Group

A nonempty set 𝐺 together with a binary operation ∗: 𝐺 × 𝐺 → 𝐺 is

called group if (𝐺,∗) satisfies the following axioms:

(i) For any 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺, 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺 (closure property)

(ii) For any 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝐺, 𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑐) = (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ 𝑐 (associative property)
(iii) For any 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺, there exists 𝑒 ∈ 𝐺 such that 𝑎 ∗ 𝑒 = 𝑒 ∗ 𝑎 = 𝑎.
(existence of identity)𝑒 is called identity element of G.
(iv) For any 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺, there exists 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐺 such that 𝑎 ∗ 𝑎−1 = 𝑎−1 ∗ 𝑎 =
𝑒.(existence of inverse)

(v) Commutative axiom: for any 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺 , 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑏 ∗ 𝑎.

Examples:
ℕ = set of all natural numbers
ℤ = set of all integers
ℝ = set of all real numbers
ℚ = set of all rational numbers
ℂ = set of all complex numbers

(1) (ℕ, +) is not a group since there is no identity element.

(2) (𝑁,∗) is not a group since inverse of a natural number doesn’t
exist.
(3) (ℤ, +), (ℚ, +), (ℝ, +) and (ℂ, +) are groups under usual addition.
(4) Is ℝ under usual multiplication group? Yes
(5) Is ℤ under usual multiplication group? No
 Vector Spaces

Definition :(Vector Spaces)

Let 𝑉 be a nonempty set with two binary operations:
(i) Vector addition(+): For any 𝑢, 𝑣 ∈ 𝑉, 𝑢 + 𝑣 ∈ 𝑉.
(ii) Scalar multiplication(.): For any 𝑢 ∈ 𝑉 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛼 ∈ 𝐹, 𝛼. 𝑢 ∈ 𝑉.
Then 𝑉 is called a vector space over the field 𝐹, if the following
axioms hold for any vectors 𝑢, 𝑣, 𝑤 ∈ 𝑉 and scalars 𝛼, 𝛽 ∈ 𝐹:
(a) (𝑢 + 𝑣) + 𝑤 = 𝑢 + (𝑣 + 𝑤) (Associative axiom)
(b) There exist a vector 𝟎 ∈ 𝑉 such that 𝑢 + 𝟎 = 𝟎 + 𝑢 = 𝑢. The vector 𝟎
is called zero vector of 𝑉.
(c) For every 𝑢 ∈ 𝑉, there exist a vector in 𝑉, denoted by – 𝑢 such
that 𝑢 + (−𝑢) = (−𝑢) + 𝑢 = 𝟎.
(d) 𝑢+𝑣 =𝑣+𝑢 (Commutative axiom)
(e) 𝛼. (𝑢 + 𝑣) = 𝛼. 𝑢 + 𝛼. 𝑣
(f) (𝛼 + 𝛽). 𝑢 = 𝛼. 𝑢 + 𝛽. 𝑢
(g) (𝛼 . 𝛽). 𝑢 = 𝛼. (𝛽. 𝑢)
(h) 1. 𝑢 = 𝑢, for the unit scalar 1 ∈ 𝐹.

