Pre-lab knowledge

Note: All the students are directed to do all necessary theoretical calculation for the
experiments and come for the laboratory session.

OBJECTIVE:

1. Understanding the breadboard layout.

2. To learn how to connect circuits on bread board.
3. To learn resistor colour coding.
4. To determine the stated value of a resistor by interpreting the colour code
indicated on the resistor.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:

Sr. no Name
1 Resistors
2 Bread board

BREAD BOARD LAYOUT:

Sections of the BREADBOARD have rows or columns that are all connected together,
making it easy to have multiple things connected together. Here's some detail of how the
BREADBOARD that we use is organized (figure 1)

Figure 1

The Horizontal Rows have 5 holes (a b c d e) and (f g h i j) with sockets that are connected
together. Any wires or parts that are plugged into this row are connected together.

The Vertical Columns (+Red and -Blue) have the same connection running all the way down.
CONNECTING ELEMENTS OR COMPONENTS ON THE BREAD BOARD:
A. Connecting elements in series:
a. In order to connect elements in series the end terminal of an element should be
connected at the same point as that of the front terminal of another element as
shown in the figure 2.
b. To understand it better mark the terminals as “ + ” and “ – “.
c. Insert “ + ” at one point while “ – “ at another point.
d. In order to connect an element in series with the first element insert the “ + ”of
the second element in the point where the “ – “ of the first element is inserted.
e. Follow the same for connecting any number of elements in series.

Figure 2

Figure 2 show a connection of resistors in series.

B. Connecting elements in parallel:

a. In order to connect elements in parallel the end terminal of all the element
should be connected at the same point as shown in the figure 3.
b. To understand it better mark the terminals as “ + ” and “ – “.
c. Insert “ + ” at one point while “ – “ at another point.
d. In order to connect an element in parallel with the first element insert the “ +”
of the second element in the point where the “ + “ of the first element is
inserted while the “ – “ terminal is inserted in the point with the negative
terminal of the other element.
e. Follow the same for connecting any number of elements in parallel.
 Figure 3.

Resistor Color Code

There are many different types of resistors available which can be used in both electrical
and electronic circuits not only as loads, but also for distributing the current or for producing a
voltage drop in many different ways. But in order to do this, the actual resistor needs to have
some form of “resistive” or “resistance” value. It is not possible to manufacture all value of
resistors right from one Ohm ( Ω ) to millions of Ohms. So, only a set of preferred values of
resistors is generally made with their resistance value printed onto their body in colored ink.
Also, in a manufacturing process, in which thousands of resistors are made in a day, it is
not possible to adjust every ordinary resistor to an exact value. The term 'tolerance' denotes the
acceptable deviation in the resistance value of a resistor and is expressed as a percentage of its
“nominal” or preferred value. The resistance value, tolerance, and wattage rating are the main
specification of resistor which are generally printed onto its body as numbers or letters when the
resistors body is big enough to read the print, such as large power resistors. But when the resistor
is small such as a 1/4 watt carbon or film type, these specifications must be shown in some other
manner as the print would be too small to read. So to overcome this, small resistors use colored
painted bands to indicate both their resistive value and their tolerance with the physical size of
the resistor indicating its wattage rating. These colored painted bands produce a system of
identification generally known as a Resistor Color Code.
An international and universally accepted resistor color code scheme was developed
many years ago as a simple and quick way of identifying a resistors ohmic value no matter what
its size or condition. It consists of a set of individual colored rings or bands in spectral order
representing each digit of the resistors value. It markings are always read one band at a time
starting from the left to the right. So we need to understand how to apply these bands in order to
get the correct value of the resistor. There are two ways to find the resistance value of a resistor.
As shown in Fig. 4, there are 4-band and 5-band resistors. For both 5- and 4-band resistors, the
last band indicates the percentage of tolerance.

Figure 4.

By matching the color of the first band with its associated number in the digit column of
the color chart, the first digit is identified and this represents the first digit of the resistance value.
Again, by matching the color of the second band with its associated number in the digit column
of the color chart we get the second digit of the resistance value and so on. The multiplier is the
number of zeros that have to be added after the significant numbers.
 • 4-Band: Reading the resistor from left to right, the first two color bands represent
significant digits, the third band represents the decimal multiplier, and the fourth band
represents the tolerance. Digit, Digit, Multiplier, Tolerance = (Color, Color × 10 color) ±
Tolerance

• 5-Band: The first three color bands represent significant digits, the fourth band
represents the decimal multiplier, and the fifth band represents the tolerance. Digit, Digit,
Digit, Multiplier, Tolerance = (Color, Color, Color × 10 color) ± Tolerance
Typical resistor tolerances for film resistors range from 1% to 10% while carbon resistors
have tolerances up to 20%. Resistors with tolerances lower than 2% are called precision resistors
with the or lower tolerance resistors being more expensive. Most five band resistors are precision
resistors with tolerances of either 1% or 2% while most of the four band resistors have tolerances
of 5%, 10% and 20%. The color code used to denote the tolerance rating of a resistor is given as:
Brown = 1%, Red = 2%, Gold = 5%, Silver = 10%
If the tolerance color is not present, the resistor tolerance would be 20% above and below
the nominal value. So to determine the range of the resistance (Rmin R ̴ max) considering the
tolerance percentage (T) we can apply:
R min= R nominal – (R nominal ×T)
R max= R nominal + (R nominal ×T)

Procedure
Measure and record in Table 1 the value of resistance for five different resistors by using
a digital multimeter and compare it with the color code resistance range and calculate the
deviation percentage as below:
Deviation = [(R measured – R nominal)/ R nominal]×100%

Table 1.
Name:______________________________________________________Yr/Sec:__________
DATE PERFORMED:_______________
EXPERIMENT NO:_________________
GROUP NO:_______________________

Given the nominal values and tolerance in Table 2, determine and record the corresponding color
code bands.

Table 2.
Given the color codes in Table 3, determine and record the nominal value, tolerance and the
minimum and maximum acceptable values.

Table 2.
REMARKS: