Livestock farming, raising of animals for use or for pleasure.

In this article, An efficient and prosperous animal agriculture historically has been the mark of a
the discussion of livestock includes both beef and dairy cattle, pigs, sheep, goats, strong, well-developed nation. Such an agriculture permits a nation to store large
horses, mules, asses, buffalo, and camels; the raising of birds commercially for quantities of grains and other foodstuffs in concentrated form to be utilized to
meat or eggs (i.e., chickens, turkeys, ducks, geese, guinea fowl, and squabs) is raise animals for human consumption during such emergencies as war or natural
treated separately. For further information on dairy cattle breeds, feeding and calamity. Furthermore, meat has long been known for its high nutritive value,
management, see dairying. For a discussion of the food value and processing of producing stronger, healthier people.
meat products, see the article meat processing. For a further discussion of breeds
of horses, see the article horse: Breeds of horses.
Ruminant (cud-chewing) animals such as cattle, sheep, and goats convert large
quantities of pasture forage, harvested roughage, or by-product feeds, as well as
Livestock farming nonprotein nitrogen such as urea, into meat, milk, and wool. Ruminants are
therefore extremely important; more than 60 percent of the world’s farmland is
KEY PEOPLE
in meadows and pasture. Poultry also convert feed efficiently into protein;
John Macarthur chickens, especially, are unexcelled in meat and egg production. Milk is one of the
most complete and oldest known animal foods. Cows were milked as early as
Robert Bakewell 9000 BCE. Hippocrates, the Greek physician, recommended milk as a medicine in
Robert Colling the 5th century BCE. Sanskrit writings from ancient India refer to milk as one of
the most essential human foods.
Charles Colling

RELATED TOPICS
Cattle
Origins of agriculture
Beef cattle breeds
Animal breeding
The British Isles led the world in the development of the principal beef breeds;
Feed Herefords, Angus, beef Shorthorns, and Galloways all originated in either England
Dairying or Scotland. Other breeds of greatest prominence today originated in India
(Brahman), France (Charolais; Limousin; Normandy), Switzerland (Simmental),
Livestock and Africa (Africander). The Hereford breed, considered to be the first to be
developed in England, probably descended from white-faced, red-bodied cattle of
Gaucho
Holland crossed with the smaller black Celtics that were native to England and
Hay especially to Herefordshire. By the middle of the 18th century the slow process of
selective breeding that resulted in the smooth, meaty, and prolific Herefords had
Ranch
begun. The United States statesman Henry Clay of Kentucky imported the first
Cowboy purebred Herefords to America in 1817.

Silage
Get a Britannica Premium subscription and gain access to exclusive content. The beef, or Scotch, Shorthorn breed developed from early cattle of England and
northern Europe, selected for heavy milk production and generally known as
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Durham cattle. These were later selected for the compact, beefy type by the
The Hereford, which became the most popular beef breed of the United States, is Scottish breeders. Emphasis on leaner, highquality carcasses in the second half of
distinguished by its white face, white flanks and underline, white stockings and the 20th century has diminished the popularity of this breed. The Polled
tail, and white crest on the neck. Its body colour ranges from cherry to mahogany Shorthorn originated in 1888 from purebred, hornless mutations of the Shorthorn
red. It is of medium size, with present-day breeders making successful efforts to breed. The milking, or dual-purpose, Shorthorn, representing another segment of
increase both its rate of weight gain and mature size, in keeping with the demand the parent Shorthorn breed, also was developed in England to produce an
for cheaper, leaner beef. excellent flow of milk as well as an acceptable carcass, therefore resembling the
original English type of Shorthorn. Shorthorns range in colour from red through
roan, to white- or red-and-white-spotted.
Hereford cattle Shorthorn cattle
Hereford bull. Shorthorn bull.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

The Polled Hereford is a separate breed of cattle originating from hornless The Brahman breed originated in India, where 30 or more separate varieties exist.
mutations in 1901. It has the same general characteristics as the horned Hereford Preference is given to the Guzerat, Nellore, Gir, and Krishna Valley strains, which
and has gained substantial favour because of its hornlessness and often faster are characterized by a pronounced hump over the shoulders and neck; excessive
rate of weight gain. skin on the dewlap and underline; large, droopy ears; and horns that tend to
The Aberdeen Angus breed originated in Scotland from naturally hornless curve upward and rearward. Their colour ranges from near white through brown
aboriginal cattle native to the counties of Aberdeen and Angus. Solid black, and brownish red to near black. Their popularity in other areas such as South
occasionally with a spot of white underneath the rear flanks, the breed is noted America and Europe, into which they have been imported, is attributable mainly
for its smoothness, freedom from waste, and high quality of meat. to their heat tolerance, drought resistance, and resistance to fever ticks and other
insects. The Santa Gertrudis was developed by the King Ranch of Texas by
Although the native home of the Galloway breed is the ancient region of Galloway crossing Brahman and Shorthorn cattle to obtain large, hearty, tick-resistant, red
in southwestern Scotland, it probably had a common origin with the Angus. The cattle that have proved to be popular not only in Texas but in many regions along
Galloway is distinguished by its coat of curly black hair. Though the breed has the semitropical Gulf Coast. Until the tick was eradicated in the southern and
never attained the prominence of other beef breeds, it has been used extensively southwestern United States, Brahman crosses were raised almost exclusively
in producing blue-gray crossbred cattle, obtained by breeding white Shorthorn there.
bulls to Galloway cows.
Santa Gertrudis cattle

Santa Gertrudis bull. Simmental cattle

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Simmental bull.