1. The set of 𝒏 −tuples of elements in ℝ is a vector space over the set

of real numbers ℝ.
Proof:
Here 𝑉 = ℝ𝑛 = {(𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , … , 𝑎𝑛 )|𝑎𝑖 ∈ ℝ} = The set of all 𝑛 −tuples and 𝐹 =
ℝ.
Let 𝑢 = (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , … , 𝑎𝑛 ), 𝑣 = (𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , 𝑏3 , … , 𝑏𝑛 ), 𝑤 = (𝑐1 , 𝑐2 , 𝑐3 , … , 𝑐𝑛 ) be in 𝑉 = ℝ𝑛
and 𝛼, 𝛽 be in 𝐹 = ℝ. Then the binary operations are defined as
follows:
+: 𝑢 + 𝑣 = (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , … , 𝑎𝑛 ) + (𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , 𝑏3 , … , 𝑏𝑛 )
= (𝑎1 + 𝑏1 , 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 , 𝑎3 + 𝑏3 , … , 𝑎𝑛 + 𝑏𝑛 ) ∈ ℝ𝑛
.: 𝛼. 𝑢 = 𝛼. (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , … , 𝑎𝑛 ) = (𝛼. 𝑎1 , 𝛼. 𝑎2 , 𝛼. 𝑎3 , … . . , 𝛼. 𝑎𝑛 ) ∈ ℝ𝑛
(a) (𝑢 + 𝑣) + 𝑤 = [(𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , … , 𝑎𝑛 ) + (𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , 𝑏3 , … , 𝑏𝑛 )] + (𝑐1 , 𝑐2 , 𝑐3 , … , 𝑐𝑛 )
= (𝑎1 + 𝑏1 , 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 , 𝑎3 + 𝑏3 , … , 𝑎𝑛 + 𝑏𝑛 ) + (𝑐1 , 𝑐2 , 𝑐3 , … , 𝑐𝑛 )
= ((𝑎1 + 𝑏1 ) + 𝑐1 , (𝑎2 + 𝑏2 ) + 𝑐2 , (𝑎3 + 𝑏3 ) + 𝑐3 , … , (𝑎𝑛 + 𝑏𝑛 ) + 𝑐𝑛 )
= (𝑎1 + (𝑏1 + 𝑐1 ), 𝑎2 + (𝑏2 + 𝑐2 ), 𝑎3 + (𝑏3 + 𝑐3 ), … , 𝑎𝑛 + (𝑏𝑛 + 𝑐𝑛 ))
 [∵ ℝ is associative under +]
= (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , … , 𝑎𝑛 ) + (𝑏1 + 𝑐1 , 𝑏2 + 𝑐2 , 𝑏3 + 𝑐3 , … , 𝑏𝑛 + 𝑐𝑛 )
= (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , … , 𝑎𝑛 ) + [(𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , 𝑏3 , … , 𝑏𝑛 ) + (𝑐1 , 𝑐2 , 𝑐3 , … , 𝑐𝑛 )]
= 𝑢 + (𝑣 + 𝑤)
‘+’ is associative.
(b) Here 𝟎 = (0,0,0, … , 0) ∈ ℝ𝑛 such that
𝑢 + 𝟎 = (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , … , 𝑎𝑛 ) + (0,0,0, … , 0) = (𝑎1 + 0, 𝑎2 + 0, 𝑎3 + 0, … , 𝑎𝑛 + 0)
= (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , … , 𝑎𝑛 ) = 𝑢
𝟎 + 𝑢 = (0,0,0, … , 0) + (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , … , 𝑎𝑛 ) = (0 + 𝑎1 , 0 + 𝑎2 , 0 + 𝑎3 , … , 0 + 𝑎𝑛 )
= (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , … , 𝑎𝑛 ) = 𝑢
(0,0,0, … , 0) is the zero vector of ℝ𝑛 .
(c) For any vector 𝑢 = (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , … , 𝑎𝑛 ) ∈ ℝ𝑛 , there exists a vector – 𝑢 =
(−𝑎1 , −𝑎2 , −𝑎3 , … , −𝑎𝑛 ) ∈ ℝ𝑛 such that
𝑢 + (−𝑢) = (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , … , 𝑎𝑛 ) + (−𝑎1 , −𝑎2 , −𝑎3 , … , −𝑎𝑛 )
= (𝑎1 − 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 − 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 − 𝑎3 , … , 𝑎𝑛 − 𝑎𝑛 ) = (0,0,0, … , 0) = 𝟎
(−𝑢) + 𝑢 = (−𝑎1 , −𝑎2 , −𝑎3 , … , −𝑎𝑛 ) + (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , … , 𝑎𝑛 )
= (−𝑎1 + 𝑎1 , −𝑎2 + 𝑎2 , −𝑎3 + 𝑎3 , … , − 𝑎𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛 ) = (0,0,0, … , 0) = 𝟎
(d) 𝑢 + 𝑣 = (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , … , 𝑎𝑛 ) + (𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , 𝑏3 , … , 𝑏𝑛 )
= (𝑎1 + 𝑏1 , 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 , 𝑎3 + 𝑏3 , … , 𝑎𝑛 + 𝑏𝑛 )
= (𝑏1 + 𝑎1 , 𝑏2 + 𝑎2 , 𝑏3 + 𝑎3 , … , 𝑏𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛 ) [∵ ℝ is commutative under ‘+’]
= (𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , 𝑏3 , … , 𝑏𝑛 ) + (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , … , 𝑎𝑛 )
=𝑣+𝑢
+ is commutative.
(e) 𝛼. (𝑢 + 𝑣) = 𝛼. [(𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , … , 𝑎𝑛 ) + (𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , 𝑏3 , … , 𝑏𝑛 )]
= 𝛼. (𝑎1 + 𝑏1 , 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 , 𝑎3 + 𝑏3 , … , 𝑎𝑛 + 𝑏𝑛 )
= (𝛼. (𝑎1 + 𝑏1 ), 𝛼. (𝑎2 + 𝑏2 ), 𝛼. (𝑎3 + 𝑏3 ), … , 𝛼. (𝑎𝑛 + 𝑏𝑛 ))
= (𝛼. 𝑎1 + 𝛼. 𝑏1 , 𝛼. 𝑎2 + 𝛼. 𝑏2 , 𝛼. 𝑎3 + 𝛼. 𝑏3 , … , 𝛼. 𝑎𝑛 + 𝛼. 𝑏𝑛 )
[∵ ‘.’ is distributive over ‘+’ in ℝ]
= (𝛼. 𝑎1 , 𝛼. 𝑎2 , 𝛼. 𝑎3 , … , 𝛼. 𝑎𝑛 ) + (𝛼. 𝑏1 , 𝛼. 𝑏2 , 𝛼. 𝑏3 , … , 𝛼. 𝑏𝑛 )
= 𝛼. (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , … , 𝑎𝑛 ) + 𝛼. (𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , 𝑏3 , … , 𝑏𝑛 )
= 𝛼. 𝑢 + 𝛼. 𝑣
(f) (𝛼 + 𝛽). 𝑢 = (𝛼 + 𝛽). (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , … , 𝑎𝑛 )
= ((𝛼 + 𝛽). 𝑎1 , (𝛼 + 𝛽). 𝑎2 , (𝛼 + 𝛽). 𝑎3 , … , (𝛼 + 𝛽). 𝑎𝑛 )
= ((𝛼. 𝑎1 + 𝛽. 𝑎1 ), (𝛼. 𝑎2 + 𝛽. 𝑎2 ), (𝛼. 𝑎3 + 𝛽. 𝑎3 ), … , (𝛼. 𝑎𝑛 + 𝛽. 𝑎𝑛 ))
 [∵ ‘+’ is distributive over ‘.’ in ℝ]
= (𝛼. 𝑎1 , 𝛼. 𝑎2 , 𝛼. 𝑎3 , … , 𝛼. 𝑎𝑛 ) + (𝛽. 𝑎1 , 𝛽. 𝑎2 , 𝛽. 𝑎3 , … , 𝛽. 𝑎𝑛 )
= 𝛼. (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , … , 𝑎𝑛 ) + 𝛽. (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , … , 𝑎𝑛 )
= 𝛼. 𝑢 + 𝛽. 𝑢
(g) (𝛼. 𝛽). 𝑢 = (𝛼. 𝛽). (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , … , 𝑎𝑛 )
= ((𝛼. 𝛽). 𝑎1 , (𝛼. 𝛽). 𝑎2 , (𝛼. 𝛽). 𝑎3 , … , (𝛼. 𝛽). 𝑎𝑛 )
= (𝛼. (𝛽. 𝑎1 ), 𝛼. (𝛽. 𝑎2 ), 𝛼. (𝛽. 𝑎3 ), … , 𝛼. (𝛽. 𝑎𝑛 )) [∵ ℝ is associative under ‘.’]
= 𝛼. ((𝛽. 𝑎1 ), (𝛽. 𝑎2 ), (𝛽. 𝑎3 ), … , (𝛽. 𝑎𝑛 ))
= 𝛼. (𝛽. (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , … , 𝑎𝑛 ))
= 𝛼. (𝛽. 𝑢)
(h) Here the unit element of ℝ is 1. Therefore
1. 𝑢 = 1. (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , … , 𝑎𝑛 ) = (1. 𝑎1 , 1. 𝑎2 , 1. 𝑎3 , … ,1. 𝑎𝑛 ) = (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , … , 𝑎𝑛 ) = 𝑢
Hence ℝ𝑛 is a vector space over ℝ.

