Cambridge

Lower Secondary
Complete
Biology
Ann Fullick
Anna Harris
Yao-Jin Choong
Second Edition

Oxford excellence for Cambridge Lower Secondary

Sign up to access your Cambridge
Lower Secondary Complete Science
online Kerboodle course

What is Kerboodle?
Kerboodle is a digital platform that works alongside your course
textbooks to create a truly blended learning solution. Available for
purchase by your school as an annual subscription, it can help you to:
• Reinforce learning with supportive resources
• Track results and progress with quizzes and Markbook
• Boost performance with assessment materials
• Promote independent learning with online versions
of the Student Books
• Improve the classroom experience by highlighting,
annotating and zooming in on specific features

Energy

1.1 What is energy?

You need energy
Activity
sitting
standing
washing, dressing
Energy (kJ) for each minute of activity
6
7
15
You need energy from food to walk, run, or
ride your bike. Energy from fuels is needed for walking slowly 13
Objectives transport and to produce electricity. The idea cycling 25
of energy helps us explain what can happen, playing football 59
y Describe where we get our
but not why things happen. For example, fuel swimming 73
energy from
allows a car to move, but that doesn’t tell you
y Know the unit of energy where it will go. But the concept of energy tells
It takes a lot of fuel to Science in context
you that without fuel the car cannot move.
launch a rocket into space.
The more active you are, the more energy you need. Athletes need lots of Your brain uses energy to
What is the unit of energy? energy. People who take on the challenge of walking to the North or South learn.
Energy is not an actual substance that moves from one object to another. It is a Pole need even more energy, because as well as walking and carrying their
way of keeping track of a very important quantity, a bit like money. food they need lots of energy to keep warm.

The unit of energy is the joule (J). One joule is a very small amount of
energy, so we often use kilojoules (kJ). 1 kJ = 1000 J. Energy balance
An adult should take in only as much energy as they need for the activities
Different foods store different amounts of energy.
that they do. If they take in more energy than they need, their body stores
it as fat for future use. If they eat less than they need, then the body will use
Food Energy (kJ) per 100 g of food
energy from its store of fat and they will lose weight.
banana 340
beans 400
Energy in fuels
rice 500
Food is not the only energy store – fuels such as coal, oil, or wood also
cooked chicken 800
The energy stored in provide us with stored energy that we can use. One kilogram of wood stores
chocolate 1500 a similar amount of energy
packaged food is usually
shown on the nutrition label. We can burn wood or coal to heat a room or to cook food. If we use an to 1 kg of chocolate.
For a long time a unit called a kilocalorie (kcal) was used for the energy electric kettle, then the energy needed to boil the water is transferred by
stored in food (1 kcal = 4.2 kJ). People called it a ‘calorie’ for short and you electricity. The energy used to generate this electricity may have been
still often see the kilocalorie content of foods on labels. stored in a fuel such as coal or oil.

How does your body use energy? Key points

How much energy do you need each day? It y We use the energy
depends on what activities you do. stored in food for all
Questions our activities and to
All activities have an energy cost. Keeping
your body warm, breathing, moving, and 1. Name three fuels. stay alive.
talking all need energy. Children need 2. Give two reasons why your body needs energy when you are asleep. y Energy is measured in
energy to grow bigger bones, muscles, and 3. Calculate the number of joules in 200 kJ. joules or kilojoules.
brains. 4. Explain why it is important for young children to take in more energy y The energy in the food
than they need for the activities they do each day. someone eats should
About three-quarters of the energy that 5. Calculate the number of minutes that you would need to cycle to use equal the energy they
you need every day is for processes in your up the energy in 100 g of chocolate. need.
body like breathing. You then need more
energy for all the other activities that you
Running or playing can use Your body needs 300 kJ per
hour to sleep. do such as walking, running, or lifting
3500 kJ per hour.
things.

20 21

For more information, visit:

[Link]/cambridge-lowersecondary-science

Need help?
Contact your local educational consultant: [Link]/contact-us
 Contents
Introduction 4 3.6 Investigating rotting rates 72
Thinking and working scientifically 3.7 Food chains, food webs and decomposers 74
1 Asking questions 8 3.8 Review 76
2 Planning and carrying out investigations 10
4 Water and life
3 Collecting and recording data 12
4.1 The physical environment 78
4 Drawing graphs 14
4.2 The water cycle 80
5 Analysis 16
4.3 Global warming and the water cycle 82
6 Evaluation 18
4.4 Review 84
Stage 7 Stage 7 review 86

1 Classifying life Stage 8

1.1 What is life? 20
5 Respiration and the respiratory system
1.2 Investigating living organisms: yeast 22
5.1 Diffusion in biology 88
1.3 Classification and species 24
5.2 Aerobic respiration in animals and plants 90
1.4 Classifying invertebrate animals 26
5.3 Anaerobic respiration 92
1.5 Simple keys 28
5.4 Investigating respiration 94
1.6 Classifying vertebrates 30
5.5 The lungs and gas exchange 96
1.7 Classifying plants 32
5.6 Breathing 98
1.8 Making your own identification keys 34
5.7 The effect of exercise on the breathing rate 100
1.9 Are viruses living? 36
5.8 The structure of the alveoli 102
1.10 Moving classification forwards 38
5.9 Asthma 104
1.11 Review 40
5.10 Transport in the blood 106
2 Cells 5.11 Coping with extremes 108
2.1 The building blocks of life 42 5.12 Review 110
2.2 The cell story 44
6 Lifestyle and health
2.3 Animal and plant cells 46
6.1 The food we eat 112
2.4 Using a microscope 48
6.2 Carbohydrates, fats and energy 114
2.5 Specialised animal cells 50
6.3 Measuring the energy in food –
2.6 Specialised plant cells 52
managing variables 116
2.7 Modelling cells 54
6.4 A balanced diet 118
2.8 Tissues and organs in animals 56
6.5 Diet, growth and development 120
2.9 Tissues and organs in plants 58
6.6 Starvation, obesity and health 122
2.10 Review 60
6.7 Smoking and health 124
3 Microorganisms 6.8 Building the evidence 126
3.1 Microorganisms 62 6.9 The human skeleton 128
3.2 Microorganisms are our friends 64 6.10 Muscles and movement 130
3.3 Microorganisms and disease 66 6.11 Health and inequality 132
3.4 Using science to prevent disease 68 6.12 Review 134
3.5 The decomposers 70

2
 Contents

7 The health of the environment 11 Human genetics and development

7.1 Ecosystems of the earth 136 11.1 Reproduction: a characteristic of life 194
7.2 Habitats within an ecosystem 138 11.2 Fertilisation: new life begins 196
7.3 The interdependence of organisms 140 11.3 Boy or girl? Sex inheritance in humans 198
7.4 Pesticides and bioaccumulation 142 11.4 Variation between individuals 200
7.5 Invasive species 144 11.5 The development of a fetus 202
7.6 Invasive species and ecosystems 146 11.6 Health of the mother, health of the child 204
7.7 Sampling your ecosystems 148 11.7 Understanding science, saving lives 206
7.8 Review 150 11.8 Smoking and pregnancy: the evidence 208

8 Our changing climate 11.9 Review 210

8.1 What is weather? 152 12 The carbon cycle and climate change
8.2 Climate and climate change 154 12.1 The carbon cycle 212
8.3 Climate changes past and present 156 12.2 People and the carbon cycle 214
8.4 Gathering evidence of climate change 158 12.3 Historical impacts of climate change 216
8.5 Review 160 12.4 Predicting the future 218
Stage 8 review 162 12.5 Evaluating evidence for climate change 220
12.6 Review 222
Stage 9
13 Variation, natural selection and extinction
9 Plant biology
13.1 Variation in animals and plants 224
9.1 What do we know about plants? 164
13.2 Natural selection in action 226
9.2 Photosynthesis 166
13.3 Environmental change and natural selection 228
9.3 Evidence for photosynthesis:
13.4 Extinction! 230
testing for starch 168
13.5 Investigating the peppered moth:
9.4 Evidence of photosynthesis:
past and present 232
oxygen bubbles 170
13.6 What can we do? 234
9.5 The need for minerals 172
13.7 Review 236
9.6 The use of fertilisers 174
Stage 9 Review 238
9.7 Water and mineral transport in plants 176
9.8 Xylem, phloem and plant pests 178
Reference 240
9.9 Review 180
1 Choosing apparatus 240
10 Excretion and the kidney 2 Working accurately and safely 242
10.1 What is excretion? 182 Glossary 244
10.2 The human excretory system 184 Index 250
10.3 Who made the best model? 186
10.4 When kidneys go wrong 188
10.5 Kidneys work everywhere! 190
10.6 Review 192

3
 Introduction

How to use your Student Book

Welcome to your Cambridge Lower Secondary Complete Biology Student book. This book has
been written to help you study Biology at all three stages of the Cambridge Lower Secondary
Science curriculum framework.
Most of the units in this book work like this:

Cells

2.5 Specialised animal cells

Some organisms are made up of a single cell which carries out all the
processes of life. Many other organisms – including you – are multicellular.
2 Neurones (nerve cells)
Living things are sensitive – they respond to their surroundings. As you sit
in your classroom, you see your teacher and the other students, you hear
voices and you feel your desk. You reach out and turn over a page or pick up
They are made up of more than one cell and often millions or even billions your pen. These actions are possible thanks to your neurones or nerve cells.
Objectives of cells. These specialised cells carry electrical messages around your body in long
extensions of the cell called axons. Some of them carry messages with
y Explain the need for Fig 2.5 A: Three information about the world to your brain. Others carry instructions from axon
insulation
specialised cells single-celled your brain to other parts of your body, like your muscles. There are many
organisms. types of neurones but they all have some features in common (see Fig 2.5 C).
y Explain how the structures
of specialised cells are Neurones:
related to their functions in branches

the cell y are long, to carry messages around the body – axons can be 1 m or longer
y have branches, to connect to other neurones
y have insulation around them so electrical messages travel faster. Fig 2.5 C: A neurone.
3 Ciliated cells cilia

Ciliated cells are specialised cells found in many places in animal bodies.
Ciliated cells are covered with tiny, hair-like cilia which beat to move things
Many cells, many jobs about in your body. They need a lot of energy, so they always contain lots of
The cells in a multicellular organism are not all the same. Many of them are mitochondria. You have ciliated cells in your airways to move mucus, dust
specialised cells. The structure of a specialised cell is adapted to carry out and bacteria away from your lungs (see Fig 2.5 D).
a particular function (job) in the body. Specialised cells are found in many
Ciliated cells:
different types of organisms, including human beings.
y have cilia which beat to cause movement cilia
Specialised animal cells y have many mitochondria to supply the energy needed to make the
Here are some examples of specialised animal cells. Look carefully for the cilia move.
features which are related to their functions. many
mitochondria
biconcave shape 1 Red blood cells
Your blood looks like a red liquid – but it isn’t! Blood is really a yellow liquid
no nucleus
called plasma, full of different cells. Most of these cells are red blood cells
cytoplasm containing and they make your blood look red (see Fig 2.5 B). More than half the cells Questions
haemoglobin in your body are red blood cells and they are also your smallest cells – the
average diameter is only 7 μm. Red blood cells carry oxygen around your 1. Define a multicellular organism. Fig 2.5 D: Ciliated cells.
small, flexible shape
body. How are they adapted to carry out their specialised function? 2. State what is meant by a specialised cell. Key points
Fig 2.5 B: Red blood cells Red blood cells: 3. a. Describe the function of a red blood cell.
magnified about 2000 times.
y are filled with haemoglobin, a red substance which carries oxygen and b. Make a table to show how a red blood cell is specialised for its y Specialised cells have
features which relate
gives them their colour. function in your body.
to their functions in a
y are small and flexible, so they pass through tiny blood vessels carrying
Feature Function multicellular organism.
oxygen to your cells
y do not have a nucleus. They don’t live very long, but having no nucleus y Red blood cells,
makes more space for more haemoglobin to carry oxygen. neurones and ciliated
4. Draw a diagram of a neurone and a ciliated cell. Add labels to explain cells are examples of
y are biconcave – they have a dimple on both sides. This special shape
how their structures are related to their functions. specialised animal cells.
gives them a big surface area to pick up lots of oxygen.

50 51

y Every page starts with the learning objectives for the unit. The learning objectives are
linked to the Cambridge Lower Secondary Science curriculum framework.
y Key words are marked in bold. You can check the meaning of these words in the glossary
at the back of the book.
y At the end of each unit there are questions to test that you understand what you have
learned. The first question is straightforward and later questions are more challenging.
The questions are written in the style of the Cambridge Checkpoint test, to help you prepare.
Answers are available in the Teacher Handbook which is available in print and digitally via
Kerboodle.
y The key points to remember from the unit are also summarised here.
These units cover the Biology topics in the Cambridge Lower Secondary Science curriculum
framework.
In addition, many of the units help you think and work scientifically, put science in context,
prepare for the next level, and test your knowledge.

4
 Introduction

Thinking and working scientifically

Thinking and working scientifically is an important component of the curriculum framework.
Thinking Cells

and working Modelling cells Jemima’s model animal and plant cells
scientifically Cells are very small. It can be hard to see the different cell structures under
Jemima loves being creative! She makes two different model cells – an animal
cell and a plant cell – using modelling clay, boxes, plastic bags and lots of

2.7
a microscope. Meryl, Rafi and Jemima decide to make big model cells which other things she finds around her home (see Fig 2.7 C). Jemima lists the main
will be easier to see. features of all cells, and the special features found only in plant cells. She is
A physical model helps you understand something which is too big or too careful to make features like the nucleus the same colour in both types of cells.
small to see with your eyes alone. A good model helps you to remember She thinks this makes it easier for students to remember what it is. She labels
the structure of a system. It may help you to understand how it works. A the materials she uses to make her models and what each part represents.
Objectives bad model will confuse you. It can even give you misconceptions about a Jemima wants to help her classmates remember the size difference between
biological system. Have a look at the models Meryl, Rafi and Jemima made. animal and plant cells, so she puts a scale beside each of her model cells.
y Identify cell structures Do they make it easier to understand what a cell is really like? Model animal cell Model plant cell Fig 2.7 C: Jemima’s model
including the cell plastic bag = animal and plant cells.
membrane, cytoplasm, balloon filled
Meryl’s model e
cell membrane
with water =
nucleus, mitochondria, cell Cell membran
animal cell modelling clay = vacoule
wall, chloroplasts and sap cytoplasm
vacuole Meryl makes a model of
an animal cell using some
y Describe the similarities modelling clay – look at Nucl
eus
and differences between Fig 2.7 A. She likes using the blue bead =
animal and plant cells Vacuol mitochondria ball painted
clay and it lets her make the e orange =
animal cell an irregular shape. 20 µm box =
y Describe the strengths and
She labelled the cell structures
nucleus
cell wall
limitations of a model
she could remember. blue beads = big green beads =
mitochondria chloroplasts
Rafi’s model plant cell 60 µm Key points
Rafi decides to make a plant Fig 2.7 A: Meryl’s model animal cell.
cell. He paints a cardboard box y All cells have a cell
green. Then he finds a balloon. He pokes some dried peas into the balloon Questions membrane, a nucleus,
cytoplasm, and
to represent chloroplasts, and a grape to model the nucleus. Then he blows 1. Look at Meryl’s model animal cell. mitochondria.
the balloon up and places it in the box, taping down the lid (see Fig 2.7 B).
a. Describe what you like about this model. Explain how it helps you
Rafi asks his class to compare the strength and flexibility of the walls of the
understand animal cells better. y Plant cells also have a
cardboard box without the balloon, and with the balloon taped inside it. cell wall and a vacuole.
He is very happy with his model! b. Describe the problems with Meryl’s model. Some of them have
chloroplasts for trapping
tape holding 2. Look at Rafi’s model animal cell.
light energy.
lid lid down a. Explain how Rafi’s model helps students to understand plant cells.
b. Rafi’s model has several limitations. List as many as you can.
y A model is a physical
way of representing
box painted something which is too
cell 3. Observe both of Jemima’s model cells carefully.
green
wall big or small to see with
a. List the ways in which Jemima’s models might help students learn
your eyes alone.
about animal and plant cells.
b. Explain the limitations of Jemima’s models. y Models can be very
helpful, but sometimes
balloon 4. You are going to teach a class of younger students about cells. Which they are limited
of these models would you choose to help you? Give the reasons for or can even cause
Fig 2.7 B: Ravi’s model
your choice. misconceptions.
plant cell. peas
grape
54 55

