. A.D. 100 200 350 500 700

Ireland: civil unrest 1916-1923

Irish frustration at home rule being first granted, and
then delayed by World War I, led to rebellion and civil
war. Southern Ireland became self-governing in 1921.

M any Irish people wanted home rule,

and a Home Rule Bill was approved
by the British Parliament in 1912. This
would have become law, and given Ireland
its own parliament to deal with domestic
affairs, but it was suspended when war
broke out in 1914.
In the north, Protestants opposed home
rule because they would be a minority
in a Catholic country. Some people
James Connolly (Republicans) wanted Ireland to be an
(1868-1916) led the Irish independent republic. Many supported
Citizen Army. After the
a political party called Sinn Fein
Easter Rising, he was shot
in jail, even though he was (“We alone”). Some belonged to the
already mortally wounded. Irish Volunteers, the Irish Republican
Brotherhood, or the Irish Citizen Army.
On Easter Monday 1916, members of The Anglo-Irish Treaty of 1921 made southern Ireland

the Irish Volunteers and the Irish Citizen into a self-governing country. In 1949, it became
a republic, completely independent of Britain.
Army, led by Patrick Pearse and James
Connolly, took control of public buildings Sinn Fein set up their own parliament,
in Dublin. This event became known as the Dail Eireann, and declared Ireland to
the Easter Rising. From their headquarters be an independent republic in 1919. This
in the General Post Office, Pearse and led to war between the Irish Republican
Connolly declared a republic, but were Army (IRA) and the Royal Irish
soon defeated by the British army. In the Constabulary (RIC). Armed police, the
1918 election, Sinn Fein won 73 of the Black-and-Tans, were sent to support the
105 Irish seats in the British Parliament. RIC. The fighting continued until 1921.

A On Easter Monday, April

24, 1916, the Republicans
made their headquarters
inside Dublin General Post
Office. Fighting went on
for a week. The Republicans
surrendered on April 29.
The British army fired heavy
guns at the building, and
it caught fire.

► The remains of an
automobile used as a
barricade in the streets
of Dublin during the 1916
Easter Rising. On one side
of the barricades were the
Republicans, and on the
other were the British
forces. Many civilians
died in the shooting.

392
900 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1750 1800 1850 : 1900 1950 2000

◄ Michael Collins (1890—

1922), center, took part in
the 1916 Easter Rising,
and was arrested and
imprisoned by the British.
He became leader of
Sinn Fein and head of
intelligence in the Irish
Volunteers. He was elected
to the Irish parliament in
1918 and negotiated the
peace treaty with Britain in
1921. He became head of
the provisional government
in 1922, but was killed in
an ambush that same year.

THE ANGLO-IRISH TREATY The civil war lasted until 1923, when
The British government wanted to de Valera ordered the Republicans to
▲ Eamon de Valera
divide Ireland into two countries, with stop fighting. In 1926, he founded a new (1882-1975) was born in
six of the counties of Ulster, in the north, political party, called Fianna Fail. In the the United States. He was
separate from the rest. Under the 1920 general election of 1932, he defeated arrested and imprisoned
by the British for his part
Government of Ireland Act, both countries the Free Staters. The new constitution in the 1916 Easter Rising.
would have some self-government. The six of 1937 changed southern Ireland’s name In 1926, he founded the
Ulster counties had a Protestant majority, to Eire, but it stayed within the British Fianna Fail ("Soldiers of
Destiny") Party. Between
who did not want to be ruled from Commonwealth. It became independent
1937 and 1959, he served
Dublin. They agreed to the act and and left the Commonwealth in 1949. as prime minister of
formed the new state of Northern Ireland. Ireland three times. He
then became president
The Dail Eireann, led by Eamon de Valera, _KEY DATES_
until 1973.
opposed the act because they wanted 1916 Easter Rising in Dublin is crushed by the
complete independence for all Ireland. British after a week

In an attempt to bring peace to the 1918 In elections, Sinn Fein wins 73 of the 105 Irish
seats in the British Parliament
country, the Anglo-Irish Treaty of 1921
1919 Sinn Fein declares Ireland independent-this
made southern Ireland into a dominion of leads to civil war ▼ Both the Free Staters
Great Britain. Called the Irish Free State, 1922 Southern Ireland, known as the Irish Free State, and the Republicans
were well supplied with
it was established in 1922. But this action becomes a self-governing dominion of Britain
weapons during the civil
led to civil war. On one side were the Free 1923 Civil war ends
war. This gun belonged to
1926 Fianna Fail Party founded
Staters who agreed to the treaty’s terms. the Free Staters and was
1937 New constitution renames southern Ireland Eire used in County Limerick.
On the other side were the Republicans.

393
 10,000 5000 3000 j 1500 500 300; 100 B.C. 0 A.D. 100 200 350 500 700

Russia 1917-1924
After years of rule by a corrupt and inept government,
the people of Russia rose against the czar and his
advisers and seized power in November 1917.

F ollowing the defeat of

Russia by Japan in 1904,
there were workers’ strikes
and revolts throughout Russia.
The new czar, Nicholas II,
issued a declaration promising
civil rights and a national
government, called the Duma.
The Duma did not keep its During the March 1917 riots in Petrograd, many soldiers
refused to obey orders and attached the Red Flag to their
promises. Elections were
bayonets as a sign of support for the rioters.
Czar Nicholas II rigged so that reformers were kept out
(1868-1918) was forced of government. Opponents of the
to abdicate in 1917. He
and his family were then
government were arrested, and the leaders Food and fuel were in short supply,
imprisoned and killed by fled. But the Russian people thought and many people in the cities began to
the Bolsheviks in 1918. that the czar was out of touch with the starve. The economy was on the way to
population and that his advisers were collapse. In March 1917, riots broke out in
corrupt. The government, which had the capital, St. Petersburg, which had been
not been very efficient in peacetime, was renamed Petrograd at the start of World
even less effective during World War I. War I. Rioting crowds were usually broken
Soldiers who thought that they would up by troops, but this time they refused to
be sent to fight in the war began to obey their orders. When the troops joined
question their loyalty to their country. the rioters, the czar abdicated, and his
advisers resigned. A temporary government
was set up, led by Prince George Lvov.

Armed workers and Bolshevik-led soldiers and

Grigori Rasputin (1871-1916) was sailors attacked the Winter Palace in Petrograd
adviser to Czar Nicholas II and his on November 7, 1917. Although it was the
wife Alexandra. They thought he was headquarters of the czar's government, it was not
a holy man who could make their well defended and was soon in Bolshevik hands.
sick son better. But he was hated
by the people of Russia.

394
 i ■■H
900 1100 1200 I 1300 1400 1 1500 1 1600 i 1700 i 1750 ! 1800 1 1850 1 1900 : 1950 i 2000

◄ Vladimir Lenin (1870-

1924) became a Marxist
in 1887 after his brother
was executed for trying
to assassinate the czar.

Leon Trotsky (1879-1940)

was the most influential
person after Lenin in the
revolution. During the
Russian Civil War, he led
the Red Army to victory.
He hoped to become
president after Lenin's
death, but lost to Stalin.

THE BOLSHEVIKS SEIZE POWER The White Russians (anticommunists)

The government found it difficult to opposed these moves and, in 1918, the
carry on with the war. Alexander Kerensky Russian Civil War broke out. The White
succeeded Prince Lvov as chief minister. Russians were finally defeated by the
After the March revolution, the Bolshevik Bolshevik Red Army in 1922. By this time,
Party was still determined to seize power. around 100,000 people had been killed
In April, their leader, Vladimir Lenin, and two million had emigrated. That year,
returned from exile. the country’s name was changed to the
The Bolsheviks in Petrograd wanted Union of Soviet Socialist Republics Josef Stalin (1879-1953)
Russia to become a communist state. (U.S.S.R.), or Soviet Union. Lenin led the joined the Bolshevik Party
After struggling with the government, the U.S.S.R. until his death in 1924, when a in 1903. In 1922, Stalin
became general secretary
Bolsheviks, led by Lenin, seized power in new power struggle began between Leon of the Communist Party
November 1917. In March 1918, the new Trotsky and Josef Stalin. Stalin won and and in 1924, leader
government signed the Treaty of Brest- dominated Soviet politics until 1953. of the U.S.S.R.

Litovsk which made peace with Germany.

It moved the capital from Petrograd
to Moscow, broke up the
large estates, and gave the
farmland to the peasants.
Control of factories was
given to workers. Banks
were taken into state
control, and Church
property was seized.

► When Josef Stalin became leader of the U.S.S.R. in 1924

he carried out the Great Purge-millions of people were arrested and
murdered. He decided to strip farmers of their land in order to reorganize farming
into larger state-owned units called collectives. His orders were brutally carried out
by the army and secret police. Villages were burnecf and the villagers killed or evicted.

395
 10,000 5000 3000 1500 500 300 100 B.C. | 0 A.D. 100 200 350 500 700

World war i: the aftermath i 918-1923

Germany, freed from Russia, launched an assault on the
Western Front in 1918. Newly arrived U.S. troops helped
stop the attack and Germany asked for peace.

T he arrival of American
troops in Europe in 1917
meant that the Allies could
launch fresh attacks on the
Western Front. In 1918, Russia
withdrew from the war, so
German soldiers were no
longer needed on the Eastern The fighting in World War I left many areas of Belgium
and northeastern France devastated. Cities such as Ypres,
Front. By 1918, more than 3.5
in northwestern Belgium, were left in ruins.
million German soldiers were
fighting on the Western Front.
In March, they broke through By October, the fighting was nearing
the trenches and advanced the German border and a naval blockade
toward Paris. The French was causing starvation in Germany. Early
counterattacked in July, and in on the morning of November 11, Germany
World War I involved August, British tanks broke the German signed an armistice. Kaiser Wilhelm II
whole populations. line at Amiens. As the United States abdicated, and at 11 o’clock, fighting in
Women went to work
to produce armaments
poured troops into France, the World War I ended. Almost 10 million
and keep industries Germans retreated. people had been killed and over 20 million
going while the men wounded. Most were young men, and their
were at war.
loss changed the social structure of several
countries. As a result, many women gained
more equality and freedom than they had
► German submarines,
had before the war. In many places, they
or U-boats, attacked ships also gained the right to vote.
on the surface by firing
torpedoes at them from
under the water. They
were so successful in
attacking Allied ships
that Britain came close
to defeat in 1917.

► On January 31,
1917 the Germans
announced to the world
that they would begin
unrestricted submarine
warfare. This threatened
U.S. ships. In February,
U-boats sank a U.S. ship,
the Housatonic. President
Wilson cut off diplomatic
relations with Germany,
and on April 6, the United
States declared war.
The arrival of American
troops in Europe tipped
the balance in 1918 when
the Germans launched
a major, final attack
on the Western Front.

396
900 1100 | 1200 1300: 1400 | 1500 1600 1700 1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 : 2000

THE TREATY OF VERSAILLES

World War I was formally ended by
the Paris Peace Conference, which was
■■4 Ii
held between 1919 and 1920. All the
FT T iJ

sf j
nations that had been involved in the
war (except Germany) met to draw up -
a peace agreement, but the United States, t
LL 11 I
Britain, France, and Italy led the process.
S
3»'HM mn
Five separate treaties were proposed. •n* iIpjf
1,:
The most important was the Treaty of
Versailles, which punished Germany for
its part in World War I. Vast amounts of
reparations (compensation) were to be
given to the Allies. The size of Germany
was reduced and seven million people were
removed from German rule. Germany had The Treaty of Versailles
to surrender all its overseas colonies and THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS was signed on June 28,
1919. It declared that
reduce its army to 100,000 men. The The League of Nations was also set up at
Germany's rulers were solely
German economy collapsed and this led the Paris Peace Conference. Its aim was to responsible for the outbreak
to hyperinflation. Other nations also help keep world peace, settling disputes by of war, and so Germany
suffered as they tried to pay back money discussion and agreement, but it failed. had to make reparations
(pay money) to the Allies.
they had borrowed during the war. This The reasons for this were that it had little
led to political and economic upheaval. power because the United States refused
Further strife was caused by the to join, and there were still rivalries among
redrawing of international boundaries the 53 members. These weakened the
in Europe following the collapse of the League and reduced its power, so
German, Austro-Hungarian, Russian, by the late 1930s, few countries
and Ottoman (Turkish) empires. took any notice of it.

HYPERINFLATION
German industry was totally destroyed
in the war and the country was
unable to repay the reparations
demanded by the Allies in
the Treaty of Versailles. The
Germans regarded the Treaty
as unjust and indefensible.
One of the outcomes was
that the German economy
was hit by hyperinflation in
the 1920s. Hyperinflation is
fast inflation that causes
the value of money to drop
very quickly. People needed
enormous amounts of
money to buy just
a loaf of bread.

r ■tmmmmmmcM
f, \ fr

| IS !PlUlt022LfTBt5Clie
Mf-1 « - t —r - r

Because of hyperinflation,
After the Paris Peace Conference (1919-1920), Germany this million mark note
gave back iands to France and Belgium. The Hapsburg issued in Germany during
monarchy was ended, and Poland, Czechoslovakia, the 1920s was worth
Hungary, and Yugoslavia all became new states. virtually nothing.

397
 10,000 5000 3000 1500 1 500 300 100 B.C. A.D. 100 200 350 500 700

The rise of fascism 1922-1939

The political philosophy known as fascism became ITALY AND BENITO MUSSOLINI
popular in many European countries during the 1930s. In Italy, the Fascist Party was founded
by Benito Mussolini in 1919, when
To many, it offered a way out of economic decline.
economic depression and the threat
F ascist ideas gained support after World
War I. The first fascist government
posed by the communists helped its
rise to power. In 1928-1929 he
appeared in Italy in the 1920s. The term imposed one-party government.
“fascism” comes from the Latin fasces— To avenge a humiliating defeat in
a bundle of rods with an ax that was 1896, Mussolini’s army invaded Abyssinia
a symbol of power in ancient Rome. (Ethiopia) in 1935-1936. Britain, France,
Fascism was based on the idea that and other countries condemned the
a nation would only succeed through invasion. So, Italy, keen to become a
disciplined, ruthless action and a major power, then formed an alliance
determined will. To many people, it with Germany. They became known as
offered a way out of economic decline. the Axis Powers. In May 1939, Mussolini
Fascists believed that achieving a and the German fascist dictator, Adolf
worthwhile aim made any action they took Flitler, agreed a military treaty—the Pact
acceptable. Schools, religion, newspapers, of Steel. Mussolini’s leadership led Italy
and the arts and sciences were expected to defeat in World War II, and he was
Benito Mussolini (1883- to serve the nation. Military power and a dismissed and imprisoned by King Victor
1945) became the fascist secret police organization supported the Emmanuel in 1943. Fie was later released
dictator of Italy in 1922.
fascist governments. Fascists believed that by German soldiers and set up fascist
their race was superior to others. They rule in the north of the country. In
Young Italian fascists opposed communism and encouraged April 1945, he was captured and
march past Mussolini
national pride and racism (prejudice against executed by Italian partisans.
during a March of
Triumph in Rome other races). In Germany, this hatred was
in October 1935. directed especially at Jews and gypsies.

398
900 1 1100 j 1200 1300 1400; 1500 1600 1700 1750 i 1800 1850 1900 ! 1950 2000

◄ Sir Oswald Mosley

GERMANY AND ADOLF HITLER (1896-1980) resigned
The terms of the Versailles Treaty from Ramsay MacDonald’s
were harsh on Germany and the economic Labour government in
1931 to form the British
recession of the early 1930s saw large-scale
Union of Fascists. The
unemployment in the country. The fragile party stirred up anti-
Weimar Republic was under threat from Semitism, especially in the
East End of London, where
the communists and Adolf Hitler’s National
many Jewish people lived.
Socialist German Workers’ Party (known as
Nazis). Hitler promised to end
unemployment and poverty and to build
the country into a great state after its
humiliation in World War I. Amid political
turmoil and violence, President Hindenburg
appointed Hitler as chancellor in January
1933. As Fiihrer (leader), Hitler crushed
all opposition, and ordered the murder
of millions of Jews, gypsies, and others. In
1939, he led Germany into World War II,
but killed himself when faced with defeat.
This antifascist poster
THE SPREAD OF FASCISM was issued by the
Socialist Party of
In other countries, economic difficulties
Catalonia in Spain.
and the threat of communism in the
postwar period led to the establishment of
many fascist governments. In Spain, the The Falangists supported General
army leader, General Miguel Primo de Francisco Franco’s nationalist forces
Rivera, took power in 1923, and ruled until during the Spanish Civil War (1936-
1930. In 1933, his son Jose Antonio formed 1939). With the support of Germany
the fascist Falange Party. and Italy, they took power in 1939. Franco
ruled as dictator until his death in 1975.
Fascism also won support in Portugal,
Austria, the Balkan states, and South
America in the years before World War II.
Juan Peron ruled Argentina with his wife Jose Antonio Primo de
Eva in the 1940s and 1950s. Antonio Rivera (1903-1936)
founded the Spanish
Salazar was dictator of Portugal from Falange nationalist
1932 to 1968. In England, former Cabinet movement in 1933.
minister Sir Oswald Mosley founded the
Britsh Union of Fascists in 1931, during a
period of economic depression and mass
unemployment. His public meetings
were known for the violence between
his supporters and his opponents.

_KEY DATES_
1919 Italian Fascist Party founded by Mussolini
1922 Mussolini becomes prime minister of Italy
1923 Primo de Rivera takes power in Spain
1928 Mussolini becomes dictator of Italy
1933 Jose Antonio Primo de Rivera forms Spanish Adolf Flitler rose from
Falange Party; obscurity to found the
To avenge Italy's humiliating defeat in 1896, Mussolini Flitler appointed chancellor of Germany National Socialist German
sent his army to invade Abyssinia. In 1936, Italian troops Workers' Party. During
1936 Italian troops invade Abyssinia
under General Badoglio victoriously entered the capital, political unrest in 1933,
1939 General Franco becomes dictator of Spain;
Addis Ababa. The invasion led to a worldwide outcry he was appointed
World War II begins
and Italy's withdrawal from the League of Nations. chancellor.

399
 0 A.D. 100 200 350 500 700
10,000 5000 3000 1500 500 ' 300 : 100 B.C.

U.S.A. Between the wars 1919-1941

After World War, I the United States went back
to its isolationism. The booming economy of the
1920s was followed by the Depression of the 1930s.

B efore the outbreak of war in Europe,

the United States had a policy of
isolationism. This meant that the country
only became involved in world affairs
when it was necessary for self-defense.
The United States was physically cut
off from most of the world, preoccupied
with its own affairs, and preferred to
stay out of entangling alliances.
When World War I broke out, most
Warren Harding (1865— Americans wanted to stay neutral.
1923) was elected 29th Between 1914-1917, President Wilson
president in 1920. His
health was affected when
tried to mediate between the warring
several cabinet members European countries. The United States did
were involved in an oil not enter the war until 1917, after its ships
scandal. He died suddenly
were attacked by German U-boats. In Chicago, gangs fought each other to gain control of
while still in office.
After World War I, the desire for illegal saloons called speakeasies. This scene depicts the
murder of gangster John Dillinger in Chicago in 1934.
isolationism grew stronger. The country
had seen what happened in Europe
because of alliances. Also, people were In 1920, newly-elected president Warren
alarmed by what was happening in Russia. Harding promised “a return to normalcy.”
The Senate voted not to join the League This meant not getting involved with
of Nations—President Wilson’s brainchild. other countries and strengthening law and
By the early 1920s, the U.S. economy was order—including a ban on alcohol. This
coming out of the postwar slump, and ban led to a lack of respect for the law and
industrial production began to grow. a growth of violence.

PROHIBITION AND GANGSTERS

Before World War I, the Women’s
Christian Temperance Union and other
pressure groups fought for Prohibition.
They argued that alcohol is a dangerous
drug that destroys family life and leads
to crime. In 1920, their efforts led to
the 18th Amendment to the Constitution.
▲ Al Capone (1899—
1947) was born in
This banned the manufacture, sale, and
Brooklyn. From 1925, he transportation of alcoholic beverages in
led Chicago's South Side the United States. Many thought this
Gang, and dominated the
would reduce crime, but the opposite
city's criminal underworld
He was finally jailed for happened. Gangsters set up illegal
tax evasion in 1931. saloons called speakeasies, where they ^
sold bootleg, or illegal liquor. Warfare
► Charles Lindbergh between competing gangs became
(1902-1974) made the commonplace, and corruption in law
first solo nonstop flight
enforcement agencies was rife. When it
across the Atlantic in
1927. He became a became clear that Prohibition was not
hero to people around working, the 21 st Amendment was
the world.
passed, and Prohibition ended in 1933.
400
 MB
900 1100 ! 1200! 1300 1 1400 1 1500 ! 1600 1700 | 1750 1800 1 1850 1900 1 1950 j 2000

BOOM AND BUST

Following World War I, the United
States withdrew from the world stage
and continued its policy of isolationism
into the 1930s. The country even put
restrictions on immigration. During the
economic boom of the 1920s, the United
States became the first country in which
millions of people drove cars, listened to
radio, and enjoyed movies. It was
a time when the arts flourished. The
motion picture industry was growing. The
New York skyline kept changing as more
new buildings were added. But in 1929,
the Roaring Twenties—the Jazz Age—
ended in total economic collapse. A new
president, Franklin Delano Roosevelt,
would have to use all his skills to rebuild "Cootie" Williams and his jazz band play in the Savoy Ballroom in Harlem, in the 1930s.
his country and restore his people’s faith. Jazz developed around 1900 in New Orleans. By the 1920s, the music was called
Dixieland, and soon, Chicago, St. Louis, and New York were the centers of jazz.

THE END OF ISOLATIONISM

Roosevelt continued his country’s
isolationist policies after war broke out in
Europe in 1939. But these policies ended
abruptly when the Japanese attacked the
U.S. Pacific Fleet at Pearl Harbor on
December 7, 1941. President Roosevelt
described December 7 as “a date which
will live in infamy.” The following day,
Congress declared war on Japan, and the
United States entered World War II.
Isolationism had ended.

▲ Skyscrapers only became

possible when Elisha Otis KEY DATES
developed the elevator, 1917 The United States enters World War I
and steel girders began
1918 World War I ends
to be used in construction
1919 The Senate votes not to join League of Nations
in the late 1800s. In New
1920 Warren Harding becomes 29th president;
York, the Woolworth
18th Amendment introduced-Prohibition
Building, designed in 1913
by architect Cass Gilbert, era begins
was for a time the tallest 1925 Al Capone becomes leader of Chicago's South
building in the world. Side Gang
1929 Wall Street Crash and start of Great Depression
◄ Prohibition agents 1931 The gangster Al Capone is jailed for tax evasion
examine some of the 1933 18th Amendment repealed-Prohibition ends
3,000 bags of illegal liquor 1941 Japanese attack Pearl Harbor; The United States
hidden in a coal steamer enters World War II
in New York Harbor.

401
 10,000 5000 3000 1500 500 300 100 B.C. A.O. 100 200 350 500 700

China 1911-1935
Following the fall of the Manchus in 1911, and the 1919, when Japan took over German
founding of the Republic of China, the country soon colonies in China, eventually led to the
founding of the Chinese Communist Party
became embroiled in a long-running civil war.
in 1921. With help from the Russians, Sun
O pposition to the rule of the
Manchus eventually led to the
Yat-sen reorganized the Kuomintang Party
and allowed Communist Party members
1911 Chinese Revolution and their to join. When Sun Yat-sen died in 1925,
downfall. The revolutionary leader leadership of China and the Kuomintang
Sun Yat-sen was named provisional Party passed to Chiang Kai-shek.
president. The Republic of China
was founded on February 12, 1912 CHINESE CIVIL WAR
^ with the official abdication of In 1926, Chiang Kai-shek launched an
the imperial government. Sun expedition against the warlords in the
Yat-sen’s presidency did not last north who wanted to overthrow the
When the Chinese long—he resigned because of lack of nationalist government. He was helped
nationalist leader, Sun support just three days later. China was in this by the Chinese Communist Party.
Yat-sen (1866-1925) died,
he was buried in this tomb
then ruled by the military leader Yuang Together, they defeated the warlords. But
on Zijin Mountain, just Shikai until his death in 1916, when the in 1927, the Communist-Kuomintang
east of Nanjing. political situation in the country began alliance ended and the two sides started
to disintegrate. fighting each other. This fighting became
The followers of Yuang Shikai set up a known as the Chinese Civil War. Chiang
government in Beijing, and Sun Yat-sen’s Kai-shek set up his capital in Nanjing
Kuomintang (nationalist) Party formed a (Nanking). Later that year, the nationalists
rival government in Canton. For the next drove the communists out of Shanghai
ten years, the country was embroiled in and into the Jiangxi hills. The nationalists
civil war. Student demonstrations against claimed to have united China, but they
the terms of the Treaty of Versailles in still did not have control of the country.

▲ Chiang Kai-shek (1887-

1975) took control of the
Kuomintang Party in 1926.
In 1927, he set up the
nationalist government
in Nanjing. After fighting
against the Japanese
invasion, he was ousted
by the communists and
fled to Taiwan (Formosa),
where he established the
Republic of China.

► This Shanghai poster,

dated 1927, immortalizes
Sun Yat-sen and shows
his successor, Chiang
Kai-shek, setting out with
his nationalist forces to
oust the communists
from northern China.

402
900 1100 1200 1300 1400 ! 1500 1600 1700 1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000

THE LONG MARCH

In October 1933, the Chinese nationalist leader Chiang Kai-shek launched a massive attack
against the communists in Jiangxi, southern China. In October 1934, 100,000 communists left
Jiangxi and set out on what has become known as the Long March. Led by Mao Zedong, they
traveled for nearly 6,300 mi. (10,000km) to northern China. They endured terrible conditions,
cold, and hunger during the long journey. Only one fifth of them reached their destination.

During the Long

THE RISE OF MAO ZEDONG
March of 1934-1935,
In 1931, taking advantage of the turmoil the communists fled
within China, the Japanese occupied from nationalist forces in
Manchuria and set up the puppet state Jiangxi, winding through
MONGOLIA southern and western
of Manchukuo in 1932. Meanwhile, the Manchuria
China, and finally reaching
communists had set up a rival government Beijing Yan'an in Shaanxi Province.
(the Jiangxi Soviet) in southern China (Peking) w/ . Here, Mao Zedong emerged
• ' i^5rea as the leader of the
in 1931. In the same year, Mao Zedong ainxi Tianjin (Tsentsin) JAPAN communists.
became chairman of the Jiangxi Soviet.
• Nanjing (Nankirlg)
The communists built up their forces in
Shanghai
Jiangxi and withstood four attempts by
5"!xi ^TAIWAN (FORMOSA)
the Kuomintang to oust them. In October
1933, Chiang Kai-shek launched a massive INDOCHINA (VIETNAM)
attack against the communists with the
Route of
intention of exterminating them. The LAOS the Long
March
communists resisted for a year, then in
October 1934, 100,000 of them left THAILAND
CAMBODIA
Jiangxi and set out on the Long March.

THE LONG MARCH

Mao Zedong led the Long March for _KEY DATES_
almost 6,300 mi. (10,000km) until they 1911 Chinese Revolution, end of the Manchus Mao Zedong (1893-1976)
reached Yan'an in Shaanxi Province in 1912 Republic of China is founded became involved with the
1921 Chinese Communist Party founded Chinese Communist Party
northern China. It took them until
1925 Sun Yat-sen dies in 1919, and in 1931
October 1935, and only about 20,000 of became chairman of the
1926 Chiang Kai-shek takes control of Kuomintang
the original 100,000 marchers survived to (nationalist) Party
Jiangxi Soviet. During
1934-1935, he led the
reach their destination. The Long March 1927 Chinese Civil War starts
Long March. In 1949, he
established Mao Zedong as leader of the 1931 Japanese occupy Manchuria
proclaimed the People's
Chinese communists. Republic of China.

403
 10,000 5000 3000 | 1500 500 300 100 B.C. A.D. 100 | 200 I 350. 500 700

The great depression 1929-1939 ui,;- «,5v

After World War I the U.S. economy saw rapid growth.
The Wall Street Crash of 1929 brought an abrupt end
to this and led to worldwide depression.
T he Great Depression
came at the end of a
period of economic turbulence.
In 1919, the Treaty of Versailles
forced Germany to pay a lot of
compensation to the Allies. Many
Germans lost all their savings
as the value of their money
plummeted. In Britain, France,
and the United States, industry
struggled to adjust to peacetime
trade. Millions of soldiers came
home and looked for jobs, but
there were none. Trade unions
called on workers to strike against
During the Depression employers who imposed wage cuts. Food
of the 1930s, thousands of prices fell so low that many farmers were
poverty-stricken American
families fled the East Coast
ruined and forced to give up their land.
and rural farming areas During the 1920s, the U.S. economy
to search for work in grew at a tremendous rate. This was due On October 29, 1929, the Wall Street Crash caused panic
the West, especially on the streets of New York. Share prices dropped so
to the continued development of industry
in California. fast that many people lost all their money.
and manufacturing. The growth was also
encouraged by the economic policies
In October 1936, 200 men
from Jarrow in northeast of presidents Flarding and Coolidge. THE WALL STREET CRASH
England marched to Stock market share prices had been In October 1929, people began to panic
London with a petition.
forced up beyond their real value by and sell their shares rapidly. On a single
A major shipyard had
closed down and caused reckless speculators. day, almost 13 million shares were sold
unemployment to soar. on the New York Stock Exchange. This
started the crisis known as the Wall
Street Crash. It soon affected the
whole world.
Many people lost all their money. Banks
and businesses closed. Unemployment
began to rise. By 1933, the worst year of
the Depression, there were 12 million
people unemployed in the United States
alone. Those who still had jobs saw their
salaries halved, and more than 85,000
businesses went under. President Hoover
arranged for federal loans to banks and
businesses, but refused to give anything ^
directly to the unemployed. People lost
all faith in him as a leader.
The situation was made worse by a
drought on the Great Plains. The soil
turned to dust in many places and blew
away in the wind, leading to crop
failure on a massive scale.
404
900 1100 ! 1200! 1300 ! 1400 I 1500 1 1600 ! 1700 | 1750 1800 : 1850 I 1900 1950 1 2000

THE DUST BOWL

Because of a long drought in the 1930s, the soil in the southern Great
Plains of the United States became very dry. A series of terrible
dust storms swept across the area, which became known as
the Dust Bowl. By 1933, hundreds of millions of tons of
topsoil had been carried off by the winds, destroying
the land. Faced with ruin, thousands of families I
fled the Dust Bowl looking for work in i (|i
California and elsewhere.

Franklin D. Roosevelt
(1882-1945) was elected
governor of New York in
1928. In 1932, he was
elected president, and in
1933, he introduced the
New Deal to combat
the problems caused
by the Depression.

ROOSEVELT’S NEW DEAL

For the first two years of the
Depression, President Hoover and the the collapse of the system of ||Ik
federal government took little direct international loans that handled
action, believing that the economy would war reparations. This affected
recover naturally. Franklin D. Roosevelt was Europe and North America ;
elected president in 1932, and in 1933, he directly. Other regions were also badly hit Under Roosevelt's New
introduced the New Deal to combat the since much of their economies relied on Deal many unemployed
people were given work
problems caused by the Depression. This selling food and raw materials to Europe on government projects.
was a set of laws designed to ease the and North America. As these markets Here, young members of
worst of the poverty, provide support for collapsed, many people around the world the Civilian Conservation
Corps (CCC) lift seedlings
the banks, and protect people’s savings. lost their jobs. As a result, unrest increased,
from the ground in Oregon
Farm prices were subsidized, a minimum and nationalism grew in many countries. for the Forest Service.
wage was introduced, and a huge
construction program was started to
create employment. The New Deal helped
considerably, but it was not until 1939,
when the outbreak of World War II gave
an enormous boost to heavy industry,
that the Depression came to an end.

► Although the U.S.S.R. escaped the worst effects of the

Depression, Stalin's five-year plan caused other problems.
Announced in 1928, the plan included a program to
introduce collective farms. To put this into action, the
richest peasant farmers were either executed or banished
to Siberia. The rest of the peasants were forced to work
on collective farms. This action severely disrupted
agricultural production and led to a famine in 1933.

405
 10,000 5000' 3000! 1500! 500 300 100 3.C. ! 0 A.D. 100 200: 350 500 700

Weimar and hitler 1919-1939

Adolf Hitler took advantage of the economic and THE RISE OF ADOLF HITLER
social turmoil in Germany in the 1920s to promote The next presidential election was in
1932, when Germany was in economic
fascism. He seized power in 1933.
crisis, with sky-high inflation and
F ollowing Germany’s defeat in 1918,
Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated and fled
unemployment. Hindenburg was elected
as president again, with Adolf Hitler, by
to the Netherlands. Germany became a then the leader of the National Socialist
republic, and its new government ruled German Workers’ [Nazi) Party, in second
from Weimar, instead of Berlin. From place. By using intimidation and violence
1919 to 1933, Germany was known as started by Hitler’s followers, the Nazi
the Weimar Republic. Following elections Party won a majority of seats in the
in January 1919, Friedrich Ebert, a Reichstag [German parliament).
socialist, became its first president. Under Hindenburg reluctantly appointed
his leadership, the Weimar Republic Hitler as chancellor in January 1933.
accepted the harsh terms of the Treaty When the Reichstag was burned down
Field Marshal von of Versailles. In 1922-1923, the Republic in February, Hitler brought in emergency
Hindenburg (1847-1934)
survived several attempts to bring it down, powers and called for new elections. By
was president of the
German Republic. At his first by the Bolsheviks, then by financial April 1933, he had gained absolute power
death, the chancellor pressure, and finally through an attempted in Germany, and established a single-party
Adolf Hitler became
political revolution led by an unknown government. As a result, Germany
Fuhrer of Germany.
Austrian fascist named Adolf Hitler. withdrew from the League of Nations.
Ebert died in 1925 and was succeeded On the “Night of the Long Knives” in
by Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg, June 1934, Hitler had many of his rivals
who was by then 78 years old. Germany killed. When Hindenburg died in August,
joined the League of Nations in 1926. Hitler was appointed Fiihrer [leader) of
However, the worldwide Depression of the Third Reich [German Empire). He set
the early 1930s led to massive social out to avenge the humiliation brought
and financial problems in Germany. on Germany by the Treaty of Versailles
and to make Germany a
THE NUREMBERG RALLIES powerful empire.
German soldiers parade with the Standards of Victory
at a Nazi Party rally at Nuremberg in 1933. The Nazi
propaganda techniques of the 1930s were successfully
used to create enormous public support for
Adolf Hitler (1889-1945) Hitler. His policies were popular because
was born in Austria. In they promised to make
World War I, he served in Germany powerful.
the German army and
won the Iron Cross.
Hitler became leader of
the Nazi Party in 1920.

406
900: 1100: 1200: 1300 I 1400 1500 ! 1600 ! 1700 ! 1750 : 1800 1 1850! 1900 1 1950 ? 2000

THE RISE OF ANTI-SEMITISM ▲ In the wake of German

soldiers entering the
Hitler blamed the Jews for Germany’s
Sudetenland, Adolf Hitler
problems. In 1935, the Nuremberg Laws receives a hero's welcome
took away their citizenship and banned as he enters the town of The deliberate burning of the Reichstag building in Berlin
Wildenau in 1938.
them from marrying non-Jews. Other laws on February 27, 1933, was an excuse for Adolf Hitler to
bring in emergency powers and call for new elections.
stopped them being able to work and
allowed their property to be taken. The GERMAN MILITARY EXPANSION
Nazis forbade Jews from being educated, In 1935, Germany abolished its agreement
using public transportation, or even the to the armament restrictions imposed by
telephone. Most Jews had to wear a the 1919 Treaty of Versailles. In 1936, its
yellow star, and they were eventually all forces entered the Rhineland, an area of
forced to live in ghettos. Germany that had been demilitarized at
On Kristallnacht (“Night of Broken the end of World War I. Germany entered
Glass”), in November 1938, Nazis alliances with fascist Italy and the military
attacked Jewish property all over rulers of Japan. German forces also ▲ In Hitler's Germany,
most Jews were forced
Germany, and 30,000 Jews were arrested. became involved in the Spanish Civil War,
to wear a yellow star to
This was just the beginning—it seemed where they supported the fascists, led by show their race.
that nothing could stop the Nazis now. General Francisco Franco.

KEY DATES
1919 Friedrich Ebert becomes first president of
German Republic
1920 Adolf Hitler becomes leader of Nazi Party
1925 Ebert dies; Hindenburg becomes president
1933 Hitler is appointed chancellor
1934 Hindenburg dies and Hitler becomes Fiihrer;
The "Night of the Long Knives" takes place
1935 Jews deprived of German citizenship
1936 German forces enter demilitarized Rhineland;
Germany forms alliances with Italy and Japan
1938 Germany annexes Austria and the Sudetenland
1939 Germany annexes Czechoslovakia and invades
Poland-World War II starts

► When Hitler came to power, he used every means to

destroy opposition. This included the imposition of state
censorship of newspapers, books, and radio. In support
of this, students and members of the Nazi Party threw
banned literature into a bonfire in Berlin in May 1933.

407
 1500 500 300 ! 100 B.C. A.D. 100 200 350 I 500 I 700 |
10,000 5000 3000

The Spanish civil war 1936-1939

The Spanish Civil War was a battle between two
opposing ideologies—fascism and socialism. Fascism
won—to be followed by 36 years of dictatorial rule.

B efore World War I, Spain sent military

expeditions to strengthen its position
in northern Morocco. In 1921, the Spanish
forces were defeated by the Berber leader,
Abd el-Krim, and it was not until 1927
that Spain was able to subdue the Berbers.
In 1923, a military defeat in Morocco led
to a fascist military dictatorship in Spain,
headed by General Primo de Rivera.
Francisco Franco (1892— Primo de Rivera ruled Spain until he
1975) led the rebellion fell from power in 1930. In the following
against the republican
government in 1936. From
year, King Alfonso XIII gave in to the
1939 until his death, he demand for elections. The Republican Both men and women fought in the civil war. These
ruled Spain as dictator. Party won, and the monarchy was republican women are defending a barricade on a Barcelona
overthrown. During the following street in 1936. The U.S.S.R. and the International Brigade
of volunteers helped the republicans.
years, the government survived revolts
in Asturias and Catalonia, and a new
Popular Front government was FASCISM VERSUS SOCIALISM
elected in February 1936. On July 17, 1936, army generals in
The new government under the Spanish Morocco, in North Africa, began
presidency of Manuel Azana included a rebellion. Led by General Francisco
members of the Socialist Workers’ Franco, and supported by the nationalists,
Party and the Communist Party. or Falange Party, they invaded Spain. They
With their support, it opposed the had the support of the fascist governments
power of the Roman Catholic of Italy and Germany. The rebellion led
Church in Spanish affairs. The to a bitter civil war. By the end of 1936,
Church was supported by the the nationalists controlled most of western
army and by the fascists. and southern Spain.

▲ During the Spanish Civil

War, people from many
countries volunteered to
fight in support of their
political ideals. This British
poster was designed by
the artist Roland Penrose
to help raise funds for
the republican side.

► The Nationalists were

supported by the fascist
governments of Italy and
Germany. This photograph,
by war photographer
Robert Capa, shows
nationalist militia in
action against republicans
on the Cordoba Front in
September 1936.

408
900 j 1100 ! 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700; 1750 ; 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000

BATTLEGROUND OF BELIEFS
The republicans, supported by the Soviet
Union, held the urban areas in the north
and east, including the cities of Barcelona,
Bilbao, Madrid, and Valencia. The
nationalists captured Bilbao in 1937. In
support of the nationalists, German dive-
bombers attacked the Basque town of
Guernica on April 27 of that year and
killed hundreds of civilians. This was
the first time that unrestricted aerial
bombing was used in wartime against
civilians, and marked a turning
point in modern warfare.
The Spanish Civil War was a
battleground between the beliefs of
fascism and socialism. People from many
countries, supporting one side or the
other, volunteered to travel to Spain to
fight because of their political ideals.
Some 750,000 people were killed in the
war before government forces surrendered
Barcelona in January 1939, and Madrid in
March, to the nationalists. General Franco
was declared “Caudillo of the Realm
and Head of State.”
Franco banned any opposition to
the Falange Party, restored power to the
Roman Catholic Church and took Spain
out of the League of Nations. Although
sympathetic to Hitler, he kept Spain ▲ General Franco's troops are shown in ▼ A turning point in modern warfare was
neutral during World War II. Franco ruled battle with the republicans in the streets the unrestricted aerial bombing of civilians
of Madrid during 1936. The surrender of in the town of Guernica by German aircraft
Spain until his death in 1975, when the Madrid by the republicans in March 1939 in 1937. The event is recorded in one of
monarchy and democracy were restored. marked the end of the civil war. Pablo Picasso's most famous paintings.

409
 10,000 5000 3000 1500 500 300 100 B.C. ! 0 A.D. 100 200 350' 500

China and japan at war 1931-1945

While the Chinese communists and nationalists were
fighting a bitter civil war, Japan's expansionist policies
and military strength were being felt in the region.

y 1905, the Japanese had

defeated both China and
Russia and taken control of
Korea and Taiwan (Formosa),
becoming the strongest military
nation in the region. With the
help of foreign expertise, industry
expanded rapidly in Japan from
1900 to 1925. Industrial investment
depended on heavy taxes levied on
This German cartoon shows peasants. However, the industries,
Japanese brutality toward especially silk production, depended
any Chinese opposition
during their 1931 invasion
largely on foreign markets. During the To keep control of the resource-rich region of Manchuria,
Depression, these markets collapsed and in northeast China, the Japanese occupied the city of
of Manchuria in northeast
Mukden in 1931. In 1932, they set up a puppet state
China. many Japanese factories came to a halt. ruled for them by the last Chinese emperor, P'u-yi.
Faced with a growing population and
weak political leadership, the military At the same time, China was ready
began to expand Japan’s influence over to try to reclaim Manchuria, which Japan
its neighbors. had dominated since 1905. An explosion
on the south Manchurian railroad in 1931
Chinese "big sword" troops were led the Japanese to occupy the city of
among the defenders of Chengteh
Mukden in Manchuria. There they set up
(Jehol), northeast of Beijing, when
the Japanese attacked the a puppet state called Manchukuo in 1932.
city in March 1933. Officially, it was ruled by P’u-yi, the last
Chinese emperor, but in
fact, the Japanese army
was in control.

410
 I
900 1100 1200 1300 1400 1 1500 1 1600 1 1700 1 1750 1 1800 i 1850 I 1900 i 1950 ! 200C

JAPAN INVADES CHINA

During 1935-1936, Inner Mongolia came
largely under Japanese influence. In China,
civil war between the nationalists and the
communists continued. Chiang Kai-shek,
leader of the nationalists, was captured by
the communists in 1936. He was released
when he agreed to stop fighting them and
join the fight against the Japanese. The
two sides became unwilling allies when
Japan launched a full-scale invasion
of China in 1937.
The better-equipped Japanese forces
attacked Chinese cities, including Tianjin,
Beijing, and Shanghai. Their massacre of
over 100,000 Chinese in Nanjing
(Nanking) came to be known as “the
Rape of Nanking.” Despite Chinese
resistance, Japan controlled most of
eastern China by 1938, and had installed
puppet governments in Beijing and
Nanjing. Chiang Kai-shek and his
nationalist government moved to
Szechwan, where they received military
supplies from the United States and Britain.
Meanwhile, Mao Zedong’s communists
still controlled much of northwest China.
When the Japanese tried to advance
westward in 1939, they were stopped by
the Soviet army. The Chinese-Japanese
War lasted until 1945, when Japan
surrendered in World War II. ▲ Following the takeover of Manchuria, Japan launched a full-scale attack on China.
During 1937, the well-equipped Japanese forces made great advances, attacking many
T Thousands of civilians were killed when Japanese forces cities in the east of the country and massacring hundreds of thousands of civilians.
attacked the city of Shanghai in 1937. This photograph After occupying Beijing, they launched a ferocious attack on Nanjing in December 1937.
shows the terrible scenes of carnage at Shanghai station
following the Japanese attack.

U.S.S.R.

MONGOLIA Manchuri;
ah (Jehol) ef
Beijing (Peking) £ KOREA
Tianjin (Tsentsin)
CHINA JAPAN4
Nanjing (Nankiijig)
• Shanghai
Chongqing
(Chungking) TAIWAN
(FORMOSA;
▲ During the reign iNDIA
3?
of Emperor Hirohito INDOCHINA
(1901-1989), Japan LAOS (VIETNAM)
BHUTAN
had an aggressive policy
toward its neighbors. THAILAND
CAMBODIA
After World War II, Japan
became a strong industrial
nation. Hirohito’s death ▲ Following its occupation of Manchuria, Japan invaded
ended the longest reign eastern China, attacking Tianjin, Beijing, Shanghai, and
in Japanese history. Nanjing. By 1938, they occupied most of eastern China.

411
 10,000 5000 : 3000 1500- 500 300 100 B.C. j 0 A.O. 100 200 350

German expansion 1938-1939

Hoping to avoid another war, Britain and France
tolerated Hitler's expanionist policies, and allowed
Germany to annex Austria and Czechoslovakia.

O ne of Adolf Hitler’s ambitions

was to unite Germany and
Austria. This union had been
forbidden by the Treaty of Versailles
in 1919, because France and other
countries thought it would make
Germany too powerful. By the early
1930s, however, many people in
Germany and Austria wanted their
countries to unite. In 1934, an
attempted Nazi coup in Austria failed.
In 1938, Hitler met with the Austrian
After the signing of the chancellor, Kurt von Schuschnigg, and
Munich Agreement in made new demands. With chaos and
September 1938, Britain's
prime minister, Neville
German troops threatening his country,
Chamberlain, declared, Schuschnigg resigned in favor of Artur
"I believe it is peace von Seyss-Inquart, leader of the Austrian
for our time."
Nazis. He invited German troops to German troops marched into Vienna in 1938. Hitler
occupy Austria, and the union, or wanted to unite all German-speaking peoples into a
Greater Germany, an important part of his vision of
Anschluss, of the two countries was the third German Empire, or Third Reich.
formally announced on March 13, 1938.
Hitler also wanted to reclaim areas of This agreement gave the Sudetenland to
Europe given to other states by the Treaty Germany. This was seen as a reasonable
of Versailles. One of these was areas was concession to Hitler—a policy known as
Czechoslovakia’s Sudetenland. The appeasement. But it was not enough for
Munich Agreement of 1938 was signed as Hitler. He broke the agreement, and seized
an attempt to keep peace in Europe. all of Czechoslovakia in March 1939.
▲ Artur von Seyss-Inquart
(1892-1946), the leader
of the Austrian Nazis, was
a member of the Austrian
government. He invited
the Germans to occupy his
country and make it a part
of the Third Reich. The
annnexation of Austria
in March 1938 brought
little criticism from
Britain or France.

► German troops entered

Prague in April 1939.
To appease the Nazis,
Czechoslovakia was forced
to return the Sudetenland
to Germany in 1938.
However, this failed to
appease Hitler, and
German forces invaded
Czechoslovakia on
March 15, 1939.

412
900 1100; 1200 1300 1400; 1500 1600 1700 1750 | 1800 i 1850 | 1900 1950 2000

The start of world WAR n 1939

Hitler’s confidence grew after years of appeasement
by the rest of Europe. But his invasion of Poland led
Britain and France to declare war on Germany.

T he three Axis Powers, German, Italy,

and Japan, all wanted more territory.
After his invasion of Czechoslovakia,
Hitler did not expect any international
military action against his plans to expand
farther. To counter any military threat to
the east of Germany, he signed a non-
agression pact, the Molotov-Ribbentrop
Pact, with the Soviet Union in August
1939. The two countries secretly agreed
to divide eastern Europe. Despite appeals
Winston Churchill (1874— from the United States, Britain and the
1965) became British Vatican, and feeling secure from any German forces attack the poorly equipped Polish army
prime minister in 1940 near the Vistula River in September 1939. Much of
and led Britain during
military threat, Hitler invaded Poland
western Poland was taken into the Third Reich and many
World War II. on September 1, 1939. Britain and of its people were deported to Germany as forced labor.
France declared war on Germany two days
Messerschmitt later. Troops from the Soviet Union, In June, Italy declared war on the Allies.
Me 109 which had signed the nonaggression British troops sent to France were forced
pact with Germany, then invaded to retreat to Dunkirk, where hundreds of
Poland from the east. Poland was thousands of them were evacuated to
divided between Germany and Britain. With most of Europe under fascist
the U.S.S.R. In April 1940, German control, Hitler planned to invade Britain.
troops invaded Denmark and Norway, In July 1940, the Luftwaffe (German air
Supermarine and in May, they invaded Belgium, force) started to attack targets in Britain.
Spitfire the Netherlands, and France. The United States remained in isolation.

A Between July and

October 1940, the German
air force (Luftwaffe)
bombed British cities and
attacked Britain's Royal Air
Force (RAF). During these
attacks, the RAF destroyed
1,733 Luftwaffe planes,
while the RAF lost 915. By
October 31, the British had
won the Battle of Britain.

► On May 10, 1940,

German forces invaded
Holland and Belgium.
British troops were sent to
France in an unsuccessful
attempt to halt the
German advance. They
were forced to retreat to
the French port of
Dunkirk. Between May 29
and June 4, 335,000
British and Allied troops
were evacuated safely
back to England from the
beaches around Dunkirk.

413
 5000 3000 1500 500 300 100 B.C. A.D. 100 200 350 500 70(
10,000

War in the west 1939-1945

After German successes in Europe and North Africa,
Allied victories at El Alamein and Stalingrad were a
turning point in the war, and led to Germany's defeat.

T he Battle of Britain lasted until

October 31, 1941, and forced Hitler
to abandon his plan to invade Britain.
Instead, he turned his attention to
bombing Britain’s industry, cities, and
shipyards. This lasted until May 1941,
but failed to break the morale of Britain,
Erwin Rommel (1891 — which received substantial supplies and
1944) was a brilliant leader equipment from the United States. British RAF pilots rest beside a Spitfire fighter
of German armored units. plane during a lull in the Battle of Britain. Completely
In North Africa, his tanks outnumbered, but with superior aircraft, British pilots
showed their superiority
GERMAN ADVANCES halted the German air force's bombing of Britain.
over the aging British Meanwhile, the Italians had invaded
machines. Greece and North Africa. British forces THE TIDE TURNS AGAINST GERMANY
defeated the Italians in North Africa, but In August 1941, British prime minister
in April 1941, Hitler’s troops occupied Winston Churchill, and U.S. president
Greece and Yugoslavia to assist Mussolini’s Franklin D. Roosevelt, signed the Atlantic
army. The Germans drove the British out Charter—a declaration of freedom for all
of Greece and sent a large force, under people. In December, the United States
General Rommel, to North Africa. His entered the war after the Japanese attack
Bernard Law Montgomery superior forces succeeded in driving on Pearl Harbor. Meanwhile, Allied troops
(1887-1976) led the the British back to Egypt. were sent to Africa to fend off Rommel’s
British forces in North
Africa and Europe. The
In June 1941, encouraged by military advance on Egypt. In November 1942, the
victory of his Eighth Army successes in the West, and to capture oil Allies won the decisive battle of El Alamein
at El Alamein was a major supplies, Hitler’s armies launched a against the Germans and the Italians.
turning point in the war.
massive attack on Russia. The Germans To the east, the Russians launched a
drove the Russian army back as far as counterattack against German forces at
Leningrad, Moscow, and Kiev. However, Stalingrad, forcing them to retreat. These
during the harsh Soviet winter they lost a two Allied victories marked the turning
large part of their recently gained territory. point of the war in the West.

A German mortar detachment moves off in supp

of the infantry during the Battle of Stalingrad. I
November 1942, the Russians launched a surprii
Georgy Zhukov(1896- counterattack on the German forces attacking /
1974) commanded the tie city, and forced:them to retreat. j /
Soviet Red Army in their
struggle against the
German invaders.

Dwight D. Eisenhower
(1890-1969) was Supreme
Allied Commander during
the war and was elected
president in 1952.

414
900 1100 1200 1300 I 1400 1500 1600 1700 1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000

NETHERLANDS / : FINLAND
German domination
NORWAY J at its greatest
extent in 1941
EDEN
Neutral countries
IRE
GREAT
BRITAIN

GERMANY S POLAND RUSSIA

LUXEMBOURG
FRANCE
SWITZERLAND
^A ROMANIA
Vichy
France ITALY *fl BULGARIA

TURKEY.
"■VstiT rMw
Jr t - '

NORTH AFRICA A British Halifax bomber flies over the target during a
daylight bombing raid on the oil plant at Wanne-Eickel in
the Ruhr in 1944. The heavy bombing of German industry
By 1941, Germany had conquered most of Europe apart
and cities by Allied air forces was a significant factor
from Britain, and was expanding into North Africa. From
in the final defeat of Germany.
June 1940, Vichy France was ruled from the town of
Vichy by Marshal Petain as a puppet of the Germans.

Throughout 1942 and 1943, German

U-boats attacked convoys of ships carrying
supplies and equipment to Britain. This
threat was countered by protection from
ships and aircraft. In 1943, Britain and the
United States started bombing German When France fell in 1940,
industrial centers and cities. In July, British General Charles de Gaulle
became the leader of t
and American forces landed in Sicily, and Free French. He served
by September they had invaded Italy. This as president of France
brought about the downfall of Mussolini 1945 and 1959-

and the surrender of Italy.

FINAL DEFEAT OF GERMANY

On the Eastern front, Russian troops
were slowly driving the Germans back.
A second front was opened on D-Day,
June 6, 1944, with the Allied invasion
of Normandy. The Germans launched
a counteroffensive. The Soviets began to
march toward Berlin, while the Allies
liberated Paris in August and reached the
German border by December. By March
1945, they had crossed the Rhine and •t. •

the Soviets had reached Berlin. Hitler

killed himself on April 30, and Germany
marj,
surrendered unconditionally on May 7. D-Day (June 6, 1944),
forces landed on
the coast of Normandy:
THE HOLOCAUST
1,200 warships and 4,100
The Allies soon discovered the greatest nding craft put 132,500
case of genocide in history. Twelve million men ashore, and 10,000
Jews, gypsies, homosexuals, and other aircraft attacked German
positions. The D-Day
victims of Hitler’s persecution had been landings allowed Allied
exterminated, mostly in concentration troops to drive the
camps. Around half were Jewish. Germans out of France.

415
 10,000 5000 3000 1500 500 | 300 100 B.C. 0 ! A.D. 100 ! 200 350 500 700

War in the pacific 1941-1945

The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor catapulted the
United States into World War II. After initial success,
the Japanese were slowly driven back to their country.

S ince September 1940, Japan had allied

itself with Germany and Italy, but had
not been involved in the fighting. After
Japan’s invasion of China in 1937, it had
come under increasing pressure from the
United States to withdraw its forces from
that country. The war in the Pacific began
Admiral Yamamoto on December 7, 1941, when Japanese
Isoroku (1884-1943) aircraft from six aircraft carriers launched
planned Japan's attack
on Pearl Harbor. In April
an unprovoked attack on the U.S. naval
1943, while flying to base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. More than
inspect Japanese forces 2,400 U.S. soldiers and sailors were killed
in the Solomon Islands,
and 18 major naval vessels were destroyed
his route was located
by Allied codebreakers or severely damaged. The Japanese lost
who were listening to fewer than 100 men. Japanese forces The U.S. battleships Tennessee and West Virginia on fire
Japanese radio signals. after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7,
invaded Thailand on the same day. On
He was killed when 1941. In the attack, 18 major U.S. ships, including eight
American fighters the following day, Congress declared battleships, were destroyed or severely damaged.
shot his plane down. war on Japan. Germany and Italy then
declared war on the United States.

JAPANESE KAMIKAZE PILOTS

Kamikaze means "divine wind,” a reference to a heaven-sent gale that scattered the
ships of a Mongol invasion fleet in 1281. Toward the end of the war in the Pacific, there
was no shortage of Japanese pilots who volunteered to die for their emperor by diving
their aircraft, laden with bombs, straight into an Allied ship. More than half of the 2,900
kamikaze attacks were launched during the defense of the island of
Okinawa. The plane used most often in kamikaze attacks ▼ Kamikaze attacks ▲ Kamikaze pilots often
was the Zero fighter, because large numbers were first mounted by the performed rituals before
of them were available. Japanese Imperial Navy on takeoff, and wore a
October 25, 1944, during special scarf.
the Battle of Leyte Gulf.
nnrinn fhi=» \A/or orrwmrl

416
900 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1 1750 1 1800 ! 1850 1900 1 1950 2000

On December 10, 1941, the British

battleship Prince of Wales and the battle
cruiser Repulse were sunk in the Gulf of
Siam by Japanese aircraft. With American
and British fleets severely damaged, the
Japanese now thought that they had
complete control of the Pacific. Within
five months, their forces had overrun
Burma, Hong Kong, Singapore, Malaya,
the Dutch East Indies (Indonesia),
Thailand, and the Philippines. They also
invaded New Guinea and threatened the
north coast of Australia. With most of its
own troops and equipment helping the
Allies in Europe, Australia had to turn
to the United States for protection.

JAPANESE LOSSES AT SEA

Not all of the U.S. fleet had been sunk In the Battle of Midway (June 4-6) the ▲ After their victory at
Midway, U.S. forces took
at Pearl Harbor. Three American aircraft Japanese navy was so severely damaged by
the island of Guadalcanal
carriers were at sea at the time of the U.S. carrier-borne aircraft that it retreated. in August 1942. Following
attack and they were soon joined by two Midway was a decisive victory for the in their footsteps, New
Zealand troops come
new carriers. Japanese hopes of further United States and a turning point in the
ashore at Guadalcanal
expansion were stopped in 1942 in war. With the Japanese advance halted, Bay in November 1943.
two major sea battles. the task of recapturing territory began.
The Battle of the Coral Sea (May 4-8) Over the following three years, U.S.
was the first in naval history in which forces regained the Gilbert, Marshall,
opposing ships were out of each other’s Caroline, and Mariana islands. From there,
sight during the fighting. It was fought they could bomb Japanese cities and
▼ Dislodging the Japanese
by aircraft launched from aircraft carriers. industry. In September 1944, U.S. forces from the jungles of Burma
There was no clear winner, but the battle began to retake the Philippines, while the was a difficult task. In the
British Fourth Army began to reconquer early stages of the war, a
did halt Japanese plans to invade Australia.
small British force under
In June, the Japanese planned to invade Burma. After fierce fighting, U.S. forces General Wingate, known as
the small but strategic island of Midway took the Japanese islands of Okinawa the Chindits, operated many
and the Aleutian Islands. But first they and Iwo Jima in early 1945. miles behind Japanese lines.

had to destroy American aircraft based

on Midway. However, the United States
had cracked the Japanese radio codes
and were prepared for the attack.

KEY DATES
1941 December 7-Japan attacks American Pacific
Fleet in Pearl Harbor, Hawaii; United States
declares war on Japan; Japanese sink British
warships in Gulf of Siam
1942 Japanese overrun Hong Kong, Burma, Thailand,
Singapore, Malaya, Dutch East Indies, and the
Philippines; Battles of Coral Sea, Midway, and
Guadalcanal
1944 Battle of Leyte Gulf; U.S. forces recapture
the Philippines
1945 U.S. Air Force takes Okinawa and Iwo Jima;
American air force drops atomic bombs
on Hiroshima and Nagasaki;
Japan surrenders on August 14

417
 10,000 5000 3000 1500 500 300 100 B.C. A.D. 100 200 350 500; 70C

Peace in the pacific 1945-1948

With U.S. forces on their doorstep, the Japanese were JAPANESE SURRENDER
prepared to fight to the bitter end. The dropping of Truman argued that the use of atomic
bombs would quickly end the war and
atomic bombs forced them into surrender.
possibly save millions of Allied soldiers’
In the taking of the island of
Okinawa, more than 100,000
lives. At the end of July 1945, the Allies
gave Japan an ultimatum, threatening
Japanese and 12,000 American complete destruction if Japan did
soldiers were killed. After these not surrender. Japan gave no signs of
enormous losses, Allied commanders surrendering, so an atomic bomb was
were fearful of the deaths that might dropped on Hiroshima on August 6, 1945.
result if they invaded the Japanese It killed about 130,000 people. Three days
mainland. They knew that the later a second atomic bomb was dropped
Japanese would fight to their on the city of Nagasaki and caused up to
last drop of blood to defend their 750,000 deaths. Thousands more died
Japanese representatives country, and estimated that up to a million later from injuries and radiation sickness.
wait to sign the formal Allied soldiers would die in the invasion. The use of the bombs finally forced the
statement of surrender
with General Douglas
In the United States, Roosevelt had been Japanese to surrender on August 14.
MacArthur (1880-1964) elected to his third term of office as World War II ended when the Japanese
on the deck of the U.S. president in 1944. Meanwhile, amid great formally surrendered on September 2,
battleship Missouri on
secrecy, American scientists had been 1945. More than two million Japanese
September 2, 1945.
developing a new and terrible weapon— had been killed in World War II, 100 of
the atomic bomb. Roosevelt died in office their cities were destroyed by bombing,
on April 12, 1945, and his successor, Harry and industrial production had practically
S. Truman, made the decision to drop the ceased. It took ten years for Japanese
new atomic bomb on Japan. industry to regain its prewar levels.

THE BOMBING OF HIROSHIMA

The development of the atomic bomb by American scientists
had been kept secret. Two atomic bombs were used in war.
The five-ton "Little Boy" was dropped on Hiroshima (below)
by an American B-29 Superfortress, the Enola Gay on August
6, 1945. Three days later a second atomic bomb, "Fat Man”
was dropped from another Superfortress, the Bockstar,
to destroy the city of Nagasaki.

418
900 1100 1200 i 1300 ': 1400 1500 1600 i 1700 1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000

The united nations 1945-1948

At the end of World War II, the victorious Allied
powers divided Germany into four zones. The United
Nations was created to keep international peace.

F ollowing the Yalta Conference, the

division of Germany was confirmed
by the “Big Three” Allied powers at
the Potsdam Conference. By this time,
Roosevelt had died and been replaced
by Harry S. Truman as president.
Britain was represented by Clement
Attlee. Germany also lost some of its
territory to Poland and the U.S.S.R.
Countries conquered by Germany
and Japan regained their former
status. The influence of the Soviet At the Yalta Conference in February 1945, the "Big Three"
Union increased when Bulgaria, Allied powers, represented by their leaders, Churchill
(Britain), Roosevelt (U.S.), and Stalin (U.S.S.R.), decided
On April 25, 1945, the Hungary, Poland, Romania, to divide Germany into four zones after the war.
United Nations was Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, and eastern
formally set up at a
Germany became communist states. The In the Charter, they agreed to fight the
conference in San
Francisco. It was meant Truman Doctrine promised American aid Axis countries and not make any separate
to keep world peace to all free peoples that were threatened peace agreements. The UN was planned
and solve problems by by communism, while the Marshall Plan to be stronger than the League of Nations
international cooperation.
provided help for economic recovery. had been. It had a powerful Security
Council to decide what should be done
THE UNITED NATIONS if disputes broke out. Members were to
The term “United Nations” (UN) contribute arms and personnel to UN
was first used in January 1942 peacekeeping missions. In 1948, the
when the Atlantic Charter UN issued a Universal Declaration
was signed by the Allies. of Human Rights.

▲ The Potsdam Declaration of 1945 made

it possible to bring Nazi war criminals to
justice. War trials were held in the German
city of Nuremburg. Flere, former Nazi
leaders Flermann Goering, Rudolf Fless,
and Joachim von Ribbentrop await cross-
examination at the trials. All three were
found guilty. Goering committed suicide
hours before his execution; Fless received
a life sentence and died in 1987 in Spandau
Prison; von Ribbentrop was hanged along
with nine other high-ranking Nazis
on October 16, 1946.

► On June 25, 1948, the Soviet

Union set up a blockade around Berlin
to try to force France, Britain, and the
United States to give up their rights to
the western part of Berlin. To feed the
population, Britain and the United States
flew supplies into the city for 15 months
until the blockade was lifted.

419
 10,000 5000 3000 1500 500 | 300 100 B.C. 0 A.D. 100 I 200 350 500 70C

Italy and the Balkans 1943-1949

After World War II, Italy became a republic, Greece
suffered from a three-year civil war, and Tito became
head of a communist government in Yugoslavia.

A fter its surrender to the Allies in 1943,

Italy had two governments. In the
south, the king, Victor Emmanuel, and his
prime minister Badoglio ruled with Allied
1
f
^ wfcv
vvj
1Mi
support. In the north, the Germans rescued
Mussolini from prison and set up a fascist
Italian state. This lasted until April 1945,
when Mussolini was shot by Italian Female Yugoslav partisan fighters train at an Allied camp

resistance fighters. After that, the king and in Italy during the latter years of World War II. They had
been fighting a guerrilla war in Yugoslavia since the
his new prime minister, Alcide de Gasperi, Germans had invaded their homeland.
Alcide de Gasperi (1881- ruled all of Italy. In May 1946, the king
1954) organized the abdicated in favor of his son, who became supported the king. Fighting lasted until the
Christian Democratic
party. He became prime
Umberto II. A month later, a national communists were defeated in 1949.
minister of Italy in 1945. referendum voted for a republic, and Yugoslavia was formed at the end of
the royal family left the country. World War I from Montenegro, Croatia,
During the German occupation of Greece, Serbia, Slovenia, and Bosnia-Herzegovina,
the communists built up a powerful armed and ruled by King Alexander I. The country
force. After the war, they hoped to make was occupied by the Germans in World
Greece a communist state. In 1946, a War II, and the king fled to London.
royalist government was elected, which Resistance to the Germans was organized
returned King George II to the throne. by Chetniks (Serbian nationalists] and
The communists began to revolt and communist partisans, but the two groups
civil war broke out. Under the Truman ended up fighting each other. After World
Doctrine, the United States gave large War II, the partisan leader Tito became
During World War II, Josip amounts of aid to the army, which head of a communist government.
Broz Tito (1892-1980)
organized resistance to
THE GREEK CIVIL WAR
the German occupation
of Yugoslavia. In 1953, Following the restoration of the Greek king to the throne in September 1946,
he became president. a full-scale civil war was started by the communists. Massive military
and economic aid poured in from the United States to
support the royalists. The communists proclaimed a
provisional government in the north in 1947. The civil
war lasted until October 16, 1949. During the
three-year war, more than 50,000 people
were killed and over half a million
Greeks were made homeless.

The Yugoslavian coat of

arms showed the red star
of communism and six
torches symbolizing the
six republics: Bosnia-
Herzegovina, Croatia,
Macedonia, Montenegro,
Serbia, and Slovenia.

420
 I I I m
900 1100 1200 1300 1 1400 : 1500 | 1600 1 1700 1750 1 1800 1 1850 : 1900 1950 2000

Indian independence 1945-1947

The Indian people had resisted British rule since
the 1800s. In 1947, Britain partitioned India and
CHINA
gave independence to the Hindus and Muslims.
A fter World War I, Britain promised
India a major role in governing
PAKISTAI

New
BHUTAN

itself, in return for the support India

had given during the war. In 1919, the
Government of India Act was passed. Calcutta
INDIA
This allowed the election of Indian
ministers to an Indian parliament, but EAST
W PAKISTAN
the British governors still held the real (BANGLADESH)
power. Indians felt that the Act did
Before partition
not go far enough.
Jawaharlal Nehru (1889-
1964) was imprisoned for There was a campaign of civil \ Ns After partition
civil disobedience in 1921. disobedience and noncooperation
In 1928, he became leader
with the British by members of the After partition, both parts of Pakistan were governed
of the Indian National
Congress Party, and in Indian Congress Party. Guided in their from Karachi, and India was governed from New Delhi.
East Pakistan broke away and became the separate
1947, became the first campaign by Mahatma Gandhi, they
state of Bangladesh in 1971.
prime minister of an encouraged the boycott of British goods,
independent India.
the nonpayment of taxes, and passive, After riots broke out and many people
or nonviolent, resistance to the British. were killed, the British finally agreed
In 1945, the British government decided to partition (divide] India. The mainly
to grant India independence within the Muslim northeast and northwest of India
Commonwealth. The situation was became the independent country of
complicated because India contained Pakistan on August 14, 1947. Muhammad
two major religious groups, Hindus and Ali Jinnah became the first governor-
Muslims. There were fewer Muslims than general. The next day, the remaining area
Hindus, but the Muslims would not agree became independent India with Jawaharlal
to any government that would put them Nehru as its first prime minister.
under Hindu rule. As independence came
closer, the pressure grew for a separate
state for Indian Muslims.
▲ Mahatma Gandhi
(1869-1948) studied law
in England, then worked in
South Africa. He returned
to India in 1914 and was
jailed for his nonviolent
resistance to the British
authorities. He was
assassinated by a Hindu
extremist in 1948.

► In the large-scale
migrations that followed
partition, more than one
million people were killed.
This photograph shows a
Muslim refugee train
from Delhi to Lahore (now
in Pakistan) in northern
India in 1947.

421
 10,000 5000 3000 1500 500 300 100 B.C. A.D. 100 i 200 1 350 : 500 700

Israel 1948-1949
Growing demands for a separate Jewish state and
the flood of refugees from Europe forced the British
to withdraw from Palestine. Israel became a reality.

U ntil the end of World War I, Palestine

was part of the Ottoman Empire.
It was inhabited by Arabs and a growing
number of Jews, some of whom wanted
a Jewish homeland. When the Ottoman
Empire collapsed, Palestine was ruled by
Britain under a 1922 League of Nations’
mandate. In 1917, the Balfour Declaration
had promised British support for a Jewish
homeland in Palestine, with specific
David Ben-Gurion (1886— protection for the rights of non-Jewish
1973) was born in Poland.
Palestinians. As problems grew in Europe, The new State of Israel was surrounded by Arab states.
As a young man he went
Jewish immigration increased. On May 14, 1948, the Arab League of Lebanon, Syria, Iraq,
to live in Palestine and in
Jordan, and Egypt declared war on Israel and attacked it.
1930 became leader of Between 1922 and 1939, the Jewish They were defeated and Israel increased its territory.
the Mapai Party. In 1948,
population in Palestine had risen from
he declared the State of
Israel and became its 83,000 to 445,000. Tel Aviv had become a A secret Jewish army called Haganah
first prime minister. Jewish city with a population of 150,000. (self-defense) was formed in 1920. More
The Arabs resented this and fighting often extreme groups were later formed, notably
broke out between the two groups. After Irgun and the Stern Gang. Both groups
1945, Jewish immigration increased again. thought that Britain had betrayed the
Under pressure from the Arabs, Britain Zionist cause—to establish a Jewish state
restricted the number in Palestine—and took part in. a violent
of new settlers allowed. terrorist campaign against the Arabs and
Jewish terrorists then the British. Jewish leaders such as Chaim
began to attack both the Weizmann and David Ben-Gurion took
Arabs and the British. a more peaceful approach.

▲ One result of the hostility between

the Arabs and Jews in 1948 was the
migration of nearly one million Arabs
from Palestine. They left their homes
and became refugees because they were
afraid of the action Israel might take
after the war with the Arab League.

► After World War II, the number of

Jewish refugees from Europe trying to
enter Palestine became a problem for the
British. In October 1947, the ship Jewish
State arrived at the port of Haifa with
2,000 illegal Jewish immigrants aboard.

422
900 i 1100 ! 1200 I 1300 14001 1500 I 1600 1700 1750 1800 ! 1850 i 1900 ; 1950 2000

By June 1945, an enormous number

of Jewish refugees, displaced by the war
in Europe, were clamoring to live in
Palestine. Despite British efforts to stop
them, the number of refugees entering
the country continued to increase. The
United States put pressure on Britain to
allow the admission of 100,000 refugees,
but Britain refused. It soon found itself
involved in a full-scale war with Jewish
terrorist organizations.

THE NEW STATE OF ISRAEL

Unwilling to be caught up in another
bloody and costly war, Britain took the
matter to the United Nations. In 1947,
the UN voted to divide Palestine into two
states. One would be Jewish and the other
one Arab. Jerusalem, which was sacred to
Jews, Muslims, and Christians, would be
international. The Jews agreed to this, Israel was immediately attacked by During the War of
but the Arabs did not. the surrounding Arab League states of Independence, Jewish
Haganah militiamen
On May 14, 1948, Britain gave up its Lebanon, Syria, Iraq, Jordan, and Egypt. watch over the road to
mandate to rule Palestine and withdrew Israel defeated them and increased its Jaffa. They captured this
its troops. On the same day, the Jews, led territory by a quarter. Nearly one million important position on
April 17, 1948, after
by Mapai Party leader David Ben-Gurion, Palestinian refugees, afraid of Jewish rule,
stiff Arab resistance.
proclaimed the State of Israel, and its fled to neighboring Arab countries. The
legitimacy was immediately recognized United Nations negotiated a cease-fire
by the governments of the United States in 1949, but conflicts between Israel and
and the Soviet Union. its Arab neighbors continue to this day.

Members of Haganah, the Jewish

defense force, keep a sharp lookout
for possible Arab looters in the
destroyed Jewish border area
between Jaffa and Tel
Aviv, the scene of ffT *' ~
constant disorder.

The Israeli flag was

raised at Eilat on the
Gulf of Aqaba in 1949.
It is the southernmost
point in Israel, and its
only port on the Red Sea.

423
 10,000 5000 3000 1500 500 300 100 B.C. A.D. 100 200 350 500 700

British commonwealth 1914-1949

In 1931, the countries that formed the British Empire INDEPENDENT MEMBERS OF THE
joined together to form the Commonwealth. Over the COMMONWEALTH
Antigua and Barbuda 1981 Namibia 1990
next 60 years they were given their independence. Australia 1901 Nauru 1968

T he relationship between
Britain and parts of its
Bahamas 1973
Bangladesh 1972
Barbados 1966
Belize 1981
New Zealand 1907
Nigeria 1960
Pakistan 1947
Papua New Guinea 1975
Botswana 1966 St. Kitts-Nevis 1983
empire had begun to change Brunei 1984 St. Lucia 1979
Canada 1867 St. Vincent and the
by the beginning of the 1900s. Cyprus 1960 Grenadines 1979
Dominica 1978 Seychelles 1976
Some of the larger countries Gambia 1965 Sierra Leone 1961
were made independent as Ghana 1957 Singapore 1965
Great Britain, Founder 1931 Solomon Islands 1978
dominions. They were Grenada 1974 South Africa 1994
Guyana 1966 Sri Lanka (Ceylon) 1948
completely self-governing, India 1947 Swaziland 1968
Jamaica 1962 Tanzania 1961
but they maintained strong Kenya 1963 Tonga 1970
During both World Wars, links with Britain—the “mother country.” Kiribati 1979 Trinidad and Tobago 1962
Lesotho 1966 Tuvalu 1978
soldiers from all corners Dominions retained the British Crown Uganda 1962
Malawi 1964
of the British Empire and Malaysia 1957 Vanuatu 1980
Commonwealth fought
(king or queen) as the symbolic head of Maldives 1965 Western Samoa 1962
state. Each dominion had a lieutenant Malta 1964 Zambia 1964
on the British side. Here,
Mauritius 1968 Zimbabwe 1980
members of the Rhodesian governor, a native resident of that
Air Askari Corps practice
country, who represented the Crown.
square drill in 1943.
In the 1920s, the dominions asked for In 1932, the dominions received
a clear definition of their status. In the better terms for trading with Britain than
1931 Statute of Westminster dominions countries outside the Commonwealth.
were defined as “autonomous (self-ruling) Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and
communities within the British Empire, South Africa had all become dominions
equal in status... united by a common before World War I. The Irish Free State
allegiance to the Crown and freely also became a dominion in 1921. The
▼ Here, Commonwealth
premiers pose with King associated as members of the British first three colonies to gain independence
George VI at Buckingham Commonwealth of Nations.” After this, after World War II were India (1947),
Palace while attending
the name British Commonwealth of Ceylon (1948), and Burma (1948). India
the Conference of
Commonwealth Prime Nations was used instead of British and Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) stayed in the
Ministers in London Empire. Many colonies started to Commonwealth, but Burma did not join,
in April 1949. clamor for independence. and the Republic of Ireland left in 1949.

424
900 ! 1100“ 1200 1300 1400 1500! 1600 i 1700: 1750! 1800! 18501 1900 1950 I 2000

Communist china 1945-1949

After the defeat of Japan in 1945, the Chinese
nationalists and communists resumed their civil war. In
1949, the People’s Republic of China was declared.