2. The set of all polynomials over a field F is a vector space.

Proof.
Here 𝑉 = 𝑃(𝑥) = {𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎3 𝑥 3 + ⋯ |𝑎𝑖 ∈ 𝐹} = The set of all
polynomials whose coefficients are in 𝐹.
Let 𝑢(𝑥) = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎3 𝑥 3 + ⋯ , 𝑣(𝑥) = 𝑏0 + 𝑏1 𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑥 2 + 𝑏3 𝑥 3 + ⋯,
𝑤(𝑥) = 𝑐0 + 𝑐1 𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑥 2 + 𝑐3 𝑥 3 + ⋯ be in 𝑉 = 𝑃(𝑥) and 𝛼, 𝛽 be in 𝐹.
Then the binary operations are defined as follows:
+: (𝑢 + 𝑣)(𝑥) = (𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎3 𝑥 3 + ⋯ ) + (𝑏0 + 𝑏1 𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑥 2 + 𝑏3 𝑥 3 + ⋯ )
= (𝑎0 + 𝑏0 ) + (𝑎1 + 𝑏1 )𝑥 + (𝑎2 + 𝑏2 )𝑥 2 + (𝑎3 + 𝑏3 )𝑥 3 + ⋯ ∈ 𝑃(𝑥)
.: 𝛼. 𝑢(𝑥) = 𝛼. (𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎3 𝑥 3 + ⋯ ) = (𝛼. 𝑎0 + 𝛼. 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝛼. 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝛼. 𝑎3 𝑥 3 + ⋯ ) ∈
𝑃(𝑥)
(a) ((𝑢 + 𝑣) + 𝑤)(𝑥) = [(𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎3 𝑥 3 + ⋯ ) + (𝑏0 + 𝑏1 𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑥 2 + 𝑏3 𝑥 3 + ⋯ )]
+(𝑐0 + 𝑐1 𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑥 2 + 𝑐3 𝑥 3 + ⋯ )
= ((𝑎0 + 𝑏0 ) + (𝑎1 + 𝑏1 )𝑥 + (𝑎2 + 𝑏2 )𝑥 2 + (𝑎3 + 𝑏3 )𝑥 3 + ⋯ )
+ (𝑐0 + 𝑐1 𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑥 2 + 𝑐3 𝑥 3 + ⋯ )
= ((𝑎0 + 𝑏0 ) + 𝑐0 ) + ((𝑎1 + 𝑏1 ) + 𝑐1 )𝑥 + ((𝑎2 + 𝑏2 ) + 𝑐2 )𝑥 2 + ((𝑎3 + 𝑏3 ) + 𝑐3 )𝑥 3 + ⋯
= (𝑎0 + (𝑏0 + 𝑐0 )) + (𝑎1 + (𝑏1 + 𝑐1 )) 𝑥 + (𝑎2 + (𝑏2 + 𝑐2 ))𝑥 2 + (𝑎3 + (𝑏3 + 𝑐3 ))𝑥 3 + ⋯
[∵ 𝐹 is associative under +]
 = (𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎3 𝑥 3 + ⋯ )
+ ((𝑏0 + 𝑐0 ) + (𝑏1 + 𝑐1 ) 𝑥 + (𝑏2 + 𝑐2 )𝑥 2 + (𝑏3 + 𝑐3 ) 𝑥 3 + ⋯ )
= (𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎3 𝑥 3 + ⋯ ) + [(𝑏0 + 𝑏1 𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑥 2 + 𝑏3 𝑥 3 + ⋯ )
+ (𝑐0 + 𝑐1 𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑥 2 + 𝑐3 𝑥 3 + ⋯ )]
= (𝑢 + (𝑣 + 𝑤))(𝑥)
‘+’ is associative.
(b) Here 𝟎(𝑥) = 0 + 0 𝑥 + 0 𝑥 2 + 0𝑥 3 + ⋯ ∈ 𝑃(𝑥) such that
𝑢(𝑥) + 𝟎(𝑥) = (𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎3 𝑥 3 + ⋯ ) + (0 + 0 𝑥 + 0 𝑥 2 + 0𝑥 3 + ⋯ )
= ((0 + 𝑎0 ) + (0 + 𝑎1 ) 𝑥 + (0 + 𝑎2 ) 𝑥 2 + (0 + 𝑎3 )𝑥 3 + ⋯ )
= (𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎3 𝑥 3 + ⋯ ) = 𝑢(𝑥)
𝟎(𝑥) + 𝑢(𝑥) = (0 + 0 𝑥 + 0 𝑥 2 + 0𝑥 3 + ⋯ ) + (𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎3 𝑥 3 + ⋯ )
= ((𝑎0 + 0) + (𝑎1 + 0) 𝑥 + (𝑎2 +0) 𝑥 2 + (𝑎3 + 0) 𝑥 3 + ⋯ )
= (𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎3 𝑥 3 + ⋯ ) = 𝑢(𝑥)
0 + 0 𝑥 + 0 𝑥 2 + 0𝑥 3 + ⋯ is the zero vector of 𝑃(𝑥).
(c) For any vector 𝑢 = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎3 𝑥 3 + ⋯ ∈ 𝑃(𝑥), there exists a
vector – 𝑢 = −𝑎0 − 𝑎1 𝑥 − 𝑎2 𝑥 2 − 𝑎3 𝑥 3 − ⋯ ∈ 𝑃(𝑥) such that
𝑢(𝑥) + (−𝑢)(𝑥) = (𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎3 𝑥 3 + ⋯ ) + (−𝑎0 − 𝑎1 𝑥 − 𝑎2 𝑥 2 − 𝑎3 𝑥 3 − ⋯ )
= ((𝑎0 −𝑎0 ) + (𝑎1 − 𝑎1 ) 𝑥 + (𝑎2 − 𝑎2 )𝑥 2 + (𝑎3 − 𝑎3 ) 𝑥 3 + ⋯ )
= 0 + 0 𝑥 + 0 𝑥 2 + 0𝑥 3 + ⋯ = 𝟎(𝑥)
(−𝑢)(𝑥) + 𝑢(𝑥) = (−𝑎0 − 𝑎1 𝑥 − 𝑎2 𝑥 2 − 𝑎3 𝑥 3 − ⋯ ) + (𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎3 𝑥 3 + ⋯ )