Several lesser breeds have been developed from crosses of the Brahman on other Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
beef breeds such as: the Charbray (Charolais), Braford (Hereford), Brangus
Beef cattle feed
(Angus), Brahorn (Shorthorn), and Beefmaster (Brahman-Shorthorn-Hereford).
Beef cattle can utilize roughages of both low and high quality, including pasture
The Charolais breed, which originated in the Charolais region of France,
forage, hay, silage, corn (maize) fodder, straw, and grain by-products. Cattle also
has become quite popular in the United States for crossing on the British breeds
utilize nonprotein nitrogen in the form of urea and biuret feed supplements,
for production of market cattle. The superior size, rate of gain, and heavy
which can supply from one-third to one-half of all the protein needs of beef
muscling of the pure French Charolais and the hybrid vigour accruing from the
animals. Nonprotein nitrogen is relatively cheap and abundant and is usually fed
crossing of nonrelated breeds promise an increased popularity of this breed.
in a grain ration or in liquid supplements with molasses and phosphoric acid or is
Many American Charolais, however, carry significant amounts of Brahman blood,
mixed with silage at ensiling time; it also may be used in supplement blocks for
with a corresponding reduction in size, rate of gain, and muscling. Important in
range cattle or as part of range pellets. Other additions to diet include corn
France, the Charolais is the foremost meat-cattle breed in Europe.
(maize), sorghum, milo, wheat, barley, or oats. Fattening cattle are usually fed
The Limousin breed, which originated in west central France, is second in from 2.2 to 3.0 percent of their live weight per day, depending on the amount of
importance to the Charolais as a European meat breed. Limousin cattle, often concentrates in the ration and the rate at which they are being fattened. Such
longer, finer boned, and slightly smaller than the Charolais, are also heavily cattle gain from 2.2 to 3.0 pounds (1.0 to 1.4 kilograms) per day and require from
muscled and relatively free from excessive deposits of fat. 1.3 to 3.0 pounds (0.6 to 1.4 kilograms) of crude protein, according to their
weight and stage of fattening. Up until the early 1970s, when the practice was
Limousin cattle
prohibited, fattening cattle were given the synthetic hormone diethylstilbestrol as
Limousin bull. a supplement in their feed or in ear implants. The use of this synthetic hormone
results in a 10 to 20 percent increase in daily gain with less feed required per
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. pound of gain. Synthetic vitamin A sources have become so cheap as to permit
The most prevalent breed of France, the Normandy, is smaller than the the use of 10,000 to 30,000 International Units per day for cattle being fattened
Charolais or Limousin and has been developed as a dual-purpose breed useful for for market (finished) in enclosures bare of vegetation (drylots) used for this
both milk and meat production. A fourth important breed is the Maine–Anjou, purpose. The economics of modern cattle finishing encourages the use of all-
which is the largest of the French breeds. concentrate rations or a minimum of roughage, or roughage substitutes including
oyster shells, sand, and rough plastic pellets. Corn (maize) silage produces heavy
The Simmental accounts for nearly half of the cattle of Switzerland, yields per acre at a low cost and makes excellent roughage for beef-cattle
Austria, and the western areas of Germany. Smaller than the Charolais and finishing.
Limousin, the Simmental was developed for milk, meat, and draft. It is yellowish
brown or red with characteristic white markings.
Beef cows kept for the production of feeder calves are usually maintained on calving is less common and occurs generally in regions where winters are
pasture and roughages with required amounts of protein supplement and some moderate and supplies of pasture forage are available throughout the year.
grain being fed only to first-calf heifers or very heavy milking cows. Most beef Calves are normally weaned at eight to ten months of age because beef cows
cows tend to be overnourished and may become excessively fat and slow to produce very little milk past that stage and also because they need to be rested
conceive unless they happen to be exceptionally heavy milkers. Most pregnant before dropping their next calf. Feeder calves sell by the pound, so that weight for
cows go into the winter in satisfactory condition and need to gain only enough to age is even more important than conformation or shape. Consequently, crossbred
offset the weight of the fetus and related membranes. They can therefore utilize cattle are used; their hybrid vigour results in greater breeding efficiency and milk
coarser roughages, having a total daily crude protein requirement of from 1.3 to production on the part of the dam, as well as greater birth weight, vigour, and
1.7 pounds (0.58 to 0.76 kilogram). Daily vitamin A supplement at the rate of gaining ability on the part of the offspring.
18,000 to 22,000 International Units per cow is advisable unless the roughages
are of a green, leafy kind and the fall pasture has been of excellent quality. Feed
requirements for bulls vary with age, condition, and activity, from 2.0 to 2.4
pounds of crude protein per day; from 25,000 to 40,000 International Units of
vitamin A; and during breeding periods nearly the same energy intake as calves or Beef cows are normally first bred at 15 to 18 months. The gestation period is 283
short yearlings being finished for market, the main feeding requirement being to days, and the interval between estrus, or periods in which the dam is in heat, is 21
prevent their becoming excessively fat. days. Cows should produce a living calf every 12 months. Pasture breeding, in
which nature is allowed to take its course, calls for one mature bull for every 25
All cattle require salt (sodium chloride) and a palatable source of both cows, whereas hand breeding, in which control is exercised by the breeder,
calcium and phosphorus, such as limestone and steamed bone meal. Most requires half as many bulls. Artificial insemination permits one outstanding sire to
commercial salts carry trace minerals as relatively cheap insurance against produce thousands of calves annually.
deficiencies that occasionally exist in scattered locations.

Beef cattle management

Diseases of beef and dairy cattle
Beef production has become highly scientific and efficient because of the
high cost of labour, land, feed, and money. Most brood-cow herds, which require Dairy cattle are susceptible to the same diseases as beef cattle. Many diseases
a minimum of housing and equipment, are managed so as to reduce costs and pests plague the cattle industries of the world, the more serious ones being
through pasture improvement and are typically found in relatively large areas and prevalent in the humid and less developed countries. One of the more common
herds. Other aspects of management include performance testing for regular diseases to be found in the developed countries is brucellosis, which has been
production of offspring that will gain rapidly and produce acceptable carcasses controlled quite successfully through vaccination and testing. This disease
and the use of preventive medicine, feed additives, pregnancy checks, fertility produces undulant fever in humans through milk from infected cows.
testing of sires, artificial insemination of some purebred and commercial herds, Leptospirosis, prevalent in warm-blooded animals and humans, is caused by a
protection against insects and parasites, both internal and external, adequate but spirochete and results in fever, loss of weight, and abortion. Bovine tuberculosis
not excessive feed intakes, and a minimum of handling. has been largely eliminated; where it has not, it can infect other warm-blooded
animals, including humans. Test and slaughter programs have proved effective.
Calving of beef cows is arranged to occur in the spring months to take Rabies, caused by a specific virus that also can infect most warm-blooded animals,
advantage of the large supplies of cheap and high-quality pasture forages. Fall is usually transmitted through the bite of infected animals, either wild or
domestic. Foot-and-mouth disease has been eliminated from most of North (pork) and lard—unlike most other livestock, such as cattle and sheep, which have
America, some Central American countries, Australia, and New Zealand. The rest many other important economic uses.
of the world is still plagued by the disease, which attacks all cloven-footed
animals. Humans are mildly susceptible to this organism. Successful vaccinations
have been developed for blackleg, malignant edema, infectious bovine
rhinotracheitis (or red nose), and several other diseases. Anaplasmosis, common
to most tropical and semitropical regions, is spread by the bite of mosquitoes and sow and piglets
flies. Anthrax, caused by a generally fatal bacterial infection, has been largely Female pigs can have as many as 20 piglets in a litter. China holds the record for
eliminated in the United States and western Europe. Rinderpest, once a common having the largest population of domestic pigs. The United States is second.
affliction, was caused by a specific virus that produced high fever and diarrhea;
the disease was declared eradicated in 2011. An infectious fever sometimes called © Corbis
nagana, caused by the tsetse fly, attacks both cattle and horses and is prevalent in Breeds
central and southern Africa as well as in the Philippines. Grass tetany and milk
fever both result from metabolic disturbances. Bloat, caused by rapid gas There are more than 300 known breeds or local varieties of pigs throughout the
formation in the rumen, or first compartment of the stomach, is sometimes fatal world. Following is a brief description of the better-known commercial breeds.
unless relieved. Pinkeye is an infectious inflammation of the eyes spread by flies
or dust and is most serious in cattle having white pigmentation around one or
both eyes. Mastitis, an inflammation of the udder, is caused by rough handling or Selected breeds of pigs
by infection. Vibriosis, a venereal disease that causes abortion; pneumonia, an
name use distribution characteristics comments
inflammation of the lungs; and shipping fever all cause serious losses and are
difficult to control except through good management. Broad-spectrum antibiotics
(antibiotics that are effective against various microorganisms), as well as powerful
Duroc, or Duroc-Jersey lard North and South America medium length;
and specific pharmaceuticals, are effective and profitable means of keeping cattle
light gold-red to dark red 1/2 Jersey Red, 1/2 Duroc
herds healthy, though their overuse in livestock farming is an important factor in
the rise of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Vermifuges, which destroy or expel
parasitic worms, and insecticides, which kill harmful insects, are also highly
effective and much used. Hampshire meat U.S. breed medium weight; long body; black with
white forelegs and shoulders active, alert; good grazer
Wesley Patterson Garrigus

Pigs
Landrace meat northern and central Europe, U.S. medium-sized;
Pigs are relatively easy to raise indoors or outdoors, and they can be white, often with small black spots several breeds; raised for bacon
slaughtered with a minimum of equipment because of their moderate size (see
meat processing: Hogs). Pigs are monogastric, so, unlike ruminants, they are
unable to utilize large quantities of forage and must be given concentrate feed. Spotted meat developed in U.S. black and white spotted (ideally 50/50)
Furthermore, pigs have only one primary economic use—as a source of meat sometimes called Spots
 The Poland China originated about 1860 in southern Ohio from a number
of different breeds common to that area. The Spotted Poland China originated in
Yorkshire (in England, Large White) meat worldwide white,
Indiana about 1915 from crosses of the Poland China and the native spotted pigs.
sometimes with dark areas a bacon breed; sows are prolific

The Hampshire pig, which originated from the Norfolk thin-rind breed of England,
is black with a white belt completely encircling its body, including both front legs
and feet. There should be no white on the head or the ham.
Poland China breed
Hampshire breed
Poland China pig.
Hampshire boar.
National Pork Board
© Larry Lefever/Grant Heilman Photography, Inc.