I
n 1936, the Chinese nationalist
leader, Chiang Kai-shek, was
forced to make an alliance with
the Communist Party to fight
against the Japanese in Manchuria.
This alliance lasted until 1945 and
brought China into World War II
on the Allies’ side. While the
Chinese were fighting the Japanese,
Britain and the United States gave
The communists them aid. After the defeat of Japan in
introduced collective 1945, the alliance collapsed and civil war
farming to China. This
meant that all the land,
broke out in 1946. The nationalists were
buildings, and machinery weak and divided, but Mao Zedong’s
belonged to the communists had the support of the
community. Committees
people. The communists also had a large
in each village decided
what to grow. One army, and by January 1949 they had taken
improvement was that Tianjin and Beijing (Peking). From there
they replaced their oxen
they moved southward, pushing the
with tractors, which they
called "Iron Oxen."
nationalists onto the island of Taiwan The People's Republic of China came into being on
October 1, 1949. In the coming years, the Chinese
(Formosa), which became known as
communist leader Mao Zedong introduced reforms
the Republic of China. It held a seat in the countryside in order to gain the support of the
in the United Nations until 1971. The people. This 1949 poster for the Chinese Communist
communist People’s Republic of China Party shows farmers and soldiers working together.

was declared on October 1, 1949, but

many countries refused to recognize it.

Large posters of Communist Party

leaders formed the backdrop to
speeches at a meeting of the
Communist Party in Shanghai.
When they took power in 1949, the
communists soon moved to control
the press and nationalized industries.

425
 ... ■■ .. -J. * 7 ' • _ A ri.

•r
The arts 1914-1949
The prewar drift away from traditional art forms
in music, painting, and sculpture led to further
experimentation and expression after World War I.

D uring and after World War I, new

styles of art appeared. Dadaism,
founded in Switzerland in 1915, soon
influenced the American Man Ray and
the French Marcel Duchamp. Their work
was designed to shock, and to question
established art forms. Surrealism was
born out of the Dadaist movement.
Surrealists, such as the Spanish Salvador
Dali and the Belgian Rene Magritte,
produced paintings that seemed to reflect
dreams and the subconscious mind. The
onset of World War II led many European
Surrealists to work in New York. Charlie Chaplin (1889-1977) became the most
Abstract art evolved before World War I successful Hollywood comedian of the silent movie era.
At the height of his fame in the 1920s, he was known
in Germany, Holland, and Russia—artists and loved throughout the world for his portrayal of the
grouped shapes and colors in patterns "Little Tramp” in films such as The Gold Rush (1925).
rather than painting objects in a realistic
way. The American Georgia O’Keefe, the MUSIC AND BALLET
Dutch Piet Mondrian, and the Spanish Classical music was also going through
Joan Miro were among the earliest abstract a formative period of change and
Vaslav Nijinsky (1890- artists. Abstract expressionism started in the experimentation. There were many
1950) studied ballet in
United States in the 1940s, and painters notable composers during this period.
St. Petersburg, then joined
the Ballet Russe company.
include Jackson Pollock, who developed The Austrian Arnold Schoenberg explored
In 1912, he electrified a style using splashes of color, and Mark music in an abstract way. In Russia, Igor
Paris audiences with his Rothko, who painted large areas of solid Stravinsky was composing lively music for
interpretation of the title
role in The Afternoon of
color. They were to influence European ballet, and in Hungary the composer Bela
a Faun by the French art in the 1950s.
composer Claude
Debussy (1862-1918).

The 1920's were

prosperous, but still
influenced by the horror
of war. As a reaction,
people tried to live life to
the full, and they reveled
in the ability to shock. The
United States gave birth
to the Roaring Twenties.
In Europe, Berlin was the
center of a wild nightclub
culture-this chorus line
of the Revue Girls was
daring at the time.
▲ The Spanish artist Pablo Picasso (1881-1973), seen
here at work in 1945, was one of the pioneers of cubism.
Cubists tried to show the basic geometric shapes of the
forms they painted. However, Picasso's personal style
evolved greatly throughout his long and prolific career. ▲ The American composer George Gershwin (1898-1937) was born to Russian Hi
immigrant parents in New York. He incorporated elements of jazz and blues into
his music. Among his works are Rhapsody in Blue and the opera Porgy and Bess.
Bartok was heavily influenced by his
country’s folk music. In the United States,
Charles Ives composed a uniquely THE MOVIES
American style of classical music. By 1920, Hollywood was the movie capital kk
Western popular music was dominated of the world. In 1927, The Jazz Singer was T The Spanish artist

by the United States. The folk music of the first movie with sound. Moviemakers Salvador Dali (1904— hr
1989), seen here in action
black artists evolved into what became began to use color in the early 1930s, and in 1945, was a surrealist
known as jazz—the Roaring Twenties had perfected it by the time Gone With the painter who also designed
are also called the Jazz Age. By the mid- Wind was released in 1939. Movies reflect jewelry. In his paintings,
he tried to show a
1930s, big band music was popular, and history. During the Depression, musicals different reality-that
U.S. bandleaders like Glenn Miller were cheered people up; in wartime, stories of of dreams and the
%
well known throughout the world. courage and oppression stirred patriotism. subconscious mind.
M:
◄ Judy Garland (1922—
1969) is known all over - '
the world for her portrayal m?.
of Dorothy in The Wizard
ofOz (1939). The movie,
made by the Metro-
Goldwyn-Mayer studios,
3VJ
was one of the first to
■Tf,
be made in color.

▼ This jeweled watch was

designed by Salvador Dali
in the 1920s.
m
m
VP
irrf
S7..S
iv"
rk
W
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Architecture 1914-1949
After World War I, developments in building design
and construction in Europe and the United States
became known as the “International Style."
I n 1914, two styles of architecture
were being developed in the West.
The Art Nouveau style, based on natural
forms, had flowing lines. Other architects’
designs were based purely on function.
This modern style, which became known
as the International Style, used steel,
glass, and reinforced concrete. The Bauhaus school of art and design, created in 1919
by Walter Gropius, moved from Weimar to this building
in Dessau in 1925. Its staff included world-famous
EUROPEAN DEVELOPMENTS painters such as Paul Klee and Wassily Kandinsky.
The trend toward more modern,
functional design was led by AMERICAN STYLE
architects such as Jacobus Oud and Frank Lloyd Wright designed buildings
Gerrit Rietveld of Holland’s de Stijl that were in harmony with the landscape.
movement, Mies van der Rohe in His early “Prairie style” of two-storied
Germany, and Le Corbusier in France, buildings was admired in Japan and
each with his own unique style. In Europe. In the 1930s, he was joined
11 Germany, Walter Gropius founded by architects escaping persecution. In
The Moorish influence on the Bauhaus school of design in 1936, he built his most famous house,
Spanish architecture can 1919. The Nazis closed it in 1933, and “Fallingwater,” which was suspended over
be seen in the tower of
the Bacardi Building
in 1938, Gropius became professor of a waterfall. A shortage of space in cities
in Havana, Cuba. The architecture at Harvard. In 1937, Mies led to the construction of skyscrapers.
building, with a terracotta van der Rohe had become professor of New York’s 102-story Empire State
design, was built in 1931.
architecture in Chicago. This led to Building, completed in 1931, was the
a new exchange of ideas. tallest building in the world.

Si WM
m&

◄ Built in the Art Nouveau style, the Einstein ▲ The architect Le Corbusier was born
Tower in Potsdam, Germany, was designed in Switzerland, but worked in France.
after World War I by Erich Mendelsohn. This This apartment block in Berlin is an
was the workshop in which Albert Einstein example of his use of reinforced
tested his theory of relativity. concrete during the 1930s.

428
 ◄ During this period,
the greatest American
architect was Frank
Lloyd Wright. Fie was
a pupil of the eminent
Louis Sullivan, the
architect who
developed steel-framed
buildings in Chicago.
This house, in Los
Angeles, was
designed by
Wright to be in
harmony with
the landscape.

WORLD WAR II AND AFTER

The onset of World War II halted
building development in Europe. But
T The Golden Gate
in South America, particularly in Brazil, suspension bridge in San
the International Style and the work of Le Francisco, was completed
Corbusier was influencing building design. in 1937. Its main span is
8,979 ft. (2,737m) long
By 1945, in the capital cities of Europe, and its twin bridge towers ▲ The Chrysler Building in New York was designed by
over 40 million new homes were needed are 745 ft. (227m) architect William van Alen and completed in 1930. It is
to replace those destroyed in the war. above sea level. a classic example of the Art Deco style that influenced
building design between 1925 and 1939.
The rapid building of new houses became
a priority. In the United States, new
prosperity saw many people buying
homes, often for the first time.
New suburbs and large
housing tracts sprang
up across the
country.

429
Science AND TECHNOLOGY 1914-1949
Between the two world wars, scientists developed many
weapons of mass destruction. However, their work also
led to new discoveries that had peaceful uses.

W orld War I saw the first use

of chemical warfare and the first
use of tanks on the battlefield. Aircraft
were used for observation, aerial combat,
and bombing. By World War II, scientists
had developed weapons that were far more
sophisticated. Aircraft could fly faster
and carry more bombs. In 1940, the radar
system was developed to locate distant
objects such as enemy aircraft. In 1934,
the physicist Enrico Fermi found that a
After World War I, new, chain reaction of nuclear fission could
innovative equipment be achieved using uranium. This
made domestic chores
easier. The first electrically
led to the Manhattan Project in 1941,
driven washing machines in which scientists developed the atomic Until the invention of transistors in 1948, radios used
appeared in 1914. bomb at Los Alamos. Developments in tubes and were built into large polished wooden cabinets,
atomic physics also led to the discovery such as this 1928 Columbia set. Transistors allowed
miniaturization in all forms of electronics.
of the most accurate method of
measuring time.

SCIENCE FOR PEACE

The development
of plastics and
synthetic fibers
in the 1930s meant
that many consumer
John Logie Baird (1888- goods and clothes
1946) invented an early
could be mass produced at prices that
television system. In 1926,
he transmitted the first
people could afford. Major advances were
pictures of a moving made in the development of computers.
object. His system was Early computers filled whole rooms and
soon replaced by one
needed large amounts of electricity to
developed by Russian-born
U.S. scientist Vladimir handle a small amount of data. In 1948,
Zworykin (1889-1982). the transistor was developed by the Bell
The world's first high-
Telephone Company. This brought about
definition public television
service was started by the a revolution in electronics and led to
BBC, in England, in 1936. the building of smaller and more
powerful computers.

▲ Ferdinand Porsche (1875-1951) wanted ter

produce a car that people could afford. His
Volkswagen was first planned in 1934
and first mass-produced in 1938.

A Developed from a military bomber, this British Handley

Page HP42 Hannibal was used on Imperial Airways' flights
from England to Egypt, South Africa, and India in the 1930s.
 ▲ Penicillin was discovered by Alexander Fleming in
1928. He saw that a mold in his laboratory killed the
bacteria around it. It was not until the 1940s that
penicillin was made stable enough for use in medicine.

▲ In 1943, the first ► The first nylon products

Cures and prevention methods
completely electronic appeared in 1939. This
were found for diseases that had killed computer was developed is an advertisement for
thousands. As a result of warfare, many in England. Known as American nylon stockings
advances were made in the treatment Colossus, it successfully from the 1940s. Hom cry
decoded top-secret
of injuries. Peacetime advances included messages sent by the
VSING

the discovery of insulin in 1921, by the Germans on their Enigma

Canadians Dr. .Frederick Banting and Dr. machines.

Charles Best, and the Scottish Dr. John

► A mushroom
Macleod. In 1937, the first blood bank
cloud rising after
opened in the United States; plasma the explosion of
was first used in 1940. an atomic bomb.
In August 1945, the
The introduction of mass-production
United States
meant that cars could be sold at affordable dropped atomic
prices. Military aircraft were redesigned bombs on the
Japanese cities
to carry civilians, and by the 1930s,
of Hiroshima and
commercial airlines flew passengers Nagasaki. This
to most parts of the world. forced the Japanese
to surrender.

WHEN IT HAPPENED
1915 The sonar system is developed
to detect submarines under water
1919 Ernest Rutherford splits the atom
1922 BCG tuberculosis vaccine used in France
1926 First liquid-fuel rocket launched in the U.S.A
1928 Penicillin discovered by Alexander Fleming
1937 Frank Whittle designs first jet engine
1938 Lazio Biro introduces first ballpoint pen
1939 First nylon stockings sold in the U.S.A.
Albert Einstein (1879-
1940 Radar system developed
1955) won the Nobel
Prize for Physics in
1941 Scientists develop atomic bomb in the U.S.A.
1921. His work led to the 1944 Jet-engined fighter planes first
development of the atomic used in battle by Britain
bomb. After the war, he
fought to control the use
and Germany
of nuclear weapons. 1948 Atomic clock invented
The Modern
World
1950-2000
The years between 1950 and the present day are
recent history. Some of the events have occurred
during our lifetime, or we have seen reports of them
on television. The latter half of the 1900s has seen
social, technological, and environmental changes on
a scale never witnessed before. Politicians and policy¬
makers, as well as historians, have identified several
important trends that will continue to transform our
world: environmental pollution, ever-increasing
population, changing family structures, and
a growing gap between rich and poor.

▲ Aircraft carriers from Britain and the United States played an

important peacekeeping role in the 1990s in various world trouble
spots, such as the Middle East and Yugoslavia.

◄ The space shuttle Discovery blasts off from the Kennedy Space
Center at the beginning of its twenty-first spaceflight in July 1995.

433
The world at a glance 1950-2000
T his period was dominated by the Cold War
between the communist East and the capitalist
In western Europe, the European Union encouraged
economic growth and worked toward political unity.
West. The United States and the U.S.S.R. played the In Africa, many nations became independent, but
leading roles. These two were also involved in the faced severe economic problems, as well as droughts
space race. The U.S.S.R. was the first to send a man and famines. In Southeast Asia, technology and
into space, and the United States the first to put a industry developed, and Japanese business became
man on the moon. Changes in the U.S.S.R. led to the the most successful in the world. China experienced
end of the Cold War, but created uncertainty about a cultural revolution, and Indochina was devastated
the future as nationalists demanded independence. by a series of wars.

NORTH AMERICA
This half-century was the high point in the development
of the United States, which led the way materially and
culturally. By now, the West Coast was as much a center
for the movie and aircraft industries as the East Coast, and
home to many futuristic ideas. The United States led the
way in the nuclear arms race and equaled the U.S.S.R. in
the space race. The 1950s saw growing prosperity, although §
the 1960s saw conflict over civil rights and social issues.
American culture reached its high point in music, movies,
inventions, and new ideas in the 1970s, despite the war
in Vietnam and the exposure of government corruption.
NORTH AMERICA
In the 1980s, computer technology and free-market
economics brought an economic boom, the space
shuttle, and the end of the Cold War. In the 1990s,
Asia made great strides toward catching up, and
the United States became more multicultural. The
United States acted as a global policeman in a
complex world, though its internal politics have
never been settled. Yet this was its greatest
time in history. American culture spread
to every corner of the world.

LATIN AMERICA

LATIN AMERICA
Until the 1970s, there was a battle between right-wing
dictators and left-wing revolutionaries in Latin America.
Poverty, power, and guerrilla wars were the issues facing
the area. As the continent grew richer and more liberal
governments came to power, these pressures eased. The
Catholic Church also lost ground, and the destruction
of the rain forest, government corruption, human
rights, and the drug trade became the pressing
issues. Civil wars were resolved, and in the
1990s, Latin America, now industrialized,
played an increasing role in global affairs.

434
 EUROPE
Ruined by World War II, and overshadowed by the Cold War, Europe made a ASIA
dramatic recovery between the 1950s and the 1970s, beginning a long process of
During this period, the fortunes of Asia rose
cooperation through the founding of the European Community. Europe worked with
again. The Maoist era in China brought mixed
a "social market" model of economics, with ample welfare and social systems that,
results, some impressive, some disastrous. They
by the 1990s, became a burden. Despite crises such as the Hungarian uprising of
led to reforms in the 1980s, and to China's
1956 and the "Prague Spring" of 1968, Europe remained at peace. The greatest
reentry into the world's market economy.
breakthrough was the ending of the Cold War, which reunited Germany and
Japan became the economic and technological
brought reconciliation between East and West, though ugly
powerhouse of Asia, and fueled great economic
scenes such as the Yugoslavian civil wars of the 1990s
growth in Southeast Asia from the early 1970s.
hindered progress. Environmental and social concerns were
India modernized in the 1970s, though conflicts
important, especially after the Russian nuclear disaster at
continued with Pakistan. The withdrawal of
Chernobyl in 1986. Europe began to play a more equal role
colonial powers, the Vietnam War, the rise
in the world community than in previous centuries.
of Islamic and Confucian values, the fall
of the U.S.S.R. in central Asia
and the globalization of
the world economy all
had a great effect
on Asia.

EUROPE

MIDDLE AUSTRALASIA
EAST Australia and New Zealand became
leading countries, although they
had to get used to being neighbors
AFRICA to Asia. Australia became one of
the world's wealthiest countries.
Polynesia became a tourist
destination, but also a place
for nuclear weapon testing.

AUSTRALASIA

AFRICA
After a promising start in the 1960s, when most
states gained independence, Africa was troubled
by wars, corruption, famine, and social crises. MIDDLE EAST
Foreign interference and exploitation
Oil rich, the Middle East witnessed extremes of
were common. In South Africa, torn
wealth and suffering during this period. Rising
by apartheid, reform came in 1990,
Islamic fundamentalism had a mixed outcome,
and brought the dawn of a new,
disturbing the peace, yet helping the less
multiracial society. Africa
affluent. Caught between different world
remains troubled, but the
powers, war and interference by foreign
lessons learned may lead to
powers were common.
improvements in the future.
 300 100 B.C. A.D. 100 200 350 500 700
10,000 5000 3000 1500 500

The cold war 1945-1989

After the end of World War II, tensions between East
and West and the buildup of nuclear weapons almost
brought the world to the brink of war.
T he U.S.S.R. and the United States
fought as allies in World War II.
But in 1945, these two superpowers
became rivals and then enemies.
This division became known as
the Cold War, a conflict largely
without any actual fighting.
Both countries made threats
and built up their armed forces
This 1962 cartoon,
and weapons. Each side also accumulated
produced at the time of
the Cuban missile crisis, an enormous stockpile of nuclear
shows the two superpower weapons. The idea was to hold a kind Because of the serious threat of nuclear war between
leaders arm-wrestling for East and West during the 1960s, many Americans built
of balance in which neither side would
power. The U.S.S.R.'s Nikita fallout shelters in their backyards.
Khrushchev (1894-1971), want to start a real war.
on the left, is facing the Friendly contacts ceased. The U.S.S.R.
U.S. president, John F. became shut off from the world. The great BERLIN: A DIVIDED CITY
Kennedy (1917-1963).
They are both sitting
British statesman Sir Winston Churchill In 1945, the United States, France, and
on nuclear weapons. described the frontier between East and Britain took control of West Germany.
West as the “Iron Curtain” in a speech at The U.S.S.R. controlled East Germany.
Fulton, Missouri on March 5, 1946. The capital, Berlin, inside East Germany,
The Cold War dominated world politics was also divided. In 1948, the Soviets
for many years. On one side, the United closed all access to West Berlin. The
States became the leader of NATO (North Western powers brought in supplies by
Atlantic Treaty Organization), a military air, until the blockade was lifted in 1949.
alliance of Western nations providing From 1949 to 1958, three million people
collective defense against the communist escaped from East to West Berlin. In
powers. On the other side, the U.S.S.R. led 1961, East Germany closed off this escape
the Warsaw Pact, a military alliance of East route by building the Berlin Wall across
European states that backed communism. the city. It crossed tram lines and roads
and created an area on either side
known as No Man’s Land.

NATO countries
in Europe
FINLAND 1 I
Warsaw Pact SWEDEN
countries/ NETHERLANDS

IRELAND DENMARK U.S.S.R.

BRITAIN

POLAND
LUXEMBOURG
FRANCE
SWITZERLAND

ROMANIA

▲ The Berlin Wall, ► By 1949, most European 6- SPAIN ITALY BULGARIA

built in 1961 to states had joined rival alliances.
divide East and West Warsaw Pact countries
Berlin, finally "fell" supported the U.S.S.R. Members
in November 1989. of NATO backed the U.S.A.

436
900 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 I 1600 1700 1750 1800 1850 I 1900 1950 2000

A Francis Gary Powers

CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS (1929-1977) was the
Although the United States and the pilot of an American
U-2 spy plane that was
U.S.S.R. never fought, they came close.
shot down over Russian
The world held its breath for a week in territory in 1960. He was
October 1962. President John F. Kennedy released in exchange for
received Air Force photographs showing the imprisoned Soviet
spymaster Rudolf Abel
that the Soviet Union was building missile (1903-1971).
launch sites in Cuba. From there, the
nuclear missiles could reach and destroy
many U.S. cities. On October 22, the
T Czech students tried
president ordered a naval blockade of
to stop Soviet tanks in
Cuba. The United States made plans to Prague, in August 1968.
invade Cuba, and the world braced itself The U.S.S.R. feared that
independent actions
for nuclear war. Finally, on October 28,
by Warsaw Pact members
Nikita Khrushchev, the Soviet leader, might weaken its power,
backed down and agreed to remove the so it moved into
missiles and destroy the Cuban launch Czechoslovakia.

sites. The crisis was over.

THE END OF THE COLD WAR

The friendly relationship between the
American president Ronald Reagan and
the Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev
helped reduce Cold War tensions. By
1987, they had agreed to abolish medium-
range nuclear missiles. In 1989, Gorbachev
allowed the communist countries of
Eastern Europe to elect democratic
governments. And in 1991, the Soviet
Union broke up into 15 republics. The
Cold War was over. On March 12, 1999,
Hungary, Poland, and the Czech Republic
joined NATO. The joining ceremony
was held at the Harry S.
Truman Library in ► During the Cold War
many groups of people,
Independence, Missouri.
such as the Peace Pledge
Union, were formed to try
and influence governments
and stop the spread of
nuclear weapons.

Please:
GIVE US A
Ft) TUBE WIW*'7 ◄ Here, supporters of
Fear •*
the Campaign for Nuclear
Disarmament (CND) march
through London in 1983
to demonstrate against
the deployment of Cruise
and Trident nuclear
missiles on British soil.

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 10,000 5000 3000 1500 500; 300 100 B.C. i 0 A.D. 100| 200 350! 500i 700

In SPACE 1957-2000
Space exploration began in 1957 when the U.S.S.R.
launched Sputnik \, the first artificial satellite to orbit
the Earth. Twelve years later, a man stood on the moon.

T he development of missile technology

during World War II helped scientists
to believe that one day space travel might
be possible. Cold War rivalry between
the United States and the U.S.S.R.
triggered the space race. Both sides
felt that being the first nation
in space would increase
their prestige. They also hoped
that space science would help them
develop new, more powerful weapons.
The Soviets achieved the key “space first”
Sputnik 7 was launched
by Russia on October 4, when they sent a satellite into orbit In the run-up to the Apollo flights, the American Gemini
1957. The satellite orbited around the Earth in 1957. Soon, both sides program was designed to teach astronauts how to cope
the Earth for six months with space travel. In November 1966, "Buzz" Aldrin
were investing enormous amounts of time carried out three spacewalks high over the Earth.
and was used to broadcast
scientific data. and money in space science. The U.S.S.R.
achieved another first in 1961, when Yuri The ending of the Cold War and the
Gagarin became the first person in space. economic crisis of the 1970s led the two
Other notable achievements by both superpowers to scale down their space
countries included probes sent to the programs. However, the Soviets gained
moon and past Venus, further manned valuable experience with long-endurance
flights, spacewalks, and the launch flights on permanent space stations.
of communications satellites. Cooperation between the two countries
The Apollo spaceflight program saw the is important for the construction of the
This picture shows Russian United States land people on the moon. international space station.
cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin Between July 1969 and December 1972,
(1934-1968) in the cabin
there were six successful Apollo missions,
of Vostok 7, the spacecraft
in which he became the the last three involving the use of a lunar
first person to orbit the roving vehicle, or lunar rover.
Earth on April 12, 1961.
MAN ON THE MOON
In 1961, President John F. Kennedy said that his scientists
would send a man to the moon by 1970. In fact, the
first manned moon landing took place on July 20, 1969.
The crew of the Apollo 77 mission consisted of Neil
Armstrong, the first man to set foot on the moon, Edwin
"Buzz" Aldrin, who was the second man to walk on the
lunar surface, and Michael Collins, who remained in
orbit in the command and service module.
Armstrong described his first step on the
moon as "one small step for
a man, one giant leap
for mankind.”

■4 Apollo 11 was launched

from Cape Canaveral,
Florida, on July 16, 1969.
The first manned landing
on the moon was just
four days later.

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900 i 1100: 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000

SPACE SHUTTLES
The U.S. National Aeronautics and
HPlipi
Space Administration (NASA) required
a reusable space vehicle to construct and
serve planned space stations. The shuttles
could take off like a rocket—with a large
payload—and return to Earth like a plane.
The launch of the first space shuttle, in
1981, marked a new phase in space
exploration. Since that first flight, space
shuttles have carried a variety of payloads
(cargo), and retrieved and repaired
satellites. In 1995, the space shuttle
Atlantis docked with the Russian Mir
space station, marking an important step ▲ This view of the dusty,
rock-strewn surface of
forward in international
Mars was taken by one
cooperation. of the two U.S. Viking
landers in 1976. Part
of the spacecraft
is visible in the
foreground.

The Soviet space station Mir was

launched in 1986. It was designed to
stay in orbit for a long time, so that
complicated scientific experiments
could be carried out on board. It
has now far exceeded its planned
life span. Although requiring fairly
constant repair and maintenance,
the station is still manned
after 13 years of service.

THE EXPLORATION OF DEEP SPACE ► Here, the

U.S. space shuttle
Unmanned space probes have flown by, or
Endeavour climbs
landed on, every planet in the solar system away from the launch
except Pluto. Soviet probes landed on site on June 21, 1993.

Venus in 1975 and sent back pictures. In The first reusable

space shuttle,
1976, two U.S. Viking craft landed on Mars Columbia, was
and began observations that lasted six years. launched in
In 1977, the United States launched the April 1981.

two Voyager missions. These craft traveled

around the solar system using the slingshot
technique—the spacecraft used each
planet’s gravitational field to propel them
onward. Before they disappeared into
deeper space, they transmitted valuable
data and color photographs of Jupiter,
Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune.
The Hubble Space Telescope, launched
in 1990, enabled scientists to produce high-
resolution images of objects billions of light
years away, providing valuable information
about the universe.
439
 10,000 5000 3000 1500 500 300 100 B.C. A.D. 100 I 200 350 500 700

China 1949-1997
In 1949, Mao Zedong and the Communist Party
came to power and reshaped battle-weary China.
Full political freedom has still not been achieved.

T he Communist Party came to power

in China in 1949. Their leader, Mao
Zedong, became chairman of the new
People’s Republic of China. Civil war and
the war with Japan had left the land poor
and many people were starving. Roads,
railroads, schools, and hospitals could not
meet the people’s needs. Many in the new
government believed that they should
follow the example of the Communists in
By the 1990s, China Russia. Mao did not agree with the move To reduce the population, the Chinese government
had become far removed to industrialization, instead believing in a encouraged couples to have only one child. More recently,
from its previous peasant it actually became illegal to have more than one child.
economy. All types of
peasant economy. He launched his Great
sophisticated electronic Leap Forward experiment in 1958, which
equipment were now redistributed land to giant communes of more iron and steel. “Barefoot doctors”
being manufactured
peasants to encourage development via provided medical care to people in the
and exported abroad.
agriculture. This failed, and Mao lost much countryside, and children learned to read
V Mao Zedong sought of his influence, but in 1966, he started and write. Mao wrote The Thoughts of
to solve the problem of the Cultural Revolution. With the help of Chairman Mao. It was required reading,
food shortages in China students and the People’s Liberation Army, and everyone carried a copy with them
by the creation of collective
farms. Nevertheless, China
he overthrew the party leaders. wherever they went—even the simplest
continued to suffer periods Mao transformed China. Collective farms peasants were able to quote from it.
of extreme food shortages. grew basic foods, and industry produced

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900 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1 1600 1700 I 1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 I 2000

TIANANMEN SQUARE
Despite the Chinese government's demands that the students stop their protest, on
May 4, 1989, around 100,000 students and workers marched to Tiananmen Square
in Beijing and demanded political reform. The
government declared martial law on May 20.
Finally, on June 3-4, the People's Liberation
Army and its tanks moved in to end the
protest. At the time, it was rumored that over
three thousand protesters were killed and another
ten thousand injured. The actual figures may never
be known, but certainly many people died, and many
more were imprisoned. Western nations were shocked
by the brutality with which the Chinese government
dealt with the students, and strong diplomatic
▲ This picture of a protests were made.
lone student standing
in the path of the
army's tanks was
seen on television
all around the world.

CIVIL RIGHTS POPULATION GROWTH

In the early 1960s, educated people China saw a massive increase in its
were beginning to criticize communism. population, which had reached over
Mao feared opposition to his own extreme 1,200,000,000 by 1990. In an effort to ▼ A magnificent fireworks
form of communism, and decided to achieve a stable population by around the display marked the return
take drastic action. During the Cultural year 2000, the government rewarded one- of Hong Kong to Chinese
ownership on June 30,
Revolution, many of Mao’s political child families with priority housing and 1997-the official end
opponents were executed, scholars were medical care. This scheme has been of Britain's 99-year
imprisoned and tortured, families were relatively successful. lease on the territory.

split up, and millions of people died

from famine.
After Mao’s death in 1976, the Chinese
government gradually became more open
and began to encourage contacts with
the rest of the world. Industry in China
began to become more important, and
the government allowed some foreign
investment, because they saw the benefits
of exporting to the rest of the world. It
was because of this world trade that it
was important for China to be seen to
give its people more civil rights. But the
massacres that followed the student
demonstrations in Tiananmen Square,
Beijing, in 1989, showed that full political
freedom had not been achieved.
441
 10,000 ! 5000 I 1500 ; 500- 300 | 100 B.C. 0 A.D. 100 200 350! 500 700,

World economy 1950-2000

The industrialized countries of the world had
improved their standard of living since 1950, but
many poorer countries saw little or no improvement.

Af fter the end of World War II,

^countries such as the United
States and those in Western Europe
enjoyed rapid growth in their
economies. After the war, there was an
enormous amount of rebuilding to be
done, particularly in Europe. There was
full employment; and the amount people
This is the flag of the were paid, compared to what things cost to
European Union (EU), the buy, steadily climbed. In other words, their The OECD (Organization for Economic Cooperation and
successor to the European Development) was created to protect weak nations from
Economic Community,
standard of living rose. To a slightly lesser
powerful market forces and aid economic development.
first formed after the extent, this also applied to countries such
two Treaties of Rome, as Australia and New Zealand, as well as
in March 1957. The EU
Southeast Asian countries, such as Hong Between 1973 and 1974, OPEC
currently includes 15
member states. Kong, Singapore, and Taiwan. quadrupled the price of oil, which led to
All this came to a sudden halt in 1973 a worldwide energy crisis. Poorer nations
when the price of crude oil started to were badly hit by the rise in oil prices [by
increase. The Organization of Petroleum 1981, they had increased by almost twenty
▼ Panic trading on [oil] Exporting Countries (OPEC) was times) and their economies had to be
the floor of the New York founded in 1960 to get the best price on supported by Western loans. In advanced
Stock Exchange in October world markets for its member states’ oil. nations, the energy crisis caused inflation,
1987. In that year, world
stock markets eM suffered
OPEC members include many Middle because the rise in oil prices was passed on
a dramatic fall in Eastern Arab states as well as Venezuela, in the price of goods, and unemployment
share prices. Algeria, Indonesia, Nigeria, and Gabon. rose as fewer goods were exported.

442
 j
900 1100! 1300 ! 1400! 1500! 1600 1700 | 1750 1800 1850! 1900 1 1950; 2000

COMMON MARKETS
Throughout the world, neighboring
countries, or countries with shared
economic interests, have joined to form
powerful associations. Some groups have
also set up economic communities, known
as common markets. Within them,
members buy and sell at favorable rates.
They also agree to protect one another
from outside economic competition.
In Asia, there are the Asia-Pacific
Economic Cooperation Group (APEC)
and the Association of Southeast Asian
Nations (ASEAN). The North American
Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), originally
the United States and Canada, now also
includes Mexico. The Group of Seven,
or G-7, is a group of countries that meets The collapse of the Soviet Union in By the 1990s, it was
to monitor the world economic situation. the early 1990s meant that the former estimated that the world's
oil reserves amounted to
The European Union (EU) is the successor communist countries had to compete around 700 billion barrels.
to the European Economic Community with third world countries. The richer Of these, 360 billion barrels
(EEC) of the 1950s. It has 15 members Western nations had provided aid to were to be found in the
Middle East.
and forms a significant world trading bloc. poorer countries in the past, but they
There are plans for common European remained reluctant to share a substantial
taxation and legal systems, and by 2002, part of their wealth or expertise.
a common currency, the euro.

▲ On January 1, 1999, the

euro became the common
currency that, by 2002,
will be used by all members
of the European Union.
It will replace individual
currencies, such as the
French franc, Italian
lira, Spanish peseta,
or German mark.

Some of the
sessions of the
European Parliament
are held in these buildings
in the city of Strasbourg, in
eastern France. Other sessions are
held in Brussels. The Parliament consists of
626 members directly elected by their member
countries. Current members include France, Germany, Italy,
the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, the United Kingdom, Ireland,
Greece, Spain, Denmark, Portugal, Austria, Sweden, and Finland.

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 10,000 5000 3000 1500 500 300 100 B.C. o A.D. 100 200 3501 500 700

Wars in asia 1950-1988

Japan’s defeat and the collapse of colonial rule led to
fighting among political rivals. The superpowers took
sides, based on economic interest or Cold War strategy.

I n 1950, many nations

in the East had not yet
recovered from Japanese
invasions during World War II.
People needed peace and
stability, but many
countries were soon
at war. These wars
caused further damage
to people, cities, and
land. Eastern countries
Australian soldiers were wanted to be free of distant European In 1945, French colonial rule was restored to Vietnam.
part of the United Nations French Foreign Legion troops were sent to North Vietnam
powers. The old colonial masters (France,
forces that, by the end in 1953 to try to suppress a communist uprising.
of 1950, had pushed the
Britain, and the Netherlands) wanted to
North Koreans back as far hold on to these potentially rich lands.
as the border with China. Fighting broke out in Vietnam and its THE KOREAN WAR
neighbors Laos, Thailand, and Cambodia, The Korean War began when communist
and in Indonesia, Malaysia, Burma, and North Korea attacked South Korea in
the Philippines. These wars were often June 1950. The United Nations quickly
▼ Fighting between
complicated by political differences authorized its members to aid South
rival political groups
flared up in many parts between rival groups seeking independence. Korea. The United States, along with
of Asia between 1946 and The situation became even more dangerous 16 other countries, began sending troops.
1988. After Japan's defeat
when the Soviet Union, China, and Within two months, North Korean troops
in World War II and the
collapse of European
America joined in, offering money, had captured most of South Korea. In
colonial power, Asia weapons, or technical advice September, UN forces mounted a massive
became very unstable. to these rival groups. land, sea, and air assault at Inchon, near
Seoul. The UN troops recaptured most of
South Korea and advanced into the North.
By November 1950, they had reached the
North Korean border with China. Chinese
troops then entered the fighting and
forced the UN forces to retreat south. A
cease-fire ended the war in July 1953.

Between 1948 and 1960, British troops were sent to

Malaya to fight a communist guerrilla offensive. Here,
soldiers of a jungle patrol rest beneath a "basha" shelter.
900 1100: 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1750 1800 1850 1900 !

During the war in Vietnam

(1964-1975), large areas
of the country were
v'j jgl HUS ‘
devastated. Many civilians
ikL?-
were killed and injured.
Others were made
homeless, and fled as
refugees to neighboring
lands. Peace finally came
in 1976 when Vietnam
was united.

Ho-Chi Minh (1892-1969)

was a founder member of
the French Communist
Party. As a revolutionary
WAR IN VIETNAM CIVIL WAR IN CAMBODIA Vietnamese leader, he
After the French were defeated by In Cambodia, a guerrilla army, the Khmer led the struggle against
French colonial rule and
Vietnamese communists in 1954, the Rouge, was led by Pol Pot. They sought
American-supported
country was temporarily divided into to overthrow the government of Lon Nol. South Vietnam
North and South. Planned elections for The Khmer Rouge took over Cambodia in
the country did not take place, and the 1975 and Pol Pot became Prime Minister.
communists in the North started giving His regime of terror was overthrown
aid to South Vietnamese communists, in 1979 by Vietnamese troops.
the Viet Cong, to help them overthrow
the government of Ngo Dinh Diem.
In 1965, the United States sent the first
troops to help the South—by 1969, there
were over half a million U.S. troops in
Vietnam. After Richard Nixon became
president in 1969, he began to withdraw ▲ After Richard Nixon
(1913-1994) became
troops. A cease-fire was signed in 1973, president in 1969, he
and the remaining American soldiers began to withdraw U.S.
returned home. During the war more troops from Vietnam. In
1973, a cease-fire was
than 57,000 Americans were killed
signed and all U.S. troops
or missing in action. were withdrawn.

KEY DATES
◄ In Cambodia, Pol Pot
1950 North Korean forces invade South Korea (1926-1998) was the
1953 Cease-fire in Korea leader of the Khmer Rouge
1954 Vietnamese communists defeat the French guerrillas. They fought a
and Vietnam is divided long civil war, beginning
1963 Civil war starts in Cambodia in 1963, and took over the
1965 First U.S. troops land in Vietnam country in 1975. Over the
following three years, it
1969 Richard Nixon becomes president
is estimated that between
1973 All U.S. troops withdrawn from Vietnam
two and four million
1975 Pol Pot takes over Cambodia
people were executed
1979 Pol Pot deposed by Vietnamese forces or died of famine
1993 First free elections in Cambodia for 20 years and disease.

445
 10,000 5000 3000 1500 500 300 100 B.C. A.D. 100 200 350 : 500 700

Civil rights 1950-2000

Civil rights are the basic freedoms and rights of people
within a community. They are guaranteed by laws
and customs that give everyone fair treatment.