= ((−𝑎0 + 𝑎0 ) + (−𝑎1 + 𝑎1 ) 𝑥 + (−𝑎2 + 𝑎2 )𝑥 2 + (−𝑎3 + 𝑎3 ) 𝑥 3 + ⋯ )
= 0 + 0 𝑥 + 0 𝑥 2 + 0𝑥 3 + ⋯ = 𝟎(𝑥)
(d) 𝑢(𝑥) + 𝑣(𝑥) = (𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎3 𝑥 3 + ⋯ ) + (𝑏0 + 𝑏1 𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑥 2 + 𝑏3 𝑥 3 + ⋯ )
= ((𝑎0 + 𝑏0 ) + (𝑎1 + 𝑏1 )𝑥 + (𝑎2 + 𝑏2 )𝑥 2 + (𝑎3 + 𝑏3 )𝑥 3 + ⋯ )
= ((𝑏0 + 𝑎0 ) + (𝑏1 + 𝑎1 )𝑥 + (𝑏2 + 𝑎2 )𝑥 2 + (𝑏3 + 𝑎3 )𝑥 3 + ⋯ )
[∵ 𝐹 is commutative under ‘+’]
= (𝑏0 + 𝑏1 𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑥 2 + 𝑏3 𝑥 3 + ⋯ ) + (𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎3 𝑥 3 + ⋯ )
= 𝑣(𝑥) + 𝑢(𝑥)
+ is commutative.
(e) 𝛼. (𝑢 + 𝑣)(𝑥) = 𝛼. [(𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎3 𝑥 3 + ⋯ ) + (𝑏0 + 𝑏1 𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑥 2 + 𝑏3 𝑥 3 + ⋯ )]
= 𝛼. ((𝑎0 + 𝑏0 ) + (𝑎1 + 𝑏1 )𝑥 + (𝑎2 + 𝑏2 )𝑥 2 + (𝑎3 + 𝑏3 )𝑥 3 + ⋯ )
= (𝛼. (𝑎0 + 𝑏0 ) + 𝛼. (𝑎1 + 𝑏1 )𝑥 + 𝛼. (𝑎2 + 𝑏2 )𝑥 2 + 𝛼. (𝑎3 + 𝑏3 )𝑥 3 + ⋯ )
= ((𝛼. 𝑎0 + 𝛼. 𝑏0 ) + (𝛼. 𝑎1 + 𝛼. 𝑏1 )𝑥 + (𝛼. 𝑎2 + 𝛼. 𝑏2 )𝑥 2 + ( 𝛼. 𝑎3 + 𝛼. 𝑏3 ) 𝑥 3 + ⋯ )
[∵ ‘.’ is distributive over ‘+’ in 𝐹]
 = (𝛼. 𝑎0 + 𝛼. 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝛼. 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝛼. 𝑎3 𝑥 3 + ⋯ ) + (𝛼. 𝑏0 + 𝛼. 𝑏1 𝑥 + 𝛼. 𝑏2 𝑥 2 + 𝛼. 𝑏3 𝑥 3 + ⋯ )
= 𝛼. (𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎3 𝑥 3 + ⋯ ) + 𝛼. (𝑏0 + 𝑏1 𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑥 2 + 𝑏3 𝑥 3 + ⋯ )
= 𝛼. 𝑢(𝑥) + 𝛼. 𝑣(𝑥)
(f) (𝛼 + 𝛽). 𝑢(𝑥) = (𝛼 + 𝛽). (𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎3 𝑥 3 + ⋯ )
= ((𝛼 + 𝛽). 𝑎0 + (𝛼 + 𝛽). 𝑎1 𝑥 + (𝛼 + 𝛽). 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + (𝛼 + 𝛽). 𝑎3 𝑥 3 + ⋯ )
= ((𝛼. 𝑎0 + 𝛽. 𝑎0 ) + (𝛼. 𝑎1 + 𝛽. 𝑎1 )𝑥 + (𝛼. 𝑎2 + 𝛽. 𝑎2 )𝑥 2 + (𝛼. 𝑎3 + 𝛽. 𝑎3 )𝑥 3 + ⋯ )
[∵ ‘+’ is distributive over ‘.’ in 𝐹]
= (𝛼. 𝑎0 + 𝛼. 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝛼. 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝛼. 𝑎3 𝑥 3 + ⋯ ) + (𝛽. 𝑎0 + 𝛽. 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝛽. 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝛽. 𝑎3 𝑥 3 + ⋯ )
= 𝛼. (𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎3 𝑥 3 + ⋯ ) + 𝛽. (𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎3 𝑥 3 + ⋯ )
= 𝛼. 𝑢(𝑥) + 𝛽. 𝑢(𝑥)
(g) (𝛼. 𝛽). 𝑢(𝑥) = (𝛼. 𝛽). (𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎3 𝑥 3 + ⋯ )
= ((𝛼. 𝛽). 𝑎0 + (𝛼. 𝛽). 𝑎1 𝑥 + (𝛼. 𝛽). 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + (𝛼. 𝛽). 𝑎3 𝑥 3 + ⋯ )
= (𝛼. (𝛽. 𝑎0 ) + 𝛼. (𝛽. 𝑎1 )𝑥 + 𝛼. (𝛽. 𝑎2 )𝑥 2 + 𝛼. (𝛽. 𝑎3 )𝑥 3 + ⋯ )
[∵ 𝐹 is associative under ‘.’]
= 𝛼. (𝛽. 𝑎0 + 𝛽. 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝛽. 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝛽. 𝑎3 𝑥 3 + ⋯ )
= 𝛼. (𝛽. (𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎3 𝑥 3 + ⋯ ))
= 𝛼. (𝛽. 𝑢(𝑥))
(h) Here the unit element of 𝐹 is 1. Therefore
1. 𝑢(𝑥) = 1. (𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎3 𝑥 3 + ⋯ )
= (1. 𝑎0 + 1. 𝑎1 𝑥 + 1. 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 1. 𝑎3 𝑥 3 + ⋯ )[∵ 1. 𝑎𝑖 ∈ 𝐹]
= (𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎3 𝑥 3 + ⋯ ) = 𝑢(𝑥)
Therefore 𝑃(𝑥) is a vector space over a field F.