The Yorkshire pig, which originated early in the 19th century in England,
The Chester White, which originated in Chester county, Pa., after 1818, is
where it was considered a bacon type, is long, lean, and trim with white hair and
restricted to the United States and Canada.
skin. Found in most countries, this breed is probably the most widely distributed
in the world.

Yorkshire breed The Berkshire, which originated in Berkshire, Eng., about 1770, is used for fresh
pork production in England and Japan; a larger bacon type has been evolved in
Yorkshire (Large White) boar.
Australia and New Zealand. Like the Duroc breed, the Berkshire is noted for the
J.C. Allen and Son quality of its meat.

The Duroc-Jersey breed originated in the eastern United States from red
pigs brought by Christopher Columbus and Hernando de Soto. The modern Duroc,
originated from crosses of the Jersey Red of New Jersey and the Duroc of New
York in the late 19th century, ranges from golden-red to mahogany-red in colour, The Landrace is a white, lop-eared pig found in most countries in central and
with no black allowed. This breed proved particularly suitable for feeding in the eastern Europe, with local varieties in Denmark, Germany, the Netherlands, and
U.S. Corn Belt (parts of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, Minnesota, South Sweden. World attention was first drawn to the Landrace by Denmark, where
Dakota, Nebraska, Missouri, and Oklahoma; all of Iowa) and has been extensively since 1895 a superior pig has been produced, designed for Denmark’s export
used in Argentina, Canada, Chile, and Uruguay. It is recognized for the quality of trade in Wiltshire bacon to England and developed by progeny testing (the
its meat. selection of boars for breeding on the basis of the scientific assessment of their
progeny). Sweden also has progeny tested from Landrace stock but for a shorter
Duroc breed
period. Pigs from Sweden were first exported to England in 1953, when prices of
Duroc boar. up to £1,000 were paid. This resulted in a worldwide Landrace explosion, and
most major pig-producing countries have since taken stock.
Grant Heilman Photography
 weight of about 1.4 kg (3 pounds), and typically produce two litters per year. A
mature boar can mate as often as five to seven times per week. Gilts (young
females) are usually mated by eight months of age and typically have a
Landrace breed reproductive life of three to six litters, although individual sows may have 10 or
more litters.
Landrace boar.

© Larry Lefever/Grant Heilman Photography, Inc.

Most countries with developed pork production rely on artificial insemination. In
The importance of the Asian pig breeds was recognized in the use of Chinese and fact, the semen from one boar ejaculate can be diluted to make 20 inseminations,
“Siamese” pigs from southeastern Asia in the improvement of early European and each containing two to six billion sperm. In addition to reducing the number of
North American breeds and is reflected in the name of the world-famous Poland boars needed for breeding, artificial insemination allows the selection of boars
China. China leads the world in pig numbers, and pork is traditional in the Chinese with the highest genetic merit, which results in more rapid improvement of the
diet. herd population. The semen may be collected and processed from boars raised by
Daweizi breed producers or purchased from stud farms that specialize in semen collection and
marketing.
Daweizi pig.

Zhang, Z.G., Li, B.T. & Chen, X.H. (eds.) (1986) ‘Pig breeds in China'
Piglets move to the sow’s udder to begin nursing moments after birth and are
Breeding and growth weaned between two and five weeks, with about a 15 to 20 percent pre-weaning
Purebred production, or line breeding, is used to concentrate desired mortality rate from stillbirths and being crushed by the lactating sow. Pigs that
genes—for example, litter size or growth rate—within a population of animals. weigh between about 18 and 57 kg (40 and 125 pounds) are known as growing
White pig breeds are generally noted for large litters (a maternal characteristic) pigs, from about 57 to 100 kg (125 to 220 pounds) as finishing pigs, and more
and coloured breeds for rapid growth and meat quality (paternal characteristics). than about 100 kg as hogs or market pigs because they are ready for butchering.
Hogs are typically brought to market when they are five to six months old. Most
Before 1980 most genetic material was available through purebreds, such males are castrated shortly after birth to avoid an off-flavour in their meat.
as Yorkshires, Hampshires, and Landraces, raised by many small producers. Castrated males are called barrows.
Commercial breeding companies in the 1980s began developing different lines of
pigs based on the genetics of the pure breeds in a system called crossbreeding.
Modern swine crossbreeding techniques involve mating a boar (male) from a Production systems
breed with rapid weight growth and sows (females) selected for their history of
producing large litters. Pork production can lend itself to mechanization and reduced use of high-priced
labour. Self-feeders, diets composed of grains and oilseed by-products, and
Sows have a gestation period of 110–120 days with a 21-day interval construction of slotted floors and outside tanks or lagoons for manure storage
between periods of estrus, the time during which they will accept mating by a have become almost universal among large-scale commercial producers in
boar. Sows have an average litter size of 12 piglets (somewhat fewer for a first developed countries. Particularly in developed countries, most pigs are raised
pregnancy and somewhat more for certain Asian breeds), each piglet with a birth indoors with various means of environmental control. Air-conditioned barns for
excessively hot summers and heated floors and space heating or heat lamps for pounds) at about eight weeks. Most of these pigs are sold on a long-standing
cold winters are widespread. contract with a person involved in the final stage of production, feeder-to-market.