T 1 idea of civil rights in

'he
tthe West dates back to the
writings of ancient Greek and
Roman philosophers, and to the
ideas of Judaism and Christianity.
In some countries, civil rights are
protected by a written constitution.
In the United States and in other
democratic countries, such as Britain,
they consist of laws and customs
built up over hundreds of years.
Civil rights mean that people must
be treated fairly and equally, no During 1989, Chinese students demonstrated in Beijing,
demanding democracy in their country. The government
matter what their gender, religion,
sent in the army and thousands of students were killed.
or ethnic origin. They are allowed
Re-formed in the 1950s, freedom to express what they believe in
the Ku Klux Klan harassed speech or in the media. They also have Many rights have been won only after
minority groups. They
burned crosses to
the right to organize a political party, to a long and painful struggle. During the
intimidate their victims. have a fair trial, and to vote in elections. 1950s and 1960s, Martin Luther King, Jr.
However, many oppressive regimes still led the civil rights campaign to win
abuse their power and ignore civil rights. equality for black Americans.

MARTIN LUTHER KING

The Reverend Martin Luther King, Jr. (1929-1968) was a Baptist minister and the
main leader of the U.S. civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s. On
August 28, 1963, he led a march on Washington, D.C., where he gave a
famous speech that began "I have a dream.” His dream was of a future
in which his country lived by the ideals of freedom and liberty on
which it had been founded. On April 4, 1968, he was shot dead
by James Earl Ray. Every year, the third Monday in January
In the early 1960s, many
is designated a federal legal public holiday in his honor.
southern states practiced
segregation. This taxi is
clearly marked as being
only for use by black
people. Other forms of
public transportation
were similarly segregated.

446
900 ! 1100
i I
1200 1300 ' 1400 1500 1600 I 1700 1750 I 1800 | 1850 1900 1950 I 2000 |

CIVIL RIGHTS ABUSES

In South Africa, Nelson Mandela was sent
to prison in 1962 for opposing apartheid
(the separation of whites and nonwhites).
Many governments and people from all
over the world campaigned to end
apartheid by holding demonstrations.
They boycotted goods from South Africa
and stopped all sports links. F.W. de Klerk
became president in 1989, and started
to dismantle apartheid. Mandela was
released in 1990, when apartheid was
abolished. In 1994, he was elected as
South Africa’s first black president.
In 1976, Argentina was taken over
by a military junta (ruling group).
They suppressed opposition by
arresting thousands of people and
▲ In the 1970s and
holding them in prison without trial. 1980s, Chile was ruled
Between 20,000 and 30,000 people were by a military junta. Many
ordinary citizens were
never seen again by their families. They
arrested, and many of
became known as los desaparecidos, or “the those were never seen
disappeared ones.” Similar brutality was again. The Catholic Church
used by the military regime led by General denounced the violence
against innocent people.
Pinochet in Chile between 1973 and 1990. They held religious
services and vigils
PROTECTING CIVIL RIGHTS for people who were
detained or missing.
International bodies, such as the United
Nations and the European Court of
◄ In the South African
Human Rights, protect civil rights. city of Johannesburg in
Other organizations, such as Amnesty the 1980s, many black
International, campaign on behalf of and colored people were
moved into slums and
people who are persecuted. However, shantytowns to make
some governments continue to ban civil more room for white
rights. Dictators and single-party nations people's homes.

deny rights to their people because they

do not want their own power threatened.

When European settlers

first arrived in Australia
in the 1700s and 1800s,
the Aborigines-the original
inhabitants of the country—
were driven off their
traditional lands. Many
also died from European
diseases, brought in by
the settlers. At the end of
the 1900s, the Australian
government still refused to
recognize that Aborigines
were the original custodians
of the land before European
settlers first arrived in 1788.

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 10,000 5000 3000 1500 500 300 100 B.C. A.D. 100 200 350 500 700

Terrorism 1952-2000
During the latter half of the 1900s, people increasingly
began to use spectacular acts of violence to promote
their particular political causes.
Some groups of people use violence
(terrorism] to gain publicity and
win support for a political cause. They
are often called freedom fighters by
their supporters. Terrorists murder
and kidnap people, set off bombs,
and hijack aircraft. The reasons behind
terrorism are not always the same.
Some terrorists want to spread their
own political beliefs, while others In April 1995, a bomb destroyed the Murrah Federal
(nationalists or liberationists] want Building in Oklahoma City, and killed 168 people.
The bomber, Timothy McVeigh, thought the federal
to establish a separate state for peoples
government had too much control over people's lives.
who do not have a country of their
own. For example, in the Middle East, During the 1970s, the Red Army
During 1981, some terrorists have kidnapped people and Faction in West Germany robbed banks,
members of the Irish carried out bombing campaigns to draw and in 1977, kidnapped and murdered a
Republican Army (IRA)
who were serving prison
attention to the cause of the Palestinian businessman called Hans-Martin Schleyer.
sentences in Northern people, who do not have a homeland. They were also involved with acts of
Ireland for terrorist In Spain, the Euzkada Ta Askatasuna terrorism carried out by Palestinians,
offences went on hunger
(ETA] began a terrorist campaign in the including the murder of Israeli athletes
strike. When one of them
died, there was rioting. 1960s to pressurize the government into at the 1972 Olympic Games in Munich.
creating a separate state for the Basque In Italy, in 1978, terrorists called the Red
▼ In 1988, an American
people. Similarly, in Northern Ireland from Brigade kidnapped and murdered the
jumbo jet was blown the 1970s, nationalist groups such as the former Italian prime minister, Aldo Moro.
up by a bomb in midair Irish Republican Army (IRA] escalated Most governments around the world
over the Scottish town
their terrorist campaign against British fight terrorist demands, because they feel
of Lockerbie, killing 270
people. Terrorists were rule in the province. that to give in would only encourage other
suspected of being terrorists to commit acts of violence.
responsible for this act.

448
 ;
900i 1100! 1200! 1300: 1400 1500! 1600: 1700' 1750 1800 1850 1900 1950; 2000

Famine in Africa 1967-2000

Africa has suffered periodic drought and famine
since ancient times. More recently, civil war in newly
independent states has only added to the misery.

W idespread famines have occurred

periodically in most parts of
sub-Saharan Africa since ancient times.
Factors such as a failure of the annual
rains, poor soil conditions, and low food
reserves have all played a part in these
tragedies. Following independence in
the latter half of the 1900s, civil wars
have added to the misery.

CIVIL UNREST AND FAMINE

In 1985, musician Bob Most of the worst famines during this
Geldof organized the
period happened in countries that suffered
Live Aid rock concert.
They raised $70 million
civil unrest. In Nigeria, the people who
to help the victims of lived in the east of the country were the
the famine in Ethiopia. Christian Ibo tribe. They were oppressed
by the majority Islamic Hausa and Fulani
peoples. When tens of thousands of Ibos
were massacred, the Eastern Region
declared its independence as the Republic Ethiopia suffered from drought and famine for many
of Biafra in May 1967. War continued years. Between 1977 and 1991, the combination of
civil war and famine killed millions of Ethiopians.
between the two sides until January 1970.
It is believed that over a million Biafrans
▼ Zaire has had periods died of starvation because the Nigerians In Ethiopia, the combination of
of military uprising and stopped food getting through to them. the withdrawal of aid from the U.S.S.R.,
civil strife that have made Civil strife in Mozambique in the 1980s drought, and a civil war in the 1970s and
life dangerous for foreign
aid workers. In 1994, the
led to the almost total collapse of health 1980s led to millions of people dying
arrival of hundreds of care, education, and food production. from famine. Through the Western media,
thousands of refugees By the beginning of the 1990s, nearly a people all around the world became aware
from neighboring Rwanda
million people had been killed. Another of the catastrophe. International relief
prompted massive aid
from international one-and-a-half million had fled the charities, such as the Red Cross, the Live
relief agencies. country and were refugees. Aid rock concert of 1985, and individual
During the 1991-1993 civil war in governments all provided vast amounts
Somalia, around 300,000 people starved of aid for the victims.
to death because the war made
foreign food aid too
dangerous to deliver.

▲ Foreign aid does more than supply food in emergencies

or crises. Here, we see the results of a project to provide
clean water for a community in Kenya. Projects like this
help to improve the health of local people.

449
 10,000 I 5000 3000 1500 500 300 I 100 B.C. I 0 A.D. 100 200 350 500 700

New nations 1950-1996

Following centuries of rule by colonial powers, many
nations have gained independence—often achieved
through war and terrorism as well as peaceful means.

A fter World War II, the leaders

of many European-ruled
colonial countries felt the growing
pressure from their people for
independence from foreign control.
The days of colonial rule were
rapidly coming to an end. During
the 1950s and 1960s, many peoples
in Africa and Southeast Asia fought
for their independence. Their The British gained control of Malaya in 1786. In
September 1963, Malaya, Singapore, Sarawak, and Sabah
people believed that they had a
joined together to create the independent nation of
right to own and control their own Malaysia. To end tensions, Singapore withdrew in 1965.
Independence was granted countries. Many of these independence
to Ghana (formerly the movements were led by men and women RANDOM BORDERS
Gold Coast) by Britain in
1957. The Duchess of Kent
of courage and vision. They were In Africa, numerous civil wars sprang
represented the British frequently imprisoned up as the European powers gradually
Queen at the ceremony before they eventually gained power. withdrew. One of the most common
in the capital, Accra. In
Oten, these countries used military force reason for this was that when the land
the following years, the
country suffered from to win independence from colonial rule. had been previously divided between the
government corruption European nations would not give European settlers, little regard was shown
and military coups.
up their power, and so groups like the for existing tribal boundaries. When the
Mau Mau in Kenya launched terrorist Europeans left, several tribes were often
campaigns. In some states, as in Egypt left to dispute the ownership and control
in 1952-1953, independence was of a country. When this happened in
achieved only after the army Nigeria, with the declaration of an
took control. independent Biafran state in 1967,
millions of people died of starvation.

Britain granted full

independence to Nigeria
in 1960. Since then, the
country, one of the largest
in Africa and an important
oil producer, has suffered
from a major civil war,
economic problems,
and military rule.

450
900 : 1100 1200 1300 1850 1900 1950 : 2000

Turkmenistan, on the
STRUGGLE FOR SURVIVAL
eastern coast of the
Today, nearly all former colonies are Caspian Sea, became a
independent. Some maintain ties—as republic of the U.S.S.R.
members of the Commonwealth, for in 1925. Following the
breakup of the Soviet
example. Others have formed new Union in 1991, this mainly
alliances, such as the Organization for Muslim country declared
African Unity (OAU). However, many independence and joined
the Commonwealth of
former colonies are still economically
Independent States (CIS),
dependent. World trade is controlled by consisting of 12 of the 15
Europe, the United States, and Japan, and former Soviet republics.

by multinational companies. It is hard for

new nations not to fall into debt.

EASTERN EUROPE
The end of the Cold War, and the collapse
of the U.S.S.R. at the end of the 1980s, led
to the countries around Russia’s borders
gaining their freedom from Soviet rule. In
Czechoslovakia free elections were held in
1990 for the first time since 1946. At the
beginning of 1993, Czechoslovakia ceased
to exist and was replaced by the separate
states of the Czech Republic and Slovakia.
Following the death of President Tito in
1980, Yugoslavia soon became divided.
Macedonia, Croatia, Slovenia, and Bosnia-
Herzegovina all declared independence.
Their different ethnic groups all fought
each other. In the wars that followed,
thousands of people were either killed
or made homeless and became refugees.
▲ After the breakup
of the Soviet Union in
1991, the Muslim state
of Uzbekistan became
independent and joined
the Commonwealth of
Independent States (CIS)
Food shortages in 1992
led to civil unrest, and
riots in the capital,
Tashkent.

◄ Bosnia-Flerzegovina
became part of what was
to be known as Yugoslavia
at the end of World War I.
Nationalist feeling grew
after the death of
President Tito in 1980.
Independence was
declared in 1992, against
the wishes of the Serbian
population, and a bitter
civil war broke out. Many
people lost their homes
and became refugees.

451
 10,000 ! 5000 3000 1500 500 300 100 B.C. 0 A.D. 100 200 350! 500: 700

Wars in the middle EAST 1956-2000

Following the formation of the State of Israel in 1948,
TURKEY
there have been many tensions in the Middle East Caspian
Sea
that have led to bitter disputes and even war.

T 1he lands around Jerusalem

have
1 long been held by the
LEBANOI
SYRIA
IRAQ Tehran

IRAN
ISRAE Baghdad
Jewish people to be their traditional
home. After World War II, many •Cairo
rysiyTT" - Jewish refugees settled in Palestine, EGYPT BAHRAIN
A' .- «>. ■ y\" Gulf
although the area was occupied by KUWAIT

Arab peoples. The State of Israel Aqaba SAUDI Persian

ARABIA / Gulf
was formed in 1948, and fighting
_ ♦. R'yadh /NN9TU-.
-Vi;
broke out with neighboring Arab Red
Sea QATAR7
countries and continued on EMIRATES
SUDAN
and off for many years.
In 1956, Egypt took over There have been many conflicts in the Middle East
between Israeli, Palestinian, and Arab peoples, especially
The Six-Day War took control of the Suez Canal, which was
place between June 5-10, since 1948. Some areas of territory are still in dispute.
owned by Britain and France. Because it
1967. In a surprise attack.
Israeli bombers destroyed
felt threatened, Israel invaded Egyptian
Egyptian planes, and then territory in the Sinai, and Britain and Tensions continued to grow in the 1960s
sent in troops to capture France attacked the canal area. There was between Israel and the Arab countries of
the Egyptian soldiers
international disapproval, and the United Egypt, Jordan, and Syria. They were aided
left in Sinai.
States and U.S.S.R. both called for a cease¬ by several other Arab countries including
▼ The Yom Kippur War
started in 1973 when
fire. UN troops moved in to keep the Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Algeria, and
Egypt and Syria launched peace after the withdrawal of Israeli, Sudan. Both sides were hostile and
a surprise attack on Israel British, and French troops. unwilling to negotiate their differences.
after it refused to give
up land captured during
Both sides were also busy getting their
the Six-Day War. troops ready for a possible armed conflict.
In May 1967, Egypt closed the Gulf
of Aqaba to Israeli shipping.

452
900 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 I 1600 I 1700 1750 | 1800 1850 I 1900 1950 I 2000

In 1980, Iraq invaded

Iraq. The two countries
fought a long and bitter
war. It did not end until
August 1988, and cost
the lives of over a million
soldiers, and almost
two million wounded.

SIX-DAY WAR Rivalries within the Arab world have

In June 1967, the Israeli air force launched often been caused by the region’s rich
a surprise air attack on the Arab forces’ oil deposits. In 1990, Iraq invaded Kuwait
air bases, which took them completely out to improve its sea access. The UN Security
of action. They then swiftly moved their Council passed several resolutions Saddam Hussein (1937-)
army to occupy the Gaza Strip and parts demanding that Iraq withdraw its troops is the leader of Iraq. He
fought a costly war
of the Sinai. They also pushed their border immediately. When Saddam Hussein against Iran (1980-1988)
with Jordan back and captured the refused, a multinational force led by the and invaded Kuwait in
Golan Heights from Syria. United States forced him to withdraw. August 1990. U.S., British,
and other Middle East
Kuwait City was liberated within five
forces drove him out
IRAQI AGRESSION days and thousands of Iraq’s soldiers in February 1991.
In 1979, the Shah of Iran was deposed were captured. Retreating Iraqis caused
and replaced by Islamic fundamentalist huge ecological damage because they
▼ U.S. forces mounted
Shiite Muslims led by the Ayatollah set fire to most of Kuwait’s oil wells.
a massive international
Khomeini. Tension between Iran and Iraq Other tensions in the region are military campaign to
finally resulted in Iraq’s invasion of the oil- caused by religious differences. There liberate their ally Kuwait,
rich Iranian territory of Khuzistan in 1980. are two main divisions of Islam: Sunni and when Iraq invaded in
1990. Preparation for
Iraq feared the power of the new Iranian Shiite. Sunnis follow “the practice of the the war was extensive,
government set up by the Ayatollah Prophet.” Shiites follow the teachings of but actual fighting
Khomeini. When the war ended in 1988, the Prophet Muhammad’s son-in-law, Ali. was fairly short lived.

neither country had made any gains but

the cost was enormous—over a million
dead, and nearly two million injured.

KEY DATES
1948 Independent State of Israel declared; fighting
with Arab neighbors erupts
1956 Suez Crisis
1964 Palestinian Liberation Organization (PL0)
founded in Lebanon
1967 Six-Day War between Israel and Egypt
1973 Yom Kippur War in Israel
1979 Saddam Hussein becomes president of Iraq;
Shah of Iran deposed
1980 Iraq invades Iran
1988 Iran-lraq War ends
1990 Iraq invades Kuwait
1991 Iraq forced out of Kuwait

453
 300 100 B.C. A.D. 100 200 350 500 700
10,000 50001 3000 1500 i 5001

The scientific REVOLUTION 1950-2000

The second half of the 1900s was a period of rapid
development in science and technology. The arrival
of the computer age revolutionized people's lives.

S cientists and business people were able

to develop the discoveries made earlier
in the century and put them to practical
use. Industry and business realized that
there were enormous financial benefits
to be made by working with universities
and other academic centers and a great
deal of important research was done
in partnership between the two.

ELECTRONICS
The most important breakthrough
was the silicon chip, a tiny electronic
Since lasers were invented component that could be cheaply mass-
in the early 1960s, they produced. It replaced old, bulky, and
have been used for a wide
range of tasks, including
fragile pieces of equipment, and allowed
eye surgery, construction much smaller, but more powerful,
work, mapping, and weapon electronic machines to be built.
guidance systems.
Microprocessors—complex circuits fitted The silicon chip microprocessor, developed in the United
States in 1971, caused a technological revolution. The
on a single chip—became widely used
chips were printed with tiny electronic circuits so
in all electrical devices ranging from that computers could process and store information.
computers and space rockets to robots
and telephones. The silicon chip changed
life radically in the late 1900s. THE COMPUTER AGE
The developments in electronics also
led to a revolution in communications.
Copy and fax machines meant that office
workers could handle vast amounts of
information more quickly than ever
before. They could also communicate
▲ The double helix of DNA rapidly with other people around the
was discovered by Crick and
world. As the means of communications
Watson in 1953. It carries
the blueprint for all of an improved, information became more
organism's cells, along with freely available. By the end of the 1900s,
all the instructions that
anyone with a personal computer and a
control their activities. This
discovery helped scientists telephone line could contact millions of
understand the cause of other people around the world in an
many diseases. instant using the Internet.
In industry, electronics also brought
about a new industrial revolution. By the
1990s, most aspects of the manufacturing
process in a wide range of industries were
► By 1990, repetitive tasks,
such as the assembly line computer controlled. Repetitive tasks
manufacture of cars, was on assembly lines were carried out by
being done by computer-
electronic machines or robots. Stock
controlled robots. This
meant greater efficiency control, distribution, and administrative
for industry, but reduced systems also came under the control
the human workforce.
of computer technology
454
900' 1100' 1200' 1300' 1500 1600: 1700 1750! 1800! 1850' 1900 1950! 2000!

◄ The Hubble Space

MEDICAL BREAKTHROUGHS Telescope was launched
First developed in the 1960s, lasers into orbit by the U.S.
were used in surgery to burn away space shuttle Discovery
in April 1990. It allowed
diseased tissue and perform delicate scientists to capture
eye operations. In the 1950s, American images of objects billions
and British scientists discovered the of light years away
in space.
structure of DNA, the basic building
blocks from which living cells are made.
This knowledge led eventually to the
production of new drugs by genetic
engineering, which helped cure serious
diseases. The discovery of DNA means
that many genetic illnesses, passed
down through families, will be curable.
Genetic engineering also raised the
possibility of creating new or improved
strains of plants and animals, resistant to
disease. This technology has helped to
feed people in poorer countries by ▲ The first communication
increasing the amount that the satellite was launced in
land can support. 1960. The introduction, in
1964, of geosynchronous
satellites, which remain
over the same place on
THE WORLD WIDE WEB Earth, meant that any two
places on Earth could be
The World Wide Web (WWW) was invented in 1990, to ▼ Search engines greatly speed
linked almost instantly.
allow users to "surf" the Internet quickly and easily. By up the process of finding Web
clicking on the screen with a mouse, users can move pages and specific pieces of
between pages of information located on a vast network information on the Web.
of computers around the world. Each page has "hot
spots," or links, connecting it to related pages. T The Web allows people to
watch live video clips of a
current U.S. space mission.
<&mmmj

artdhmM
Frejh Fruit

◄ Information on
110=3
sports, movies,
museums, and
many other types
U| Ssftta of entertainment
Him..,,., can be found
► Using e-mail, Archive. on the Internet.
people can send
letters and pictures I>•
MU*
to each other
across the world
within minutes.

455
 500 300 100 0 A.D. 100 i 200 350 | 500 700
10,000 5000 3000 1500 B.C.

The environment 1950-2000

Unlike any other species on Earth, humankind has
the power to destroy the world. People only recently
grasped that their environment was being threatened.

n the latter half of the 1900s, people

began to realize that the Earth was in
danger, threatened with pollution
and overexploitation from
ignorance and greed. At first,
only a few naturalists, like
Rachel Carson, dared to speak
up. Her book Silent Spring
caused a sensation when it was
published in 1962. It showed how
widespread the damage was when
pesticides were overused, and led to the
banning of DDT (an insecticide] in the
On the night of March 24, United States and many other countries.
1989, the Exxon Valdez, a Then, pressure groups such as
985-ft. (300-m) oil tanker,
Greenpeace and Friends of the Earth
ran aground in Prince
William Sound, Alaska. also began to campaign. It slowly became
The ship leaked over clear that the environment had been
35,000 tons of toxic
seriously damaged.
petroleum over the
next two days and was The oceans in many parts of the world Hundreds of oil-well fires were lit by Iraqi troops
retreating from Kuwait in 1991, causing widespread
the biggest oil spill in have been overfished, and in many cases
American history. It pollution in the desert. It took a year to extinguish them.
scientists believe that for stocks to return
destroyed much wildlife
and required a major
to their previous levels, fishing would have
cleanup operation. to stop completely for between five and PROTECTING THE ENVIRONMENT
ten years. Car exhausts and factories pump In the 1970s, British scientists working
fumes into the air. Some of these gases in Antarctica discovered that the ozone
mix with clouds to form acid rain, which layer above them was becoming thinner.
kills plants. In many cities, like Los The ozone layer is vital to all life on
▼ Cities such as Sao Angeles, the air quality is so poor that Earth because it blocks much of the
Paulo in Brazil suffer from
dangerous levels of air
smog forms over them. Continual sun’s harmful ultraviolet radiation. It was
pollution from motor exposure to smog causes serious breathing discovered that the protective barrier was
vehicles and industry. problems and premature death. being seriously damaged by the release of
chemicals called CFCs. They were used
in refrigeration and as a propellant for
aerosols. These chemicals have now
been banned in many countries.
By the 1980s, some governments had
passed laws to protect the environment,
but some scientists believed that these
attempts to protect our planet were too
little and too late. Change was slow to ^
take effect, because at first people did
not believe that the Earth was really in
danger. New information was collected by
scientists that proved that the threat was
real. Clean (nonpolluting] products started
to appear, but they proved expensive to
buy and less profitable to produce.
456
900 11001 1200! 1300; 1400 1500 i 1600 j 1700 i 1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000

It took environmental disasters like ▲ Huge tracts of the

tropical rain forests in
accidents at nuclear reactors in the United
South America were being
States and the U.S.S.R., explosions at destroyed so that local
chemical plants in Italy and India, and farmers could graze cattle.

oil spills at sea to show people that new

technology could be deadly. In the poorer countries of the world, ▲ In 1900, the world's
population was around
Public opinion gradually forced many however, people’s ohly income still comes
one billion. By 1990, it
governments to take action and to from farming or forestry, which often had risen to almost six
reduce pollution. Laws were passed to damage the land. Their governments do billion. By 2050, almost
ten billion people are
protect the environment and encourage not like being told by the developed world
expected to live on Earth.
conservation and recycling. to slow their growth to reduce pollution.

RENEWABLE ENERGY
Most of the world's electricity is produced in power plants by burning coal, oil, or gas.
These fuels are known as fossil fuels, and there is a limited supply of them to be taken
from the Earth. Electricity made from rivers (hydroelectric), the sun (solar), and from
the wind, is a nonpolluting "renewable resource,” because it will not run out.

T Nonpolluting wind turbines are ► Solar power uses the sun's heat
built on exposed sites where wind to provide a clean, nonpolluting
power is used to generate electricity. source of energy. Solar panels
They are not perfect and can cause can be relatively inexpensive,
significant noise pollution. and yet are very efficient.

457
 10,000 5000 3000 1500! 500 300 100 B.C. A.D. 100 : 200 350 500 700

Asian “tiger'’ economies 1970-2000

With the help of Western aid, economic growth in
the countries of Southeast Asia was very rapid. It soon
outstripped that of the Europe and the United States.

I n Japan, government and

business had to rebuild their
economy after World War II. They
took a different approach than
China, and planned a complete
industrial redevelopment of their
country, and rapid capitalist growth.
The United States had occupied Along with other stock markets around the world, the
Tokyo Stock Market saw panic selling in October 1987.
Japan and encouraged it to move
In one day it traded over one billion shares.
toward a democracy. They also
Manufacturing is the single helped Japan financially, and after the war,
most important economic the United States was providing money at OTHER ECONOMIES
activity in Japan. Japanese
factories uses the most
the rate of more than ten million dollars a Although it took longer to get started,
advanced equipment week. The Japanese brought in industrial by the late 1970s and 1980s, South
and processes available, and land reforms and greatly improved Korea’s industrialization was growing by
and they produce
the education system for their children. nearly ten percent every year, far more
high quality goods
for export to the Free elections were held, and women than Western countries. The United States
rest of the world. were not only allowed to vote for provided a large amount of support, as did
the first time, but some were also Japan. Hong Kong also became a major
elected to the Japanese parliament. Southeast Asian financial trading center,
In the 1970s and 1980s, Japan’s attracting much outside investment.
economic growth Malaysia became a major exporter of
was one of the both raw materials—oil and natural gas,
most rapid in rubber, palm oil, timber, and metals such
the world. as tin—and manufactured goods such as
electrical machinery and semiconductors.
Singapore soon became one of the
countries with the highest standards
of living when it started to build up its
industry in the 1960s. Shipping played
a growing part in the economy along with
the building of extensive oil refineries. It
became a major exporter of petroleum
products, rubber, and electrical goods.
By the beginning of the 1990s, however,
these once-booming economies began to
suffer because of the downturn in world
markets. Japan’s export-led economy,
worth more than half of the region’s total,
had been in poor shape since 1989 and
over the next ten years its stock-market^
value fell by two thirds. This inevitably
had a knock-on effect on the other
countries in the region, which slowed
their growth dramatically.

Built as a symbol of Malaysia's once-booming economy,

the twin Petronas Towers in Kuala Lumpur are the world's
tallest buildings, at a height of 1,483 ft. (452m).

458
 1100i 1200 1300 1400 1500 : 1600 1 1700 i 1750: 1800 1 1850! 1900 1 1950 I 2000

Peacekeeping 1950-2000
In 1945, the United Nations was formed by the
international community to guarantee civil liberties
and to work for peace and stability on a global scale.

T he United Nations was formed after

World War II with the intention of
trying to make sure that such a war could
not happen again. It was established to
maintain international peace and security;
to develop friendly relations among nations;
Fifty countries formed to achieve international cooperation in
the United Nations
after World War II. By
solving economic, social, and cultural
the end of the century, problems; and to encourage respect for basic
membership was up human rights and fundamental freedoms.
to over 180 countries.
Delegates from 50 nations attended
what was known as the United
Nations Conference on International
Organization in San Francisco, in April
1945. The United Nations Charter
was approved in June and permanent During the 1990s, Britain used its significant naval
headquarters for the organization presence to support UN peacekeeping and humanitarian
were built in New York City. missions in many parts of the world.

THE SECURITY COUNCIL WORLD PEACEKEEPING

Keeping international peace is the The first use of a United Nations
job of the UN Security Council. peacekeeping force was during the Korean
The permanent members are China, War in 1950. They remained there until
France, Great Britain, the United 1953, when an armistice was signed.
States, and Russia, plus ten other Further deployment happened in Egypt
members elected for two-year terms. during the Suez Crisis in 1956—UN
The civil war in Lebanon forces supervised the withdrawal of
between Christians and
invading British, French, and Israeli forces.
a Muslim-PLO alliance
during 1975-1976 caused The first large-scale UN operation in
much destruction and Africa went into action in 1960. Belgium
bloodshed. United Nations
had granted independence to the Republic
forces were sent in as
a peacekeeping force.
of the Congo, now known as Zaire, but
civil unrest threatened the new country.
UN troops were able to provide aid as
well as security. In the following years,
UN peacekeeping forces were
involved in many troubled
areas of the world,
including Cyprus,
Lebanon, Somalia,
and Rwanda.
► During conflicts in the
former Yugoslavia in the
1990s, UN peacekeeping
troops were fired on by
more than one side. Here,
French UN troops keep
a watchful eye out for
snipers in Sarajevo's
notorious sniper alley.

459
 10,000 50001 3000 1500 500: 300: 100 B.c. 0 A.D. 100 200 350 5001 700

World trouble spots 1950-2000

After World War II, border disputes and wars between
countries continued. Sometimes the wars involved other
nations with strategic and commercial interests.

T he end of World War II did

not result in peace for all of the
peoples of the world. Border disputes
and wars between countries continued.
In Korea and Vietnam, wars involved
other nations, such as the United
States, the U.S.S.R., and China. In In 1995, the UN sent a peacekeeping force to Rwanda
after the death of President Habyarimana led the Hutu
other places, the superpowers supplied
people to murder around half a million Tutsi people.
weapons and finance to third parties
without getting directly involved. In
1979, the U.S.S.R. moved its army CONFLICT OVER KASHMIR
into Afghanistan to fight Islamic When the Indian subcontinent gained its
rebels, while the United States secretly independence from the British Empire in
provided training, arms, and financial 1947, the division between Pakistan and
▲ The Tamil Tigers is the support to the rebel groups. India involved the movement of millions
name given to the Tamil
Many parts of the world have been of people. Around three and a half million
freedom fighters who have
fought for independence troubled by civil wars. Families have Hindus and Sikhs moved to India from
from Sri Lanka since 1983. been divided, and economies have their homes in what was about to become
been weakened and torn apart by famine, Pakistan. At the same time, around five
▼ Indian soldiers inspect disease, and death. These conflicts have million Muslims moved from India to
a captured Pakistani tank
often happened because political Pakistan. Such a vast disruption
after border clashes over
disputed territory in boundaries between nations in so many peoples’ lives caused many
Kashmir during the Indo- sometimes did not coincide problems. The ownership of the territory
Pakistani conflict of 1965.
with traditional geographic, of Kashmir, between the two countries,
cultural, linguistic, or soon became a hotly disputed matter.
religious frontiers. There were numerous border skirmishes
after partition and India managed to take
over about two thirds of the state. The
dispute took on a new importance to the
world when it was revealed in 1998 that
both countries had nuclear weapons.

460
900 1100; 12001 1300: 1400 1500 1600 1700 1750 1800 1850 1950! 2000;

THE BREAKUP OF YUGOSLAVIA

Following the death of President Tito in
1980, Yugoslavia was soon split apart by
its many ethnic and religious peoples
demanding independence. Macedonia,
Croatia, Slovenia, and Bosnia-Herzegovina
all declared their independence from
Yugoslavia in 1991. The Serbs declared
war, and fighting in Croatia lasted seven
months. In Bosnia, Muslims, Croats, and
Serbs all fought each other. Thousands of
Muslims were killed by the Serbs in what
was called “ethnic cleansing.” In 1999,
NATO, the Western military alliance,
resorted to military force in an attempt
to protect Albanians living in Kosovo.
▲ Bosnia declared its
THE FIGHT FOR FREEDOM independence from Yugoslavia
in 1992, against the wishes of
Groups like the Basques in Spain, the
the local Serb population. A bloody
Shan peoples in Myanmar (formerly civil war broke out between the
Burma), and the Eritreans in Ethiopia felt many different ethnic and
trapped within a larger state. In Northern religious groups in the country.

Ireland, the majority of people wanted to

stay part of the United Kingdom, but a A Soviet forces entered
Afghanistan in 1979, in support
minority wanted the whole island unified. of the left-wing government.
The “troubles,” as the situation is called, During the 1980s, Islamic
resulted in thousands of deaths. The Mujiahideen rebels, armed by
the West, fought a guerilla
collapse of the U.S.S.R. also resulted in
campaign forcing Russian
many peoples having to reestablish their forces to withdraw in 1989,
national identity. At the end of the 1900s, and overthrew the government.

many of the world’s people were still

seeking justice and freedom.

▲ Although the war

between North and South
Korea ended in 1953, the
border between the two
countries is still heavily
guarded. Both countries
still view each other
with suspicion.

◄ The Kurds are a tribal

people of mountainous
regions of southwestern
Asia. Their struggle for
independence has led to
bitter conflicts. Kurdish
refugees, fleeing persecution
by Iraq's Saddam Hussein in
1991, were not allowed to
enter eastern Turkey.

461
 10,000 I 5000 3000 1500; 500: 300 ! 100 B.C. 0 A.D. 100 200 350 500 : 700

South Africa 1990-2000

South Africa was the last bastion of imperialist, white
minority rule in Africa. The release of Nelson Mandela
from prison in 1990 signaled the end of apartheid.

A partheid, the separation of people

according to their color or race, was
started by the Boers in South Africa at the
beginning of the 1900s. It separated the
people of South Africa into whites, black
Africans, and “coloreds”—people of mixed
race. People of Indian origin later became
the fourth group. The African National As Archbishop of Cape Town and head of the Anglican
Congress (ANC) was formed in 1912 Church in South Africa, Desmond Tutu won the Nobel
Peace Prize for his fight against apartheid in 1984.
to fight these repressive laws.
The South African, white-dominated
Frederick W. de Klerk government passed a series of harsh laws THE REFORMER: F. W. DE KLERK
(1936-) became president to try to suppress opposition. In 1960, Although Botha had made some changes
of South Africa in 1989,
after P. W. Botha resigned
it made all black political parties illegal to make life fairer for blacks, these did not
because of his health. after the violent antiapartheid riots at made any radical difference. His health
He worked toward Sharpeville. In the mid-1970s, the failed him, and he resigned in 1989. A
ending apartheid.
government relaxed its controls a little and reformer, F. W. de Klerk, then became
started to allow some unions. In the mid- president, and in 1990, ended the ban on
1980s, the government allowed coloreds black people’s political parties, including
into Parliament, but not black people. the ANC. In order to show he really
The ANC and other political parties wanted change, he also had many black
wanted a true democracy in which political prisoners released from prison.
everyone had a vote, regardless of their One of these was Nelson Mandela, who
color or race. P. W. Botha, president of had been in prison since 1964. De Klerk
South Africa from 1978, was the first had regular meetings with him, both while
white leader to want reform. he was in prison, and after his release.

▲ Nelson Rolihlahla
Mandela (1918—) shared
the Nobel Peace Prize
with F. W. de Klerk in
1993 for their work
in ending apartheid. -

Following free elections

in 1994, he became the
first black president of I.
South Africa in 1994.

► Under apartheid, many ~irm

black South Africans were BfI Ik '' lr 1
‘ K 4 Km
moved out of cities and
forced to live in shabby
and crowded conditions
; s 1
am
in shantytowns on the
outskirts. Their movement
was severely restricted.

462
900 1100 12001 1300 1400: 1500; 1600: 1700: 1750 i 1800 1850 I 1900 I 1950 r
2000

THE END OF APARTHEID

Nelson Mandela became the leader of
the ANC. He campaigned for the civil
rights of his people, but he also argued
strongly for a peaceful settlement. By
working closely with de Klerk, it was
possible for both white and black people
to work for change. In 1992, de Klerk
organized a whites-only referendum,
asking them whether they would like
to end apartheid. Two thirds of the voters
were in favor of ending apartheid.
After a great deal of negotiation, the
first free election, in which black people
could also vote, was held in South Africa,
in April 1994. The ANC won a decisive The modern city of Johannesburg is the financial
center of South Africa and lies in the area known as
victory, and Nelson Mandela became the
first black president of South Africa when
de Klerk handed over power to him in
May. Although the ANC now formed a
government, de Klerk stayed on as one
of two vice presidents.
Although a great victory for equality had
been won, the new democracy still faced
enormous problems. By the end of the
century there were two million children
who were receiving no schooling at all.
Over half the people still lived in homes
without electricity. Twelve million people
had no access to a steady supply of clean
drinking water. A third of the adult
population was unemployed. The huge
gap between rich and poor led to street
crime becoming a major problem.
▲ Supporters of Nelson
Mandela celebrate the
triumph of the African
National Congress after
the first free elections in
South Africa, in 1994. The
ANC were clear winners
and Nelson Mandela
became president.

◄ Following the end

of apartheid, some white
South African farmers
were concerned about
their property. They
thought that the huge
farms that they lived on
would be taken away from
them by the government
and given to black farmers
in land redistribution.

463
Year 2000 and beyond
The 1900s ended with a technological revolution, yet PREDICTIONS AND CONCERNS
our world is still threatened by war, poverty, and human It would have been very hard for
someone living in 1900 to foretell these
rights abuses. What does the future hold for us?
changes, and equally, we can only guess
T he 1900s saw more
change in the world than
at our future in the coming century.
There are some things that seem very
any previous century. Most of likely, such as doctors and scientists
the household objects that we inventing new ways of preventing and
now use every day and take for curing diseases. Other predictions are
granted did not exist a hundred more speculative. We would like to think
years ago. The automobile was that major wars will be a thing of the
in its infancy and telephone and past, but there is no guarantee of this.
radio were still in the early stages The growing population of the world is
of development. Televison, VCRs, a major concern for the future. Although
credit cards, computers, and jet as a planet we grow enough food to feed
airplanes were unheard of. everyone, millions go without because it
At the end of the century, the is not distributed evenly. Most of the
ability to communicate instantly children in poorer countries still receive
with people all over the world— little or no education, which makes self-
thanks to modern satellite improvement impossible.
telecommunications and the The environmental concerns of the
Racial harmony, tolerance, Internet—brought about an explosion latter half of the 1900s will continue
equal opportunity, and
of information exchange. It also made to perplex governments and scientists.
individual freedom will
be important factors for
it difficult for governments to keep The Earth has finite resources that need
achieving world peace and their people ignorant of what was to be carefully managed and shared
prosperity in the future. happening in the rest of the world. among all of its peoples.

International cooperation
will be an important
factor in the exploration
of our resource-rich solar
system. This artist's
impression of a manned
base on Mars shows what
many people, including
the men and women at
NASA, believe will be
the next great space
adventure. It will take
an enormous amount of
money and resources to
accomplish, but there is
good reason to believe
it may happen by the
year 2050.

464
 Ready
Reference
40,000 b.c.-a.d.2000
 Ready Reference

ANCIENT EGYPTIAN DYNASTIES

PERIOD DYNASTY DATES (b.c.) PRINCIPAL PHARAOHS

Early Dynastic 1-3 c.2925-2575 Menes (Aha)
Zoser (Djoser)
Old Kingdom 4-7/8 c.2575-2130 Khufu (Cheops)
First Intermediate Period 9-11 c. 2130-2040
Middle Kingdom 11-14 c.2040-1600 Mentuhotep II
Second Intermediate Period 15-17 1630-1540 Hyksos kings rule Lower Egypt
Ahmose reunites Upper and
Lower Egypt
New Kingdom 18-20 1550-1070 Amenhotep I—III
Thutmose I-IV
Queen Hatshepsut
Akhenaten (Amenhotep IV)
Tutankhamen
Ramses I-XI
Third Intermediate Period 21-25 1070-656 Sheshonq I
Rule of Nubians
Late Period 25-31 664-332 Psammatichus I
Rule of Persians (D. 27 and 31)
Nectanebo II
Conquest of Alexander the Great

CHINESE DYNASTIES

DYNASTY DATE DETAILS

Xia c.2200-1766 b.c.
Shang 1766-1122 b.c.
Zhou 1122-221 b.c.
Qin 221-206 b.c. Shi Huangdi, first emperor of unified China
Early Han 202 B.C.-A.D. 9 Emperor Wu Di also rules Korea and southern China
Hsin a.d. 9-25 Wang Mang takes power
Later Han 25-220 Han rule restored
The Three Kingdoms 220-280 China breaks into three kingdoms—the Wei, Shu, and Wu
Western Jin 265-317
Eastern Jin 317-420
Southern dynasties 420-589
Sui 589-618 China reunified
Tang 618-907 Golden age of culture; includes reign of Emperor Taizong
The five dynasties and ten kingdoms 907-960 Period of civil wars
Liao 907-1125 Northeastern China ruled by Mongol Khitans
Song 960-1279 Dynasty rules parts of China only
Northern Song 960-1127
Western Xia 990-1227
Chin 1115-1234 ¥
Southern Song 1127-1279
Yuan (Mongol) 1279-1368 All China ruled by the Mongols led by Kublai Khan
Ming 1368-1644 Reestablishment of a native Chinese dynasty
Qing (Manchu) 1644-1911
Republic of China 1911-1949 Government set up under Sun Yat-sen, followed by
disunity and the warlord era
People’s Republic of China 1949- Mao Zedong is first chairman of Communist Party

466
 ROMAN RULERS
KINGS OF ROME
Romulus 753-716 b.c. Tarquinios Priscus 616-579
Numa Pompilius 716-673 b.c. Servius Tullius 579-534
Tullus Hostilius 673-640 b.c. Tarquinius Superbus 534-509
Ancus Martius 640-616 b.c.

THE REPUBLIC OF ROME 509-27 b.c.

Dictatorship of Sulla 82-78 b.c. Dictatorship of Julius Caesar 45-44
First Triumvirate 60-53 b.c. Second Triumvirate 43-27
(Julius Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus) (Octavian, Mark Anthony, and Marcus
Dictatorship of Pompey 52-47 b.c. Lepidus)

EMPERORS OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE

Augustus (previously Octavian) 27 14
b.c.-a.d. Gallus and Hostilianus (Volusianus) 251-253
Tiberius I a.d. 14-37 Aemilianus 253
Caligula (Gaius Caesar) 37-41 Valerian and Gallienus 253-260
Claudius I 41-54 Gallienus 253-268
Nero 54-68 Claudius II (Gothicus) 268-270
Galba 68-69 Quintillus 269-270
Otho 69 Aurelianus 270-275
Vitellius 69 Tacitus 275-276
Vespasian 69-79 Florianus 276
Titus 79-81 Probus 276-282
Domitian 81-96 Carus 282-283
Nerva 96-98 Carinus and Numerianus 283-284
Trajan 98-117 Diocletian (divides empire) 284-305
Hadrian 117-138 Maximilian (jointly) 286-305
Antoninus Pius 138-161 Constantius I 305-306
Marcus Aurelius 161-180 Severus 306-307
Lucius Verus (jointly) 161-169 Licinius (jointly) 308-324
Commodus 177-192 Constantine I (reunites empire) 312-337
Pertinax 193 Constantine II (jointly) 337-340
Didius Julianus 193 Constans (jointly) 337-350
Septimus Severus 193-211 Constantius II (jointly) 337-361
Caracalla 198-217 Magnentius (jointly) 350-353
Geta (jointly) 209-212 Julian (the Apostate) 361-363
Macrinus 217-218 Jovianus 363-364
Elagabulus (Heliogabalus) 218-222 Valentinian I (rules West) 364-375
Alexander Severus 222-235 Valens (rules East) 364-378
Maximinius I (the Thracian) 235-238 Gratian (rules West) 375-383
Gordian I 238 Magnus Maximus (usurper in West) 383-388
Gordian II 238 Valentinian II (rules West) 375-392
Balbinus and Pupienus Maximus 238 Eugenius (usurper in West) 392-394
Gordian III 238-244 Theodosius I (the Great) 379-395
Philip (the Arab) 244-249 (rules East, then unites East and West)
Decius 249-251

EMPERORS OF THE EASTERN ROMAN EMPIRE

Arcadius 395-408 Leo II 474
Theodosius II 408-450 Zeno 474-491
Marcian 450-457 Anastasius 491-518
Leo I 457-474 Justinian 527-565

EMPERORS OF THE WESTERN ROMAN EMPIRE

Honorius 395-423 Majorian 457-461
Maximus 410-411 Severus III 461-467
Constantius III 421 Anthemius 467-472
John 423-425 Olybrius 472
Valentinian III 425-455 Glycerius 473-474
Petronius Maximus 455 Julius Nepos 474-475
Avitus 455-456 Romulus Augustus 475-476

467
 POPES

The head of the Roman Catholic Church is chosen by the cardinals of the Church. Occasionally rival popes have been
elected in opposition to the chosen pope; the rivals are known as antipopes (A.P.). There were many other popes before
these, the first pope was St. Peter in A.D. 42.

Sylvester II 999 Gregory VIII 1187 Adrian VI 1522

John XVII 1003 Celestine III 1191 Clement VII 1523
John XVIII 1004 Innocent III 1198 Paul III 1534
Sergius IV 1009 Honorius III 1216 Julius III 1550
Benedict VIII 1012 Gregory IX 1227 Marcellus II 1555
Gregory (A.P) 1012 Celestine IV 1241 Paul IV 1555
John XIX 1024 Innocent IV 1243 Pius IV 1559
Benedict IX 1032 Alexander IV 1254 St. Pius V 1566
Sylvester III 1045 Urban IV 1261 Gregory XIII 1572
Benedict IX 1045 Clement IV 1265 Sixtus V 1585
Gregory VI 1045 Blessed Gregory X 1271 Urban VII 1590
Clement II 1046 Blessed Innocent V 1276 Gregory XIV 1590
Benedict IX 1047 Adrian V 1276 Innocent IX 1591
Damasus II 1048 John XXI 1276 Clement VIII 1592
St. Leo IX 1049 Nicholas III 1277 Leo XI 1605
Victor II 1055 Martin IV 1281 Paul V 1605
Stephen IX (X) 1057 Honorius IV 1285 Gregory XV 1621
Benedict X (A.P.) 1058 Nicholas IV 1288 Urban VIII 1623
Nicholas II 1059 St. Celestine V 1294 Innocent X 1644
Alexander II 1061 Boniface VIII 1294 Alexander VII 1655
Honorius II (A.P.) 1061 Blessed Benedict XI 1303 Clement IX 1667
St. Gregory VII 1073 Clement V 1305 Clement X 1670
Clement III (A.P.) 1080 John XXII 1316 Blessed Innocent XI 1676
Blessed Victor III 1087 Nicholas V (A.P.) 1328 Alexander VIII 1689
Blessed Urban II 1088 Benedict XII 1334 Innocent XII 1691
Paschal II 1099 Clement VI 1342 Clement XI 1700
Theodorie (A.P.) 1100 Innocent VI 1352 Innocent XIII 1721
Albert (A.P) 1102 Blessed Urban V 1362 Benedict XIII 1724
Sylvester IV (A.P.) 1105 Gregory XI 1370 Clement XII 1730
Gelasius II 1118 Urban VI 1378 Benedict XIV 1740
Gregory VIII (A.P.) 1118 Clement VII (A.P.) 1378 Clement XIII 1758
Callistus II 1119 Boniface IX 1389 Clement XIV 1769
Honorius II 1124 Benedict XIII (A.P.) 1394 Pius VI 1775
Celestine II (A.P.) 1124 Innocent VII 1404 Pius VII 1800
Innocent II 1130 Gregory XII 1406 Leo XII 1823
Anacletus II (A.P.) 1130 Alexander V (A.P.) 1409 Pius VIII 1829
Victor IV (A.P) 1138 John XXIII 1410 Gregory XVI 1831
Celestine II 1143 Martin V 1417 Pius IX 1846
Lucius II 1144 Eugene IV 1431 Leo XIII 1878
Blessed Eugene III 1145 Felix V (A.P.) 1439 St. Pius X 1903
Anastasius IV 1153 Nicholas V 1447 Benedict XV 1914
Adrian IV 1154 Callistus III 1455 Pius XI 1922
Alexander III 1159 Pius II 1458 Pius XII 1939
Victor IV (A.P) 1159 Paul II 1464 John XXIII 1958
Paschal III (A.P) 1164 Sixtus IV 1471 Paul VI 1963
Callistus III (A.P.) 1168 Innocent VIII 1484 John Paul I 1978
Innocent III (A.P.) 1179 Alexander VI 1492 John Paul II 1978
Lucius III 1181 Pius III 1503
Urban III 1185 Julius II 1503
Clement III 1187 Leo X 1513 £

468
 RULERS OF ENGLAND
SAXONS
Egbert 829-839 Edred 946-955
Ethelwulf 839-858 Edwy 955-959
Ethelbald 858-860 Edgar 959-975
Ethelbert 860-865 Edward the Martyr 975-978
Ethelred I 865-871 Ethelred II, the Unready 978-1016
Alfred the Great 871-899 Sweyn Forkbeard 1013- 1014
Edward the Elder 899-924 Ethelred II, the Unready (restored) 1014- 1016
Athelstan 924-939 Edmund Ironside 1016
Edmund 939-946

DANES
Canute 1016-1035 Harthacanute 1040-1042
Harold I Harefoot 1035-1040

SAXONS
Edward the Confessor 1042-1066 Harold II 1066

HOUSE OF NORMANDY
William I, the Conqueror 1066-1087 Henry I 1100-1135
William II 1087-1100 Stephen 1135-1154

HOUSE OF PLANTAGENET
Henry II 1154-1189 Edward I 1272-1307
Richard I, the Lionheart 1189-1199 Edward II 1307-1327
John 1199-1216 Edward III 1327-1377
Henry III 1216-1272 Richard II 1377-1399

HOUSE OF LANCASTER
Henry IV 1399-1413 Henry VI 1422-1461
Henry V 1413-1422

HOUSE OF YORK
Edward IV 1461-1483 Richard III 1483-1485
Edward V 1483

HOUSE OF TUDOR
Henry VII 1485-1509 Mary I 1553-1558
Henry VIII 1509-1547 Elizabeth I 1558-1603
Edward VI 1547-1553

RULERS OF SCOTLAND
Malcolm II 1005-1034 Malcolm IV 1153-1165
Duncan I 1034-1040 William the Lion 1165-1214
Macbeth (usurper) 1040-1057 Alexander II 1214-1249
Malcolm III (Cranmore) 1057-1093 Alexander III 1249-1286
Donald Bane 1093-1094 Margaret of Norway 1286-1290
Duncan II 1094 (Interregnum 1290-1291)
Donald Bane (restored) 1094-1097 John Balliol 1292-1296
Edgar 1097-1107 (Interregnum 1296-1306)
Alexander I 1107-1124 Robert I, the Bruce 1306-1329
David I 1124-1153 David II 1329-1371

HOUSE OF STUART James III 1460-1488

Robert II 1371-1390 James IV 1488-1513
Robert III 1390-1406 James V 1513-1542
James I 1406-1437 Mary Queen of Scots 1542-1567
James II 1437-1460 James VI (I of Great Britain) 1567-1625

469
 RULERS OF ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND
HOUSE OF STUART
James I 1603-1625 Charles I 1625-1649

COMMONWEALTH 1649-1653
PROTECTORATE 1653-1660
Oliver Cromwell 1653-1658 Richard Cromwell 1658-1659

HOUSE OF STUART
Charles II 1660-1685 William III (jointly) 1689-1702
James II 1685-1688 Anne 1702-1714
Mary II (jointly) 1689-1694

RULERS OF GREAT BRITAIN

HOUSE OF HANOVER
George I 1714-1727 George IV 1820-1830
George II 1727-1760 William IV 1830-1837
George III 1760-1820 Victoria 1837-1901

HOUSE OF SAXE-COBURG
Edward VII 1901-1910

HOUSE OF WINDSOR
George V 1910-1936 George VI 1936-1952
Edward VIII 1936 Elizabeth II 1952-

PRIME MINISTERS OF GREAT BRITAIN

IN OFFICE PARTY
Sir Robert Walpole 1721-1742 Whig
Earl of Wilmington 1742-1743 Whig
Henry Pelham 1743-1754 Whig
Duke of Newcastle 1754-1756 Whig
Duke of Devonshire 1756-1757 Whig
Duke of Newcastle 1757-1762 Whig
Earl of Bute 1762-1763 Tory
George Grenville 1763-1765 Whig
Marquess of Rockingham 1765-1766 Whig
William Pitt the Elder (Earl of Chatham) 1766-1768 Whig
Duke of Grafton 1768-1770 Whig
Lord North 1770-1782 Tory
Marquess of Rockingham 1782 Whig
Earl of Shelburne 1782-1783 Whig
Duke of Portland 1783 Coalition
William Pitt the Younger 1783-1801 Tory
Henry Addington 1801-1804 Tory
William Pitt the Younger 1804-1806 Tory
Lord Grenville 1806-1807 Whig
Duke of Portland 1807-1809 Tory
Spencer Perceval 1809-1812 Tory
Earl of Liverpool 1812-1827 Tory
George Canning 1827 Tory
Viscount Goderich 1827-1828 Tory
Duke of Wellington 1828-1830 Tory
Earl Grey 1830-1834 Whig
Viscount Melbourne 1834 Whig

470
Sir Robert Peel 1834-1835 Tory
Viscount Melbourne 1835-1841 Whig
Sir Robert Peel 1841-1846 Tory
Lord John Russell 1846-1852 Whig
Earl of Derby 1852 Tory
Earl of Aberdeen 1852-1855 Peelite
Viscount Palmerston 1855-1858 Liberal
Earl of Derby 1858-1859 Conservative
Viscount Palmerston 1859-1865 Liberal
Earl Russell 1865-1866 Liberal
Earl of Derby 1866-1868 Conservative
Benjamin Disraeli 1868 Conservative
William Gladstone 1868-1874 Liberal
Benjamin Disraeli 1874-1880 Conservative
William Gladstone 1880-1885 Liberal
Marquess of Salisbury 1885-1886 Conservative
William Gladstone 1886 Liberal
Marquess of Salisbury 1886-1892 Conservative
William Gladstone 1892-1894 Liberal
Earl of Rosebery 1894-1895 Liberal
Marquess of Salisbury 1895-1902 Conservative
Arthur Balfour 1902-1905 Conservative
Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman 1905-1908 Liberal
Herbert Asquith 1908-1915 Liberal
Herbert Asquith 1915-1916 Coalition
David Lloyd George 1916-1922 Coalition
Andrew Bonar Law 1922-1923 Conservative
Stanley Baldwin 1923-1924 Conservative
James Ramsay MacDonald 1924 Labour
Stanley Baldwin 1924-1929 Conservative
James Ramsay MacDonald 1929-1931 Labour
James Ramsay MacDonald 1931-1935 National Coalition
Stanley Baldwin 1935-1937 National Coalition
Neville Chamberlain 1937-1940 National Coalition
Winston Churchill 1940-1945 Coalition
Winston Churchill 1945 Conservative
Clement Atlee 1945-1951 Labour
Sir Winston Churchill 1951-1955 Conservative
Sir Anthony Eden 1955-1957 Conservative
Harold Macmillan 1957-1963 Conservative
Sir Alec Douglas-Home 1963-1964 Conservative
Harold Wilson 1964-1970 Labour
Edward Heath 1970-1974 Conservative
Sir Harold Wilson 1974-1976 Labour
James Callaghan 1976-1979 Labour
Margaret Thatcher 1979-1990 Conservative
John Major 1990-1997 Conservative
Tony Blair 1997- Labour

HOLY ROMAN EMPERORS

Dates given are period of reign
Charlemagne 800-814 Louis II 855-875
Louis I (the Pious) 814-840 Charles II 875-877
Lothair I 843-855 Charles III 881-891

HOUSE OF SPOLETO
Guy 891-894 Lambert 894-898

CAROLINGIAN DYNASTY
Arnulf 896-899 Louis III 901-905

HOUSE OF FRANCONIA
Conrad I 911-918

471
CAROLINGIAN DYNASTY
Berengar 915-924

SAXON DYNASTY
Henry I 919-936 Otto III 983-1002
Otto I, the Great 936-973 Henry II 1002-1024
Otto II 973-983

FRANCONIAN DYNASTY
Conrad II 1024-1039 Henry V 1106-1125
Henry III 1039-1056 Lothair III, Duke of Saxony 1125-1137
Henry IV 1056-1106

HOHENSTAUFEN DYNASTY
Conrad III 1138-1152 Otto IV of Brunswick 1198-1214
Frederick I, Barbarossa 1152-1190 Frederick II 1212-1250
Henry VI 1190-1197 Conrad IV 1250-1254
Philip of Swabia 1197-1208

INTERREGNUM
Electors gain power 1254-1273

TRANSITION PERIOD
Rudolf I of Hapsburg 1273-1292 Frederick of Austria (co-regent) 1314-1326
Adolf of Nassau 1292-1298 Charles IV, of Luxembourg 1347-1378
Albert I, King of Germany 1298-1308 Wenceslas of Luxembourg 1378-1400
Henry VII of Luxembourg 1308-1314 Rupert, Duke of Palatine 1400-1410
Louis IV of Bavaria (co-regent) 1314-1347 Sigismund of Luxembourg 1410-1437

HAPSBURG DYNASTY
Albert II 1437-1439 Leopold I 1658-1705
Frederick III 1452-1493 Joseph I 1705-1711
Maximilian I 1493-1519 Charles VI 1711-1740
Charles V, King of Spain 1519-1556 War of the Austrian Succession 1740-1748
Ferdinand I 1558-1564 Charles VII of Bavaria 1742-1745
Maximilian II 1564-1576 Francis I of Lorraine 1745-1765
Rudolf II 1576-1612 Joseph II 1765-1790
Matthias 1612-1619 Leopold II 1790-1792
Ferdinand II 1619-1637 Francis II 1792-1806
Ferdinand III 1637-1657

HAPSBURG EMPERORS OF AUSTRIA

Francis II 1804-1835 Francis Joseph 1848-1916
Ferdinand 1835-1848 Charles 1916-1918

HOHENZOLLERN EMPERORS OF GERMANY

William I (of Prussia) 1871-1888 William II 1888-1918
Frederick III 1888

RULERS OF GERMANY
WEIMAR REPUBLIC
Friedrich Ebert 1919-1925 Paul von Hindenburg 1925-1934

THIRD REICH
Adolf Hitler 1934-1945

POST WORLD WAR II

Germany under Allied control 1945-1949

472
 CHANCELLORS OF THE FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY (WEST GERMANY]
Konrad Adenauer 1949-1963 Willy Brandt 1969-1974
Dr. Ludwig Erhard 1963-1966 Helmut Schmidt 1974-1982
Kurt George Kiesinger 1966-1969 Helmut Kohl 1982-1990

CHAIRMEN OF THE DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF GERMANY (EAST GERMANY]

Walter Ulbricht 1949-1971 Egon Krenz 1989-1990
Erich Honecker 1971-1989

CHANCELLORS OF UNITED GERMANY

Helmut Kohl 1990-1998 Gerhard Schroder 1998-

RULERS OF FRANCE
THE CAROLINGIANS
Charles II, the Bald 843-877 Robert 922-923
Louis II 877-879 Rudolph 923-936
Louis III 879-882 Louis IV 936-954
Charles III 884-887 Lothair 954-986
Eudes 888-898 Louis V 986-987
Charles III 898-922

THE CAPETS
Hugh Capet 987-996 Louis VIII 1223-1226
Robert II, the Pious 996-1031 Louis IX 1226-1270
Henry I 1031-1060 Philip III 1270-1285
Philip I 1060-1108 Philip IV 1285-1314
Louis VI 1108-1137 Louis X 1314-1316
Louis VII 1137-1180 Philip V 1316-1322
Philip II 1180-1223 Charles IV 1322-1328

HOUSE OF VALOIS
Philip VI 1328-1350 Louis XII 1498-1515
John II 1350-1364 Francis I 1515-1547
Charles V 1364-1380 Henry II 1547-1559
Charles VI 1380-1422 Francis II 1559-1560
Charles VII 1422-1461 Charles IX 1560-1574
Louis XI 1461-1483 Henry III 1574-1589
Charles VIII 1483-1498

HOUSE OF BOURBON
Henry IV, of Navarre 1589-1610 Louis XV 1715-1774
Louis XIII 1610-1643 Louis XVI 1774-1793
Louis XIV 1643-1715 Louis XVII 1793-1795

THE FIRST REPUBLIC AND FIRST EMPIRE

Napoleon Bonaparte (first consul) 1799-1804 Napoleon I (emperor) 1804-1814

RESTORATION OF MONARCHY
Louis XVIII 1814-1824 Louis-Philippe 1830-1848
Charles X 1824-1830

SECOND REPUBLIC _
Louis Napoleon Bonaparte (president) 1848-1852 Napoleon III (emperor) 1852-1870

473
THIRD REPUBLIC
Louis Adolphe Thiers 1871-1873 Paul Deschanel 1920
Marshal Patrice de MacMahon 1873-1879 Alexander Millerand 1920-1924
Paul Grevy 1879-1887 Gaston Doumergue 1924-1931
Marie Carnot 1887-1894 Paul Doumer 1931-1932
Jean Casimir-Perier 1894-1895 Albert Lebrun 1932-1940
Francois Faure 1895-1899 Vichy government (under Germans) 1940-1944
Emile Loubet 1899-1906
Armand C. Fallieres 1906-1913 Provisional government 1944-1946
Raymond Poincare 1913-1920

FOURTH REPUBLIC
Vincent Auriol 1947-1954 Rene Coty 1954-1959

FIFTH REPUBLIC
Charles de Gaulle 1959-1969 Francois Mitterrand 1981-1995
Georges Pompidou 1969-1974 Jacques Chirac 1995-
Valery Giscard d'Estaing 1974-1981

RULERS OF SPAIN
HAPSBURG DYNASTY
Charles I (V of Germany) 1516-1556 Philip IV 1621-1665
Philip II 1556-1598 Charles II 1665-1700
Philip III 1598-1621

BOURBON DYNASTY
Philip V 1700-1724 Charles IV 1788-1808
Louis I 1724 Ferdinand VII 1808
Philip V (restored) 1724-1746 Joseph Bonaparte 1808-1814
Ferdinand VI 1746-1759 Ferdinand VII 1814-1833
Charles III 1759-1788 Isabella II 1833-1868

OTHER MONARCHS
Amadeus of Savoy 1870-1873

FIRST REPUBLIC 1873-1874

RESTORATION OF MONARCHY
Alfonso XII 1874-1885 Alfonso XIII 1886-1931
General Miguel Primo de Rivera (dictator) 1923-1930

SECOND REPUBLIC
Niceto Alcala Zamora 1931-1936 General Francisco Franco 1939-1975
Manuel Azana 1936-1939

RESTORATION OF MONARCHY
Juan Carlos 1975-

PRIME MINISTERS
Admiral Luis Blanco 1973 Felipe Gonzalez Marquez 1982-1996
Carlos Navarro 1973-1976 Jose Maria Aznar 1996-
Adolfo Suarez 1976-1982

PERIODS OF JAPAN
Yamato c. 300-592 k
Asaka 592-710 Empress Suiko (592-628)
Emperor Temmu (673-686)
Nara 710-794 Emperor Kammu (781-806)
Heian 794-1185 Japan ruled from Heian (now called Kyoto)
Fujiwara 858-1160 Fujiwara clan rules
Taira 1159-1185 Taira clan take control

474
Kamakura 1185-1333 Minamoto Yoritomo defeats Taira clan; in 1192 he
became a shogun
Namboku 1334-1392 End of shogun rule in 1333; Emperor Godaigo rules
alone 1333-1339; imperial line splits into northern
and southern courts
Ashikaga 1338-1573 Ashikaga Takauji becomes shogun in 1338
Muromachi 1392-1573 Two rival courts are unified
Sengoku 1467-1600 Emperor Gonara (1527-1557)
Momoyama 1573-1603 Oda Nobunaga, a daimyo (baron), deposes the shogun
and becomes dictator to 1582
Edo 1603-1867 Tokugawa Ieyasu becomes shogun in 1603; Tokugawa
shoguns rule until 1867
Meiji 1868-1912 Emperor Mutsuhito, Meiji Restoration; he ends the
shogunate and modernizes Japan
Taisho 1912-1926 Emperor Yoshihito
Showa 1926-1989 Emperor Hirohito
Heisei 1989- Emperor Akihito

CZARS OF RUSSIA
Ivan III, the Great, ruler of Russia 1462-1505 Catherine I 1725-1727
Vasili, ruler of Russia 1505-1533 Peter II 1727-1730
Ivan IV, the Terrible, first czar 1533-1584 Anna 1730-1740
Fyodor I 1584-1598 Ivan VI 1740-1741
Boris Godunov 1598-1605 Elizabeth 1741-1762
Fyodor II 1605 Peter III 1762
Demetrius 1605-1606 Catherine II, the Great 1762-1796
Basil (IV] Shuiski 1606-1610 Paul I 1796-1801
(Interregnum 1610-1613) Alexander I 1801-1825
Michael Romanov 1613-1645 Nicholas I 1825-1855
Alexis 1645-1676 Alexander II 1855-1881
Fyodor III 1676-1682 Alexander III 1881-1894
Ivan V and Peter I, the Great, joint rulers 1682-1689 Nicholas II 1894-1917
Peter I 1689-1725

EFFECTIVE RULERS OF THE UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS

Vladimir Fenin 1917-1924 Leonid Brezhnev 1964-1982
Joseph Stalin 1924-1953 Yuri Andropov 1982-1984
Georgy Malenkov 1953 Konstantin Chernenko 1984-1985
Nikita Khrushchev 1953-1964 Mikhail Gorbachev 1985-1991

PRESIDENTS OF RUSSIA
Boris Yeltsin 1991-

PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

George Washington 1789-1797 Federalist
John Adams 1797-1801 Federalist
Thomas Jefferson 1801-1809 Democratic Republican
James Madison 1809-1817 Democratic Republican
James Monroe 1817-1825 Democratic Republican
John Quincy Adams 1825-1829 Democratic Republican
Andrew Jackson 1829-1837 Democrat
Martin Van Buren 1837-1841 Democrat
William H. Harrison 1841 Whig
John Tyler 1841-1845 Whig
James K. Polk 1845-1849 Democrat
Zachary Taylor 1849-1850 Whig
Millard Fillmore 1850-1853 Whig
Franklin Pierce 1853-1857 Democrat
James Buchanan 1857-1861 Democrat
Abraham Fincoln 1861-1865 Republican
Andrew Johnson 1865-1869 National Union

475
Ulysses S. Grant 1869-1877 Republican
Rutherford B. Hayes 1877-1881 Republican
James Garfield 1881 Republican
Chester Arthur 1881-1885 Republican
Grover Cleveland 1885-1889 Democrat
Benjamin Harrison 1889-1893 Republican
Grover Cleveland 1893-1897 Democrat
William McKinley 1897-1901 Republican
Theodore Roosevelt 1901-1909 Republican
William Taft 1909-1913 Republican
Woodrow Wilson 1913-1921 Democrat
Warren Harding 1921-1923 Republican
Calvin Coolidge 1923-1929 Republican
Herbert Hoover 1929-1933 Republican
Franklin D. Roosevelt 1933-1945 Democrat
Harry S. Truman 1945-1953 Democrat
Dwight Eisenhower 1953-1961 Republican
John F. Kennedy 1961-1963 Democrat
Lyndon Johnson 1963-1969 Democrat
Richard Nixon 1969-1974 Republican
Gerald Ford 1974-1977 Republican
Jimmy Carter 1977-1981 Democrat
Ronald Reagan 1981-1989 Republican
George Bush 1989-1993 Republican
Bill Clinton 1993- Democrat

PRIME MINISTERS OF CANADA

Sir John Macdonald 1867-1873 Richard Bennett 1930-1935
Alexander Mackenzie 1873-1878 William King 1935-1948
Sir John Macdonald 1878-1891 Louis St. Laurent 1948-1957
Sir John Abbott 1891-1892 John Diefenbaker 1957-1963
Sir John Thompson 1892-1894 Lester Pearson 1963-1968
Sir Mackenzie Bowell 1894-1896 Pierre Trudeau 1968-1979
Sir Charles Tupper 1896 Charles (Joe] Clark 1979-1980
Sir Wilfrid Laurier 1896-1911 Pierre Trudeau 1980-1984
Sir Robert Borden 1911-1920 John Turner 1984
Arthur Meighen 1920-1921 Brian Mulroney 1984-1993
William King 1921-1926 Kim Campbell 1993
Arthur Meighen 1926 Jean Chretian 1993-
William King 1926-1930

PRIME MINISTERS OF AUSTRALIA

Australia established as a Commonwealth 1901
Sir Edmund Barton 1901-1903 Sir Robert Menzies 1939-1941
Alfred Deakin 1903-1904 Sir Arthur Fadden 1941
John Watson 1904 John Curtin 1941-1945
Sir George Reid 1904-1905 Francis Forde 1945
Alfred Deakin 1905-1908 Joseph Chifley 1945-1949
Andrew Fisher 1908-1909 Sir Robert Menzies 1949-1966
Alfred Deakin 1909-1910 Harold Holt 1966-1967
Andrew Fisher 1910-1913 Sir John McEwen 1967-1968
Sir Joseph Cook 1913-1914 John Gorton 1968-1971
Andrew Fisher 1914-1915 William McMahon 1971-1972
William Hughes 1915-1923 Edward Gough Whitlam 1972-1975
Stanley Bruce 1923-1929 John Fraser 1975-19$3
James Scullin 1929-1932 Robert Hawke 1983-1991
Joseph Lyons 1932-1939 Paul Keating 1991-1996
Sir Earle Page 1939 John Howard 1996-

476
 PRIME MINISTERS OF NEW ZEALAND
Sir Joseph Ward 1906-1912 Keith Holyoake 1960-1972
Thomas MacKenzie 1912-1915 Sir John Marshall 1972
William Massey 1915-1925 Norman Kirk 1972-1974
Sir Francis Bell 1925 Hugh Watt 1974
Joseph Coates 1925-1928 Wallace (Bill) Rowling 1974-1975
Sir Joseph Ward 1928-1930 Robert Muldoon 1975-1984
George Forbes 1930-1935 David Lange 1984-1989
Michael Savage 1935-1940 Geoffrey Palmer 1989-1990
Peter Fraser 1940-1949 Michael Moore 1990
Sir Sidney Holland 1949-1957 James Bolger 1990-1997
Keith Holyoake 1957 Jenny Shipley 1997-
Sir Walter Nash 1957-1960

PRESIDENTS OF THE REPUBLIC OF ITALY

Alcide de Gasperi (acting head of state) 1946 Giovanni Leone 1971-1978
Enrico de Nicola (provisional president) 1946-1948 Amintore Fanfani 1978
Luigi Einaudi 1948-1955 Alessandro Pemini 1978-1985
Giovanni Gronchi 1955-1962 Francesco Cossiga 1985-1992
Antonio Segni 1962-1964 Oscar Luigi Scalfaro 1992-
Giuseppe Saragat 1964-1971

PRIME MINISTERS
Alcide de Gasperi 1946-1953 Mariano Rumor 1973-1974
Guiseppe Pella 1953-1954 Aldo Moro 1974-1976
Amintore Fanfani 1954 Giulio Andreotti 1976-1979
Mario Scelba 1954-1955 Francesco Cossiga 1979-1980
Antonio Segni 1955-1957 Arnaldo Forlani 1980-1981
Adone Zoli 1957-1958 Giovanni Spadolini 1981-1982
Amintore Fanfani 1958-1959 Armintore Fanfani 1982-1983
Antonio Segni 1959-1960 Bettino Craxi 1983-1987
Fernando Tambroni 1960 Giovanni Goria 1987-1988
Amintore Fanfani 1960-1963 Luigi Ciriaco de Mita 1988-1989
Giovanni Leone 1963 Giulio Andreotti 1989-1993
Aldo Moro 1963-1968 Carlo Azegho Ciampi 1993-1994
Giovanni Leone 1968 Silvio Berlusconi 1994-1995
Mariano Rumor 1968-1970 Lamberto Dini 1995-1996
Emilio Colombo 1970-1972 Romano Prodi 1996-1998
Giulio Andreotti 1972-1973 Massimo D'Alema 1998-

PRESIDENTS OF THE REPUBLIC OF INDIA

Dr. Rajendra Prasad 1949-1962 Neelam Reddy 1977-1982
Dr. Sarvapalli Radhakrishnan 1962-1967 Giani Zail Singh 1982-1987
Dr. Zahir Hussain 1967-1969 Ramaswamy Venkataraman 1987-1992
Varahgiri Giri 1969-1974 Shankar Dayal Sharma 1992-1997
Fakhruddin Ahmed 1974-1977 K. R. Narayanan - 1997-
Basappa Jatti 1977

PRIME MINISTERS
Jawaharlal Nehru 1947-1964 Rajiv Gandhi 1984-1989
Gulzarilal Nanda 1964 V. P. Singh 1989-1990
Lai Shastri 1964-1966 Chandra Shekhar 1990-1991
Gulzarilal Nanda 1966 P. V. Narasimha Rao 1991-1996
Indira Gandhi 1966-1977 Atal Bihari Vajpayee 1996
Shri Desai 1977-1979 H. D. Deve Gowda 1996-1997
Charan Singh 1979-1980 I. K. Gujral 1997
Indira Gandhi 1980-1984 Atal Bihari Vajpayee 1997-

477
 MAJOR WARS
DATE NAME OF WAR WARRING PARTIES
c.1250 B.c. Trojan Wars Myceneans vs Trojans
431^404 b.c. Peloponnesian War Athens vs Sparta
264-241 b.c. First Punic War
218-201 b.c. Second Punic War Rome vs Carthage
149-146 b.c. Third Punic War J l •
1096-1099 First Crusade j|
1147-1149 Second Crusade
Saracens vs Christians over Palestine
1189-1192 Third Crusade
1202-1204 Fourth Crusade J 1
1337-1453 Flundred Years’ War England vs France
1455-1485 Wars of the Roses House of York vs House of Lancaster
1562-1598 French Wars of Religion Huguenots vs Catholics
1642-1648 English Civil War Cavaliers vs Roundheads
1618-1648 Thirty Years’ War Catholic League (Germany Austria, Spain) vs Denmark, Sweden, France
1689-1697 War of League of Augsburg France vs the League, England, and the Netherlands
1700 Great Northern War Sweden vs Russia, Denmark, Poland, Holland
1701-1713 War of Spanish Succession Spain, France, and Bavaria vs England, Holland, Austrian Empire,
and Portugal
1730-1738 War of Polish Succession Russia, Poland vs France
1740-1748 War of Austrian Succession Austria, Britain vs Prussia, Bavaria, France, Spain
1756-1763 Seven Years’ War Britain and Prussia vs France, Austria, and Russia
1775-1783 American Revolution American colonies vs Britain
1793-1815 Napoleonic Wars France vs Britain, Austria, Sweden, Russia, and Prussia
1821-1829 Greek War of Independence Greece vs Ottoman Turkey
1846-1848 Mexican-American War Mexico vs U.S.A.
1854-1856 Crimean War Russia vs Britain, France, and Turkey
1859 War for Italian Independence France, Piedmont-Sardinia vs Austria
1861-1865 American Civil War Confederates vs Unionists
1866 Austro-Prussian War Prussia vs Austria
1870 Franco-Prussian War France vs Prussia
1894-1895 Chinese-Japanese War China vs Japan
1899-1902 Boer War Britain vs Boers (Dutch) in South Africa
1904-1905 Russo-Japanese War Russia vs Japan
1914-1918 World War I Germany and Austria-Hungary vs France, Russia, Britain, and
other nations
1918-1921 Russian Civil War Bolsheviks vs White Russians
1931-1933 Chinese-Japanese War Japan vs China
1936-1939 Spanish Civil War Nationalists (Franco) vs Republicans
1939-1945 World War II Britain, France, U.S.S.R., U.S.A., and other nations vs Germany, Italy,
and Japan
1950-1953 Korean War North Korea vs South Korea
1967 Six-Day War Israel vs Arab states
1964-1973 Vietnam War North Vietnam vs South Vietnam and U.S.A.
1980-1988 Iran-Iraq War Iran vs Iraq
1982 Falklands War United Kingdom vs Argentina
1991 Persian Gulf War Iraq vs combined international forces

478
 Index
Prohibition 400, 401 farming medieval explorers 174,175,
A Aldrin, Edwin “Buzz” 438 An Lushan 105 206, 207
Aachen 115 Alekseyevna, Sophia 276 Annam 366, 367 see also individual countries
abacus 47, 94 Alemanni tribe 80, 82, 83, 114 Anne, queen of England 293, 302 Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation
Abbas I, Shah 209 Aleutian Islands 417 Anne of Austria 264 Group (APEC) 443
Abel, Rudolf 437 Alexander, Count 311 Anschluss 412 Askia Mohammed I 208
Aborigines 5, 46, 51, 99, 147, 243, Alexander I, king of Yugoslavia Anthony of Thebes, St. 73, 102, Asoka, emperor of India 57,79
291, 374 420 103 Asselin, Bishop 126
Abraham 24, 25 Alexander the Great 41, 50, 51, Antioch 66 Association of Southeast Asian
Acadia 302, 303 56, 74, 75, 90 Antoninus Pius, emperor 64 Nations (ASEAN) 443
acid rain 457 Alexandria 56, 66 Antwerp 202, 228, 229 Assurbanipal, king of Assyria 22,
Acre 148 Alexandras of Antioch 90 Anyang 18 23
Acropolis, Athens 55 Alexis (son of Peter the Great) 276 ANZAC 391 Assyrians:
acupuncture 94 Alfonso XIII, king of Spain 408 apartheid 435, 462 Arameans overrun 23
Adadnirari I, king of Assyria 22 Alfred the Great, king of Wessex Aphrodite 90 rise to power 9
adobe buildings 110 123, 138 Apollo space program 438 warfare 23
Adrian VI, Pope 215 Algonquin peoples 110,302 Appian Way 65 astrolabes 238
Adrianopolis 377 Ali Baba 116 Aquinas, Thomas 169 astronomy:
Afghanistan: 78 Ali Pasha 309 Arab League 422 1600s 239
captures Kabul 218 Allah 106 Arabia 9, 308 Arab 10, 143
Mongol invasions 218 Allied Powers: Arabian Sea 308 Copernicus's theories 203, 239
Seljuk Empire 134,135,147, World War I 388,389 Arabs: Atahualpa, Sapa Inca 199, 220
148, 149, 182, 183, 188 al-Mansur 116 medieval explorers 174 Ataturk see Kemal, Mustafa
Africa: Alma River, Battle of (1854) 351 Omani 308 Athena 53
Arabs in 308, 309 Almoravid dynasty 117 science and technology 107 Athens:
drought and famine 449 Alp Arslan 134 terrorism 448 Acropolis 55
European explorers 174, 175, alphabets see writing Aragon 200 democracy 54
206, 207, 272, 273 Alps 63 Aramaeans 23 foundation of 52
independence movements 450 Alsace-Lorraine 361 Arawak Indians 270 Parthenon 92
Iron Age 20, 46 al-Yaman 208 Arch of Constantine 81 wars with Sparta 53, 54, 55
ivory trade 166 Amenhotep III, Pharaoh 26 archaeology ix Atlantic Charter 414
Nok culture 60, 95 Amenhotep IV see Akhenaten Archimedes 94, 95 Atlantic Ocean:
Portuguese in 308 American Civil War 354, 356 Archimedes screw 94 Vikings cross 131
prehistory 4, 6, 30 American Philosophical Society architecture: Atlantis space shuttle 439
rock paintings 6, 30 307 501-1199 A.D. 140,141 atomic bombs 417,418,431
“scramble for Africa” 362,363 Americas: 1101-1460 a.d. 188,189 see also nuclear weapons
slave trade 166, 195, 208, 243, 500-1100 128,129 1461-1600 a.d. 235,236,237 Atreus, Treasury of 17
270, 271, 272, 273, 308 ancient history 4, 32 1600s 284,285 Attila the Hun 83
Songhay Empire 208, 272 Aztecs 76,77,128,146,172, 1800s 380,381 Attlee, Clement 419
States of the 1600s 273 186, 187, 190, 194, 196, 197, 1900s 428 Audagost 117
trade 272, 273, 308 230, 231, 235, 342 International Style 428, 429 Augustus, Emperor 64, 65, 66
see also individual countries conquistadores 220, 241 in the classical world 22, 90, 92, Aurangzeb, Mogul emperor 265,
African National Congress (ANC) European explorers 206, 207 93 298
462, 463 Incas 173, 189, 193, 194, 199, Middle Ages 140, 141, 188, 189 Aurelius, Marcus 64
Agamemnon, king of Mycenae 16 231, 234, 235 prehistoric 3, 6, 9, 10, 14, 44 Austen, Jane 330
Age of Reason 268,269,286,287 Native North Americans 290 Renaissance 202, 268, 269 Austerlitz, Battle of (1805) 321
see also Enlightenment slavery 221, 270, 271 skyscrapers 380, 381, 401 Australia:
Agincourt, Battle of 177 Vikings 131 Aristotle 53, 94 Aborigines 5, 46, 51, 89, 99, 147,
Agra 218,241 see also Mesoamerica; North Ark of the Covenant 24 243, 374
Agricultural Revolution 294 America; South America Arkwright, Richard 297 Captain Cook visits 89,291
agriculture see farming Amiens 396 armies see war and weapons gold rushes 375
Ainu people 84 Amnesty International 447 armor 19, 148, 149 independence 369
air pumps 268, 286, 287 amphora 62 Armstrong, Neil 438 in Vietnam War 435
aircraft: Amsterdam 195, 229, 258, 259, Arpad, Prince 120, 121 Polynesians trade 89
aircraft carriers 433 284 Arsaces 7 5 prehistoric 5, 46
jet engines 431 Amulius 34 Art Deco 401, 429 World War I 388,389
Leonardo da Vinci’s designs 238 Anabaptists 214 Art Nouveau 378,428 Australopithecines 6
World War I 388,389 Anasazi culture 50, 98, 111, 146 Arthur, King 187 Austria:
Wright brothers 383, 390 Anastasius, emperor 100, 101 arts and crafts: fascism 398, 399
Ajanta 78, 79 Anatolia: 501-1100 A.D. 138,139 in Hapsburg Empire 252, 253,
Akaba, king of Dahomey 273 first cities 44 China 186, 187 360
Akbar, Emperor of India viii, 265 Hittites 20 Gupta dynasty 49, 50, 51, 78, Napoleonic Wars 368
Akhenaten (Amenhotep IV] 26, in Ottoman Empire 290, 308 79, 99 Seven Years’ War 300
27 Seljuk Empire 135 in the classical world 42 Thirty Years’ War 215, 243, 246,
Akkad 9,22,23 ancient Egyptian dynasties 466 Middle Ages 186,187 250, 252, 253, 254, 255, 257,
Aksum 51, 60, 165 Angkor 99, 185 prehistoric 15,42 266
Aladdin 116 Angkor Thom 184,185 Renaissance 202, 203, 234, 235, War of the Austrian Succession
El Alamein, Battle of (1942) 414 Angkor Wat 184,185 268, 269 300
Alamo 342 Angles 122 Aryans 15 War of the Spanish Succession
al Aqsa 106 Anglo-Irish Treaty 393 Ashanti 117, 243, 272, 273, 308 279
Alba, Duke of 228 Anglo-Saxon Chronicle 122 Ashikaga clan 157 war with Ottoman Empire 290
Albigensian Crusade 150, 151 Anglo-Saxons 122, 123, 132, 140 Asia: Austria-Hungary:
alcohol: Angola 213, 273 Black Death 146,178,179,202 Austro-Prussian War 359
distillation 190 animals, domestication see also Buddhism 33, 57, 78, 79, 232 foundation of 291

479
 World War I 388,389 Forbidden City 180 Boudicca, queen of the Iceni 69 Stuarts 293
Austrian Netherlands Manchus occupy 233, 243, 262, Boulton, Matthew 296 Suez Crisis 452, 453, 459
see also Belgium; Spanish 263 Bourbon, Duke of 126 trading posts in India 265
Netherlands Tiananmen Square massacre 441 Bourbon dynasty 254, 255, 257, trade unions 341
Avebury stone circle 12 Belarus 113 279 trade with China 304
Azores 213 Belgium: Bowie, Jim 342 under Romans 65, 69
Axov 276 independence 228, 229 bows and arrows see archery Viking invasions 131
Axis Powers 398,419 “scramble for Africa” 362, 363 Boxer Rebellion 372 votes for women 373
Aztecs 77,128,146,194,230, World War I 388,389 Boyle, Robert 269, 286 Wars of the Roses 210
231,342 see also Austrian Netherlands, boyars 226, 276 War of the Spanish Succession
and the conquistadores 196, Spanish Netherlands Boyne, Battle of the (1690) 275 279
197, 241 Belgrade 216 Brahe, Tycho 239, 269 war with France in India 298,
arts and crafts 172, 186, 187, Belisarius, General 100 Brahms, Johannes 378 299
197, 235 Belize 86 Brahmin 79 war with Marathas 298
calendar 190, 196 Bell, Alexander Graham 382 Brandenburg-Prussia 253, 292, World War I 388, 389, 390, 391
farming 172 Belsharusur (Belshazzar) 283 307 World War II 414,415,417
human sacrifices 195,196 Ben-Gurion, David 422, 423 Breakspear, Nicholas see Adrian IV, Zulu wars 343
migration 172 Benedict, St. 102, 103 Pope see also Northern Ireland;
religion 172, 196 Benedictines 102, 103 Breitenfeld, Battle of (1631) 250, Scotland; Wales
Tenochtitlan destroyed by Spanish Bengal 57 252,253 British Constitutional Act 303
194, 196, 197, 220 Benin 166,212,272,273 Brest-Litovsk, Treaty of (1918) British Union of Fascists 399
Tenochtitlan founded 172 Benin City 166 395 Brittany 13
warriors 172, 105 Berbers 117,200 Bretigny, Treaty of (1360) 176, Bronze Age 15,19,30,46,47,84
Bering Strait 6 177 bronze work 19, 47, 68, 70, 82,
B Berlin 284 Bretwalda (lord of Britain) 122 166, 167
Babel, Tower of 37 Berlin Wall 436 Brian Boru, king of Ireland 155 Brown, Lancelot "Capability” 295,
Babylon: Bernard, Duke of Saxe Weimar Britain: 307
and Alexander the Great 37, 56 251 Acadia taken by 303 Brueghel, Pieter 234
Hanging Gardens 36, 37 Bernini, Giovanni 283 Agricultural Revolution 294 Brunei, Isambard Kingdom 340,
Hittites conquer 20, 21 Berruguete, Pedro 201 Anglo-Burmese Wars 315, 341, 380
origins of 21 Bessemer Converter 341, 383 Anglo-Saxon invasions 122, 123 buboes 178
Persians conquer 37 Bessemer, Henry 341 appeasement 412 bubonic plague 178, 179, 266
Seleucid dynasty 74, 75 Bethlehem 72 arms race 434 buccaneers 270, 271
wars with Assyrians 36 Bhagavad Gita 78 Black Death 109,146,147, Bucharest, Treaty of (1913) 377
Bach, Johann Sebastian 307, 330 Bible 25,187,246,268 178, 179, 202 Buddha 33,78,139
backstaffs 238 Bindusara 57 Celts 51,68,69,122,154 Buddhism:
Bacon, Francis 269, 286 Biro, Laszlo 431 Chartist movement 346, 347, in Cambodia 184, 185
Bacon, Roger 190, 191 Bismarck, Otto von 360,361, 373 in China 104
Bactria 78 362, 377 Corn Laws 364 in India 33, 57, 78, 79
Badoglio, Marshal 420 Black-and-Tans 392 Crimean War 350 in Japan 232, 245
Baekeland, Leo 383 Black Death 109, 146, 147, 178, Danelaw 122, 123 in Tibet 169
Baghdad: 179, 202 Domesday Book viii, 132 stupas 57
Abbasid dynasty 116 Black civil rights: early Tudors 210 wheel of life 79
Black Death 178 apartheid 447, 462 East India Company 258, 299, buffalo 370
in Seljuk Empire 134, 135, 147 Ku Klux Klan and 356,446 366, 368 Buganda 290
Ottoman Turks capture 290 Black Sea 100, 276, 350 encyclopedia 306 buildings see architecture
part of Islamic Empire 116 Blackbeard (Edward Teach) 270 English Civil War 243, 247, 260, Bulgaria:
University 143 Blenheim, Battle of (1704) 279 274, 275, 280 in Ottoman Empire 290
Vikings trade 113,130 block printing 143 Factory Acts 341 Bulgars 112,134
Baird, John Logie 430 Blucher, Gebhard von 321 farming 294 Bull, John 320
Bakufu, Tokugawa 244 Blue Mosque, Istanbul 285 feudal system 133,179 Bunker Hill, Battle of (1775) 316
Balaklava, Battle of (1854) 350 Boers 343 forms alliance with Marathas Bunyan, John 282
Balkan League 376 Bogolyubovo 113 299 Burgundy 82
Balkans 17 Bohemia 124 forms alliance with Mysore 299 Burke, Robert O'Hara 374
ballet 282 Bokhara 134 gains Florida 303 Burke, T. H. 364
Ballet of the Night 264 Boleslav Chrobry 120 Gunpowder Plot 246 Burma:
balloons 383 Bolivar, Simon 326 Hundred Years’War 176,177 Chinese invasion 263
Baltic Sea 310 Bolsheviks 394, 406 Indian independence 450 trade 304
Bambara kingdoms 273 Bonnet, Charles 295 Industrial Revolution 296, 297, bushido 156, 157
Bantu peoples 31,60 Bonnie Prince Charlie see Stuart, 340, 341,367 Byzantine Empire:
barbarians 82, 83 Charles Edward invades India 299 Arab incursions 101
Barbarossa 216 Book of Durrow 102 Irish home rule 365 decline 100, 101
Barcelona 257 Book of Kells 103,139 Jacobite Rebellion 289 fall of Constantinople 101,160,
barometers 268, 269 Book of Revelations 41 Magna Carta 162, 163 182,183,191
Baroque style 282 books: megaliths 5, 12 repel Vikings 131
barrows 13 copying 191 monasteries 132 under Justinian 100,101
Basil, Emperor 101 handmade 191 Norman conquest 123, 132, 133 wars with Bulgars 101
Basil II 112 in the Renaissance 202, 268, 269 Opium wars 344 wars with Persia 100
Batavia (Jakarta) 258, 259 Khmer 184 Puritans 260, 261, 280, 285 war with Seljuk Empire 101,
baths and bathing 15 printing 143, 191, 282 Quadruple Alliance 134,147,182,183
Batu Khan 226 Boone, Daniel 328 revolts against Romans 69 Byzantium 54, 81, 112, 113, rc4,
Bauhaus 428 Bordeaux, Battle of (1451) 177 Scottish rebellions 293 148, 149
Bayeux Tapestry 132 Borgia, Lucrezia 204 “scramble for Africa” 362, 363 see also Constantinople
Beauchamp, Pierre 282 Borgia, Rodrigo 205 Seven Years' War 300
Becket, Thomas a 152, 153, 186 Borgia family 202, 204, 205 Sikh War 298 c
Bede, the Venerable 103 Bosphorus 183 slave trade 270, 271 Cabot, John 207, 248, 249
Beethoven, Ludwig van 331,378 Boston 280 spice trade 258 Cabral, Pedro 206
Behaim, Martin 239 Botha, P. W. 462 St. Augustine brings Christianity Cadiz 29
Beijing (Peking): Botticelli, Sandro 192, 193, 202, to 122, 123 Caesar, Julius viii, 63, 64, 65
Boxer Rebellion 372 234 steam power 341 Cairo 309

480
Cairo University 143 cavalry 371 Black Death 146,178,179,181 Chinese dynasties 466
Calais 176, 177 cave paintings 3, 6, 42 Boxer Rebellion 372 Chinon 152
Calais, Battle of (1347) 176, 177 Cavour, Count Camillo 358, 359 Bronze Age 18, 19, 46, 47, 70 Chippewas 110, 231
calculating machines 268, 269 Celebes 213 Buddhism in 104, 136 Chi-Rho symbol 72
calendars: Celsius, Anders 269 canals 58, 104 chivalry 150, 151
Aztec 190, 196 Celts 68, 69, 103 Chinese Christians 372 Christ see Jesus Christ
Mayan 86 Central Powers, World War I Chinese-Japanese War 410, 411 Christianity:
Calicut 213 388, 389 Chongzhen, emperor 262 Boxer Rebellion 372
calligraphy 19 Cervantes, Miguel de 256, 282 civil rights 441, 446 Crusades 99, 144, 145, 149, 150,
Calvin, John 214,215 Cetewayo 343 civil war 402, 403 151
Cambodia: Ceuta 174 communism 402 Dark Ages ix, 97, 99
and the Vietnam War 435 Ceylon: coins 18, 58 in Roman Empire 51, 72, 73
Chen-la 184, 185 Dutch settlers 259, 308 Confucianism 39, 58, 70 Magyars convert to 120
Khmer Empire 99,146,184, CFCs 456 Coromandel screen 262 monasteries 102, 103, 139, 154,
185, 188 Chad 60 Cultural Revolution 440, 441 168, 179, 274
Campaign for Nuclear Chad, Lake 208 farming 39, 58, 137 Orthodox Church 103,112,113
Disarmament (CND) 437 chairmen of the Democratic Grand Canal 105 persecution of Jews 108,109
Campbell, Sir Archibald 315 Republic of Germany (East Great Wall vii, 58, 59, 262 pilgrimages 150
Canaan 24, 26, 28 Germany) 473 gunpowder 94, 137, 142 Prester John 117,165
Canada: Chaldea 36 Han dynasty 59,70,71,74,93 St. Patrick converts Irish 154,
Act of Union 357 Chamberlain, Neville 412,413 Hong Wu 180 155
British Constitutional Act 357 Champlain, Samuel de 249 horses 70 spread of 51
divided into English and French- chancellors of the Federal Republic Huang He Valley 136 see also Protestants; Roman
speaking territories 357 of Germany (West Germany) 473 “Hundred Days of Reform” 372 Catholic Church
French and Indian War 303 chancellors of United Germany jade 18, 43 Chrysler Building, New York 429
gold rushes 371 473 Long March 403 Chrysoloras, Manuel 202
in the Commonwealth 451 Chandragupta I, emperor of India Marco Polo’s travels 147, 171, Church of England 210
Quebec independence campaign 57, 78. 79, 174,175 Church of St. George, Lalibela
303 Chandragupta II, emperor of India mathematics 190 165
revolt against British rule 290 78, 79 medicine 190 churches 138, 139, 168
wars between British and French Chang Jiang River 18 medieval explorers 174, 175 Churchill, Winston viii,
301 Chang’an 70, 104 Ming dynasty vii, 147, 174, 180, 413,414, 436
World War I 388,389 Chaplin, Charlie 426 181, 186, 188, 190, 194, 195, Cistercians 102, 103
see also North America Chappe, Claude 334 233,238, 239 cities, ancient 9, 10, 14, 16
Canadian Pacific Railway 357 Charlemagne, emperor 82, 99, money 18 see also individual cities
canals: 114, 115, 124, 187, 228 opium trade 304, 305 Civil Rights movement 434, 441,
in Europe 296, 297, 340, 341 Charles I, king of England 242, opium wars 344 446, 447
Canterbury Cathedral 186 247, 260, 261, 274 papermaking 94, 143, 190 Cixi, Empress Dowager of China
Canterbury Tales 187 Charles II, king of England 242, People’s Republic created 425, 372
Canute, king of England 261, 280 440 Clark, William 328,329
and Denmark 123 Charles II, king of Spain 257, 279 philosophy 39 Cliff Palace, Mesa Verde 111
Cape Canaveral 438 Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor porcelain 137, 139, 143, 185, Clifton Suspension Bridge 380
Cape Cod 248 292 186, 203, 263, 344 Clive, Robert 298, 299
Cape Colony 343 Charles IV the Fair, king of France pottery 42, 70, 71, 186 clocks 286
Cape Town 273 176 prehistoric 5 watches 239
Cape Verde Islands 213 Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor printing 137, 143 pendulum clocks 268, 269, 286
Capet, Hugh 126 (Charles I of Spain) 201, 222, Qin dynasty 49, 58, 70, 71 cloisonne enamel 283
Capetian dynasty 126, 127 228 Qing (Manchu) dynasty 233, clothes:
Capone, A1 400 Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor 243, 262, 263, 283, 284, 345, Roman 34
Captain Cook 89 292 372 Viking 130, 131
Capuchin friars 215 Charles VI, king of France 176, religion 58 Clovis, king of the Franks
Caradoc (Caractacus) 69 177 rockets 137 114, 115
Caribbean 207, 248, 259 Charles VII, king of France 177 science and technology 58, 137, coal mining 340, 341
see also West Indies Charles IX, king of France 224, 142, 143 Cocom dynasty 128
Caribs 270 225 Shang dynasty 18, 19, 39 coffee 203
Carloman 114 Charles XI, king of Sweden 278 Silk Road 40, 70, 74, 75, 93, coffeehouses 269
Carnac 13 Charles XII, king of Sweden 251, 105, 170 coins:
Carolingian Empire 97, 99, 114, 276, 278 Shunzhi, first Qing emperor 262 Greek 53
115, 121, 124, 126, 127, 131 Chartres Cathedral 127 Song dynasty 99, 136, 137, 139, Viking 130
Carpacchio, Vittore 161 Chaucer, Geoffrey 187 170, 186 Colbert, Jean 264
Carson, Rachel 456 Chavin culture 32, 50 SongTaizong 136 Cold War 434,438
Carthage: 29 Chechens 309 Song Taizu 136 Collins, Michael 438
foundation of 29 Chekhov, Anton 379 Sui dynasty 104, 105 Colombo 213
Punic Wars 62, 63 Chetniks 420 Taiping Rebellion 345 Colonialism:
Cartier, Jacques 207, 230, 248, Cheyenne Indians 230, 231 Tang dynasty 99, 104, 105, 136, “scramble for Africa" 362, 363
249 Chiang Kai-shek 402, 403, 411, 137, 139, 186 Colosseum, Rome 62, 72
Castile 200, 201 425 Tang Yin 181 Colossus, computer 431
Castles: 153 Chickasaw tribe 371 terracotta army 59 Columbia space shuttle 439
motte-and-bailey 140, 141 Chichen Itza 96, 97, 128 Tiananmen Square massacre 441 Columbus, Christopher 201,
siege warfare 23, 148 children: trade 39,71,137,304,305 207, 249, 270
Qatal Hiiyiik 44, 46 ancient Egypt 10 transportation 18, 58, 93, 105, commedia dell'arte 282
Catalan atlas 164 Children’s Crusade 149 137 Commodus, emperor 80
cathedrals 188 employment 340, 341 weapons 39,137 Commonwealth, British 451
Catherine de Medicis 224, 225 Chile: warfare 58, 291 communism: 436, 437
Catherine of Aragon 201,210 Spanish explorers 206, 207 writing 58, 71, 91 Cold War 434,438
Catherine of Valois 177 China: Xia dynasty 18 Warsaw Pact 436
Catherine the Great, czarina 310 architecture 92, 93 Yuan dynasty 170, 180, 186 compasses 94, 95, 142, 143, 238
Catholic Church see Roman arts and crafts 70, 71, 90, 91, Zhou dynasty 39, 91 computers 47, 430, 454
Catholic Church 136, 137 ZhuDi 180 concentration camps 415
Cavaliers see Royalists birth control 441 Zhu Yuan-hang 180,181 Confederacy 354, 355

481
Confucianism 39, 58, 70 37, 40,41 Marquis de 298 210, 246
Confucius 39, 58, 70 czars of Russia 475 Diirer, Albrecht 234 Elmira 273
Congo 243 Durham Cathedral 140, 141 Empire State Building 401, 428
Connecticut 280 D Dutch East India Company 258, “Ems Telegram” 361
Connolly, James 392 daguerreotypes 378, 382 259 enclosures, agricultural 295
conquistadores 241 Dahomey 273 Dutch West India Company 259 Endeavour space shuttle 439
Conrad I of Franconia 124,125 see also Benin Engels, Friedrich 347
Conrad IV, Holy Roman Emperor Daimler, Gottlieb 382 E England see Britain
292 Dalai Lama 184, 185, 263 Early Middle Ages 97 English Civil War 243, 260, 274,
Constantine I the Great, emperor Dali, Salvador 426, 427 East India Companies 258, 368 275,280
73, 81 Dalton, John 335 see also English East India English East India Company 298,
Constantine XI, emperor 182 Damascus 107 Company; Dutch East India 366, 368
Constantinople: Dampier, William 312,313 Company Enlightenment 292, 306
Arabs besiege 100,101 Danelaw 122, 123 East Indies 212 environmental concerns 456, 464
Crusaders sack 100,101,149 Danube River 120 Easter Island 88, 89 Epic of Gilgamesh 22
eastern capital of Roman Empire Darby, Abraham 296, 297 Eastern Europe: Erasmus, Desiderius 203
83 Dardanelles 266, 391 Warsaw Pact 436 El Escorial 256, 257
fall of 183,191 Darius I, king of Persia 40, 41, 74, Eastern Front, World War I 388, Essenes 72
foundation of 65, 81 75 389, 390 Estonia:
Ottoman Turks conquer 100, Dark Ages ix, 97, 99 Eastern Orthodox Church 112, Swedish gains 250
101, 182, 183, 194, 216, 290 David, king of Israel 24, 25 113,226, 227 ETA (Basque) 448
Persians attack 100, 101 David, Jacques Louis 331 Eastman, George 378 Ethiopia:
trade 206 Davy, Humphrey 335 Ebert, Friedrich 406 Christianity 60, 189, 272
Viking traders 113,130 DDT 456 Eckhart, Meister 169 founded 164, 165
see also Byzantium; Istanbul Dead Sea scrolls 72 Edgar the Peaceful, king of Prester John 117, 165
convicts, transportation 374 Decius, emperor 81 England 123 see also Aksum; Nubia
Cook, Captian James 312, 313 Degas, Edgar 378 Edgehill, Battle of (1642) 260 ethnic cleansing 461
Copernicus, Nicolaus 203, 239 Delhi 218,298 Edict of Beaulieu (1576) 224, 225 Etowah 128
copper 4,13, 110 democracy 54, Edison, Thomas Alva 382 Etruscans 5, 34, 43
Coptic Christians 165 Democratic Party 356, Edo 156,244 Eugene, prince of Savoy 279
Coral Sea, Battle of the (1942) Denmark: see also Tokyo Euphrates River 9, 36
417 Thirty Years’ War 215, 243, education: Eureka Stockade 375
Le Corbusier 428, 429 246,250, 252, 253, 254, 255, Harvard College 249, 280 Europe:
Cordoba University 143 257,266 Renaissance 202, 203 Agricultural Revolution 294
Corinth 54 Derby 293 Edward, the Black Prince 176 architecture 68, 69
Cortes, Hernan 220 Dermot MacMurrough, king of Edward I, king of England 163 arts and crafts 17
Cossacks 309 Leinster 155 Edward III, king of England 176 Black Death 109, 146, 147, 178,
Counter-Reformation 215 Descartes, Rene 269 Edward the Confessor, king of 179, 202
creation myths 61 Deshima 245 England 123 Bronze Age 19
Crecy, Battle of (1346) 176, 177 Dias, Bartholomeu 206 Edwin, king of Northumbria 122 Celts 5, 68, 69
Cree tribe 110 diaspora 25 Effective Rulers of the U.S.S.R. Dark Ages ix, 97, 99
cremation, Viking 131 Dickens, Charles 378 475 feudal system 133,179
Crete: Diderot, Denis 306, 307 Egbert, king of Wessex 122 food and farming 158,294
Minoan civilization 16 Diocletian, emperor 80, 81 Egmont, Mount 349 prehistory 5, 16
Crick, Francis 454 Discovery space shuttle Egypt: Magyars 99, 120, 121, 124
Crimea 267 432, 433, 455 Alexander the Great conquers megaliths 5, 12
Crimean War 350 disease: 27, 56 Middle Ages 99,158,159
Cro-Magnons 7 antibiotics 531 children 10 Renaissance explorers 174,175,
Croatia see Yugoslavia Black Death 109, 146, 147, 178, Coptic Christians 72, 165 203, 206, 207
Crockett, Davy 342 179, 202 cosmetics 42 revolutions of 1848 346
Cromwell, Oliver 260, 261, diabetics 431 Hyksos 26 society and government 68, 291
274,275 insulin 431 Middle Kingdom 11,26 trade 158, 159
Cromwell, Richard 261 in the Americas 194, 197, 221, mummies 10, 26 universities 99
crossbows 176 231,248 New Kingdom 11,26,42 World War I 388,389
Crusades 99, 109, 150, 151 Middle Ages 190 Ottoman control 308 World War II 413,414
Children's Crusade 149 plagues 81, 266 pyramids 4, 10 see also individual countries
fifth 149 smallpox 231 Romans rule 27 European Court of Human Rights
first 148 spread by Europeans 194, 197, Suez Canal 368, 369 447
fourth 149, 160 221, 270 Suez Crisis 452, 453, 459 European Union (EU) 442
second 148 vaccination 142 temples 11 explorers:
seventh 144, 145, 149 Disraeli, Benjamin 363 tombs 2, 3, 10, 42 medieval 174, 175
sixth 149 Djenne 164 under Persian rule 291 Portuguese 174, 175, 206, 207
third 148 DNA 454 war with Ottoman Turks 290 Renaissance 203, 206, 207
Crystal Palace 341 Dogen 169 Eiffel, Gustave 380 see also individual explorers
Ctesiphon 74, 75 doges 160, 161 Eiffel Tower 380 Exxon Valdez 456
Cubism 427 Domesday Book viii, 132 Eilat 423 Ezana, king of Aksum 60
Culloden, Battle of (1746) Dominican Order 102, 103 Einstein, Albert 428, 431
289, 293 Don Quixote 256 Einstein’s Tower, Potsdam 428 F
Cultural Revolution, China 441 Dorgon (Manchu chieftain) 262 Eire see Ireland factories 340, 341
Cumberland 289 Dorians 38 Eisenhower, Dwight D. 384, Fairfax, Sir Thomas 260
Cumberland, Duke of 289, 293 Drake, Edwin L. 382 385, 414 farming: W
cuneiform writing 9, 41 Drake, Sir Francis 270 elevators 380 Agricultural Revolution 294
Curasao 259 Dravidians 33 El Mirador 77 crop rotation 295
Custer, General George 370 Drebbel, Cornelius 287 Eleonora, queen of Sweden, 278 Irish potato famine 364, 365
Cuzco 146, 173 Drogheda 274,275 Elam 21 Native Americans 242
Cyprus: drugs, opium 304 Eleanor of Aquitaine 127,152, prehistoric 8, 13
Ottoman Turks attack 266, 290 druids 68 153 fascism:
Cyril, St. 112 Dunkirk 413 electricity 287 in Italy 398
Cyrillic alphabet 112 Dunlop, John Boyd 383 Elizabeth, czarina 301, 310 Spanish Civil War 399, 408
Cyrus II, the Great, king of Persia Dupleix, Joseph-Frangois, Elizabeth I, queen of England Fawkes, Guy 246

482
Fenians 365 War of the Three Henrys 225 Germany: Great Zimbabwe 167
Ferdinand I, king of Bulgaria 376 wars with British in India and the Holy Roman Empire Greece:
Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor 298,299 82,83 Alexander the Great 40, 50, 51,
250,252 wars with British in North fascism 398, 399 53, 56, 74, 75, 90
Ferdinand II, king of Spain America 302 Hitler and the Nazis 398, 399, architecture 55, 92
200, 201 wars with Spain 303 406, 412, 413 arts and crafts 90, 91
Fermi, Enrico 430 World War I 388,389 hyperinflation 397 city-states 52, 53, 54
Ferrara, Duke of 203, 204 World War II 412-413,415 industry 296 Dark Age 38
Fertile Crescent 8, 22, 36 Francia, Duke of 126 origins of World War I 388, 389 democracy 38, 54
feudal system 133,179 Francis I, king of France 222 Reformation 214, 215 Dorian invasions 38
Fibonacci, Leonardo 190, 191 Francis II, king of France 225 “scramble for Africa” 362, 363 government 38
Fiji 88 Francis of Assisi, St. 102, 168 Second Reich 361 historians 37, 38
Fillmore, Millard 352 Franciscan Order 102, 103, 168 Third Reich 399, 406 independence from Ottoman
Finland 250 Franco, General Francisco 399, Thirty Years’ War 215, 243, 246, Empire 290
fireworks 142, 143 407, 408, 409 250, 252, 253, 254, 255, 257, influence on the Renaissance
First World War see World War I Franklin, Benjamin 307, 335 266 268, 269
Flamsteed, John 268 Franks: Viking invasions 131 Minoan civilization 16
Flanders 228 battles with Romans 82, 83 War of the Spanish Succession Mycenaean culture 5, 16, 17, 38,
flax mills 296 Charlemagne 82, 99, 114, 115, 279 43
Fleming, Sir Alexander 431 124, 187 World War I 388,389 Ottoman Turks invade 290
flint tools 6 Carolingian dynasty 97, 99, 114, World War II 412-413, Persian wars 298
Florence 195, 202, 203, 204 115, 121, 124 414-415, 419, 420 Peloponnesian wars 53, 56
Florence Cathedral 237 defeat Arabs at Poitiers 114 see also Prussia; Austria; religion 54, 92
Florence University 202 Pepin the Younger reunites 114 Holy Roman Empire Spartan wars 53, 54, 55
Florida 281 Franz Ferdinand, Archduke 388, Gershwin, George 427 trade 54
Folsom point 32 389 Gettysburg, Battle of (1863) 354 Trojan wars 38
Fontenoy, Battle of (1745) 292 Franz Josef, emperor 347 Gettysburg Address 356 warfare 54
food: Frederick II the Great, king of Ghana (Gold Coast) 208 Greek fire 100
Aztecs and Incas 172, 173, 189, Prussia 292 Ghana, kingdom of 117 Greenpeace 456
193, 194, 196, 197, 199, 231, Frederick V, Elector Palatine 252 ghettos 109 Greenwich Observatory 268
235 Frederick William I, king of Prussia Ghuzz 134 Gregory VII, St., Pope 125
Forbidden City (Beijing) 180 292 Gibraltar 257 Grimaldi 269
Ford, Henry 382 Fredericksburg, Battle of (1862) Gilbert, William 287 Gropius, Walter 428
Formigny, Battle of (1450) 177 355 Gilgamesh 22 Guadalcanal, Battle of (1942) 417
Formosa see Taiwan Free French 415 Giza 11 Guadalupe-Hidalgo, Treaty of
Fort Duquesne, Battle of (1755) Freemasonry 188 glasses 190 (1848) 342
303 French and Indian War 303 glass windows 236, 284 Guanahani 207
Fort Oswego, Battle of (1756) French Academy 269 glassware, Phoenician 28 Guangzhou (Canton) 181, 304,
303 French Revolution 307, 346 Globe Theatre, London 235 305, 344
Fort Sumter, Battle of (1861) 355 frescoes 43 Goa 213 Guatemala 77, 86
forts, Celtic 68 Friends of the Earth 456 Goering, Hermann 419 Godunov, Boris 227
Fortune, Robert 305 Fronde, the 264 Goethe, Johann Wolfgang 307 Guernica 409
fossil fuels 457 Frontrevault 153 gold rushes 357,371,375 guinea, coin 270
France: Fujiwara family 118, 119 Golden Gate Bridge 429 gunpowder 94, 137, 142
Capetian dynasty 126, 127 Fulani nation 290 Golden Horn 100 Gunpowder Plot 246
Cardinal Richelieu and Louis XIII Fulton, Robert 335 Golden Temple, Amritsar 237 guns see war and weapons
253, 254, 255 Gone With the Wind 427 Gupta dynasty 49, 50, 51, 78, 79
Carolingians 97, 99, 114, 115, G Good Hope, Cape of 206, 213, Gustavus Adolphus, king of
121 Gabriel, Archangel 106 258, 259, 308 Sweden 250, 252, 253,
cave art 6, 7 Gagarin, Yuri 438 Gorbachev, Mikhail 437 Gustavus Vasa, king of Sweden
Charlemagne 82, 99, 114, 115, Geiza, Prince 120 Gordon, General 362 250, 251
124, 187 Galileo Galilei 239, 269, 286 gospels 73 Gutenberg, Johannes 202
Crimean War 350 Gama, Vasco da 206 Gothic architecture 188
Crusades 144, 145, 149, 150, Gandhi, Mahatma (Mohandas) Goths 80, 82 H
151 421 government: Haarlem 202
East India Company 298 Ganges Rivet 14, 57 democracy 54 Habichtsburg 222
Edict of Nantes 224, 225, 264 Gao 208 in the Renaissance 203 Hadrian, Emperor 65
Franco-Prussian War 359 gardens: Granada 200,201 Haile Selassie, emperor of Ethiopia
Franks conquer 114 Chinese 262 Grant, Ulysses S. 354, 356 165
French Revolution 307, 346 Mogul 321 Great Depression (1930s) Halifax bomber 415
the Fronde 264 Zen Buddhist 157 400, 404, 405 Halley, Edmond 269, 287
Huguenots 215,224,254,255, Garibaldi, Giuseppe 358, 359 Great Enclosure 167 Halley's Comet 132, 287
264 Gaskell, Elizabeth 378 Great Exhibition, London (1851) Ham Nghi 366
Hundred Years'War 176,177 Gasperi, Alcide de 420 341 Hamburg 159
Louis XIV 264, 279, 282, 284 Gaulle, Charles de 415 Great Lakes 281,328 Hammurabi the Great, king of
megaliths 5, 12, 13 Gaza Strip 453 Great Mosque, Cordoba 169 Babylon 21
Merovingians 114, 115 Geldof, Bob 449 Great Mosque, Djenne, 165 Hampton Court 236
monasteries 139, 179 genetic engineering 455 Great Mosque, Timbuktu 164 Han dynasty 59, 70, 71, 74, 93
Napoleonic Wars 368 Genghis Khan (Temujin) 170,218 Great Northern War 278 Handel, George Frideric 331
North American colonies 290 Genoa 176, 190 Great Plague (1664-1665) 261 Hangzhou 137
“scramble for Africa" 362, 363 genocide 415 Great Plains 404 Hannibal 62, 63 160
Second Republic 347 Geoffrey of Anjou 152 Great Purge (U.S.S.R.) 395 Hanseatic League 159, 250
Suez Crisis 452, 453, 459 geometry 269 Great Pyramid, Giza 10 Hapsburg dynasty 125, 222, 228,
Thirty Years’ War 215, 243, George II, king of Greece 420 Great Serpent Mound 76 252, 253, 257, 279
246,250, 252, 253, 254, 255, George IV, king of England (Prince Great Stupa, Sanchi 57 Hapsburg Emperors of Austria
257, 266 Regent) 327,332 Great Trek 343 222, 252, 253, 472
troubadours 151, 152 George VI, king of England 424 Great Wall of China vii, 58, 59, Harappa 14, 15
Vikings in 99, 130, 131 George Lvov, Prince 394 262 Harding, Warren G. 400, 404
War of the Spanish Succession Gerards, Balthasar, 228 Great War see World War I Harfleur 177
Germanic peoples 82, 83 Great Western, steamship 341 Hargreaves, James 296, 297
279