3. The set of all polynomials of degree atmost 𝒏 over a field F is a

vector space.
Proof.
Here 𝑉 = 𝑃𝑛 (𝑥) = {𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎3 𝑥 3 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 |𝑎𝑖 ∈ 𝐹} = The set of all
polynomials whose coefficients are in 𝐹.
Let 𝑢(𝑥) = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎3 𝑥 3 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 , 𝑣(𝑥) = 𝑏0 + 𝑏1 𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑥 2 + 𝑏3 𝑥 3 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 ,
𝑤(𝑥) = 𝑐0 + 𝑐1 𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑥 2 + 𝑐3 𝑥 3 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 be in 𝑉 = 𝑃𝑛 (𝑥) and 𝛼, 𝛽 be in 𝐹.
Then the binary operations are defined as follows:
+:(𝑢 + 𝑣)(𝑥) = (𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎3 𝑥 3 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 ) + (𝑏0 + 𝑏1 𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑥 2 + 𝑏3 𝑥 3 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 )
= (𝑎0 + 𝑏0 ) + (𝑎1 + 𝑏1 )𝑥 + (𝑎2 + 𝑏2 )𝑥 2 + (𝑎3 + 𝑏3 )𝑥 3 + ⋯ + (𝑎𝑛 + 𝑏𝑛 )𝑥 𝑛 ∈ 𝑃(𝑥)
 .: 𝛼. 𝑢(𝑥) = 𝛼. (𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎3 𝑥 3 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 )
= (𝛼. 𝑎0 + 𝛼. 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝛼. 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝛼. 𝑎3 𝑥 3 + ⋯ + 𝛼. 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 ) ∈ 𝑃(𝑥)
Remaining proof has been left to the students
4. The set of all 𝒎 × 𝒏 matrices over ℝ is a vector space under usual
addition and scalar multiplication of matrices.
Proof.
Here 𝑉 = 𝑀𝑚×𝑛 = {[𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] | 𝑎𝑖𝑗 ∈ ℝ} = The set of all 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrices
𝑚×𝑛

whose elements are in ℝ and 𝐹 = ℝ.

Let 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] , 𝐵 = [𝑏𝑖𝑗 ] , 𝐶 = [𝑐𝑖𝑗 ] be in 𝑉 = 𝑀𝑚×𝑛 and 𝛼, 𝛽 be in ℝ.
𝑚×𝑛 𝑚×𝑛 𝑚×𝑛

Then the binary operations(addition and scalar multiplication of

matrices) are defined as follows:
+: 𝐴 + 𝐵 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] + [𝑏𝑖𝑗 ] = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 + 𝑏𝑖𝑗 ] ∈ 𝑀𝑚×𝑛
𝑚×𝑛 𝑚×𝑛 𝑚×𝑛

.: 𝛼. 𝐴 = 𝛼. [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] = [𝛼. 𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] ∈ 𝑀𝑚×𝑛

𝑚×𝑛 𝑚×𝑛

(i) (𝐴 + 𝐵) + 𝐶 = [[𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] + [𝑏𝑖𝑗 ] ] + [𝑐𝑖𝑗 ]