The Thinking and working scientifically units and features will help you learn:

y how to understand and apply models and representations

y the importance of asking scientific questions and planning how to answer them
y how to carry out enquiries such as fair test investigations and field work
y how to analyse data, draw conclusions, and evaluate your enquiry.

Questions which test your Thinking and working scientifically skills and knowledge are
TWS
marked with this icon.
On pages 8-19 you will find a dedicated Thinking and working scientifically chapter which
introduces essential skills which will be useful throughout every stage of the curriculum
framework.

Science in context
Science
in context
Classifying life
Science in context units will also
Are viruses living? 1 Viruses are not living organisms

1.9 help you learn:

Viruses are not like other organisms – in fact some scientists argue that they
are not living things at all. You have learned that biologists have identified
Viruses are all around you, in the air you breathe and on the surfaces you
seven characteristics of life – movement, reproduction, sensitivity, growth,
touch. They are even on other people. Viruses are tiny – much smaller than
respiration, excretion, and nutrition. Living organisms carry out most or all
bacteria. They invade the bodies of living organisms and turn them into
of these processes. Viruses do not.
virus-making factories.

y
Objectives

how scientists throughout history and

Viruses cannot carry out any of the characteristics of a living organism on
What are viruses made of? their own. When they invade an animal or plant, they take over its living
y Discuss reasons for
Viruses come in many different shapes and sizes. They all have a protein processes and use them to make more viruses. This is the only way they Fig 1.9 C The virus that
classifying viruses as living can reproduce. causes this plant disease
coat on the outside, and they all contain genetic material. This contains the stays in the soil for years,
or non-living

from around the globe developed

instructions that let them take over other organisms and make new viruses. Some viruses can survive for years stored in an airtight container. ready to infect new plants
y Evaluate issues which They still cause disease when they are released. and cause disease again.
require scientific Fig 1.9 A:
understanding Some
common 2 Viruses are living organisms
virus
shapes.
Some scientists and many doctors argue that viruses are living organisms.
They call them ‘perfect parasites’. theories, carried out research, and drew
What is a parasite?
A parasite is an organism which lives in or on another organism;
this organism is called the host. The parasite gets what it needs
from its host. Familiar human parasites are tapeworms and ticks.
conclusions about the world around them
Ticks feed on blood from their human host. Tapeworms get food,
oxygen and protection from the gut of their host, which also

y
removes any waste products the parasite makes. They can be

how science is applied in everyday life

several metres long.

So, are viruses living?

In 1892, a scientist called Dmitri Ivanosky strained sap from a diseased plant There are two main reasons why many biologists think viruses
through a special filter which trapped bacteria. When he put the filtered sap on Fig 1.9 D: Ticks are common parasites
are living. They are found everywhere in the living world
the leaves of healthy plants, they became infected. He decided something even that feed on the blood of many different
alongside other living organisms, and they are perfect parasites. species of animals, including people.

y
smaller than bacteria was causing the infection – what we now call viruses.

how issues involving biology are

The host organism feeds, respires, excretes, grows and moves – it
Fig 1.9 B: SARS-Cov-2: the carries out all the processes of life for the virus to use.
virus that caused a global Why are viruses important? Key points
pandemic of COVID-19, Viruses cause diseases in animals – including people – and plants. Well-
infecting millions of people. y Viruses are tiny particles

evaluated
known human diseases caused by viruses include colds, influenza, measles
and COVID-19. When plants are infected by viruses, a whole crop may be that invade the bodies
spoiled and wasted. Viruses can even infect bacteria! Scientists and doctors of living organisms
want to understand viruses better, to help them to prevent or cure the Questions and turn them into
diseases they cause. They have two different ways of classifying viruses. virus-making factories.
1. What is a virus?
y Some scientists
Living or not living? 2. Name two human diseases caused by viruses. describe viruses as

y the global impact of the use of biology.

You need to understand the science to decide whether viruses are living 3. Explain why some scientists think viruses are living organisms. living organisms, some
or not. Viruses are so tiny that it is hard to investigate them. Viruses only describe them as
4. Explain why some scientists think viruses are not living organisms. non-living.
reproduce in living things, so it is hard to grow them in laboratories.

36 37

5
Extension
Throughout this book there are lots of opportunities to learn even more about biology, beyond
the curriculum framework. These units are called Extension because they extend and develop
your science skills further.
You can tell when a question or part of a unit is Extension because it is marked with a
dashed line, like the one on the left.

Classifying life
Extension
Microorganisms are our friends Antibiotics

3.2 Scientists estimate there are 5 million trillion bacteria on Earth – we have
more bacteria on our planet than there are stars in the Universe. We cannot
see microorganisms without using microscopes or lab cultures, but they are
In the early 20th century, a scientist called Alexander
Fleming noticed some mould (a type of fungus)
growing on his cultures of bacteria. Around the
mould was a clear area – a substance made by the
incredibly important in our environment and in our individual lives. mould stopped the bacteria growing. This substance
Objective became known as penicillin. It was the first antibiotic,
You probably know that some microorganisms cause disease and some and it has saved millions of lives. Antibiotics are
make food go rotten. But this is only part of what they do – here are some medicines that stop bacteria growing, or kill them,
y Understand that
important ways in which microorganisms are your friends.
microorganisms are curing the infectious diseases that they cause. Many
typically single celled different antibiotics have been produced, often from
organisms
Microorganisms and food microorganisms. For example, streptomycin and penicillin
1600
Bread chloramphenicol come from bacteria. Antibiotics target
streptomycin

deaths per million population from

For thousands of years, people have used yeast to make bread light and bacterial structures such as the cell walls. This means
chloramphenicol
delicious. When yeast cells are given sugar, warmth and air, they respire they do not work against viruses, but it also means they
1200 tetracyclines
and grow fast, producing lots of waste carbon dioxide. This carbon dioxide do not harm human cells.