Feeder-to-market production has the lowest labour and management

requirements. The producer in this stage purchases the feeder pigs and raises
pig breeding
them to market weights in about 16 weeks. This part of the cycle requires the
A heat lamp warming the litter of a Yorkshire sow in a farrowing pen. most feed and produces the most manure; therefore, it fits well with grain
producers who have a lot of grain for feed and farmland that can use the pigs’
© Larry Lefever/Grant Heilman Photography, Inc. manure as fertilizer. It is the least profitable per head, however, and two or three
Production methods have evolved into systems divided by the stages of times as many pigs must be produced to earn as much as a farrow-to-finish
the pig’s life cycle: birth, weaning, growth, finishing, and market. The three producer.
common operations are farrow-to-finish, farrow-to-feeder, and feeder-to-market.
Farrowing refers to a sow giving birth. The farrow-to-finish operation is the
historic foundation of the pork industry and includes all phases: breeding, Basic dietary requirements
gestation, farrowing, lactation, weaning, and subsequently growing the pigs to
Pigs have the same basic nutritional requirements as humans, which include
market weight. Typically, these operations have been on family farms, where
water, various vitamins and minerals, protein for growth and repair,
owners raise pigs along with a grain operation in which much of the grain is fed to
carbohydrates for energy, and fat to supply essential fatty acids that are not
the pigs, saving the owner the cost of transporting and selling the grain.
synthesized in adequate quantities. Water is often a forgotten nutrient because it
Additionally, the pig manure provides an excellent source of nitrogen,
is usually readily available. As a guide, pigs need two to three times as much
phosphorus, and potassium for fertilizing cropland. Historically, farrow-to-finish
water as dry feed, depending on environmental temperatures.
has been the most profitable type of hog enterprise. Many small-farm holders
have full-time jobs in a nonfarming occupation and breed hogs to supplement
their income.
The fat-soluble vitamins that must be added to swine diets include vitamins A, D,
Many pigs are now raised in vertically integrated systems, where ownership is E, and K. Water-soluble vitamins—in particular, the vitamin B complex—that must
maintained from the production farm through the meat-processing plant to the be added include niacin, pantothenic acid, riboflavin, and vitamin B12. Biotin, folic
grocery store. acid, and choline are sometimes recommended in diets of young pigs and the
breeding herd. Vitamin requirements are usually listed as International Units,
Farrow-to-feeder operations have the highest labour requirements, and
milligrams, or micrograms per unit of feed.
many producers specialize in this part of the production cycle. It includes the
management of the breeding herd, gestating sows, and piglets until they reach
the growing (feeder) stage. The farmer retains control of the piglets until they are
Mineral needs can be divided into major minerals and trace minerals. Major
sold to another entity for feeder-to-market production. There are two common
minerals that need to be added to the diet include calcium, phosphorus, and
sale times—at early weaning, when a piglet weighs 5 to 7 kg (11 to 15 pounds),
common salt. Requirements for major minerals are usually listed as a percentage
and at the start of the growing pig stage, when it weighs 18 to 25 kg (40 to 55
of the diet. Trace minerals that need to be added to pig diets include iron, zinc,
copper, manganese, iodine, and selenium. Although other minerals are required
for growth, they are present in adequate amounts in feedstuffs. Requirements for
After farrowing, a lactating sow’s first milk is called colostrum, which lasts about
trace minerals are usually listed as parts per million or milligrams per kilogram.
three days. During this period, a sow needs 2 to 3 kg (4.5 to 6.5 pounds) of feed
per day. Colostrum is very high in nutrients and factors that provide passive
immunity to nursing piglets. This passive immunity is essential for disease
There is sufficient fat (about 1 percent) in the grain or feed of a pig’s diet to
resistance before piglets develop their own immunity, so all newborn piglets need
supply all of its essential fatty acid requirements. Protein is a source of amino
to nurse immediately. Sows usually nurse their litters for two to five weeks,
acids, 10 of which are deemed essential dietary requirements for pig nutrition. An
depending on the management system. Lactating sows have high nutrient
additional 11 or so amino acids can be synthesized by the pig’s metabolism and,
requirements and at peak production may generate as much as 6 kg (13 pounds)
although required for muscle growth, do not need to be present in the diet.
of milk per day for their offspring. To prevent large weight losses in the sow, they
need to be fed as much feed as they can consume. This can be as much as 10 to
12 kg (22 to 26 pounds) at three or more weeks after farrowing.
Corn (maize) is a favourite energy or carbohydrate source for pigs, but
wheat, sorghum, milo, barley, and oats also are used if the price is favourable.
Wherever abundant and reasonable in price, soybean oil meal is the favoured
Weaned pigs are usually moved to a nursery where the temperature can be kept
source of protein and amino acids, and other oil meals and high-protein by-
higher than 27 °C (80 °F) until they are about four weeks old. Piglets typically stay
products are used in most countries.
in the nursery for six to eight weeks. Newly weaned pigs have an immature
digestive system, and their first diet after weaning until about four weeks of age
should contain dried milk products in addition to energy and protein sources.
Special dietary requirements Typically, nursery pigs are fed two to four different diets as they grow.
The nutritional requirements of pigs vary according to their age, sex, and
activities. For example, a boar’s nutritional requirements are based on its weight
and the number of times it has ejaculated, whether by inseminating sows or by Growing pigs should be fed at least four distinct diets to optimize gain. As a pig
having its semen collected for artificial insemination. grows, it eats more each day, but the nutrient density can be reduced.

Nutrient requirements during gestation are much lower than would be Disease prevention
expected; the major concern is that the sows do not become overweight before
The health of swine can best be ensured by a combination of prevention and
giving birth. Gilts should gain about 45 kg (100 pounds) during pregnancy. This
treatment of diseases. Prevention includes both biosecurity and vaccination.
weight gain includes about 14 kg (30 pounds) for offspring, another 14 kg for
Biosecurity includes isolating pigs from other species, both domestic and feral, as
products of conception (increased weight of uterus and fluids), and 18 kg (40
well as isolating pigs from each other by age. A major health risk is the
pounds) of general weight gain. Sows, which have already produced litters, should
introduction of new pigs into a resident population, because pigs brought from
gain 27 to 32 kg (60 to 70 pounds). A daily balanced diet of 1.8 kg (4 pounds) of
other farms are likely to carry disease-causing organisms to which the resident
feed will meet the nutritional requirements of gestating pigs in temperate
population has not developed any immunity. Human visitors also pose some risk,
environmental conditions.
which can be mitigated by having them put on clean clothes and boots at a swine as parasites. Noninfectious diseases include poisonous plants, toxins, nutritional
facility. A strict sanitation and traffic control program minimizes opportunities for excesses and deficiencies, and metabolic diseases such as ulcers.
new disease organisms to enter the herd, while systematic vaccination reduces
the likelihood of routine diseases. A comprehensive herd health program also
includes optimum nutrition, comfortable housing, excellent ventilation, and Common diseases controllable by vaccination include transmissible
vigorous parasite control. gastroenteritis, which is often fatal to piglets (even when vaccinated);
leptospirosis, which can also infect humans and most warm-blooded animals;
pseudorabies, a viral disease that causes high mortality in piglets; and erysipelas,
Safe and effective vaccines are available for many swine diseases, and producers a bacterial infection that causes inflammation of the skin and swelling and
work with their veterinarians to develop health programs that will alleviate stiffness of the joints. Cholera and foot-and-mouth disease, formerly controlled
infections of diseases prevalent in their local areas. Antibiotics may be added to by vaccination, are now usually controlled by slaughter of infected herds. Necrotic
the feed or water or be given by injection. Low-level doses of antibiotics, known enteritis and other infections of the intestinal tract are largely controlled by
as subtherapeutic, in the feed assist in preventing various bacteria from antibiotics. Atrophic rhinitis produces sneezing, crooked snouts, and poor
expressing disease symptoms. Infected pigs exhibiting disease symptoms may be performance and is controlled by a combination of vaccination and antibiotics.
treated with therapeutic levels. Producers treating pigs with any medication must
be aware of and follow minimum withdrawal periods before the pigs are
marketed. Parasitic diseases can be divided into external and internal parasites. External
parasites include lice and mites (which cause mange). Effective topical and
internal preparations are available for their control or elimination. Internal
Improvements in breeding, disease control, management, and feed formulation parasites include various worms, which can be controlled through effective
have all contributed to faster gains and lower feed requirements per kilogram of treatment with anthelmintics and through improvements in sanitation. Internal
weight gain. The use of antibiotics began in the early 1950s in the United States, parasites are less of a problem when pigs are raised on slatted floors, which
and the practice immediately resulted in increasing the rate of weight gain in reduce spreading and re-infection by separating the pigs from their manure and
nursery pigs (especially in regions with less favourable sanitation) by as much as other intermediary parasite hosts.
20 percent and by about 5 percent in pigs weighing more than 50 kg (110
pounds). Antibiotics became a standard ingredient in most young pigs’ diets.
Nevertheless, many European countries have restricted subtherapeutic use of Common noninfectious diseases include mycotoxins (produced by molds and
antibiotics for growth promotion in livestock diets because of concern that fungi present on various feedstuffs), ulcers, mange, and feeds accidentally
antibiotic-resistant bacteria that infect humans may develop. contaminated by pesticides. Mycotoxins are best prevented by timely harvest of
the grains and drying them to a moisture content that is not conducive to mold
and fungal growth, usually 14 percent or less. Older nonpregnant pigs can be
Common diseases given lightly contaminated feed with minimal risk, whereas young pigs are more
susceptible to mycotoxins.
Pigs are subject to many infectious and parasitic diseases. Diseases can be divided
into infectious and noninfectious. Infectious diseases are transmitted between
animals and include various bacterial, viral, and mycoplasmal organisms, as well
Nutritional diseases are rare as a result of the availability of quality feedstuffs and
excellent information regarding nutrient requirements. Nutrient deficiencies are
Columbia medium developed in U.S. since 1912 large, white-
usually the result of improper diet formulation over an extended time and occur
faced, hornless high wool yield; mutton acceptable
most often in young, rapidly growing pigs. Nutrient excesses are not common, the
major risk being that excesses of one or two nutrients may bind to other
nutrients, thereby interfering with their efficient absorption in the digestive tract.
Large nutrient excesses or deficiencies also may cause pigs to reduce their feed Corriedale medium developed in N.Z., now also in U.S., Australia
intake to prevent toxicity or nutrient disturbances. white-faced, hornless bright, soft fleece; good quality lambs

Palmer J. Holden Cotswold long originally England, now also U.S. large, white-
faced, hornless coarse, curly fleece; acceptable mutton
Sheep

Sheep are able to subsist on sparse forage and limited water. Their wool is light in
relation to its value and is relatively imperishable, both of which qualities enable Dorset medium developed in England, now in U.K., U.S., Australia
wide exportation. During the 20th century, sheep-raising in some areas, medium-sized, white-faced small wool yield; out-of-season lambs;
particularly the western United States, has declined in favour of more profitable horned and hornless varieties
cattle.