𝑚×𝑛 𝑚×𝑛 𝑚×𝑛

= [𝑎𝑖𝑗 + 𝑏𝑖𝑗 ] + [𝑐𝑖𝑗 ]

𝑚×𝑛 𝑚×𝑛

= [(𝑎𝑖𝑗 + 𝑏𝑖𝑗 )+𝑐𝑖𝑗 ]

𝑚×𝑛

= [𝑎𝑖𝑗 + (𝑏𝑖𝑗 + 𝑐𝑖𝑗 )] [∵ ℝ is associative under +]

𝑚×𝑛

= [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] + [𝑏𝑖𝑗 + 𝑐𝑖𝑗 ]

𝑚×𝑛 𝑚×𝑛

= [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] + ([𝑏𝑖𝑗 ] + [𝑐𝑖𝑗 ] )

𝑚×𝑛 𝑚×𝑛 𝑚×𝑛

= 𝐴 + (𝐵 + 𝐶)
‘+’ is associative.
(ii) Here the zero matrix 𝟎 = [0]𝑚×𝑛 ∈ 𝑀𝑚×𝑛 such that
𝐴 + 𝟎 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] + [0]𝑚×𝑛 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 + 0] ) = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] =𝐴
𝑚×𝑛 𝑚×𝑛 𝑚×𝑛

𝟎 + 𝐴 = [0]𝑚×𝑛 + [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] = [0 + 𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] =𝐴

𝑚×𝑛 𝑚×𝑛 𝑚×𝑛

The zero matrix 𝟎 = [0]𝑚×𝑛 is the zero vector of 𝑀𝑚×𝑛 .

(iii) For any matrix 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] ∈ 𝑀𝑚×𝑛 , there exists a matrix – 𝐴 =
𝑚×𝑛

[−𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] ∈ 𝑀𝑚×𝑛 such that

𝑚×𝑛

𝐴 + (−𝐴) = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] + [−𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 − 𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] = [0]𝑚×𝑛 = 𝟎

𝑚×𝑛 𝑚×𝑛 𝑚×𝑛

(−𝐴) + 𝐴 = [−𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] + [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] = [−𝑎𝑖𝑗 + 𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] = [0]𝑚×𝑛 = 𝟎

𝑚×𝑛 𝑚×𝑛 𝑚×𝑛

(iv) 𝐴 + 𝐵 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] + [𝑏𝑖𝑗 ]

𝑚×𝑛 𝑚×𝑛
 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 + 𝑏𝑖𝑗 ]
𝑚×𝑛

= [𝑏𝑖𝑗 + 𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] [∵ ℝ is commutative under ‘+’]

𝑚×𝑛

= [𝑏𝑖𝑗 ] + [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ]
𝑚×𝑛 𝑚×𝑛

=𝐵+𝐴
+ is commutative.

(v) 𝛼. (𝐴 + 𝐵) = 𝛼. [[𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] + [𝑏𝑖𝑗 ] ]

𝑚×𝑛 𝑚×𝑛

= 𝛼. [𝑎𝑖𝑗 + 𝑏𝑖𝑗 ]
𝑚×𝑛

= [𝛼. (𝑎𝑖𝑗 + 𝑏𝑖𝑗 )]

𝑚×𝑛

= [(𝛼. 𝑎𝑖𝑗 + 𝛼. 𝑏𝑖𝑗 )] [∵ ‘.’ is distributive over ‘+’ in ℝ]

𝑚×𝑛

= [𝛼. 𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] + [𝛼. 𝑏𝑖𝑗 ]

𝑚×𝑛 𝑚×𝑛

= 𝛼. [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] + 𝛼. [𝑏𝑖𝑗 ]
𝑚×𝑛 𝑚×𝑛

= 𝛼. 𝐴 + 𝛼. 𝐵
(vi) (𝛼 + 𝛽). 𝐴 = (𝛼 + 𝛽). [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ]
𝑚×𝑛

= [(𝛼 + 𝛽). 𝑎𝑖𝑗 ]

𝑚×𝑛

= [(𝛼. 𝑎𝑖𝑗 + 𝛽. 𝑎𝑖𝑗 )] [∵ ‘+’ is distributive over ‘.’ in ℝ]

𝑚×𝑛

= [𝛼. 𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] + [𝛽. 𝑎𝑖𝑗 ]

𝑚×𝑛 𝑚×𝑛

= 𝛼. [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] + 𝛽. [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ]
𝑚×𝑛 𝑚×𝑛

= 𝛼. 𝐴 + 𝛽. 𝐵
(vii) (𝛼. 𝛽). 𝐴 = (𝛼. 𝛽). [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ]
𝑚×𝑛

= [(𝛼. 𝛽). 𝑎𝑖𝑗 ]

𝑚×𝑛

= [𝛼. (𝛽. 𝑎𝑖𝑗 )] [∵ ℝ is associative under ‘.’]