infectious diseases
makes the bread dough rise. It gets bigger and its texture gets lighter. When
we cook the bread, the bubbles of gas get even bigger – although cooking Microorganism factories 800
kills the yeast. Scientists have discovered ways of using fungi and
bacteria to produce medicines in huge quantities,
Yoghurt saving millions of lives every day. For example, 400
Fig 3.2 A: Yeast gives people scientists change bacteria so that they make human
Yoghurt is a creamy solid made by mixing warm milk with bacteria, which
all over the world delicious insulin, which is needed to keep people with diabetes
bread to eat. feed on the sugar in the milk. The bacteria produce lactic acid. This
healthy. The microorganisms grow in huge metal tanks 0
solidifies the milk and gives yoghurt its sharp, tangy taste. People use milk 1930 1935 1940 1945 1950 1955
from animals including camels, cows, goats, horses and sheep. The bacteria called fermenters. They separate the insulin from the year
which turn milk into yoghurt also help to keep the yoghurt good, because microorganisms and the liquid they grew in.
Fig 3.2 D: Data showing the
they stop other bacteria growing. effect of different antibiotics
on deaths from infectious
diseases.
Cheese
Cheese, like yoghurt, is made by the reaction of bacteria with milk. The
Questions
bacteria used in making cheese produce lots of lactic acid, making the milk
Fig 3.2 B: Creamy yoghurt
separate into solid curds and liquid whey. The curds may be mixed with 1. Make a flow diagram to show how yeast is used to make leavened
is used in both savoury and
sweet dishes. seasoning and herbs and used when they are fresh. They can also be mixed bread.
with salt and other bacteria, and then pressed and left to dry for weeks, 2. Both yoghurt and cheese are made using bacteria. Compare the
months or even years. two processes.
3. What are antibiotics? Key points
Microorganisms and medicine
Microorganisms cause infectious diseases but they also help us fight them.
TWS
4. Using the data in Fig 3.2 D, estimate the number of people per y Microorganisms are
Microorganisms battle with each other for territory on our skin, on food or million dying from infectious diseases each year in: typically single celled
in the soil. They make poisons to destroy their enemies, and we use some of a. the year penicillin was first used organisms
them to treat diseases.
Fig 3.2 C: This selection b. the year streptomycin was first used y Microorganisms are
widely used by people
of cheeses shows a range of c. the year chloramphenicol and tetracyclines were introduced
colours and textures. for producing food and
TWS d. the year 1955. medicines.

64 65

Extension units will not be part of your assessment, but they will help you prepare for moving
onto the next stage of the curriculum and eventually for Cambridge IGCSE Biology.

Review
At the end of every chapter and every stage there are review questions.
Classifying life
Review

3.8
the variables she should control. [2] two hours. [2] same mass of leaves in each group. They treated
each group of leaves differently:
c. State how Simisola will know when the 5. The diagram shows how minerals are recycled in
yoghurt is ready. [1] the natural world. 25 °C (room
consumers 5 °C (in fridge) temperature)
d. Simisola recorded her results in a table.
1. These three images were taken using different Washed in A B
microscopes. Time taken to sterilising
produce yoghurt producer
dead plants liquid and put
Image Size Appearance and animals
Temperature °C (hours) into a sealed
A 1
20 12.5 container.
10 the width of a human
cell minerals A Put into C D
25 11.6
in soil
B 1 30 11.2 a sealed
1000 the width of a human
a. Name the process represented by arrow A. [1] container
cell 35 11.2
40 11.5 b. What is the name for the type of Put in an open E F
C variable – can be larger container
organisms that carry out this process? [1]
or smaller than a human Plot a graph of Simisola’s results. [4]
cell c. Name two examples of this type Six weeks later, Ahmed and Mohammed weighed
e. Use your graph to work out which of organism. [2] their leaves again. All of the groups of leaves had
a. Identify each type of organism. [3]
temperature to use if you want to make lost mass, but some had lost more than others.
b. Give one additional piece of information yoghurt as quickly as possible. [1] d. Explain why process A is vital for life
on Earth. [3] a. Ahmed and Mohammed are investigating
about each type of organism. [3]
4. Milo mixed some water, sugar and yeast and left the effect of two different factors on
2. The same apple was photographed on the day it it to stand. He made the same volume of sugar 6. a. List three ways in which disease-causing decomposition. Which factors do you
fell off a tree, and again two weeks later. dissolved in water without adding any yeast. He microorganisms can be spread from one think they are investigating? Explain
added flour to both mixtures to make a dough person to another. [3] your answers. [4]
and kneaded them well. He put a sample of each b. Suggest three ways to help to prevent the b. Suggest why the boys made sure that
type of dough into separate measuring cylinders spread of infectious diseases between people. all the leaves they used came from the
and left them in a warm place for two hours. Milo Give a scientific explanation for each of your same type of tree. [1]
measured the starting height of the dough in ideas. [6]
both measuring cylinders; he measured the final c. Why did the boys use the same mass
heights 2 hours later. 7. Ahmed and Mohammed investigated the factors of leaves in each group? [1]
a. Explain why the appearance of the apple has
needed for the leaves from the trees in their
changed so much. [3] 50
school grounds to decompose. d. Which group of leaves do you predict
b. Draw a food chain with at least 3 links will lose the most mass? Explain your
height of dough (mm)

40 They collected lots of leaves, all from the same

which shows the role of decomposers answer, using what you know about the
30 type of tree.
in the environment. [5] factors that affect decomposition. [5]
20 They divided the leaves into 6 groups, labelled
3. Simisola used bacteria to turn some
A–F. They weighed the leaves so that they had the
milk (pH 6.7) into yoghurt (pH 4.5). 10
a. Describe how bacteria turn milk 0
into yoghurt. [2] start end start end
with yeast without yeast
b. Simisola wants to compare the time taken to
make yoghurt at different temperatures. List a. What do Milo’s results show? [2]

b. Explain how yeast makes this change

take place. [2]

c. For both cylinders, suggest how Milo could

increase the height the dough reaches after
76 77

These questions are written in the style of the Cambridge Checkpoint test. They are there to
help you review what you have learned in that chapter or stage. Answers to these questions are
available in the Teacher Handbook. The Teacher Handbook is available in print or digitally via
Kerboodle.

6
 Introduction

Reference
At the back of this book, on pages 240-243, there are reference pages providing further
information that will help you while you study.
Reference
Reference
1.1
2
Working accurately and safely
You need to make accurate measurements in science practicals. You will
need to choose the correct measuring instrument, and use it properly.
Working safely
Hazard symbols
Hazards are the possible dangers linked to using substances or doing
experiments. Hazardous substances display hazard symbols. The table shows
some hazard symbols. It also shows how to reduce risks from each hazard.
cm3
Measuring cylinder
100

Measuring cylinders measure volumes of liquids or solutions. A measuring Hazard symbol What it means Reduce risks from this hazard by…
y
90

80 cylinder is better for this job than a beaker because it measures smaller Corrosive – the substance attacks and wearing eye protection
70
60 differences in volume. destroys living tissue, such as skin and eyes. y avoiding contact with the skin
60

50 To measure volume:
50
40

1. Place the measuring cylinder on a flat surface.

Irritant – the substance is not corrosive, but y wearing eye protection
y
30

20
will make the skin go red or form blisters. avoiding contact with the skin
10
2. Bend down so that your eyes are level with the surface of liquid.
3. Use the scale to read the volume. You need to look at the bottom of the
curved surface of the liquid. The curved surface is called the meniscus.
Toxic – can cause death, for example, if it is y wearing eye protection
swallowed or breathed in. y wearing gloves
Measuring cylinders measure volume in cubic centimetres, cm , or 3
y wearing a mask, or using the substance
column millilitres, ml. One cm3 is the same as one ml. in a fume cupboard
of liquid
Flammable – catches fire easily. y wearing eye protection
Thermometer
bulb y keeping away from flames and sparks
The diagram to the left shows an alcohol thermometer. The liquid expands
The different parts of a when the bulb is in a hot liquid and moves up the column. The liquid
thermometer.
contracts when the bulb is in a cold liquid. Explosive – the substance may explode if it y wearing eye protection