483
Harold II, king of England 123 Holocaust 415 conquistadores conquer 199, Irish Land League 365
Harrison, John 334 Holy Land see Palestine 241 Irish Republican Army (IRA] 392,
Hattin, Battle of (1187] 149 Holy Roman emperors 472 festivals of the sun 193, 199 448
Harun al-Rashid, Caliph 116 Holy Roman Empire: rise of 173 Irish Republican Brotherhood 392
Harvard College 249, 280 and the Hanseatic League 159 spread of 173, 193, 194 Iron Age 20, 39
Harvey, William 269, 286 and the Hapsburgs 222, 252, Topa Inca 199 Iron Curtain 436
Hatshepsut, queen of Egypt 27 253 under Pachacutec 173 iron and steel:
Hausa peoples 309 creation of 115, 124 see also Peru China 39
Hawaii, first settlers Magyars 124 India: Darby’s coke furnace 296
88, 89 War of the Austrian Succession Alexander the Great invades 56 Industrial Revolution 340, 341
Hayes, Rutherford B. 371 292 Aryans 15, 33 Nok culture 60, 95
Hebrews 24 war with Ottoman Turks 290 Bengal seizes Calcutta 299 tools 46, 47, 69
Hedeby 131 Home Insurance Building 381 British sole trading rights 258 weapons 46, 47, 69
Hegira 106, 107 Homer 38 Buddhism 57,78,79,90,91 Iroquois confederacy 110, 230
Heinlein, Peter 239 Homestead Act (1862] 370 caste system 33 irrigation 8, 18, 57, 93, 104
Henrietta Maria, Queen 260 Homo erectus 6 early cities 92, 93 Isabella I, queen of Spain 200,
Henry I, king of England 132, Homo habilis 6 early civilization 33 201, 207
152' Homo sapiens 6 East India Company 299, 366 Isabelle of France (wife of Richard
Henry II, king of England 127, Hong Kong, Britain leases 344 European explorers 174,175, II] 176
132, 152, 153, 162, 163, 274 Hoover, Herbert C. 405 206, 207, 265 Isandhlwana, Battle of (1879] 343
Henry II, king of France 224 Hopewell Indians 76, 77, 91 Gupta Empire 49, 50, 51, 78, 79 Isfahan: 135, 209
Henry III, king of England 162, Hopi tribe 111 Hindu and Muslim friction 243 Masjid-i Jomeh Mosque 234
163 horses: independence 421 Tomeh Mosque 135
Henry III, king of France 224, stirrups 70 Indian Mutiny 339 Ishtar 20, 23, 36
225' Magyars 120 in the Commonwealth 421,451 Isin 21
Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor Mongol 146,170,171,218 Kushan dynasty 78, 79 Isis 1 1
125 Parthians 74 Queen Victoria made empress Islam and Muslims:
Henry IV (Henry of Navarre], Seljuk 134, 148 299 Abbasid dynasty 116
king of France 224, 225 houses see architecture Mauryan Empire 51,57 arts and crafts 116, 234, 235
Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor House of Commons 163 Mogul Empire 218, 243, 265, Crusades 99, 109, 144, 145, 149,
152' House of Lords 163 299 150, 151
Henry V, king of England 177 Houston, Sam 342 nationalism 421 expelled from Spain 109, 201
Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor Hradcany Castle, Prague 252 Sikh War 298 foundation of Islam 106,107,
149' Huangdi, “Yellow Emperor” slave trade 308 168
Henry VI, king of England 177 5, 18, 19 spice trade 258 in Mali Empire 164
Henry VII, king of England 210 Huari 129 trade 57, 93 invade Spain 99
Henry VIII, king of England 201, Huascar, Sapa Inca 199, 220 wars between British and French militant fundamentalists 435
206, 210, 215, 246 Huayna Capac, Sapa Inca 301 Prophet Muhammad 99,106,
Henry of Anjou 152,153 199,220 war between British and Marathas 107
Henry of Guise 225 Hubble Space Telescope 439, 455 298,299 Shiites 209,453
Henry the Navigator, prince of Hudson River 259, 280 Indian Ocean 212 slavery 309
Portugal 174,175,212 Hudson’s Bay Company 357 Indians, American see Native spread of 98, 106, 107, 165
Heraclius, emperor 100 Huguenots 215, 224, 264 North Americans Sunnis 209,217,453
heraldry 186 Huitzilopochtli 172, 196 Indochina 366, 367 tensions between Shiites
herbal medicine 142, 143 humanism 202 Indus Valley 5,14,15,74,75 and Sunnis 106, 107, 209,
Herzegovina Humayun, emperor of India 218 Industrial Revolution 296, 217, 453
see Bosnia-Herzegovina Hume, David 306 340, 341 Umayyad dynasty 107, 116
hermits 168 Hundred Years'War 176,177 Inkerman, Battle of (1854] 351 Isle of Wight 247,261
Herod the Great 61 Hungary: Innocent IV, Pope 174 Ismail I, Shah 209
Herodotus viii, 37, 53 and the Ottoman Empire 290 Inquisition, Spanish 200, 201 Israel:
Hertz, Heinrich 383 Magyars 120, 121 insulin 431 division into Israel and Judah 24,
Hess, Rudolf, 419 Huns 59, 82, 83 insurance 159 25
Hideyoshi 232 Hunt, Henry 327 International Red Cross 449 see also Palestine
hieroglyphics viii, 10, 86 Huron Indians 230 International Style, architecture Israel, state of:
highwaymen 158 Hus, Jan 203 428,429 Suez Crisis 452, 453, 459
Himeji Castle 233 Hussites, Moravian 214 Internet 455, 464 Issus, Battle of (333 B.c.) 56
Himiko 84 Huygens, Christiaan 269, 286 Inuit 76, 230 Istanbul 183, 216
Hindenburg, Paul von 399, 406 Hydaspes, Battle of (325 B.C.] 56 inventors see science and see also Constantinople
Hindu Kush 33, 57 Hyderabad 298 technology; individual Italy:
Hinduism: hydroelectricity 457 inventors city-states 160, 161
Gupta dynasty 49,50,51,78,79 hygiene, bathing 15 Iraq: commedia dell'arte 282
Mauryan Empire 57 Hypogeum 13 invades Kuwait 453 Etruscans 34, 35,
vedas 33 Iran-Iraq War 453 fascism 398, 399
Hirohito, emperor of Japan 411 I Persian Gulf War 453, 456 foundation of Rome 34,35
Hiroshima 417,418 Ibn Battuta 174, 175 prehistoric 5 Lombards 82
Hitler, Adolf 398, 399, 406, Ibrahim, Sultan 266 World War I 388,389 Medici family 159, 202, 203,
412,413 Ibsen, Henrik 379 see also Mesopotamia 204
Hittites 20, 47 Ice Age 6 Ireland: presidents and prime ministers
Ho Chi Minh 445 Iceni 69 Cromwell invades 274, 275 477
Hochelaga 230 icon 113 Easter Rising 392, 393 Renaissance 203, 269 vc
Hogarth, William 327 Idris Aloma 208 English rule 274, 275, 364, 365 “scramble for Africa” 362, 367
Hogenberg, Franz 250 Ieyasu, Tokugawa 232,244 home rule issue 365, 392 trade with China 304
Hohenzollern emperors of Iliad, The 38 famine 364, 365 World War I 388, 389
Germany 472 Ilkhans 209 High Kings 155 World War II 414-415,420
Hohokam tribe 111, 146 Illinois 302 Irish Free State established 393 Itzcoatl 172
Hojo clan 156 illuminated manuscripts 133, James II lands in 275 Ivan III the Great, Grand Prince
Hokkaido 84 138, 139 St. Patrick converts to Christianity of Moscow 226,227
Hokusai 331 Incas: 154, 155 Ivan IV the Terrible, Czar 226,
Holbein, Hans 234 architecture 173, 189, 237 Vikings in 99, 131, 154, 155 227
Holland see Netherlands arts and crafts 173,234,235 see also Northern Ireland Ivan V, Czar 276

484
Ivanova, Anna 310 Jewish revolt 109 Kerensky, Alexander 395 Leopold, Duke of Austria 149
ivory 164, 166 King David and 24 Kew Gardens, London 367 Leopold II, king of the Belgians
ivory carvings 299 Nebuchadnezzar conquers Khanate of the Golden Horde 362, 363
Izumo 85 25, 36 226 Lepanto, Battle of (1571) 266
Temple 24, 61 Khartoum 31 Lerma, Duke of 256
J Zionist terrorism 422, 448 Khazars 112,134 Leuthen, Battle of (1757) 300,
Jackson, Andrew 329 Jesuits (Society of Jesus) Khedive of Egypt 362,363 301
Jacob 24 215, 232, 233 Khitans 136 Levant 20, 28, 161
Jacobites 289, 293 Jesus Christ 72, 73, 139 Khmer 146, 184, 185, 188 Lewes, Battle of (1264) 162
jade 18 jewelry: Khoisan bushmen 60 Lewis, Meriwether 328, 329
Jahangir, emperor of India 265 jade 18 Khomeini, Ayatollah 453 Leyte Gulf, Battle of (1944) 416
Jainism 33 Viking 130, 131 Khrushchev, Nikita 436, 437 Lhasa 263
Jakarta 258, 259 Jews and Judaism: Khufu, Pharaoh 10 Li Yuan, emperor of China 105
see also Batavia and the Inquisition 200, 201 Khyber Pass 218 Liberius, General 100
Jamaica 271 concentration camps 415 Kidd, Captain 270 Light Brigade, Charge of the 350
James I, king of England (James VI diaspora 108 Kiev 112,113,131,226 Lincoln, Abraham 356
of Scotland) 246, 247, 293 expelled from Britain 109 Kilwa 169 Lindbergh, Charles 400
James II, king of England 275 expelled from Spain 109, 201 King James Bible 246 Linnaeus, Carolus 269, 295
James II, king of Scotland 293 in Roman Empire 108, 109 King, Rev. Martin Luther 446 lion column, Sarnath 57
James IV, king of Scotland 246 Judea and Palestine 24, 72 King George’s War 303 lion gate, Mycenae 17
James VI, king of Scotland Kristallnacht 407 King Philip’s War 303 Lionel, Prince 155
see James I, king of England Nazis and 399, 406 King William’s War 303 Lippershey, Hans 269, 287
Jameson Raid 343 revolts 108, 109 Kitchener, Lord 388 Little Big Horn, Battle of (1876)
Jamestown 248, 281 see also Israel; Judea Kleisthenes 54 370
Jankau, Battle of (1645) 251 Jiangxi 402, 403 Klerk, F. W. de 447, 462, 463 Liu Bang 59
Japan: Jianwen 180 Knights Hospitallers 148, 150 Live Aid concert 449
499 B.C.-A.D. 500 jihad 148 Knights of St. John 150,216,266 Livingstone, David 362
annexes Korea 410 Jinnah, Muhammad Ali 421 Knights Templars 150 Livy 67
arts and crafts 118, 119 Joan of Arc 177 Knossos 16 Locke, John 268, 306
atomic bombs 417,418 Joanna the Mad 201, 222 Knox, John 214 Lockerbie 448
Buddhism 84, 85, 232, 233, 245 Joffre, General 388 Koran 106 Loire River 130
Chinese influences 84, 119 John, king of England 162, 163 Korean War 444, 459 Lombards 82
Christians massacred 244 John Duke of Bedford 177 Koumbi Saleh 117, 164 London:
Christian missionaries 232, 352 John of Gaunt 176 Kowloon Peninsula 344 Globe Theatre 235
civil wars 232 John of Pian del Carpine 174 Krak des Chevaliers 145, 148 Great Fire of (1666) 261,284,
clothes 119 John the Baptist 101, 139 Kremlin, Moscow 226, 227 285
European firearms 232 John the Evangelist, St. Krishna 78 Iceni sack 69
Fujiwara period 119,156 John the Fearless 228 Kristallnacht 407 trade 297
Fujiwara Yorifusa 119 Johnson, Andrew 356 Krum, Khan 112 Wars of the Roses 210
Hojo clan 156 Judaism see Jews and Judaism KuKluxKlan 356,446 Wren churches 284, 285
invades Korea 232 Judea 61 Kuang-wu, emperor of China 71 London, Treaty of (1913)
isolation 241 Judson, Whitcomb 382 Kublai Khan 137,170,171,174, 389
Kabuki theater 282 Julius I, Pope 205 175, 180 Londonderry 274
Kamakura period 156,157 Julius II, Pope 215 Kumasi 273 Long March 403
literature 118, 119 Jumieges Abbey 127 Kuomintang 372, 402 longbows 176
Mutsuhito, Emperor 353 junks 142 Kuprili, Mehmet 266 longships, Viking 130
occupies Manchuria 410 Jupiter (planet) 269 Kuprili, Mustafa 266 Lorraine, Claude 282
periods in history 291 Justinian, Emperor 100, 101 Kush 30,31,51 “lost wax” process, bronze casting
Portuguese explorers 174,175, Jutes 82, 122, 123 Kushan dynasty 78, 79 166
206, 207, 232, 233 Jutland, Battle of (1916) 391 Kuwait 453, 456 Louis IX, king of France 150
Sen Rikyu 233 Kyoto 85,119,157,244 Louis VII, king of France 127
shoguns and samurai 146, 156, K Louis VIII, king of France 127,
157, 232, 233, 242, 244 Kabuki theater 282, 283 L •152
Sumo wrestling 245 Kadesh, Battle of (1298 BC) La Rochelle, Battle of (1372) 177 Louis IX (St. Louis) 127,145,
tea ceremony 233 Kahun 27 La Rochelle, Siege of (1628) 255 149
Tokugawa shoguns 232, 244, Kaiser Wilhelm II 388, 396, 406 LaVenta 32 Louis XIV, king of France 254,
283, 352 Kaifeng 137 lacquerware 181, 185, 255,264, 279, 282, 284
wars with China 290, 410, 411 Kalahari Desert 60 Lalibela, emperor of Ethiopia 165 Louis XV, king of France 264,
World War II 401,411, Kamakura 156, 157 Lao-Tzu 39 292
416-417,418,419 kamikaze pilots 416 Lapita 88 Louis XVI, king of France 312,
Yamato period 84, 85 Kammu 85 Lapland 250 318,319
Zen Buddhism 157 Kampuchea 187 Lascaux caves 6 Louis the Fat 126
Jaroslav the Wise 113 Kanagawa Treaty (1854) 352 lasers 454 Louis the Pious, emperor of the
Jarrow March 404 Kandinsky, Wassily 428 Latin America: Franks 115
Java 213, 258 Kanem-Bornu 99, 208 independence movements Louis Napoleon see Napoleon III,
Javavarman II, King of Cambodia Kangxi, emperor of China 262 242, 290, 326 Emperor
184, 185 Kanishka I 78, 79 see also individual countries Louis-Philippe, king of France
Jayavarman VII, King of Cambodia Kano 309 League of Nations 397,400,406, 346
185 Kant, Immanuel 306, 307 409, 422 Louisiana 302
jazz 401,427 Karachi 421 Leandros 90 Lovango, Congo 273
Jazz Singer, The 427 Karelia 250 Leclanche, Georges 383 Loyola, Ignatius 215
Jefferson, Thomas 317,328 Kay, John 297 Lee, General Robert E. 354 Liibeck 159
Jehan, Shah 240, 241, Kaya Maghan Sisse 117 Leibnitz 269 Lud, Ned 327
Jenne-jeno 60 Kazakstan 120 Leicester, Thomas Coke, Earl of Luftwaffe 413
Jenner, Edward 335 Kazan 310 294 Lully, Jean-Baptiste 282
Jericho ix, 24 Kelly, Ned 375 Lenclos, Ninon de 268 Luther, Martin 214,215
Jerusalem: Kennedy, John F. 436, 437, 438 Lenin, Vladimir 395 Lutherans 214,215,222
Crusader,s recapture 99, 148 Kenya 60, 308 Leningrad see St. Petersburg Liitzen, Battle of (1632) 251,
Crusade's 99, 109, 144, 145 Kenyon, Kathleen ix Leo I the Great, Pope 204 252,253
^0ome of the Rock 106 Kepler, Johannes 239, 269 Leonardo da Vinci 205, 234, 238 Luxembourg 228

485
 Masada 61 Catholic missionaries 221 Mohenjo-Daro 14, 15
M Masai 308 conquistadores 197, 241 Moldavia 350
Macao 213,233,305 masks 17,197,272 Maya 4, 32, 50, 76, 77, 86, 87, Moldovita Monastery 183
Macartney, Lord 304, 305 Massachusetts 280, 302 93,96, 97, 98, 168, 186 Moliere 282
Macdonald, Flora 293 Massacre of St. Bartholomew’s Day Spanish Empire 128 Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact 413
Machu Picchu 173, 189 (1572) 225 Teotihuacan 50, 76, 77, 98, 128, Moluccas 207, 212
Mackenzie, William Lyon 357 Massacre of Vassy (1562) 225 129, 186 Mombasa 272
Madeira 213 matchlock guns 252 see also individual countries monasteries:
Madras 258, 302 mathematics: Mesopotamia: Cistercian 103
Magdeburg 253 algebra 143 Babylonians 21 Cluniac 102, 103
Magellan, Ferdinand 207 ancient Greece 92, 93 in Ottoman Empire 290 in England 103
Maghada 33, 78 Babylonian 21, 23 Sumerians 9, 15, 44 manuscripts 102, 103
Magna Carta 162, 163 calculus 287 see also Iraq Monet, Claude 378, 379
Magyars 99, 120, 121 Chinese 190 Messerschmitt 413 money:
Mahabharata 78, 79 Indian number zero 142 Messiah 72 Chinese 18
Mahdists 309 in the Renaissance 268, 269 Methodius, St. 112 promissory notes 158
Maimonides 169 in the 1600s 239, 287 Metternich, Prince 347 silver and gold 158,160
Makah people 76 logarithms 287 Mexico: Viking 130, 131
Malacca 213 Mayan 86, 87 art and design 139,172,235 Mongols: 134, 190
Mali Empire 117,146,164,208 slide rule 287 Aztecs 77,128,146,172,186, invasions of China 170, 171, 263
Malik Shah 135 Mather, Increase 281 190, 194, 196, 197, 230, 231, Kublai Khan reunites empire 170,
Malinke 164 Maui 348 342 171
Malplaquet, Battle of (1709) 279 Mauryan Empire 51 independence from Spain 342 spread of 120,170,171
Malta 13, 29, 266 Maximilian, Emperor 80, 81 Mayan civilization 4, 32, 50, 76, see also Yuan dynasty
Mama Ocllo 173 Maximilian I, Duke of Bavaria 77, 86, 87, 93, 96, 97, 98, 168, Monke Khan 170
Mamluks 134,135,309 252 186 monks 72, 168
Manaus 381 Maximilian I, Holy Roman Olmecs 4, 32, 42, 76, 77 see abo monasteries
Manchu dynasty 233, 372 Emperor 222 prehistory ix, 4, 32 Mons, Battle of (1914) 389
Manchuria 82 Mayan civilization: Pyramid of the Sun 76 Montagu, Lady Mary Wortley 334
Manchus 233, 243, 372, 402, 403 calendar 86 stone temples 32, 76, 77, 172 Montcalm, Marquis de 303,
Manco Capac 173, 199 city-states 86, 98 Toltecs 128, 129, 146, 168, 186 Monte Cassino 102
mandarins 190 decline of empire 87 war with America 342 Montezuma II 196, 220
Mandela, Nelson 447, 462, 463 Egyptian influences 87 Mexico City 172,342 Montfort, Simon de 162, 163
Manhattan Island 249 end of 87 Miami tribe 230 Montgomery, Field Marshall
Manhattan project 430,431 human sacrifice 87 mica 128 Bernard 384, 414
Manitoba 357 spread of 50, 86, 87 Michael VIII, Emperor 101 Montreal 230,301,303
Mansa Musa, king of Mali 164, temples 32, 86, 87, 93, 96, 97, Mikhail Romanov, Czar 227 moon landings 434
165, 208 168, 322 Michelangelo 204, 234, 235 Moravia 121
Mantua, Duke of 204 Mayflower 240, 241, 248, 249 microscope 239, 268 Morgan, Captain Sir Henry 270,
manuscripts 133, 138, 139 Mayta Capa 199 Middle Ages 144,145 271
Manzikert, Battle of (1071) 134 Mazarin, Cardinal Jules 254, 255 Middle East: moriscos 256
Mao Zedong 403, 411, 425, Mazzini, Giuseppe 346 terrorism 448 Moro, Aldo 448
440,441 Meade, General George 354 see also individual countries Morse, Samuel 383
Maoris: Mecca 106,107,164,178,216 Midway, Battle of (1942) 417 Morse code 383
clashes with Europeans 291,348 Medes 23,40,41 Mies van der Rohe, Ludwig 428 Moscow:
migration to New Zealand 5,51, Medici, Cosimo de’ 204 Mieszko I, king of Poland 120 Kremlin 226,227
88, 89 Medici, Giuliano de’ 203 migrations 88, 89 St. Basil's Cathedral 226
maps: Medici, Lorenzo de’ 203, 204, Milan, Duke of 204,205 Moses 24, 25, 61
Mercator 239 224 Miller Glenn 427 Mosley, Sir Oswald 399
Renaissance 203 Medici family 159,202,203,204 mills, water 95 mosques 138, 140, 141
Maracaibo 271 medicine: Milton, John 282 Mossi 309
Marathas 265, 298 ancient Greece 95 Minamoto family 119,156 mother-goddesses 8, 23
Marathon, Battle of (490 B.C.) 53 vaccination 142, 335 Minamoto Yoritomo 156 Mott, Lucretia 373
Marcomanni Wars 81 Medina 106, 107 mines (weapons) 233 motte-and-bailey castles 140, 141
Marduk 36, 37 Mediterranean Sea: Ming dynasty vii, 147, 174, 180, Mount Badon, Battle of (503)
Marengo, Battle of 320 in Byzantine Empire 100 181, 188, 190, 233 Mount Ilopango 86
Margaret Tudor 246 Ottoman Empire tries to gain Minos, King 16 Moymir, Duke 121
Mari 21 control of 290 Minotaur 16 Mozambique 213, 308
Maria Theresa, empress of Austria ships 27, 52, 131, 160 Mir Jafar 299 Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus 306,
292,330 trade 16,27,52,62,145,160, Mir space station 439 307, 330
Marie Antoinette, queen of France 206, 309 missionaries: Muawiya, Caliph 107
318, 319 megaliths 5, 12, 13 in New Zealand 348 Muhammad, Prophet 99, 106,
Marie de Medicis 254 Mehmet II 182,183,216 in Spanish Empire 221 107
Mark, St. 160 Meiji period 352 Jesuits 215,232,233 Mukden 353, 410
markets 158 Mekong Valley 5 Mississippi River 76, 98, 110, 230, mummies 10
Marlborough, John Churchill, Melanesia 88 281, 302, 303 Mumtaz Mahal 240,241,265
Duke of 279 Memphis 45 Moche 50, 77, 129 Munich Agreement 412
Marne, First Battle of (1914) 390 Mendeleyev, Dimitri 383 Model Parliament 163 Munich Olympics (1972) 448
Marpa the Translator 169 Mendelssohn, Moses 378 Mogollon people 76, 111 music:
Marquesas Islands 88 Mendelsohn, Erich 428 Mogul Empire: Renaissance 203, 268, 269
Marsh Arabs 9 Mennonites 214 arts and crafts 234, 235 jazz 401 $
Marshall Plan 419 Mercator, Gerhardus 239 attacks on 299 Muslims see Islam and Muslims
Martel, Charles, king of the Franks mercenaries 253 conquers Bengal 298 Mussolini, Benito 398, 399,
114, 115 Merciless Parliament 163 decline of 265, 290, 298 415, 420
Marx, Karl 347 Meroe 30,31,60 foundation of 321 Mustafa I 266
Mary, Queen of Scots 246 Merovingian dynasty 114,115 gardens 321 Mustafa, Kara 266
Mary I, queen of England (Mary Mesoamerica: Mohacs, Battle of (1526) 216 Mwene Mutapa 167
Tudor) 210,274,275 Aztecs 77,128,146,172,186, Mohammed Reza Pahlavi, Myanmar see Burma
Mary Rose ix, 206 190, 194, 196, 197, 230, 231, Shah of Iran 453 Mycenae 5,16,17,43
Maryland 280 235,342 Mohawk tribe 110 Mysore 299

486
mystery plays 187 Statue of Liberty 380 Nuremberg Laws 407 Polynesians 88, 89, 99
New York Stock Exchange Nuremberg rallies 406 paganism 122
N 404,442 Nuremberg war trials 419 Paine, Thomas 306
Nabopolassar 36 New Zealand: Nyamwezi 308 Pakistan:
Nadir Shah 298 Captain Cook visits 89, 291 nylon 431 ancient history 5, 14
Nagasaki 244,417,418,431 Dutch visit 243 Palenque 77
Nagashino, Battle of (1575) 232 in British Empire 348 o Palestine:
Nalanda University 79 Maoris 88,89,140,141,147, Oba 166, 212 Crusades 99, 109, 144, 145, 148,
Nan Chao 136 291,348 Oba Ewuare 166 149
Nanjing (Nanking) 180, 344 Polynesians settle in 5, 51, 88, Ochterlony, Sir David 324, see also Israel
Nanjing, Treaty of (1842) 344 89, 99 O’Connell, Daniel 364 Palestine Liberation Organization
Napata 30 whaling 348 Octavian see Augustus, Emperor (PLO) 453-
Napoleon Bonaparte 319, 320, women’s rights 373 64, 65, 66 Panama 271
321, 325, 326, 334 Newcomen, Thomas 296, 297 Odyssey, The 38 Pankhurst, Emmeline 373
Napoleon III, Emperor (Louis Newfoundland 248, 249 Offa, king of England 122 pantomime 282
Napoleon) 346, 347, 360, 361 Newton, Sir Isaac 268, 269, 286, Ogodai Khan 170 papacy see popes
Napoleonic Wars 368 287 Ohio Valley 303 Papal States: /
Nara 85 Niani 60 oil: annexed by Cj&vour 358, 359
Narses, General 100 Nicene Creed 73 Iraq invades Kuwait 453, 456 Piedmont-Sardinia invades 358,
Narva, Battle of (1700) 278 Nicephorus, Emperor 112 pollution 456 359
Naseby, Battle of (1645) 260 Nicholas II, Czar 388, 394 Old Pretender see Stuart, James see also popbs
Nash, John 332 Niger River 31,208, 363 Old Testament 25 papermaking 94, 143, 190
Nasmyth, James 341 Nigeria: 309 Olmecs 32 Papineau, Lpuis Joseph 357
Natal 343 1100-1480 166,167 Oman 308, 506 papyrus viii, 10
National Aeronautics and see also Benin; Dahomey; O’Neill, Sir Phelim 274 Paracelsus (239
Space Administration (NASA) Nok culture opera 282 Pardoner’s Tale 187
439, 455 “Night of the Long Knives" (1934) opium wars 344 Paris: \
nationalism: 406 Orange Free State 343 Black Death\ 109, 146, 147, 178,
rise of in Europe 145 Nightingale, Florence 350 Organization for African Unity 179 \
Native Americans: Nijinsky, Vaslav 426 (OAU) 451 Eiffel Tower 'SSO
European settlers 248, 302 Nijo Castle, Kyoto 244 Organization of Petroleum Franco-Prussian\War 359
Pontiac’s rebellion 303 Nile River 10,309,362 Exporting Countries (OPEC) 442 French Revolutioft\290, 307, 346
NATO see North Atlantic Treaty Nineveh 22, 23, 37 Orkney Islands 13,45 Hundred Years’ WarT76, 177
Organization Nixon, Richard M. 445 Orleans, Siege of (1428-1429) Second Republic 347
Navajo tribe 111 Nobel, Alfred 383 177 Paris, Treaty of (1856) 351
navigation: Nobunaga, Oda 232 Ormonde, James Butler, Duke of Parliament (Britain):
astrolabes 238 Nok culture 31,51,60,95 274 execution of Charles I 261
compasses 94, 95, 142, 143, 238 nomads 8, 50 Ormuz 213 Gunpowder Plot 246
instruments 238 Nordlingen, Battle of (1634) Orissa, India 189 Parnell, Charles 365
in the Renaissance 201 251, 253 orrery 269, 286 Pami 74
Nazareth 72, 73 Normandy 131, 415 Orthodox Church 101, 112, 113 Parthenon 92
Nazca people 50,129 Normans: Osiris 2, 11 Parthians 74, 75, 80
Nazis 399,406,428 architecture 140, 141 Osman I, Sultan 216 Passchendaele, Battle of (1917)
Neanderthals 6, 7 in England 123, 131, 132, 133 Osman II, Sultan 266 390
Nebuchadnezzar I, king of Babylon in Sicily 133 Ostrogoths 90 Pataliputra 78
25, 36 North Africa: Oswald, king of Northumbria Patrick, St. 154, 155
Nefertiti 26 and the Ottoman Empire 290, 122 Paul, St. 72, 73
Nehru, Jawaharlal 421 see also individual countries Oswy, king of Northumbria 122 Paul III, Pope 215
Nelson, Admiral Horatio 321 North America: 290 Ottakar II, king of Bohemia 121 Pavia 236
Nero, Emperor 67 European settlers 302, 338 Otto I, emperor of Germany 120, Pawnee tribe 230,231,370
Nestorian church 73 exploration of 338 124 Pearl Harbor 401,414,416,417
Netherlands: farming 230 Ottoman Empire: 290 Pearse, Padraig 392
Calvinism 214,215,228 railroads 337 arts and crafts 234, 235 peasants, farming 440
East India Company 259 Temple Mound culture 98, 110 besieges Vienna 216, 267, 279 Pechenegi 113
revolt against Spain 228, 229 Vikings in 131 captures Constantinople 100, Peel, Sir Robert 364
slaves 259,270,271 wars between British and French 101, 182, 183 Peking see Beijing
spice trade 258 302 Crimean War 350 Palestinian Liberation
Thirty Years’ War 215, 243, 246, see also Canada; Mexico; Native decline of 243, 266 Organization (PLO) 453
250, 252, 253, 254, 255, 257, Americans; United States fall of Constantinople 101, 182, Peloponnesian wars 53, 56
266-— of America 183 Pembroke, Richard de Clare,Earl
trade with China. 304 North Atlantic Treaty Organization golden age 195 of (“Strongbow”) 154, 155
War of the Spanish Succession (NATO) 436,437 Janissaries 182, 183, 266 penicillin 431
257, 279 North American Free Trade makes peace with Safavid Empire Penn, William 280
West India Company 259 Agreement (NAFTA) 443 266 Pennsylvania 280
see also Austrian Netherlands; North Carolina 280 Suleyman the Magnificent Pepin the Short, king of the Franks
Spanish Netherlands North German Confederation 360 216, 266 114,115
netsuke ix, 314, 331 Northern Ireland (Ulster): war with Egypt 291 Pepys, Samuel 269, 282
Neva River 276 fighting between Catholics and war with Russia 310 Pericles 54
Nevarre 200 Protestants 274, 275 see also Turkey periods of Japan 474
New Deal 405 see also Britain Ouchy, Treaty of (1912) 376 Perry, Commodore Matthew 352
New England 230, 248, 249 Norway: Oudenarde, Battle of (1708) 279 Perry, Oliver 9
New France 303 Vikings 130 Oudh 298 Persepolis 40, 41
New Guinea 5, 88 Nostradamus 239 Oxenstierna, Count Axel 250 Persia:
New Mexico 281 Nova Scotia 302 Oxfam 449 Alexander the Great conquers
New Model Army 260 Novgorod 113,131,226 Oyo Empire 273, 308 41, 56
New Netherland 259 Nubia 11,30,31 ozone layer 456 the arts 234, 235
New South Wales 374 nuclear weapons attack on Delhi, 298
New Territories 344 see also atomic bombs P windmills 238
New York: Numitor, King 34 Pachacuti 173, 199 Safavid dynasty 195, 209, 217,
skyscrapers 380, 381, 401 Nur Jahan, Empress 265 Pacific Ocean: 243

487
 Sassanian Empire 74, 75, 106 porcelain 137, 139, 143 pygmies 60 Rivera, General Primo de 399,
Shapur dynasty 74, 75, 78 Porsche, Ferdinand 430 Pyramid of the Sun 76 408
spread of empire 9 Porto Bello 271 pyramids: Roanoke 248
wars with Ottoman Empire 290 Portsmouth, Treaty of (1905) 353 Chichen Itza 96, 97, 128 Roaring Twenties 401,426
Zoroastrianism 41 Portugal: 290 Egyptian 4, 10 Robert II, king of France 127
see also Iran African exploration 174,175, Olmec 32 Robespierre, Maximilien 318,
Peru: 212 319, 320
conquistadores 241 African trading forts 212 Q Rococo style 307
Huari Empire 98, 129 colonies 290 Qanuni 216 Rodin, Auguste 379
Incas 173,189,193,194, explorers 174, 175, 206, 207 Qianlong, emperor of China 304, Roha 165
199,231 fascism 399 305 Rolfe, John 249
prehistory 4 Henry the Navigator 174,175, Qing dynasty 233, 243, 262, 263, Roman Catholic Church:
religion 173 212 283, 284, 304, 305, 339, 345 and Galileo 269
silver 173 Latin American independence Quakers 214, 280 and the Reformation 214, 215
Peter I, king of Serbia 376 movement 290 Quebec 242, 248, 249, 357 Council of Trent 215
Peter I the Great, Czar 276, 277, megaliths 5, 12 Quebec, Siege of (1759) 300,303 Counter-Reformation 215
278 overseas empire 242 quetzal feathers 196 Great Schism 103
Peter III, Czar 301,310 slave trade 213,270,271,308 Quetzalcoatl 169, 172, 220 in England 102, 103
Peter the Hermit 148 South American colonies 194, Quito 199 in Renaissance 202, 203, 268
Peterloo Massacre 327 242 Spanish Civil War 399, 408
Petrograd 394 spice trade 212,258 R Spanish Inquisition 200, 201
see abo St. Petersburg sugar plantations 213,242,270, radar 430,431 Thirty Years’ War 215, 243, 246,
Petronas Towers, Kuala Lumpur 271 Raffles, Sir Thomas Stamford 315, 250, 252, 253, 254, 255, 257,
458 traders in China 304 367 266
pharaohs see individual pharaohs Potala, Lhasa 189, 263 railroads: see abo popes
Pharos, Alexandria 56 Potsdam Conference (1945) 419 North American 337 Roman Empire:
Philip II, king of Macedonia pottery: steam trains 296, 297, 341 and Judea 61
53, 56 prehistoric 4, 88 Raleigh, Sir Walter 248,249 and the Celts 65, 68, 69
Philip II, king of Spain 215,221, see abo porcelain Ramanuja 169 architecture 62, 66, 67, 92, 93
228 Powers, Francis Gary 437 Ramayana 79 army 64, 65
Philip III, king of Spain 256, 257 Prague 121 Ramses II, Pharaoh 27 barbarians overrun 65, 98
Philip IV, king of Spain 256, 257 Prague, Defenestration of (1618) Ramillies, Battle of (1706) 279 Caesar becomes dictator 63
Philip V, king of Spain 256, 257, 252 Raphael 205, 234 chariot races 67
279 Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood 378, Rasputin, Grigori 394 decline of 65
Philip VI, king of France 176 379 Ravenna 101 Eastern Empire 64, 65, 80, 97
Philip of Anjou, king of Spain presidents of the Republic of India Ray, James Earl 446 foundation of Rome 34, 35
257,279 477 Reagan, Ronald 437 people 62, 64, 65
Philip the Bold, Duke of Burgundy presidents of the Republic of Italy Red Army 395 plebeians revolt 62
222, 228 477 Red Army Faction 448 Punic wars 62, 63, 65
Philippines: presidents of Russia 475 Red Brigade 448 rise of 49
in Spanish Empire 221 presidents of the United States of "red shirts” 358, 359 roads 63, 67, 93
Polynesians 88, 99 America 475 Reformation 214, 215 slaves’ revolt 67
Phips, William 281 Prester John 117,165 refrigerated ships 349 society and government 62, 64,
Phoenicians 17,28,29 prime ministers of Australia 476 Re-Horakhty 11 66
Picasso, Pablo 409 prime ministers of Canada 476 Reichstag 406 towns 92, 93
Piets 83 prime ministers of Great Britain Reland, Adrian 259 travel 63, 67
Piedmont-Sardinia 351,358,359 470, 471 religion: war with Persia 74, 75
Pilate, Pontius 61 prime ministers of New Zealand a.d. 501-1100 138,139 Western Empire 80, 97
Pilgrim Fathers 248, 249 477 a.d. 1100-1500 168,169, Roman rulers 467
Pinochet, General 447 Princip, Gavrilo 388 Crusades 99, 109, 144, 145, 148, Romanesque architecture 188
pirates 270, 271 printing: 149, 150, 151 Romanov dynasty 227
Pitt, William (the Elder) 300,301 movable type 190, 191, 202 Dark Ages ix, 97, 99, 138, 139, Rome:
Pius IX, Pope 359 in the Renaissance 202, 268, 269 179 Appian Way 65
Pizarro, Francisco 220 Prohibition 400, 401 in ancient world 2, 3, 8, 9, 10, Colosseum 62, 72
plagues 65, 81 Protestants 11, 12, 16 foundation of 34
Plains Indians 76, 110, 230, Church of England 210 monasticism 138 rulers 34, 464
231, 370 Puritans 246, 260, 261, 280, 285 mystery plays 187 sacked 65
Plantagenets 132 Reformation 214, 215 Religious Settlement of 1559 St. Peter’s 168
Plantation of Ulster 274,275 settlers in Ulster 274, 275 Rembrandt van Rijn 269, 282, Tempietto 202
Plassey, Battle of (1757) 299, 300, Thirty Years’ War 215, 243, 246, 283 see abo Roman Empire
301 250, 252, 253, 254, 255, 257, Renaissance 202, 203, 268, 269, Rommel, General Erwin 414
plastics 430 266 286, 287 Romulus and Remus 34
Plato 53 see abo Huguenots Renoir, Auguste 378 Roosevelt, Franklin D. 401,405,
plebeians 62 Provisions of Oxford 163 Republican Party 356 413, 414, 418, 419
Poitiers 176, 177 Prussia: 290, 301, Rhine River 130 Rorke’s Drift, Battle of (1879)
Poitiers, Battle of (73 2) 114,115 Austro-Prussian War 359 Rhode Island 280 343
Poitiers, Battle of (1355) 176, 177 Franco-Prussian War 359 Rhodes 17 Rosa, Salvator 282
Pol Pot 445 in German Confederation 360 Rhodes, Cecil 343 Rossbach, Battle of (1757) 300,
polo 171 Napoleonic Wars 368 Ribbentrop, Joachim von 419 301
Polo, Marco 147,171,174,175, rise of 291 Ricci, Matteo 232 Rossetti, Dante Gabriel 379
191 Seven Years' War 300 rice 104 Rotorua, Lake 348
Polovtsy 113 War of the Austrian Succession Richard I, king of England 148, roughmasons 188
Poltava, Battle of (1709) 276, 278 292, 301 149, 150 Roundheads see Puritans
Polynesians 88, 89, 99 see also Germany Richard II, king of England 163 Rousseau, Jean Jacques 306, 307
Ponce de Leon, Juan 249 Ptah 11 Richelieu, Cardinal 253, 254, 255, Royal Academy of Arts, England
Pondicherry 299 Ptolemy (Greek astronomer) 95, 269 307
Pontiac, Chief 302 201 Richmond 356 Royal Academy of Dance, France
Poor Clares 168 pueblos 98,110,111,230 Rights of Man, Declaration of 306 264
popes: 468 Punjab 298 Rio Grande 342 Royal College of Physicians 239
see abo individual popes Puritans 246,260,261,280,285 Risorgimento 358 Royal Irish Constabulary 392