Hampshire medium developed in England, now also widespread in

Breeds U.S. large, hornless; dark face and legs superior mutton breed; limited
wool
The gestation period for sheep is 147 days with 16.7 days between periods of
estrus, which last 29 hours. The average number of lambs raised per hundred
ewes is 91, and the average fleece weight per shearing is 8.34 pounds (3.78 Karakul fur originally Central Asia, now also Africa, Europe, U.S. medium-
kilograms). sized, fat-tailed coats of very young lambs called Persian lamb

Selected breeds of sheep Leicester long originally England, now U.K., North America massive
name type of wool distribution characteristics comments body, white-faced, broad-backed heavy fleece

Black-Faced Highland, also called Scottish Blackface carpet originally Lincoln long originally England, now also Australia, N.Z., North and South
Scotland, now also U.S., Italy, Argentina black or mottled, horned stylish America world's largest sheep, hornless coarse, long wool is used chiefly
appearance for carpets
 Of more than 200 breeds of sheep in existence in the world, the majority are of
limited interest except in the localities where they are raised. Sheep breeds are
Merino fine originally Spain, now also Australia, North America, South Africa
generally classified as medium wool, long wool, and fine wool. Of the medium
horned or hornless, heavily-wooled head excellent, fine, soft
wool breeds the Hampshire, Shropshire, Southdown, Suffolk, Oxford, and Dorset
fleeces
all originated in England. The Cheviot and Black Faced Highland originated in
Scotland. The Panama, Columbia, and Targhee were developed in the United
States, and the Corriedale in New Zealand. After World War II such larger breeds
North Country Cheviot medium originally Scotland, now widespread as the Suffolk and Hampshire increased in popularity at the expense of the
white chalk; large, deep-bodied hardy; produces superior fleece smaller breeds.

Rambouillet fine developed in France from the 18th century, now also in The long wool breeds, including the Cotswold, Lincoln, Leicester, and Romney,
U.S. smooth-bodied, horned or hornless lambs mature rapidly; bred from were all developed in England and, in addition to mutton, produce wool of
Merino unusually long fibre length that is suitable for rugs and coarse fabrics.

Romney long originally England, now also N.Z., North America,

Australia hornless with white face and legs mostly raised for mutton;
wool used for variety of products The original fine-wool breed was the Merino, developed in Spain from stock
native to that country before the Christian era. Though medieval Spain sought to
preserve a monopoly on the Merino, the sheep gradually spread to France, Italy,
Southdown medium originally England, now also N.Z., Australia, North and the rest of Europe. Today the Merino is prominent in Australia, the United
America hornless with small, rounded body raised for mutton; fleece States, Russia, South Africa, Argentina, France, and Germany; the breed is
is short designated by various names such as Australian Merino in Australia and Merino
Transhumante in Spain. The Merino was the main ancestor of the French
Rambouillet, somewhat larger and less wrinkled than the Merino. This breed
Suffolk medium developed in England, now also in U.S. black face and prospers in the western ranges of the United States, where two-thirds of that
legs, large, hornless fine mutton breed; acceptable wool country’s sheep are raised. The Corriedale breed, adapted to both farms and
ranges, is especially valued in New Zealand and Australia. Most commercial sheep
today represent two-breed or three-breed crosses, with white-faced crossbred
ewes preferred in the range areas and a black-faced sire, such as Suffolk or
Discover sheep that shed its wool and how it can benefit farmers
Hampshire, preferred for market lambs, which are either finished for slaughter or
Learn about a breed of sheep that sheds its coat. sold as breeding ewes.

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Sheep are excellent foragers and, being ruminants, can utilize both pasture forage In many parts of the world small flocks are kept partly as scavengers to clean up
and harvested roughage. Selective in their grazing habits, they prefer short grass fence rows, weeds, brush, and other undesirable forage, but this is a diminishing
when available. Pregnant ewes can run on late pasture as long as it is available role. Large flocks are maintained partly for wool and partly for market lambs.
and abundant but in winter subsist satisfactorily on well-cured legume hay or Lambs are usually dropped in the spring and are sold at ages of from three to
mixed hay carrying a high percentage of legume. Corn (maize) silage is relatively eight months and weights of around 40 pounds (18 kilograms) for Easter lambs,
inexpensive and relished by sheep; lactating ewes and lambs being finished for and 100 pounds (45 kilograms) for the usual market lambs. Sheep are sheared in
market usually require some concentrate, with corn (maize) favoured because of the spring after the worst winter weather has passed. Some breeds are noted for
its high energy content and reasonable cost. producing a high percentage of twins, and others, such as the Dorset, for both
high frequency of twins and heavy milk production. Shepherds frequently switch
a newly born twin lamb to a ewe that has just lost a single lamb, thereby utilizing
Range sheep grazing selectively on native plants frequently develop mild the extra milk. This practice requires skill and experience, since a mother ewe
deficiencies of protein, energy, phosphorus, and vitamin A, especially when plants recognizes her own lamb by both its smell and the sound of its call.
are mature or dormant or are eaten by ewes in the later stages of pregnancy or
lactation. Broad spectrum antibiotics at the rate of five to 10 milligrams per
pound of feed are normally used in all lamb finishing rations to prevent digestive Diseases
disturbances and infections.
Such internal parasites as the tapeworm and several species of roundworms that
infest the gastrointestinal tract are perhaps the greatest scourge of sheep, but
modern vermifuges are quite effective against these. Dips are used to combat
Management
such external parasites as ticks, lice, and mites. Foot rot, caused by an infection of
Range sheep are normally white-faced crosses carrying both long-wool and the soft tissue between the toes, results in extreme lameness and even loss of the
Rambouillet breeding and are consequently very hardy and thrifty. They are hoof. The more persistent type is caused by a specific organism that is difficult to
wintered in bands, or flocks, of from 1,000 to 4,000 head at lower altitudes, and treat. The pain and the restricted movement of infected sheep result in rapid loss
are moved in bands ranging from 1,000 to 1,500 head to summer range at much of weight. Enterotoxemia, or pulpy kidney, affects lambs at two to six weeks of
higher altitude, sometimes 300 miles (480 kilometres) from their winter quarters. age, especially those starting on unusually lush or rich feeds. A vaccination is quite
Each flock is tended by a sheepherder and his dogs who move systematically from effective in preventing this otherwise costly ailment.
one grazing area to another. The herder often lives in a covered wagon or truck
and may spend weeks at a time in complete solitude. The most famous
sheepherders are the Basques, who emigrated widely from their home in Spain.
The breeding ewes are mated to Suffolk or Hampshire rams and produce lambs
Goats
during the late winter or early spring so that the lambs will be old enough to
move to summer grazing without difficulty. Probably first domesticated in the East, perhaps during prehistoric times, the goat
has long been used as a source of milk, cheese, mohair, and meat. Its skin has
been valued as a source for leather. In China, Great Britain, Europe, and North
America, the goat is primarily a milk producer. By good management its limited
(six months per year) breeding season and the consequent difficulty of
maintaining a level supply of milk throughout the year, can be overcome. The
goat is especially adapted to small-scale production of milk for the family table;
Saanen milk originally Saanen Valley, Switzerland white or cream-coloured;
one or two goats supply sufficient milk for a family throughout the year and can
short hair consistent milk producer
be maintained economically in quarters where it would not be practical to keep a
cow.

Toggenburg milk originally Toggenburg valley, Switzerland, now also

United Kingdom, United States light to dark brown important dairy goat
Selected breeds of goats
Pure-white goat’s milk compares favourably with cow’s milk in flavour and
name use distribution characteristics comments
keeping qualities under sanitary conditions. It has certain characteristics differing
from cow’s milk that make it more easily digested by infants, invalids, and
persons with allergies. Goat flesh is edible, that from young kids being quite
Angora wool originally Turkey, now also South Africa, United States small
tender and more delicate in flavour than lamb, which it resembles. Goat flesh is
body; thick, flat fleece thrives in temperate regions
much prized in the Mediterranean countries, particularly in Spain, Italy, the south
of France, and Greece. The Angora and Cashmere breeds are famous for their fine
wool or mohair.
Boer meat originally South Africa horned; lop ears extended
breeding season
The many breeds may be roughly grouped: the prickeared—e.g., Swiss goats; the
eastern, or Nubian, with long, drooping ears; and the wool goat—e.g., Angora.
Cashmere wool, milk, and meat originally China, now Asia and Middle While it is usually easy to distinguish goats from sheep, certain hair breeds of the
East small body; large ears; small horns wool obtained from its undercoat latter are, to the layman, only distinguishable from goats by the direction of the
tail, upward in goats, downward in sheep.

LaMancha milk originally United States distinct ear types: “gopher ears”
(up to one inch in length but preferably nonexistent) or “elf ears” (maximum
length 2 inches) hardy
Of the Swiss goats, from which many of the best modern breeds are derived, the
Toggenburg and Saanen are most important. The French breeds have much Swiss
Nubian milk originally North Africa, now also India, Middle East, United blood. In Germany the many varieties trace to Swiss breeds, which are also
Kingdom, United States long legs; long ears; large nose several varieties popular throughout Scandinavia and the Netherlands.

Oberhasli milk originally Switzerland medium-sized; chamois in colour The Maltese goat, an important source of milk on the island of Malta, probably
with two black stripes on face alert in appearance contains eastern blood. Many goats are found in Spain, northern Africa, and Italy,
among them the Murcian, Granada, and La Mancha.
 Selected breeds of light horses

Nubians are African goats, chiefly Egyptian. They are usually large, short-haired name origin height (hands)* aptitude characteristics comments
goats with large lop ears and Roman noses. They may be of solid colour, parti-
*1 hand = 4 inches (10.16 cm).
coloured, or spotted. The goats in Israel and Syria have long hair and large lop
ears and most commonly are solid black or with white spots. Most Indian
varieties, the best of which come from the Yamuna River area, have lop ears.
Akhal-Teke Turkmenistan 14.2–16 riding, racing long neck carried
almost perpendicular to body; long, slender legs; metallic golden-dun colour is
unique to the breed ancient breed; noted for its endurance and speed
In Britain, the native goat was small, with short legs, long hair—usually gray but of
no fixed colour—and with no definite markings. The widespread use of pedigree
males, mostly of Swiss extraction, to improve the milk yield, has resulted in the
almost total disappearance of the native types. American Paint Horse U.S. 15–16 riding two colour patterns—overo and
tobiano—determined by location of white markings developed from Quarter
Horse, Thoroughbred, and Paint breeds; versatile riding horse

Horses American Quarter Horse U.S. 14.2–16 riding, racing, herding

short, fine head with a straight profile; short back; long, powerful croup
Horses were among the last species of livestock to be domesticated.
and shoulders; well-muscled thighs, gaskins, and forearms one of the most
Domestication took place at least as early as 3000 BCE, probably in the Near East.
popular breeds; noted for its agility and quick bursts of speed; adapts easily to
The wild ass, which when domesticated is usually called a donkey, was first
any riding discipline
domesticated in Egypt about 3400 BCE. See also horse.

American Saddlebred U.S. 15–16 riding, light draft small head with
Breeds
long neck lying almost vertical to shoulder; short back; level croup with high tail
The Arabian, the oldest recognized breed of horse in the world, is thought to have carriage performs three gaits (walk, trot, canter) or five gaits (three plus
originated in Arabia before 600 CE. Though its history is lost in the past, the breed slow gait, rack)
probably descended from the Libyan horse, which in turn was probably preceded
by horses of similar characteristics in Assyria, Greece, and Egypt as early as 1000
BCE. The Arabian may be bay, gray, chestnut, brown, black, or white in hair colour Andalusian Spain 15.1–15.3 riding arched neck; round and muscular
but always has a black skin. It ranges from 14.1 to 15.1 hands (4.7 to 5.0 feet, or hindquarters with low-set tail; mane and tail are often profuse and wavy
1.4 to 1.5 metres) in height. The Arabian horse has one lumbar vertebra less than influenced breeds worldwide; used in bullfights
other breeds of horse and is characterized by the high carriage of its head, long
neck, and spirited action.
Appaloosa U.S. 14.2–16 riding several colour patterns: Spanish Riding School of Vienna, where it is trained in difficult "high school"
snowflake, leopard, marble, frost, and blanket; black and white striped hooves movements
descended from the spotted horses of the Nez Percé Indians; influenced
by Arabian and, most recently, American Quarter Horse blood
Missouri Fox Trotting Horse U.S. 14–16 riding wide, deep-chested
body; muscular hind legs noted for its natural smooth "fox-trot" gait, the
Arabian Middle East 14–15 riding, light draft head profile is uniquely horse canters with the front feet while trotting with the hind, producing little
concave (dished), tapering to a dainty muzzle; wide-set, large eyes; long, graceful movement in the back
neck; short back; flat croup with distinctive high tail carriage has refined
almost every breed worldwide; considered one of the most beautiful horses;
noted for its stamina, excels in endurance competitions MorganU.S. 14.1–15.2 riding, light draft fine head with arched
neck; well-defined withers; long, sloping shoulders; muscular hindquarters
descended from one prepotent stallion; noted for its versatility; possesses
Argentine Criollo Argentina 14 riding short, deep body; long great stamina
head; heavily muscled one of the soundest breeds; descended from the Barb,
Arab, and Andalusian; common throughout South America; noted for its
endurance Paso Fino Puerto Rico 14–15 riding medium-sized; small head with
large, wide-set eyes; legs delicate in appearancenoted for its natural four-beat
lateral gait, in which the hind foot touches the ground a fraction of a second
Cleveland Bay England16–16.2 riding, light and medium draft, farm work before the front; gait executed at three speeds—paso fino, paso corto, and paso
powerful and substantial build; short legs; always bay in colour oldest largo
British breed; often crossed with Thoroughbreds to produce excellent hunters
and sport horses
Standardbred U.S. 15–16 harness racing, riding long, sloping, muscular
hindquarters; long, thick mane and tail; typically bay in colour primarily used
Hanoverian Germany 15.3–17 riding, light draft long, for harness racing
muscular neck; deep body; powerful hindquarters excels in dressage and
show jumping; elegant, fluid gaits; developed from Holstein, influenced by
Thoroughbred and Trakehner blood Tennessee Walking Horse U.S. 15–16 riding solid build; sturdy,
muscular legs; numerous colours and markings noted for its running walk, a
natural smooth four-beat gait in which the horse's head nods in rhythm with the
Lipizzaner Austria (now in Slovenia) 15–16.1 riding, harness, rise and fall of its hooves; considered the most naturally good-tempered horse
draft, farm work long head with crested neck; compact, powerful body; breed
foals are born black or brown in colour and usually mature to white-gray
descended from Spanish horses; famous for its association with the
Thoroughbred, also called English Thoroughbred England15–17 riding,
flat and jump racing large, expressive eyes; exceptionally long, sloping
shoulders; fine-boned legs with small hooves; thin skin bred primarily for racing,
but also excels at dressage, eventing, and jumping; possesses great stamina and The typical Quarter Horse is 15 to 16 hands tall and is of powerful build, suitable
courage; bred extensively to improve other breeds for both racing and the rough life of a cow pony. This horse is noted for its
intelligence, easy disposition, and cow sense.