To measure temperature:
comes into contact with a flame or heat. y keeping away from flames and sparks

1. Look at the scale on the thermometer. Work out the temperature

difference represented by each small division.
Dangerous to the environment – the y taking care with disposal
substance may pollute the environment.
2. Place the bulb of the thermometer in the liquid.
3. Bend down so that your eyes are level with the liquid in the
thermometer. Other hazards

4. Use the scale to read the temperature. The table does not list all the hazards of doing practical work in science.
You need to follow the guidance below to work safely. Always follow your
The temperature of the Most thermometers measure temperature in degrees Celsius, °C. teacher’s safety advice, too.
liquid is 95 °C.
Balance y Take care not to touch hot apparatus, even if it does not look hot.
A balance is used to measure mass. Sometimes you need to find the mass of y Take care not to break glass apparatus – leave it in a safe place on the
something that you can only measure in a container, like liquid in a beaker. table, where it cannot roll off.
To use a balance to find the mass of liquid in a beaker: y Support apparatus safely. For example, you might need to weigh down a
clamp stand if you are hanging heavy loads from the clamp.
1. Place the empty beaker on the pan. Read its mass. y If you are using an electrical circuit, switch it off before making any
2. Pour the liquid into the beaker. Read the new mass. change to the circuit.

3. Calculate the mass of the liquid like this:

y Remember that wires may get hot, even with a low voltage.
y Never connect wires across the terminals of a battery.
The balance measures mass. (mass of liquid) = (mass of beaker + liquid) – (mass of beaker) y Do not look directly at the Sun, or at a laser beam.

Balances normally measure mass in grams, g, or kilograms, kg.

y Wear eye protection – whatever you are doing in the laboratory!

242 243

They include information on:

y how to choose suitable apparatus
y how to work accurately and safely.

7
 13.1 Variation in animals and plants
It is easy to tell the difference between a palm tree and a sunflower plant.
They are different species, and they have many different characteristics.
There is a lot of genetic variation between them. It is not always so easy to
Objectives see the differences between two animals or two plants of the same species.

y Describe the variation in

Variation in animals
a species
In Chapter 11 you learned that variation has two causes:
y Relate this variation
y inherited or genetic variation, carried in the genes passed on from
to genetic differences
parents to offspring
between individuals
y environmental variation, resulting from the world in which an
organism lives.
Animals of the same species have many shared genetic characteristics. This
is why they breed successfully. They also have differences, which is why you
do not look the same as your parents, your siblings or your cousins. The
variation you observe between members of a species may be the result of
genetic differences, environmental differences or the interaction of the two.
Within a species, some differences are easy to identify. For example, some
horses have longer legs than others and some butterflies have longer
tongues than their relatives. Look at the puffins in Fig 13.1 B. The similarities
are clear – but what variation can you see?

Fig 13.1 A: You don’t have

to be a biologist to see
the differences between a
butterfly and a lizard.

Fig 13.1 B: At first sight these puffins all look the same. Can you find
some variation in their beaks, their eye markings or their feet?

224
 Variation, natural selection and extinction

If you look carefully, you will observe that some puffins have paler feet than
the others, and the shape and pattern of each beak is slightly different. This
variation lets us identify each bird.
Some variation is less easy to see, involving characteristics that only appear
some of the time, or systems inside an animal. For example, some frogs call
louder than others in the breeding season, and some people have lower
blood pressure than others.

Human blood groups

One clear example of genetic variation in humans is the inheritance of blood
groups. If you hurt yourself and bleed, your blood will look like anyone
else’s, but it may be a completely different ABO group to any of your friends.
Everyone inherits an ABO blood group from their parents and this remains the
same throughout your life. The four possible blood groups are A, B, AB, and
O. It is very important that you get the right type of blood if you need a blood
transfusion. If you are given the wrong blood group, it will make you very ill.

Variation in plants
Like animals, plants of the same species inherit many characteristics that are
the same, but they also have differences. Olive trees produce olives, date palms
have dates, but the fruit of some trees will be bigger, sweeter, and tastier than
others, even when they grow in the same conditions.
All the flowers of a species of plant will have the same basic shape and
pattern but, like the puffins, there will be some variation. See what variation Fig 13.1 C: Early spider
you can observe in the early spider orchids in Fig 13.1 D. The features that orchids show clear
members of the same species have in common show how they are adapted to similarities and variations
the environment in which they live. The differences between them show the in their flowers.
variation that will allow the species to adapt when the environment changes.

Questions
1. Describe the causes of variation between
a. different species
Key points
b. individuals within a species.
2. a. Describe the general appearance of the puffins in Fig 13.1 B. y Members of the same
species share many
b. List three ways in which the appearance of the birds shows variation. genetic characteristics
3. a. State the type of variation seen in human blood groups. and have many features
in common, but they do
b. Explain how you are sure of the type of variation involved. not all look the same.
4. a. List three ways in which the early spider orchids in Fig 13.1 C show
variation.
y Variation within a
species is the result
b. Discuss how features of a plant might be affected by genetic variation of both genetic and
only, or by a combination of genetic and environmental variation. environmental variation.

225
 13.2 Natural selection in action
Look at the enormous herd of wildebeest in Fig 13.2 A. Millions of these animals
migrate across Africa every year. When the young are born, they each get a
different combination of genes from their parents. Some of them have slightly
longer legs. Others have stronger hearts or bigger muscles or better teeth. They
Objectives each have slightly different markings. Some have bigger horns or higher nostrils
or better eyesight. Some of the females will make more milk than others.
y Describe the scientific
theory of natural selection Does any of this variation matter?
y Relate natural selection to
genetic changes over time

Fig 13.2 A: Wildebeest on

their great migration –
imagine the variation in
this herd.

Natural selection Natural selection

Organisms in a species show
variation – this is caused by
Living organisms produce many offspring. Think of the seeds in a
differences in their genes. pomegranate or the baby birds in a nest. Most of these offspring do not
survive. What affects which organisms live, and which die?
The answer is natural selection. Natural selection is the result of variation
The organisms with the
between individuals. It is the process by which the organisms with the
characteristics that are best
adapted to the environment characteristics best adapted to their environment live and reproduce,
survive and reproduce. Less well passing on the useful characteristics to their offspring. There are several
adapted organisms die. This
process is known as ‘survival of
steps in the process of natural selection:
the fittest’.
y Each individual inherits genetic variation from their parents and is
different from all other members of their species.

Genes from successful organisms

y The individuals with characteristics that give them an advantage are
the ones most likely to survive. Think again about the wildebeest.
are passed to the offspring in the
next generation. This means that The animals with the longest legs, strongest hearts and muscles or
the offspring are likely to possess best eyesight are most likely to escape being eaten by hungry lions or
the characteristics that made their
parents successful.
hyenas. The females who make the most milk increase the chances that
their calves will survive. The animals with the best teeth will eat more
efficiently and get more food.
This process is then repeated y The successful individuals survive long enough to reproduce and pass on
many times. Over a period their useful characteristics.
of time, this may lead to the
development of a new species.
y This process is repeated many times until these characteristics become
more common in the population. Over a long period of time, it may lead
to the development of a new species.
Fig 13.2 B: The process of
natural selection. This is natural selection in action. It is sometimes called ‘survival of the fittest’.