488
Royal Society 269, 286, 287 Sanchi 57 Sheba, Queen of 165 Smolensk 113,226
Royalists 260, 261 Santa Anna, General 342 Sherman, General William T. 356 Snellius 269
Rozvi 167 Santa Fe 281 Shi Huangdi, Emperor of China society and government:
Rubens, Peter Paul 282 Sao Tome 213 vii, 58 in the Renaissance 202, 203,
Rudolf the Hapsburg 121 Saracens 145, 148 Shiite Muslims 209, 453 268, 269
Ruhr Valley 296 Sarajevo 388, 389 Shinto religion 84, 85, 118, 244 Society of Friends see Quakers
Ruisdael, Jacob van 282 Sarawak 366 ships and boats: Society of Jesus see Jesuits
rulers of England 469 Sardinia 29 cargo ship 160, 161 Socrates 53
rulers of England and Scotland see also Piedmont-Sardinia Christopher Columbus 201, Sokoto 309
470 Sargon of Akkad 9 207,249, 270 solar power 457
rulers of France 473 Sarnath 57 East India Companies 258, 366 solar system, Copernicus’s theories
rulers of Germany 472 Sarsen stones 12 “East Indiamen” 258, 366 203, 239
rulers of Great Britain 470 Sassanid Empire 49, 74, 75, 100 Hanseatic League 159, 250 soldiers see war and weapons
rulers of Scotland 469 satellites 438, 439, 464 longships 130 Solomon, king of Israel 24, 25,
rulers of Spain 474 Saul, king of Israel 24, 25 Mary Rose ix, 206 28, 165
Rump Parliament 261 Savoy 358 medieval explorers 174, 175, Solomon, Temple of 24
Runnymede 162 Saxons 82,83,122,123,132 206, 207 Somme, Battles of 390
Rurik 113 Scandinavia: Middle Ages 158,159 sonar 431
Russia (pre-1917): 299 Black Death 146,178,179 Minoan 16 Song dynasty 99,136,137
1905 Revolution 339 see also Denmark; Norway; Polynesians 88, 89 Songhay Empire 164, 165, 208
Black Death 146,178,179 Sweden refrigerated 349 Soninke tribes 117
Catherine the Great 310, 311 scarab 10 slave ship 242, 270, 271 Sonni Ali 208
Crimean War 350 Schliemann, Heinrich 17 trade 27 souk 135
czars Schmalkaldic League 222 trireme 52 South Africa: 290
from 1462-1613 226, 227 schools see education Viking 130 apartheid 462
Great Northern War 2778 Schubert, Franz 378 see also submarines becomes British dominion 343
Magyars 120, 121 Schumann, Robert 378 shoguns 119, 242, 244 Boer Wars 336,337,343
modernizing 310 Schuschnigg, Kurt von 412 Shona kingdom 167 Great Trek 343
Napoleonic Wars 368 science and technology: Shotoku, Prince 84, 85 in British Empire 343
Peter the Great 276, 277, 278 A.D. 501-1100 142,143 Siam 185 Sharpeville riots 462
Pugachev’s Rebellion 310 a.d. 1101-1460 190,191 see also Thailand township violence 462
Romanov dynasty 227 Age of Reason 268,269,286, Sicily: Zulu wars 290, 343
secret police 227 287 in Roman Empire 63 South America:
Seven Years’ War 300, 310 Chinese 94,95,190,191 Phoenician colonies 29, 63 Catholic missionaries 221
Vikings in 131 in the ancient world 94, 95 Punic wars 63 conquistadores 241
war with Ottoman Empire 290 in the Renaissance 268, 269 Siddhartha Gautama see Buddha European explorers 206, 207,
World War I 388-389,394 Islamic Empire 190,191 Sidon 28 290
see also U.S.S.R. Middle Ages 190, 191 sieges 23, 267 Huari Empire 129
Rutherford, Ernest 383 Scipio Africanus 62, 63 Sierra Leone 175, 308 Incas 173,189,193,194,199,
Ruthwell Cross 123 Scotland: Silent Spring 456, 231
Rwanda 60, 308 Jacobite Rebellion 289 silicon chips 454 independence movements 290
rebellions against English 293 silk 18 Tiahuanaco 129
s Reformation 214, 215 Silk Road 40,70,74,75,93,105, see abo individual countries
Saddam, Hussein 453 Vikings in 131 170 South Carolina 280
Safavid dynasty 195, 209, 217, see also Britain Simnan 134 Southeast Asia:
243 Scott, Sir Walter 378 Sinai, Mount 73 independence movements 291
Sagres 174 scribes 9 Sinbad the Sailor 116 spice trade 258
Sahara Desert: 272 sculpture: Sind 299 space shuttle 432, 433, 434, 439
becomes a desert 30 Nok culture 95 Sinn Fein 392, 393 space travel 438, 439
in Ice Age Easter Island 88, 89 Sinope 350 Spain 290
rock paintings 7, 30, 43 Benin 166, 212 Sioux Indians 110, 371 Arabs conquer 107
trade routes 30, 117, 164, 165, Sea Peoples 17, 38 Siraj-ud Daulah, Nawab 299 cave art 7
308 Sebastian, king of Portugal 221 Sitting Bull 370 conquistadores 194, 221, 241
St. Basil’s Cathedral 226 Sebastopol, Siege of (1854-1855) Six-Day War 452 Counter-Reformation 215
St. Lawrence River 230, 249, 281 351 Skandagupta 78 Dutch independence 228, 229
St. Patrick’s Cathedral 155 Sedan, Battle of (1870) 360, 361 Skara Brae 13, 45 explorers 174, 175, 206, 207
St. Peter's, Rome 168 Seine River 130 skyscrapers 380,381,401 fascism 399
St. Petersburg 277,284,310,394 seismographs 95 slaves and slave trade: 242 Ferdinand and Isabella 200,201,
see also Petrograd Sekigahara, Battle of (1600) 232 abolition of 307 210,222
St. Sophia, Constantinople 101, Seleucid Empire 74, 75 American Civil War 354, 356 Spanish Inquisition 200, 201
182 Selim I, Sultan 209, 216 Americas 270, 271 Latin American independence
Saladin 147, 148, 149 Selim II, Sultan 217 and the U.S. suffrage movement 290
Salamanca, Battle of (1812) 321 Seljuk Turks 134,135,147,148, 373 papermaking 190
Salamis, Battle of (480 B.C.) 149, 182, 183, 188, 209 Benin 166,212 South American silver mines
52, 53 Senate, Roman 66 Britain and 270, 271 221
Salem witchcraft trials 281 Senegal 273 captured in Africa 270, 271 Spanish Empire 221, 242
Salzburg 13 Serbia: in West Indies 270,271 terrorism 448
Samarkand 134, 171, 186, 189 Ottoman Turks conquer 290 Liberia founded 308 War of the Spanish Succession
Samarkand University 143 Servetus, Michael 239 manacles 270 279
Samoa 88, 89 Seti I, Pharaoh 27 Middle Ages 158 wars with Netherlands 228, 229
Samori 309 Seven Years’ War 300 on tobacco plantations 270, 271 Spice Islands 207,212,259
Samos 54 Sforza, Ludovico 205 Portugal 166, 270, 271 see also Moluccas
Samudragupta, emperor of India Shah Jahan, emperor of India 265 Roman Empire 66 spice trade 158, 207, 212, 258
78, 79 Shaka 308 slave revolts 55 Spion Kop, Battle of 343
samurai 232, 233 Shakespeare, William 234, 235 Sparta 55 Spotsylvania, Battle of (1864)
San Antonio 342 shamans 111, 131 sugar plantations 270, 271 355
Sancho Panza 256 Shang dynasty 18, 19, 263 Slavs 98,112,113,120,121 Sputnik 438
Sangallo, Guliano da 204 Shapur 1, Emperor of Persia Sluys, Battle of (1340) 176,177 Squanto 248
San Jacinto, Battle of (1836) 342 74, 75 Smith, Adam 306 Sri Harsha 78
San Martin, Jose de 326 Shaw, George Bernard 379 Smith, Captain John 248 Srivijaya 99

489
Stalin, Josef 395, 405 Sylvester II, Pope 120, 121 Tlaloc 172 American Civil War 338,
Stalingrad, Battle of (1941-1942) tobacco 203 354-355, 356
414 T Tokugawa shoguns 232,244, 352 American Revolution 289,
Stanley, Henry 362 Tabriz 209 Tokyo 156 290, 303
Stanton, Elizabeth Cady 373 Tacitus, Emperor 81 see abo Edo atomic bombs 417,418
Star of David 108 Tahiti 88 Toltecs 146,168,186 civil rights 434, 446, 447
Statue of Liberty 380 Taiping Rebellion 345 Tom Jones 307 Cold War 434,438
steam hammer 341 Taira clan 156 Tone, Wolf 275 Cuban missile crisis 436
steampower 341 Taiwan 88 Tonga 88, 89 Declaration of Independence
steel see iron and steel Taizong 104 Tonle Sap 184, 185 316-317
Stephen, king of England 132 Tajikistan 78 tools: Great Depression 400, 404, 405
Stephen I, king of Hungary Taj Mahal 240, 241, 265 in the ancient world 88 isolationism 400
120, 121 Tale of Genji, The 118, 119 prehistoric 8 Korean War 444, 445, 459
Stephens, James 365 Tamerlane 171,189,218 see abo science and technology Marshall Plan 419
Stephenson, George 335 Tanganyika, Lake 362 Torricelli, Evangelista 269, 287 Mexican-American War 342
stock exchanges 442 Tangaroa 88 Tosho-gu temple, Nikko 245 Prohibition 400, 401
Stockholm 250 Tangier 29 Toussaint L’Ouverture, Pierre slavery 308,354,355
Stone Age 46 tanks 391 Dominique 323 railroads 337, 341
stone circles 12, 45 Tannenberg, Battle of (1914) 388 Townshend, Viscount "Turnip” skyscrapers 380, 381, 401
Stonehenge 12, 45 Tasman, Abel 312, 313 295 space travel 438—439
Stormy Sky, Mayan king 87 Taxila 91 trade: Vietnam War 434, 445
Straits Settlements 367 Tayasal 128 East India Companies 258 votes for women 3 73
Strasbourg 443 Tchaikovsky, Peter Ilyich 378 Hanseatic League 159, 250 Wall Street Crash 401,404,405
Strauss, Johann 379 tea 269 Indus Valley 14, 15 World War I 386, 389, 396-397,
Stravinsky, Igor 426 tea ceremony 233 in the Renaissance 203 400-401, 404
Stuart, Charles Edward (Bonnie telescopes 239, 269 medieval explorers 174,175, World War II 385,386,401,
Prince Charlie) 293 television 430 206, 207 414-415, 416-417, 418, 419
Stuart, James (the Old Pretender) Temple of Heaven, Beijing 305 trade unions 341 Ur 9,21,24,42
293 Temple, Henry, Third Viscount Trafalgar, Battle of (1805) 321 Ural Mountains 276
Stuart dynasty 246, 247 Palmerston 344 Trajan, Emperor 64 Urban II, Pope 148, 150
stupas 57 Temple Mound culture 98, 110 transistors 430 Urbino, Duke of 203
Stuyvesant, Peter 259 Tenochtitlan 172, 194, 196, Transvaal 343 Uruk 21
Su-Chou 263 197,220 travel: U.S.S.R.:
submarines: 431 Teotihuacan 76, 77, 98, 128, in the ancient world 10 Cold War 434,438
U-boats 396,400,415 129,186 in the Renaissance 203 Great Purge 395
Sudan 308, 309 tepees 110,231 Travis, William 342 shoots down U-2 spy plane 437
Sudetenland 407, 412 terrorism 448, 450 trench warfare 390, 391 space travel 438, 439
Suez Canal 341, 362, 363, tetrarchy 80 Trent, Council of 215 see abo Russia
368, 369, 452, 453 Teutonic Knights 150 Trevithick, Richard 335 Uthman, Caliph 106
Suez Canal Comoany 341, 362, Texas 342 Triple Alliance 388 Utrecht, Peace of (1713) 279
363 Texcoco, Lake 172, 196 Triple Entente 388 Uzbek Turks 209
Suez Crisis (1956) 452, 453, 459 textiles 340 Trotsky, Leon 395
suffragists 373 Thailand: troubadours 151, 152 V
Sufis 209 ancient history 99 Troy 38 vaccination 142, 335
sugar 270, 271 see also Siam Truman, Harry S. 419, 437 Valera, Eamonn de 393
Sui dynasty 104, 105 Thackeray, William 378 Truman Doctrine 419, 420 Valerian, Emperor 74, 75
Suleyman the Magnificent, Sultan Thames River 162 Tsunayoshi, Tokugawa 245 Valois dynasty 126, 224
216, 266 Thebes (Egypt) 26 Tubman, Harriet 355 Van Diemen’s Land 375
Sullivan, Louis 429 Thebes (Greece) 53, 54 Tudor dynasty 210 Van Dyck, Sir Anthony 282
Sultanate of Rum 182, Theodosius I, the Great, Emperor Tughril Beg 134 Vanuatu 88
Sumerians: 83 Tukanu tribe 348 Vatican City: 205
Akkadians conquer 9 theory of relativity 428 Tukolor Empire 309 vedas 33
city-states 9 thermometers 238, 287 Tula 128, 129 Velazquez, Diego de Silva 282
houses 9,44 Thirty Years’ War 215, 243, 246, Tull, Jethro 286, 294, 295 Venice:
religion 9 250, 252, 253, 254, 255, 257, 266 Turin 358 doges 160, 161
writing 9, 23 Thousand and One Nights, The 116 Turkestan 78,134,170,263 foundation of 160
Sumo wrestling 245 Thucydides viii, 53 Turkomans 134 in the Renaissance 202
Sun Ti, emperor of China 180 Thutmose I, Pharaoh 26, 27 Turlough O’Connor, king of pays tribute to Ottoman Empire
Sun Yat-sen 372, 402 Tiahuanaco 129 Connaught 155 290
Sundiata Keita, king of Mali 164, Tiber River 34 Turner, Nat 322, 323 science and technology 190
165 Tibet: Tutankhamen, tomb of 26, 27 trade 160, 161
Sunni Muslims 209,217,453 China takes control of 263, 290 Tutsi 308 wars with Ottoman Turks
Superior, Lake 281 Dalai Lama 184,185,263 Tutu, Archbishop Desmond 462 266, 290
Supermarine Spitfire 413 Tido Castle, Sweden 251 Twain, Mark 378 Venus de Milo 90
surrealism 426, 427 Tientsin Treaty (1858) 345 Two Sicilies, Kingdom of the 358 Verdi, Giuseppe 378
Suryavaraman I 184, 185 Tiffany, Louis Comfort 378 Tyre 28,36 Verdun, Battle of (1916) 390
Suryavaraman II 184, 185 Tiglathpileser I, king of Assyria Vereeniging Treaty (1902) 343
Susa 75 22 u Verne, Jules 378
Sutton Hoo ix, 122 Tiglathpileser III, king of Assyria Ukraine 276 Versailles 264, 284
Sweden: 23 Umar, Caliph 106 Versailles,Treatyof(1919) 397,y
Great Northern War 278 Tigris River 9, 22 Umayyad dynasty 107, 116 399,402,404,406,412 *
Gustavus Adolphus 250, 251, 252 Tikal 86,87 Umberto II, king of Italy 420 Vesalius, Andreas 239
Seven Years’ War 300 Tilly, Count 252, 253 Union Pacific Railroad 370 Vespucci, Amerigo 207
Thirty Years’ War 215, 243, Timbuktu 164,165,208,363 United Kingdom: 293 Viceroyalty of New Spain 221
246, 250, 252, 253, 254, Times, The 351 see abo Britain Viceroyalty of Peru 221
255, 257, 266 Tintoretto 235 United Nations: Vichy France 415
Vikings 130, 131 Tipu Sahib 324 and Palestine 423 Victor Emmanuel II, king of Italy
Switzerland: Titian 234 creation of 419 358, 359, 420
Calvinism 214,215,228 Titicaca, Lake 77, 129 Security Council 459 Victoria, queen of England 349,
Reformation 214,215 Tito, Marshal 420 United States of America: 368, 369

490
Vienna, Ottoman Turks besiege water: X
216, 267, 279, 290 aqueducts 93 Xavier, St. Francis 232
Vietnam 99 irrigation 8, 18, 57, 93, 104, 185 Xianyang 58
conquered by Chinese 263 powered clock 142 Xiung-Nu 59, 70, 82, 83
Vietnam War 445 watermills 238 Xixia 136
Vikings 174 waterwheels 142,143,191
arts and crafts 130, 131, 138 Watson, James 454 Y
coins 130 Watt, James 296,335 Yahweh 61
cremations 131 weapons see war and weapons Yalta Conference (1945} 419
in Constantinople 130 Wedgwood, Josiah 297 Yamato family 84, 85
in Greenland 131 Wedmore, Treaty of (878} 123 Yang Di, emperor of China 104
in Ireland 131,154,155 Weimar Republic 399, 406 Yang Shao culture 42
in Normandy 131 Wellington, Duke of 321 Yangtze River 105
in North America 98,110,131 Wellesley, Arthur 321 Yao Empire 308
in Russia 130 Wen, Emperor 104 Yarmuk, Battle of (636} 107
in Scotland 131 Wenceslas, St 120, 121 Yasodharapura 184
invasions of England 131 West Indies, slaves 270, 271 Yayoi tribe 84
longships 130 West River (Xi Jiang} 18, Yekuno Amlak, emperor
religion 131 Western Front, World War I of Ethiopia 165
settle in Iceland 131 390, 396 Yellow River 58
warfare 130, 131 Western Jin dynasty 136, 137 Yang Jian 104
villeins 133 Westminster, Statute of (1931} Yom Kippur War 452
Virgil 67 424 Yorkshire 296
Virginia 242, 280 Westphalia, Treaty of (1648} 253 Yorktown, Battle of (1781} 289
Visby 131 wheel, invention of 46, 47 Yoshimune, shogun 245
Vishnu 78 White House 289 Young Turl« 376
Visigoths 81,114,200 White Lotus rebellion 305 Ypres, First Battle of (1914}
Vittorio Veneto, Battle of (1918} White Russians 395 390, 391
321 Whitney, Eli 296, 297 Yu, emperor of China 18, 105
Vladimir, Grand Prince of Kiev Whittle, Sir Frank 431 Yuan dynasty 170, 180
112, 113 Wilberforce, William 322, 323 Yuan Shikai 372
Volkswagen cars 430 William I, emperor of Germany Yucatan 86, 128
Volta, Alessandro 334, 335 361 Yugoslavia:
Voltaire, Francois Marie Arouet de William I, the Conqueror, king break up of 461
306, 307 of England viii, 123, 152 civil war 461
Vortigern 122 William II, king of England 132 Yokohama 352
votes for women 373 William III, king of England 275, Yukon Territory 357
279 Yung T'ai, Princess 105
w William IV, king of England 368
Wagner, Richard 378 William and Mary College, z
Waitangi, Treaty of (1840} 349 Williamsburg 284 Zagorsk 227
Wall Street Crash (1929} William of Orange 228, 229, 275 Zagwe dynasty 165
404, 405 Wills, William 374 Zapotecs 76, 77
Wallachia 350 Wilson, Woodrow 396, 400 Zen Buddhism 157
Wallenstein, Count 252, 253 windmills 238 Zeppelin airships 383
Walter the Penniless 148 windows, glass 236, 284 Zeus 48,49
Wampanoag Indians 302 Windsor Castle 261 Zheng He, Admiral 174,175,181,
Wang Anshi 137 Winnipeg 357 191
Wang Mang 71 Winter Palace, St. Petersburg 311, Zhou dynasty 18, 39, 91
war and weapons: 394 Zhukov, Marshal Georgy 384, 414
aerial warfare 385 Wittenberg 214, 215 Zhu Yuan-hang 180, 181
aircraft carriers 433 Wizard of Oz, The 427 ziggurats 9, 45
atomic physics 430, 431 Wolfe, James 303 zippers 382
cannon 217, 286 Wolsey, Thomas 210,236 Zorndorf, Battle of (1758) 300,
crossbows 176 women: 301
cruise missiles 437 National Woman Suffrage Zoroaster (Zarathustra) 41, 74, 75
Crusades 99, 109, 144, 145, 148, Association 373 Zuider Zee 229
149, 150, 151 in the Ottoman Empire 290 Zulu wars 290
Greek fire 100 women's rights movement 373 Zulus 290,291,308,343
in the 1900s 430, 431 wood: Zwingli, Ulrich 214
in the Renaissance 286, 287 charcoal 142, 213 Zworykin, Vladimir 430
knights 150, 151 woodblock printing 143
longbows 176 Worcester, Battle of (1651} 260
Mongols 120 Worms Cathedral, St. Peter’s 125
poison gas 389 Wounded Knee, Battle of (1890}
samurai 232, 233 371
torpedoes 396 World Wide Web 455
Trident missiles 437 Wren, Sir Christopher 268, 269,
War of the Spanish Succession 284,285
279 Wright, Frank Lloyd 428, 429
War of the Three Henrys 225 Wright brothers 383, 390
Wars of the Roses 210 writing:
Warsaw Pact 436 A.D. 501-1100 139
Washington, Booker T. 289 Chinese 18,19,43,71,91
Washington, George 289, cuneiform 41
316, 329 hieroglyphics viii, 10, 86
Washington Conference miniscule 115
(1921-1922} 289 Wu Tsung, emperor of China
Washington D.C. 289 195
watches, invention of 239 Wycliffe, John 203

491
 Acknowledgments
The publishers wish to thank the following for their contributions to this book:

Photographs
(f = top; b - bottom; m = middle; l = left; r = right)
Page i bl ET Archive, ml Bridgeman Art Library; iii mtl Werner Forman Archive, m ET Archive; vi-vii Gavin Hellier/Robert Harding Picture Library, viii bl El Archive, m
Archive; 2 Robert Harding Picture Library; 14 ET Archive; 15 Ancient Art & Architecture Collection Ltd; 16 AKG; 17 t ET Archive, ml AKG; 18 ET Archive, 19 ET Archive,
20 tl ET Archive, bl ET Archive, br ET Archive; 21 ET Archive; 25 Ancient Art & Architecture Collection Ltd; 28 Ancient Art & Architecture Collection Ltd; 29 Ancient Art
& Architecture Collection Ltd; 30 ET Archive; 32 ET Archive; 34 AKG; 35 ET Archive; 36 ET Archive; 39 ET Archive; 40 f ET Archive, b ET Archive; 42 AKG; 43 m ET
Archive, b ET Archive; 45 Mick Sharp; 48 Roy Rainford/Robert Harding Picture Library; 56 ET Archive; 57 Robert Harding Picture Library Ltd; 61 t Ronald Sheridan/Ancient
Art & Architecture Collection Ltd, b Ronald Sheridan/Ancient Art & Architecture Collection Ltd; 73 Robert Harding Picture Library; 76 Robert Harding Picture Library, 78
Richard Ashworth/Robert Harding Picture Library; 79 Richard Ashworth/Robert Harding Picture Library; 81 ET Archive; 83 £ ET Archive, b ET Archive; 85 Ancient Art &
Architecture Collection Ltd; 93 tl ET Archive, tr G&P Corrigan/Robert Harding Picture Library; 96 Robert Frerck/Robert Harding Picture Library; 97 Bridgeman Art Library;
100 Bridgeman Art Library; 101 t ET Archive, b ET Archive; 103 ET Archive; 107 ET Archive; 108 ET Archive; 109 t ET Archive, bl Bridgeman Art Library, br AKG; 111
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Bridgeman Art Library; 118 Ancient Art & Architecture Collection/C.Blankenship; 119 R. Sheridan/Ancient Art & Architecture Collection; 120 mr R. Sheridan/Ancient Art
& Architecture Collection, b ET Archive; 121 t ET Archive, b ET Archive; 125 AKG; 126 l Bridgeman Art Library, r AKG; 127 t AKG, m Bridgeman Art Library; 129 t Robert
Harding Picture Library, b Robert Harding Picture Library; 132 Bridgeman Art Library; 135 f R. Sheridan/Ancient Art & Architecture Collection, m Ancient Art & Architecture
Collection; 136 t ET Archive, b ET Archive; 137 tl ET Archive, tr ET Archive; 139 tl ET Archive, tr ET Archive; 141 ET Archive; 143 ET Archive; 144 ET Archive; 152 ET
Archive; 154 ET Archive; 155 ET Archive; 160 ET Archive; 161 t ET Archive, b ET Archive; 162 ET Archive; 163 ET Archive; 164 m ET Archive, b ET Archive; 165 Robert
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Archive; 204 Bridgeman Art Library; 205 ET Archive; 208 tl Ancient Art & Architecture Collection Ltd, b Werner Forman Archive; 209 Ancient Art & Architecture Collection
Ltd; 212 tl Werner Forman Archive, tr Werner Forman Archive, bl Werner Forman Archive; 213 Bridgeman Art Library; 215 ET Archive; 218 Bridgeman Art Library; 111 t
Ancient Art & Architecture Collection Ltd, b Bridgeman Art Library; 228 Bridgeman Art Library; 229 t AKG, b AKG; 234 bl Bridgeman Art Library, br Ancient Art &
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Picture Library; 286 Bridgeman Art Library; 288 ET Archive; 292 ET Archive; 293 ET Archive; 294 l Bridgeman Art Library, b Bridgeman Art Library; 295 t ET Archive, m
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312 tl ET Archive, ml ET Archive; 313 ET Archive; 314 ml ET Archive, b ET Archive; 315 ET Archive; 323 Peter Newark’s American Pictures; 324 ET Archive; 325 ET Archive;
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Archive; 348 tr ET Archive, b ET Archive; 349 t ET Archive, mr ET Archive, b ET Archive; 351 t ET Archive, m ET Archive, b ET Archive; 352 ET Archive; 353 t ET Archive,
b ET Archive; 355 Hulton Getty Picture Library; 356 Hulton Getty Picture Library; 357 AKG; 358 ET Archive; 359 ET Archive; 360 ET Archive; 361 ET Archive; 363 ET
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Getty Picture Library; 390 ET Archive; 391 b ET Archive; 392 Hulton Getty Picture Library; 393 Hulton Getty Picture Library; 394 tl ILN, ml ILN, tr ILN; 395 tl ET Archive,
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402 ET Archive; 403 tr Hulton Getty Picture Library, br ILN; 404 tl Hulton Getty Picture Library, tr Hulton Getty Picture Library, bl Hulton Getty Picture Library; 405 mr
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Deutsch Collection; 423 tr Hulton Getty Picture Library, bl Hulton Getty Picture Library; 424 tl Imperial War Museum, b Hulton Getty Picture Library; 425 ET Archive; 426
tr Kobal Collection, b AKG; 427 tl ILN, tr Corbis-Bettmann, bl Kobal Collection, br ILN; 428 tl ET Archive, bl James Neal/Arcaid, tr AKG, br Michael Jenner/Robert Harding
Picture Library; 429 tl Richard Bryant/Arcaid, tr Simon Harris/Robert Harding Picture Library, b Steve Myerson/Robert Harding Picture Library; 430, tr Science
Museum/Science & Society Picture Library, bl Science Museum/Science & Society Picture Library, b Quadrant Picture Library, br ET Archive; 431 tl ET Archive, tr ET Archive,
mr Advertising Archives, bl ILN; 432 Science & Society Picture Library; 434 NASA/Science Photo Library; 435 tl Rex Features, frRob Francis/Robert Harding Picture Library,
br Stuart Franklin/Magnum Photos, bl G. Mendel/Magnum Photos; 436 tr Popperfoto, bl Rex Features; 437 t Hulton Getty Picture Library, m Magnum Photos, br ET Archive,
bl Hulton Getty Picture Library; 438 ml Novosti/Science Photo Library, bl NASA/Science Photo Library, tr NASA/Science Photo Library; 439 t NASA/Science Photo Library,
b NASA/Science Photo Library; 440 tl Robert Harding, b Marc Riboud/Magnum Photos, tr Eve Arnold/Magnum Photos; 441 tl Stuart Franklin/Magnum Photos, t Stuart
Franklin/Magnum Photos, b Paul Lowe/Magnum Photos; 442 tr OECD, b Elliot Erwitt/Magnum Photos; 443 t Abbas/Magnum Photos, mr Popperfoto/Reuters, b European
Parliament/Airdiasol; 444 tl Hulton Getty Picture Library, tr Roger-Viollet, bl Corbis; 445 £ Magnum Photos, b Griffiths/Magnum Photos; 446 tl P. Jones Griffiths/Magnum
Photos, tr S. Franklin/Magnum Photos, ml Danny Lyon/Magnum, b Bob Adelman/Magnum Photos; 447 £ Chris Steele-Perkins/Magnum Photos, m Magnum Photos, b Thomas
Hoepker/Magnum Photos; 448 tl James Natchwey/Magnum Photos, tr Rex Features, b Rex Features; 449 tr F. Scianna/Magnum Photos, bl Liba Taylor/Robert Harding Picture
Library, br Robert Harding Picture Library; 450 tl Hulton Getty Picture Library, tr Popperfoto, b Marilyn Silverstone/Magnum Photos; 451 t Pinkhassov/Magnum Photos, m
Pinkhassov/Magnum Photos, b S.Franldin/Magnum Photos; 452 tl Burt Glinn/Magnum Photos, b Jones-Griffiths/Magnum Photos; 453 £ Jean Gaumy/Magnum Photos, mr Stuart
Franklin/Magnum, br Steve McCurry/Magnum Photos; 454 tl Hank Morgan/University of Massachusetts at Amherst/Science Photo Library, ml Alfred Pasieka/Science Photo
Library, b Brian Brake/Science Photo Library, £ Tim Davis/Science Photo Library, tr Dr. Jeremy Burgess/Science Photo Library; 455 f NASA/Science Photo Library, mr
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bl Russell D. Curtis/Science Photo Library, br Martin Bond/Science Photo Library; 458 tl Robert Harding Picture Library, bl Rob Francis/Robert Harding Picture Library, tr Rene
Burri/Magnum Photos; 459 ml Micha Bar-Am/Magnum Photos, hr Paul Lowe/Magnum Photos; 460 tl Steve McCurry/Magnum Photos, fr Paul Lowe/Magnum Photos, h Marilyn
Silverstone/Magnum Photos; 461 tr Luc Delahaye/Magnum Photos, m Steve McCurry/Magnum Photos, mr Martin Parr/Magnum Photos, b Bruno Barbey/Magnum Photos; 462
tl G.Mendel/Magnum Photos, ml G.Mendel/Magnum Photos, b Frank Spooner Pictures/Gamma, tr Gideon Mendel/Magnum Photos; 463 f Frank Spooner Pictures/Gamma, m
Frank Spooner Pictures/Gamma, b Frank Spooner Pictures/Gamma; 464 tl Eli Reed/Magnum Photos, b Detlev Van Ravenwaay/Science Photo Library

Artwork archivists Wendy Allison, Steve Robinson

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Artists Jonathan Adams, Hemesh Alles, Marion Appleton, Sue Barclay, R. Barnett, Noel Bateman, Simon Bishop, Richard Bonson, Nick Cannan, Vanessa Card, Tony Chance,
Harry Clow, Stephen Conlin, Peter Dennis, Dave Etchell, Jeff Farrow, James Field, Ian Fish, Michael Fisher, Eugene Fleury, Chris Forsey, Dewey Franklin, Terry Gabbey, Fred
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Melvyn Pickering, Malcolm Porter, Mike Posen, Mike Roffe, Chris Rothero, David Salarya, Mike Saunders, Rodney Shackell, Rob Shone, Mark Stacey, Paul Stangroom, Branca
Surla, Smiljka Surla, Stephen Sweet, Mike Taylor, George Thompson, Martin Wilson, David Wright, Paul Wright
 BOSTON public library

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 THE KINGFISHER
HISTORY ENCYCLOPEDIA

Special features include:

Timeline throughout puts history in context

and shows progression of world events

The World At A Glance feature gives a global

snapshot of events in each time period covered

Illustrated biographies of important historical

figures and key date boxes provide extra
information

EEF-Wss i

Special features highlight art, architecture, and

technology for each era covered

Ready Reference section presents essential

historical dates and facts

Fully annotated maps provide geographical context

Illustration features include magnified details

for clearer understanding

Full-color artwork and photographs encourage

children to find out more

KINGFISHER

95 Madison Avenue
New York, New York 10016

Cover design by Mike Davis

 THE KINGFISHER_

HISTORY ENCYCLOPEDIA
The Kingfisher History Encyclopedia presents a panoramic view of world history in one convenient volume.
Truly global in scope, it examines events in all parts of the world from antiquity to the present.
Children will find the chronological arrangement easy to follow, as vibrant artwork and photographs bring
each era to life. The authoritative text is written in a clear, concise style, and is supplemented by key date
boxes, special picture features, and detailed maps. Whether used as a research tool or as a book for
browsing, this fascinating encyclopedia will foster an appreciation of the
exciting events that have shaped our world.

Headwords always Timeline puts history in

appear in the top left context and gives a real
corner of the page for -The AMERICAS 500-1200 sense of progression
quick reference In Mesoamerica, the Toltecs came into prominence
TeotihuacAn :
Gulf of
following the destruction of Teotihuacan. Meanwhile,
*Chich6n ItzA
- in South America two new civilizations were developing. ,«f^alenque
Tnltarc'
i
■ 'it kgfc TJ y 600, Teotihuacan was in decline, MESOAMERICA

ij\ ) 11 ]1 |J|B JD and around 750 it was burned to the

ground, possibly by tribes from the north.
All entries begin with a Various peoples tried to assume control,
Sd&J&l Ml, and around 900, the Toltecs established Mocha Empire

concise introduction to a caP*tal at Tula. It became the center of

a military state and trading network that Huari Empire.
the subject reached from Colorado to Colombia. In
* 1000, far away in Yucatan, a faction of SOUTH
AMERICA
the Toltecs invaded the Mayan Empire,
expanding the northern Mayan city of

Subheadings divide the ^ini Mnai Chichen Itza.TheToltec Empire came

During this period
Fully annotated maps
to an end in 1168, when it was overrun, the main centers of

text into self-contained and Tula was destroyed. Soon afterward, city civilization in the
South
provide geographical
the Aztecs moved into the area. Americas continued Atlantic

sections —_—-
to be in Mexico, the Ocean
context
|IPill . -THE LATER MAYA Mississippi Valley,
and Bolivia-Peru.
Many Mayan cities were abandoned
around 800, although some still flourished The Toltecs were beaten by the Maya from
in northern Yucatan from 900 onward. Mayapan, whose Cocom dynasty dominated

Typeface is clear ■ 'j Around 1000, Yucatan was invaded by

Toltecs, who stayed there until 1221,
Yucatan for 200 years until civil war broke
out in 1480. The Spanish arrived during

and easy to read The Toltecs were very

building a copy of Tula at Chichen Itza.
Warrior chiefs took power from the
the 1500s, but the last Maya city-state,
Tayasal, did not fall until 1697. — Text can be read section
militaristic. Their temples priests, and caused crafts such

as P0«er* art' “d literature by section or as a

-as this one from Tula. to decline in quality.

THE PYRAMIDS OF ETOWAH

complete article
Etowah was one of the towns of the Mississippi culture
in North America. This city culture spread far beyond the /,
Mississippi valley-Etowah was near today’s Atlanta, and
famous as a source of mica, a transparent form of rock which J9fl
Concise, informative could be split into fine sheets, like glass. The Etowans used
tools of copper and stone, and built earthen pyramids with
HN

captions clarify temples or the palaces of their chiefs on top. Their

cities often had 10,000-20,000 inhabitants.
Special picture features
illustrations and
They traded with Mexico and the
Great Lakes area, and they made complement the main text
items to trade with the

photographs village-dwelling tribes

of North America. ,
j kWu
A
by providing additional
information

Printed in Hong Kong

ISBN 0-7534-5194-8
9 0 0 0 0>

|9"780753"451946'