Trakehner East Prussia (now in Lithuania) 16–17 riding, light draft

refined head with large, expressive eyes; long, elegant neck; strong, The Tennessee Walking Horse, or plantation horse, traces mainly to the
sloping shoulders considered one of the most elegant European Standardbred but also includes Thoroughbred and American Saddle Horse blood.
warmbloods; excels at dressage and show jumping; influenced by Thoroughbred The Tennessee Walking Horse is noted for its running walk, a slowgliding gait in
and Arabian blood which the hind foot oversteps the print of the front foot by as much as 24 inches
(600 millimetres). This breed is 15.2 to 16 hands high and is bay, black, chestnut,
The Thoroughbred racing horse is descended from three desert stallions brought
roan, or gray in colour.
to England between 1689 and 1724; all of the Thoroughbreds of the world today
trace their ancestry to one of these stallions.

The Morgan traces directly to “the Justin Morgan horse,” foaled in 1793, of
unknown breeding but no doubt tracing to Arabian stock. A dark bay in colour,
The American Saddle Horse, which originated in the United States, was formed by
Morgan stood 14 hands high and weighed 950 pounds (430 kilograms). He was a
crossing Thoroughbreds, Morgans, and Standardbreds on native mares possessing
heavily muscled, short-legged horse of great style, quality, and endurance. He is
an easy gait. The American Saddle Horse is 15 to 16 hands (5 to 5.3 feet, or 1.5 to
the world’s best example of prepotency, since he alone founded the Morgan
1.6 metres) in height. Its colours are bay, brown, black, gray, and chestnut. There
breed. The Morgan is used for both riding and driving. It ranges from 14 to 16
are two distinct types of the American Saddle Horse: three-gaited and five-gaited.
hands in height and resembles the Arabian in size, conformation, quality, and
The three natural gaits are walk, trot, and canter. Three-gaited saddle horses are
endurance.
shown with a short tail and cropped mane. They often have slightly less style and
finish than the five-gaited horse. The five-gaited saddle horse has the three
natural gaits plus the rack and a slow gait, which is usually a stepping pace. The
American Saddle Horse is also used as a fine harness horse mainly for show. The American Standardbred originated around New York City during the first half
of the 19th century from Thoroughbred, Morgan, Norfolk Trotter, Arabian, Barb,
and pacers of mixed breeding. The modern Standardbred is smaller than the
Thoroughbred, ranging from 15 to 16 hands in height and averaging about 15.2
The American Quarter Horse traces to the Thoroughbred, and includes the blood
hands. In racing condition it weighs from 900 to 1,000 pounds (410–450
of other breeds, such as the Morgan, the American Saddle Horse, and several
kilograms). Stallions in stud condition average from 1,100 to 1,200 pounds (500–
strains of native horses. This fast, muscular horse has been raced, ridden in
545 kilograms). Compared with the Thoroughbred, the Standardbred is longer-
rodeos, and used for herding cattle.
bodied, shorter-legged, heavier-boned, and stockier in build. Prevailing colours Shetland Shetland Islands, Scotland 10 riding, light draft
are bay, brown, and chestnut. thick mane and tail; small head with pronounced jaw; short, muscular
neck thought to have existed since the Bronze Age; very powerful; used as a pit
pony in mines of Great Britain in the 19th century; a popular child's mount

Draft horses have largely been supplanted by trucks and tractors in the developed
Welsh Wales 12.2–13.2 riding, light draft fine head with large eyes
countries of the world. Major draft breeds include the Percheron, developed in
and small ears; typically gray in colour very hardy; Arabian influence; excellent
France; the Clydesdale of Scotland; the Shire of England; the Suffolk of England;
gaits
and the Belgian of Belgium. These breeds range from 151/2 to 17 hands in height
at the withers; at maturity the mares weigh from 1,600 to 2,000 pounds (720–900 Feeding
kilograms) and the stallions from 1,900 to 2,200 pounds (860–1000 kilograms).
The specific and exact nutrient requirements of horses are poorly understood.
Usually, these may be supplied economically from pasture forage, harvested
roughages, and concentrates. Good quality grass-legume pastures, in addition to
The more popular pony breeds are the Shetland, which originated in the Shetland
iodized or trace-mineralized salt, will supply adequate nutrients to maintain an
Islands, and the Hackney, of English origin. Ponies must be under 14.2 hands in
adult horse at light work (such as pulling a small cart) or mares during pregnancy.
height at the withers and are used both for show and for children’s pleasure.
Lush, early spring pasture is very high in water and protein contents and may
need to be supplemented with a high-energy source, such as grain, to meet the
needs of horses performing medium to heavy work (such as plowing). Conversely,
Selected breeds of ponies late fall- and winter-pasture forage is low in water and protein and may require
name origin height (hands)* aptitude characteristics comments protein and vitamin A supplementation. High-quality legume hays, such as early
bloom alfalfa, are preferred for horses, especially those that are growing or
*1 hand = 4 inches (10.16 cm). lactating. Moldy or dusty feeds should be avoided because horses are extremely
susceptible to forage poisoning and respiratory complications. Grass hays, such as
timothy, prairie grass, orchard grass, and bluegrass, were preferred by early
Connemara Ireland 13–14.2 riding; light draft well-formed horsemen, especially for race horses, because they were usually free from mold
hindquarters with high-set tail; long neck with full mane; well-muscled legs and dust and tended to slow down the rate of passage through the intestinal
Ireland's only indigenous breed; extremely hardy; known for its tract. These hays are low in digestible energy and protein, however, and must be
exceptional jumping ability and the ease of its gait adequately supplemented. Silages of all sorts should be avoided since horses and
mules are extremely susceptible to botulism and digestive upsets.

Pony of the Americas U.S. 11.2–13.2 riding Appaloosa colouring;

well-pricked ears; large, prominent eyescross between a Shetland pony stallion Oats are the preferred grain for horses because of their bulk. Corn (maize), barley,
and an Appaloosa mare; developed as a versatile child's mount wheat, and milo can be used, however, whenever they are less expensive.
Weanling foals require three pounds of feed per hundred pounds of live weight
per day; as they approach maturity, this requirement drops to one pound of feed The feet and legs of horses demand unusual attention. The old adage “no foot no
per hundred pounds of live weight daily. Horses normally reach mature weight at horse” remains apt. Hooves should be trimmed regularly, beginning when the
less than four years of age and 80 percent of their mature weight at less than two horse is a foal or only a few months old. Otherwise they may grow long and
years of age. uneven, causing improper action, undue stress on joints, and broken or cracked
hooves. Horses that are worked regularly, especially on hard and stony ground, as
well as show horses and race horses in service, must be shod. Shod horses should
A large and ever-growing number of horses stabled in cities and suburbs where have their hooves trimmed and their shoes refitted every four to six weeks.
sufficient roughages cannot be grown provide a large market for complete horse Tendency toward unsoundness is probably inherited but may be aggravated by
rations, including roughage, which are tailored to the total needs of specific poor hoof care and excessive stresses.
animals according to their particular function at a given time, such as growth,
pregnancy, lactation, or maintenance.