226
 Variation, natural selection and extinction

Examples of natural selection

Natural selection does not change individuals. Whole populations or even
species change as a result of natural selection. Think about the puffins in
Fig 13.1 B. The birds with the brightest colours are most likely to attract a mate.
The puffins with the biggest beaks catch more fish to feed their offspring, so
they are most likely to survive. Eventually all puffins will have bigger beaks or
brighter colours. In Fig 13.1 D, the early spider orchid which attracts the most
insects to pollinate it has the best chance of producing lots of fertile seeds.
Gradually most of the population will have these successful characteristics.
Table 13.2.1 shows some more examples of natural selection.
Table 13.2.1

Organism Example of natural selection

Since 1950, warfarin has been used to poison rats.
As part of the natural variation in the rat population,
some rats inherit a gene that makes them resistant
Rats
to the poison. Whenever the poison is used, only
the resistant rats survive and breed. In some rat
populations, all the rats are resistant to the poison.
Several variations allowed the ancestors of these
pitcher plants to collect water, trap insects, and
Pitcher make use of the digested bodies. This gave them
plants a huge advantage in the mineral-poor ecosystems
where they live. Now all pitcher plants get added
nitrates from insect prey in the same way.
The variation that makes this lizard the same
colour as his environment makes it very difficult
Lizards for predators to find him. This is a big survival
advantage and as a result of natural selection, lizards
of this species are now all leaf green in colour.

Questions Key points

1. Plants and animals keep producing offspring y Natural selection is the result of variation
but the total number of each species stays between individuals. It is the natural process
approximately the same. Suggest a reason by which the organisms best able to survive are
for this. the ones which live and reproduce, passing on
2. a. State what the term ‘natural selection’ means. advantageous characteristics to their offspring.
b. Explain how the process of natural y Living organisms produce many offspring,
selection takes place. many of which don’t survive. Some of the
offspring have genes that give them useful
3. Give two examples of the effects of natural characteristics that increase their chances of
selection in animal species local to your surviving and reproducing successfully. These
country. genes and the variations they produce will
4. Give two examples of the effects of natural become common in the population. Over a long
selection in plant species local to your country. period of time, a new species may develop.

227
 13.3 Environmental change and
natural selection
Natural selection results in adaptation, producing populations that survive
successfully in their environment. Changes in that environment will affect
Objective the organisms living there. Date palms and olive trees may survive in low
temperatures, but they will not bear fruit.
y Describe what happens
to the population of a What happens when the environment changes?
species when there is an
environmental change In Chapter 12 you looked at how the climate is changing, affecting
environments all over the world. Many are getting hotter and drier, while
some get wetter. Winters may be colder or end sooner. Rains are failing.
Environmental changes mean that organisms are no longer well adapted to
their environment.
Every population contains variation. The individuals which are different
may struggle to survive and breed. But if conditions change, they are there
with characteristics more suited to the new conditions, so their population
can survive (see Fig 13.3 B).
Living organisms must adapt to changes in their environment or they will
not survive. Natural selection changes populations to fit their environment.

A population of plants grow, flower and Rainfall in growing season:

set seeds successfully every year with 25 mm
25 mm of rain every growing season. Most
plants produce 7 flowers and an average
of 28 seeds, but there are variations. Some
produce 5 flowers with an average of 15
seeds, others produce 3 flowers with an
average of 6 seeds.
When the climate changes as a result of Rainfall in growing season:
global warming, only 15 mm of rain falls 15 mm
during the growing season. Many plants
die, or fail to produce flowers and seeds.
The variants that produce fewer flowers
and seeds cope better with less water. They
reproduce successfully.

As the dry conditions continue, natural Rainfall in growing season:

Fig 13.3 A: A cactus grows
better in a desert than in a selection takes place until most of the 15 mm
UK garden. population are the drought-adapted variation.
They produce fewer flowers and seeds but
Fig 13.3 B: The effect survive and reproduce successfully in the
of natural selection on changed environment.
a population when the
environment changes.

228
 Variation, natural selection and extinction

Natural selection, environment change and interdependence

Environmental changes also impact the interdependence of organisms in
an ecosystem. Plant and animal life cycles are often linked through feeding
relationships. If the environment changes, patterns of reproduction change,
and the food supply fails. For example, many organisms in hot, dry regions
depend on the rains to reproduce. If the rains are delayed or fail, whole
populations are threatened. If one population or species changes over time
by natural selection in response to a change in the environment, other
interdependent species must also adapt to the new conditions or die out. Fig 13.3 C: A young kestrel.

Gradual change v. extreme events 3.4

Kestrels are small birds of prey (see Fig 13.3 C), widespread in Africa,
Asia and Europe. Their diet varies depending on where they live and 3.3
the time of year.
3.2

fledgling success
Scientists observe that kestrels reproduce successfully even when the
average environmental temperature increases due to climate change, 3.1
but kestrel populations are damaged by extreme weather events such
3.0
as droughts (see Fig 13.3 D). Natural selection means that the birds
best able to cope with rising temperatures will breed successfully, 2.9
which reduces the impact of environmental warming. There are no
adaptations which prepare kestrels for severe, unpredictable droughts. 2.8

Natural selection has always allowed species to adapt to new 2.7

environmental conditions. The problem is that climate change is now drought normal
year year
happening very fast and causing many extreme weather events. Will
natural selection keep up with the changes? Fig 13.3 D: Kestrel breeding
success per nest over
different seasons.

Questions
1. Explain how environmental changes drive natural selection and
affect populations.
2. Use information from Fig 13.3 B to answer these questions.
a. Explain why 7-flowered plants are most common in the original
environment.
b. Suggest reasons why 5-flowered plants, not 3- flowered plants,
become more common when the climate becomes drier. Key point
c. Predict, giving an example, how the population might change if
the climate changes again. y When there is an
environmental change,
TWS
3. a. Describe using Fig 13.3 D how kestrels are affected by changes populations change
in their environment. and become better
b. How do you know this data is the average from many nests? adapted to their new
c. Explain the role of natural selection in the adaptation of environment as a result
TWS kestrels to changes in their environment. of natural selection.

229
 13.4 Extinction!
Millions of years ago, our planet was home to dinosaurs such as Stegosaurus
(see Fig 13.4 A). Where are they all now?

Objective What is extinction?

A species becomes extinct when there are no more individuals of that
y Describe how populations
species alive. Extinction may be local, involving a population in a particular
and species become
place, or it may be global, so that an organism no longer exists anywhere on
extinct as a result of
Earth – like the dinosaurs.
environmental change
Once a species becomes globally extinct, it has gone forever. This is not
always a bad thing. Some extinct species only exist as fossils. Others
have descendants living today, better adapted to their environment
(see Fig 13.4B). Extinction is part of life on Earth, and is needed to make
Fig 13.4A: All we have left
resources available for better adapted organisms.
of the dinosaurs are fossil
remains.

Fig 13.4 B: This extinct fossil mammal is a relative of modern horses.

Fig 13.4 C: Amphibian Why do species go extinct?

species around the world are
Species go extinct because their environment changes, and the climate
threatened with extinction by
a deadly new fungal disease. of the earth has changed many times through history, as you learned in
Unit 8.3. For example, tropical organisms become extinct in an ice age
through lack of food, or being too cold.
A new species moving into an environment also changes it. The newcomers
may be predators, like the brown tree snakes on Guam, or competitors
better adapted to the environment, for example invasive plants like
Himalayan balsam or water hyacinth. You learned about this in chapter 7.
Environmental changes also produce the conditions for new diseases to
appear, sometimes wiping out whole species (see Fig 13.4 C).
Changes in land use are driving many animals and plants to extinction
– for example draining land for agriculture destroys ecosystems such as
mangroves, marshes, and bogs.

230
 Variation, natural selection and extinction

So far, there have been five mass extinctions on a global 2.5

percentage of known species (%)

Amphibians
scale, when many species died out over a relatively short Mammals
time period. In the past, these extinctions were the result 2.0 Birds
of huge environmental changes, often coming from a Reptiles
1.5 Fishes
single catastrophic event such as a massive volcanic
eruption or a giant meteorite strike.
1.0

Humans and extinction

0.5
In the last 150 years, the rate of extinctions has been
increasing. Species of animals and plants are dying out 0.0
faster than ever before (see Fig 13.4 D). 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2018
year
We are living in the sixth mass extinction and the
Fig 13.4 D: The impact
evidence suggests many of these extinctions are the result of our
of human activities on
human actions on the environment. These include: extinction rates begins in the
Industrial Age.
y Hunting/fishing: the human population has grown enormously and
we have guns. From mammoths to dodos and whales, human hunters
have killed and eaten many species to extinction. We have also
overfished the seas.
y Habitat destruction: humans are destroying habitats such as rainforests
for farmland, at a rate of about 8000 km2 per year. Climate change from
our actions is also destroying coral reefs, and pollution from our factories
and our sewage is destroying rivers and ocean environments – 16 species
of freshwater fish became extinct in 2020 alone.
y Climate change: climate change resulting from human activities
is happening all over the world (see Chapter 12). When plants and
animals cannot adapt quickly, or lose their natural environment, they
become extinct.
Fig 13.4 E: Dodos were
big, flightless birds on the
island of Mauritius. They had
no predators until people
arrived in the 17th century.
Questions In less than 100 years, dodos
were extinct.
1. a. What is extinction?
b. Explain why some extinction is important for life on earth.
2. a. Describe four different changes in the environment that may Key point
result in the extinction of a population or species.
b. Explain how extinction happens. y Populations and species
may become extinct as a
3. Use the data in Fig 13.4 D to answer these questions. result of environmental
TWS
a. In which year did extinction rates begin to speed up? changes such as
b. Which type of animals are becoming extinct most rapidly? temperature, habitat
Suggest two reasons for this. loss, new diseases or
c. Explain how the data in Fig 13.4 D suggests that environmental competitors moving in,
TWS changes are leading to the extinction of many species. hunting by humans, etc.

231
 Thinking

7.1
and working
scientifically
Investigating the peppered moth:
past and present

13.5 Scientists thought natural selection took place over long periods of time.
Some unexpected observations of British moths made them change their
minds.

Natural selection in action: the peppered moth

Objectives
Peppered moths (Biston betularia) are found in countries from China,
Russia and Kazakhstan to Europe and North America. They vary in colour
y Describe a model for
from almost white to almost black. Some well-known studies on these
natural selection
moths were carried out in the 1950s by Professor Kettlewell of Oxford
y Describe examples where University, UK.
scientists’ unexpected
results have led to Kettlewell’s theory
improved scientific
If natural selection causes changes in moth populations, clean woodlands
understanding
will contain mainly pale moths. Pale moths are more likely to survive and
y Describe how people reproduce, camouflaged against the tree trunks where they rest. Darker
develop and use scientific moths produced by natural variation will be more easily seen and eaten by
understanding birds (Fig 13.5 A).
After the Industrial Revolution, many UK trees were blackened by factory
pollution. Kettlewell suggested this made it easy for birds to find pale
moths, so moths with genes for lighter colours would be eaten. In polluted
woodlands, he predicted there would be many more dark moths than light
ones in the population, as a result of natural selection.

Kettlewell’s findings
Professor Kettlewell analysed specimens of peppered moths from old
collections made before the Industrial Revolution and observations
from amateur moth collectors all over the country. He carried out field
experiments, placing light and dark moths on different coloured tree
trunks and observing which were eaten by birds. The evidence he collected
Fig 13.5 A: Light and dark
coloured peppered moths on supported his theory (Fig 13.5 B). This was natural selection in action – fast.
a clean tree.
700
population (number of moths)

600
Fig 13.5 B: The changing
populations of light and 500
dark coloured peppered 400
moths in industrial areas.
300

200

100

0
0 5 10
time (years)

232
 Variation, natural selection and extinction

Moving forwards

peppered moth frequency (%)

100
90
Environments keep changing. From 1970, 80
factories in the UK became cleaner, followed by 70
60
the air and the trees. Birds could easily see the 50
Light moth
Dark moth
dark moths again. The changing environment 40
30
caused more natural selection. Most peppered 20
moths in the UK and northern Europe are now the 10
pale form again. 0
1800 1850 1900 1950 2000
year

Proving the point Fig 13.5 C: Changes in the

colours of peppered moths
At one stage, some people questioned Professor Kettlewell’s original in the UK over time.
experiments. They said that moths did not rest on tree trunks. They
doubted whether birds ate the moths. They even accused him of cheating.
Between 2001 and 2008, Professor Michael Majerus from Cambridge
University set out to verify the story of the peppered moth. He observed
them in their natural habitat. He released 4864 moths over six years at an
unpolluted site and recorded where they rested, what ate them, and which
colours were eaten. He found the original work was correct. Birds see and
eat dark moths more easily on clean trees, so natural
selection favours the pale moths. Table 13.5.1

Year % of released % of released

Professor Majerus’s results
pale moths eaten dark moths eaten
y 35% of the moths rested on tree trunks. Most of the 2001 23 31
rest were on branches.
2002 28 29
y The moths were eaten by nine different bird species
2003 17 32
including, robins, great tits, blue tits, blackbirds,
starlings, and wrens. 2004 22 31
2005 19 18
y Over a 6-year period, a greater percentage of the dark
moths released were seen and eaten by birds than 2006 20 29
light moths.
Key points

Questions
y An investigation into the
effect of environmental
1. a. Describe Professor Kettlewell’s theory about peppered moths. change on peppered
b. Describe three ways in which he proved his theory correct. moths led to improved
c. Explain how each of these methods supported his theory. scientific understanding
of natural selection.
2. a. Describe what the data in Fig 13.5 C shows you.
b. Explain these observations in terms of natural selection. y People develop
scientific understanding
3. a. Display the data in Table 13.5.1 as a bar chart. through investigations,
b. Discuss the work of Professor Majerus and explain how it analysing evidence and
supports Kettlewell’s original findings about natural selection building models that
and peppered moths. can be tested.

233
 Science

7.1
in context What can we do?
13.6 The global environment is changing fast. Species are becoming extinct at an
alarming rate. Scientists and citizens around the world want to solve these
problems. Some of the ideas are simple, cheap, and effective. Often there is
a human price to be paid. In every case we must ask:
Objectives
y Can we do it?

y Describe what can happen y Should we do it?

to a species when there is Sometimes a solution to one problem produces another. The advantages
an environmental change and disadvantages must be weighed in the balance. These reports were
written by IGCSE students. Read them carefully.
y Describe how people
develop and use scientific
understanding Article 1: Stop global warming now!
Global warming and the climate change it causes are accepted scientific
y Discuss how the uses of
facts. They are happening as a result of human activities and climate
science can have a global
change is driving the extinction of organisms of all sorts (see Unit 13.4).
impact
People all over the world want cheap electricity. Electricity lights our homes,
powers our technology, refrigerates our food and our medicines, gives us
warmth or air conditioning in our buildings, powers our factories … .
Unfortunately, about two thirds of all the electricity used around the
world is generated by burning fossil fuels, adding carbon dioxide to our
atmosphere, increasing global warming and affecting climate change.
There is another way. We can produce electricity without producing carbon
dioxide using the energy in the Sun, in the wind and in our mighty rivers.
Hydroelectric power uses water, a natural renewable resource, trapping
it behind huge dams so it can be used. Four hydroelectric dams on the
Fig 13.6 A: The world at Mekong river in China produce more than 8800 megawatts of electricity
night is lit up by electric each day, or around 3 million megawatts per year. That’s equivalent to
lights. burning over 7 million barrels of oil. Hydroelectric power does not produce
greenhouse gases. and provides people with relatively cheap electricity.
In Latin America, 70% of the electricity is now generated by hydroelectric
power. Many scientists and governments see hydroelectric power as part of
the solution to global warming for the future. We can use the power of water
to generate electricity and help prevent climate change at the same time.