Diseases
Horses will vary from the normal requirement in terms of weight, temperament,
and previous nutrition. Foals will eat some pasture grass, forage, or hay when Horses are especially susceptible to tetanus or lockjaw but can be given two-year
they are three days old and grain when they are three weeks old. protection through the use of a commonly accepted toxoid. There are two
common types of abortion in horses: virus abortion, specifically viral
rhinopneumonitis, and the Salmonella type. The former, which produces an
Management influenza with pinkeye, catarrh, general illness, and abortion, affects both mares
and foals, but all surviving horses develop natural resistance soon after infection.
Highly bred light horses are notoriously poor reproducers. Many horse farms Pregnant mares thought to be subjected to infection may be given some
consider a 60 percent foaling rate for a large band of mares to be average. Most protection by available vaccines. The Salmonella type of abortion can be
large horse farms employ resident veterinarians to check for abnormalities or prevented completely by vaccination. Encephalomyelitis, or sleeping sickness, is
disease before breeding and to check mares for pregnancy 40 to 45 days after prevented by vaccination. A specific vaccine is available for anthrax, which is
breeding. Because many mares conceive only every other year, expert assistance prevalent in Asia. Hemolytic anemia of foals has become a problem. Foals so
at foaling time is an absolute necessity, especially if the foal is sired by an afflicted are born normal but soon become sluggish and progressively weaker; the
expensive stallion out of a valuable mare. membranes of their eyes, mouth, and lips become very pale and the heartbeat
becomes rapid. This condition is caused by antibodies in the mare’s milk that
destroy the foal’s red blood cells. These antibodies are caused by the difference in
The gestation period of horses is 340 days. The period between estrus ranges blood type between the foal and the mother. Newborn foals can be muzzled to
from 18 to 28 days with an average of 22 days. Mature stallions can safely mate avoid nursing while their blood is checked for reaction against the serum and milk
with from 50 to 100 mares per season, although the practice with expensive of its mother. Where reactions are noted, the mare is hand-milked at hourly
Thoroughbreds is to book no more than 35 to 40 mares. intervals for 12 to 24 hours, and the foal is fed milk from another suitable mare or
a milk substitute. Horses are quite susceptible to various infections, but rotation
of pastures, strict sanitation, and the use of suitable vermifuges are quite The mule is produced by crossing a jackass (e.g., male donkey) with a mare. At
effective. one time many different types of mules were recognized, such as draft mules,
farm mules, sugar mules, cotton mules, and mining mules, in declining order of
size. The mining mule, a small rugged individual weighing as little as 270 kilograms
Donkeys And Mules (600 pounds), was used in pit mines. Mules are still used in some of the
subtropical and tropical countries because of their ability to withstand most types
The words donkey and ass are generally used interchangeably to denote the same of stress including heat, irregular feeding, and abuse. Mules are surer-footed than
animal, though ass is more properly employed when the animal is wild (e.g., horses and are considered to be more intelligent. For that reason they are still
Equus africanus or E. hemionus) and donkey for a domesticated beast (E. asinus). used as saddle and pack mounts in precarious terrain. Unlike horses, mules refuse
Wild asses inhabit arid semidesert plains in Africa and Asia where the vegetation to damage themselves by overeating or by thrashing around when tangled up or
is sparse and coarse; the domestic donkey does well on coarse food and is hardy in cramped quarters. The reverse cross of a stallion on a jenny (e.g., female ass) is
under rough conditions, hence its usefulness to humanity as a beast of burden in called a hinny, which is slightly smaller than a mule; both mules and hinnies are
places where horses cannot flourish, such as the mountains of Ethiopia and other sterile.
parts of northeast Africa, the high plains of Tibet, and the arid regions of
Mongolia.

mule

donkey Two mules grazing in a snowy pasture in Idaho. Mules are formed by crossing a
male donkey with a mare and cannot reproduce.
Donkey (Equus asinus), a domesticated ass.
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Wesley Patterson Garrigus
The donkey’s occasional obstinacy in refusing work too heavy for it has become
proverbial, but its equally proverbial stupidity is often a reaction to brutal Buffalo And Camels
treatment and neglect. It is naturally patient and persevering, responding to
Buffalo
gentle treatment with affection and attachment to its master. One of the largest
donkey breeds, the Mammoth Jack, was developed in the United States in the The name buffalo is applied to several different cud-chewing (ruminant)
late 18th century from European imports, including the Adalusian, the Maltese, mammals of the ox family (Bovidae). The true, or Indian, buffalo (Bubalus
the Majorcan, the Poitou, and various Italian strains. It stands 15 to 16 hands (1.5 bubalis), also known as water buffalo, or arna, exists both as a wild and domestic
to 1.6 metres, or 4.9 to 5.2 feet) in height and weighs 410–520 kilograms (900– animal; it has been domesticated in Asia from very early times and was
1,150 pounds) at maturity. The development of the breed was originally introduced into Italy about the year 600. A large oxlike animal of massive and
undertaken by George Washington and Henry Clay, among others, to produce rather clumsy build with large horns that are triangular in cross section, the Indian
larger, stronger mules for American industry. buffalo, standing 5 feet (1.5 metres) at the shoulder, has a dull black body, often
very sparsely covered with hair. The horns, which may be over 6 feet (1.8 metres)
long, spread outward and upward, approaching each other toward the tips; they
meet more or less in one plane above the rounded forehead and elongated face. milk, hides, and meat. It is longer-legged, shorter coated, and more lightly built
Used for draft purposes, and also for milk and butter, the domesticated Indian than the Bactrian camel, standing about seven feet (2.1 metres) tall at the
buffalo is found throughout the warmer parts of the Old World from China to shoulder. In the 19th century camels were introduced to the U.S.–Mexico border
Egypt, and in Hungary, France, and Italy. Its cousin, the Cape, or African, buffalo regions, the Pacific Northwest, and Australia. The North American experiments
(Syncerus caffer;), a black animal of similarly massive build, has never been were short-lived, but the animals were used in the exploration and development
domesticated. of the Australian outback until about 1940.

Camels can flourish on the coarsest of sparse vegetation, feeding on thorny

plants, the leaves and twigs of shrubs, and dried grasses that other animals would
Cape buffalo
refuse, though camels are not averse to more attractive food if it is available.
Cape, or African, buffalo (Syncerus caffer). When the feeding is good they accumulate stores of fat in their humps, upon
which they are able to draw when conditions are adverse not only for sustenance
Mark Boulton—The National Audubon Society Collection/Photo Researchers but also for the manufacture of water by the oxidation of the fat; but they do not
store water in the miscalled water cells. They are thus able to fast and go without
drinking for several days; they have been known to go without water for 17 days
Camels and survive. Other adaptations that enable them to survive in deserts and other
The term camel usually applies to two species of the genus Camelus. The Arabian unfavourable environments include double rows of heavy protective eyelashes,
camel, Camelus dromedarius, has one hump, and the Bactrian camel, Camelus haired ear openings, the ability to close their nostrils, and keen senses of sight
bactrianus, has two. The limbs are long and the feet have no traces of the second and smell. The female produces one young at a birth after a gestation of 11
or fifth toes; the wide-spreading soft feet are well adapted for walking upon sand months and suckles it for a year; maturity is reached at the age of 10 to 12 years,
or snow. Horny pads on the chest and knees support the camel’s weight when and the life span is 30 to 40 years.
kneeling.

Arabian camel

Dromedary, or Arabian camel (Camelus dromedarius).

© Mickey Gibson/Animals Animals

The Bactrian camel occurs throughout the highlands of Central Asia from
Turkistan to Mongolia and is an important beast of burden throughout that
region. The Arabian camel, characteristic of India, the Near East, and North Africa,
is likewise primarily important as a beast of burden, though it also provides wool,