Article 2: Saving our freshwater fish

Humans have lived by rivers and lakes and eaten freshwater fish since the
earliest times. But times are changing. A recent scientific report called The
World’s Forgotten Fishes shows that fresh water fish are threatened all over
the world. Here are some of the statistics:

Fig 13.6 B: Hydroelectric • Nearly one third of all freshwater fish species are threatened by
power produces clean extinction.
electricity. • 16 freshwater fish species became globally extinct in 2020 alone.

234
 Variation, natural selection and extinction

• Populations of migratory fish like salmon and eels have Fall in freshwater megafish population since 1970

relative change in population size (1970 = 1)

1.2
fallen by 75% in the last 50 years.
• Megafish – enormous freshwater fish that weigh over 1.0

30 kg and live for many years, for example, the Mekong 0.8

giant catfish – are seriously threatened. 0.6

0.4
What has gone wrong? 0.2
Human activities are affecting the survival of freshwater 0
fish around the world. Where fish go extinct, other species 1970 1980 1990
year
2000 2010

are threatened as well. Many of the changes to the

environment that threaten freshwater fish are linked to Fig 13.6 C: The fall in
human activities. They include: populations of megafish
since 1970 is catastrophic.
• Hydroelectric dams: producing electricity for people and industry
changes river flows and may cause drought in some areas. It
floods land in the reservoirs created by the dam which can remove
indigenous people and destroys ecosystems. Hydroelectric power
stations prevent fish moving up and down rivers to breed.
• Pollution of rivers by human sewage, farming and industry: this may
destroy all life, including plants, invertebrates and fish, or it may
result in bioaccumulation.
• Draining rivers and wetlands: done to make farmland or build Fig 13.6 D: The Mekong
giant catfish is considered
housing, it removes the river habitat and may deprive people
critically endangered.
downstream of water.
• Overfishing: depletes the populations of fish which may never
recover. This deprives people of a long-term food source and source
of income.
We must put a stop to the decline in our freshwater fish before it is too late!

Key points
y When there is an
environmental change,
it may reduce the
Questions
numbers of one or more
1. a. Make a table to compare the advantages and any species or threaten them
disadvantages of hydroelectric power mentioned in Article 1. with extinction.
b. Make a table to compare the advantages and disadvantages of y People develop and use
hydroelectric power mentioned in Article 2. scientific understanding
TWS c. Use the data from Fig 13.6 C to help you to explain why scientists to try to solve global
are so concerned about global freshwater fish. problems such as
2. a. Discuss the specific issues of hydroelectric power highlighted in climate change and
both these articles. extinctions.
b. Suggest how people could have as many of the benefits of
hydroelectric power as possible whilst minimising the damage.
y The uses of science can
have global impacts.

235
 Review
7.1
13.7
3. Cheetahs are members of the cat family. They
are the fastest land animals. They have very long
legs, which use a lot of energy. Animals with short
legs do not run as fast, but they use less energy.
Animals with extra long legs easily break their
1. Zarah is a scientist. She is investigating the bones. Scientists measured the length of the front
variation in the weights of a herd of goats. legs of 10 female cheetahs in Namibia.

a. What is meant by variation? [1] Cheetah number Length of front leg (cm)
1 73
b. Zarah found that every goat had a different
2 73
body mass. Name the type of graph Zarah
should use to display her results. [1] 3 73
4 69
c. Suggest two different explanations for the 5 72
differences in the body masses of the goats
6 77
that Zarah observed. [2]
7 70
2. This graph shows you the distribution of human 8 74
blood groups in a population. 9 74
50 10 72
45
a. What is natural selection? [2]
40
Percentage of population

35 b. Draw a bar chart of the variation in the front

30 legs of the cheetahs. [5]
25 c. Describe the type of variation seen. [2]
20
d. Explain how the process of natural selection
15 has affected the leg length of the female
10 cheetahs. [6]
5
e. A new type of plant-eating animal moves
0
A B AB O into the environment of the cheetahs. It is
Blood group relatively slow moving, but it breeds very
a. Which blood group is most common? [1] fast. Discuss the changes you might expect
to see in the cheetah population in future. [6]
b. Which blood group is least common? [1]
4. a Draw a flow diagram of the process of
c. Abdul has lost weight by eating healthily. He natural selection. [6]
has changed his body mass. Now he wants to
give blood to help others. Abdul is blood group b. Explain how the process of natural selection
A. He plans to eat different food to change his helps a species overcome the problems of
blood group to a rarer one. His doctor says this climate change. [6]
will not work. His blood group will always be
the same.
Explain to Abdul why he could change his body
mass but cannot change his blood group. [4]

236
 Variation, natural selection and extinction

5. Peppered moths rest on tree trunks during the 6. a. State what is meant by extinction and give
day. Their main predators are birds. The moths an example of an organism that is extinct. [4]
come in two forms – light and dark. The light
Species extinction and human population
forms are well camouflaged on light tree trunks.
60 000 8 000

number of species extinctions

human population (millions)

7 000
50 000
6 000
40 000 Human population (Millions)
5 000
Species extinctions
30 000 4 000
3 000
20 000
2 000
10 000
1 000
0 0

1800

1830

1860

1890

1920

1950

1980

2010
The percentages of dark and light moths were year
measured in the years 1700, 1840 and 1980.

Moth colour % of total moth population b. Describe the data in this graph. [4]
1700 1840 1980 c. Suggest an explanation for the pattern in
dark 1 90 5 the data. [3]
light 99 10 95 d. Describe and explain four ways in which
a. Draw a bar chart of these results. [5] humans impact the rate of extinction of
other organisms. [8]
b. Briefly describe how the populations of
moths changed between 1700 and 1840. [2]
c. Between these dates the use of coal increased.
Smoke from the burning coal turned tree
trunks black. Which type of moth would birds
see more clearly on the dark tree trunks? [1]
d. Describe the change in the moth populations
between 1840 and 1980. [3]
e. Explain how and why these changes in the
colour of the peppered moth population
happened. [12]

237
Cambridge Lower Secondary
Complete
Biology
Second Edition

Cambridge Lower Secondary Complete Biology ensures that learners

fully cover, and excel in, the biology requirements of the Lower Secondary
Science curriculum. The stretching and contextual approach to thinking
and working scientifically is engaging, progressively strengthens student
ability, and helps build the vital skills needed to progress to biology
IGCSE and O Level.
● Build scientific knowledge and understanding – comprehensive
coverage of the course
● Develop advanced skills – dedicated scientific enquiry extends
performance
● Progress to the next stage – differentiated extension material eases
the transition to 14–16 study

Workbooks, Teacher Handbooks and Kerboodle online support

also available as part of the Cambridge Lower Secondary
Complete Science series.

Empowering every learner to succeed and progress

Full Cambridge curriculum coverage

Reviewed by subject specialists
Stretching extension activities
Embedded critical thinking skills
Progression to the next educational stage

eBook
Available

ISBN 978-1-382-01834-0

9 781382 018340
Digital Evaluation
for Cambridge
resources
Digital evaluation copies are available for
Cambridge resources. Access online evaluation
titles for up to 30 days, free of charge.

[Link]/evaluate-cambridge