𝑚×𝑛

= 𝛼. [𝛽. 𝑎𝑖𝑗 ]
𝑚×𝑛

= 𝛼. (𝛽. [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] )
𝑚×𝑛

= 𝛼. (𝛽. 𝐴)
(viii) Here the unit element of ℝ is 1. Therefore
1. 𝐴 = 1. [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] = [1. 𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] =𝐴
𝑚×𝑛 𝑚×𝑛 𝑚×𝑛

Therefore Mm×n is a vector space over ℝ.

5. Let 𝑽 be the set of ordered pairs (𝒂, 𝒃) of real numbers. Show that 𝑽
is not a vector space over ℝ with addition and scalar multiplication
defined by
(i) (𝒂, 𝒃) + (𝒄, 𝒅) = (𝒂 + 𝒅, 𝒃 + 𝒄) and 𝒌(𝒂, 𝒃) = (𝒌𝒂, 𝒌𝒃)
Let (𝒂𝟏 , 𝒃𝟏 ), (𝒂𝟐 , 𝒃𝟐 ), (𝒂𝟑 , 𝒃𝟑 ) ∈ ℝ𝟐 .
𝒖 + (𝒗 + 𝒘) = (𝒂𝟏 , 𝒃𝟏 ) + [(𝒂𝟐 , 𝒃𝟐 ) + (𝒂𝟑 , 𝒃𝟑 )] = (𝒂𝟏 , 𝒃𝟏 ) + (𝒂𝟐 + 𝒃𝟑 , 𝒃𝟐 + 𝒂𝟑 )
= (𝒂𝟏 + (𝒃𝟐 + 𝒂𝟑 ), 𝒃𝟏 + (𝒂𝟐 + 𝒃𝟑 ))
(𝒖 + 𝒗) + 𝒘 = [(𝒂𝟏 , 𝒃𝟏 ) + (𝒂𝟐 , 𝒃𝟐 )] + (𝒂𝟑 , 𝒃𝟑 ) = (𝒂𝟏 + 𝒃𝟐 , 𝒃𝟏 + 𝒂𝟐 ) + (𝒂𝟑 , 𝒃𝟑 )
= ((𝒂𝟏 + 𝒃𝟐 ) + 𝒃𝟑 , (𝒃𝟏 + 𝒂𝟐 ) + 𝒂𝟑 )
Therefore + is not associative. Hence 𝑽 is not a vector space.

(ii) (𝒂, 𝒃) + (𝒄, 𝒅) = (𝒂 + 𝒄, 𝒃 + 𝒅) and 𝒌(𝒂, 𝒃) = (𝒂, 𝒃)

(𝛼 + 𝛽)(𝑎, 𝑏) = (𝑎, 𝑏)-----(1)
𝛼(𝑎, 𝑏) + 𝛽(𝑎, 𝑏) = (𝑎, 𝑏) + (𝑎, 𝑏) = (2𝑎, 2𝑏)----(2)
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 (1)& (2), (𝛼 + 𝛽)𝑢 ≠ 𝛼𝑢 + 𝛽𝑣
Therefore V is not a vector space.

(iii) (𝒂, 𝒃) + (𝒄, 𝒅) = (𝟎, 𝟎) and 𝒌(𝒂, 𝒃) = (𝒌𝒂, 𝒌𝒃)

The zero vector doesn’t exist for the vector space V. Hence V
is not a vector.
(iv) (𝒂, 𝒃) + (𝒄, 𝒅) = (𝒂𝒄, 𝒃𝒅) and 𝒌(𝒂, 𝒃) = (𝒌𝒂, 𝒌𝒃)
(𝒂, 𝒃) + [(𝒄, 𝒅) + (𝒆, 𝒇)] = (𝒂, 𝒃) + (𝒄𝒆, 𝒅𝒇) = (𝒂(𝒄𝒆), 𝒃(𝒅𝒇)) = (𝒂𝒄, 𝒃𝒅) + (𝒆, 𝒇)
= [(𝒂, 𝒃) + (𝒄, 𝒅)] + (𝒆, 𝒇)
(𝒂, 𝒃) + (𝟏, 𝟏) = (𝒂, 𝒃) ⇒ (𝟏, 𝟏) is the zero vector.
𝟏 𝟏
(𝒂, 𝒃) + ( , ) = (𝟏, 𝟏) but for 𝒖 = (𝟎, 𝟎), −𝒖 doesn’t exist.
𝒂 𝒃

𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆, 𝑽 𝒊𝒔 𝒏𝒐𝒕 𝒂 𝒗𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒆.

Properties of vector space:
Let 𝑉 be a vector space over a field 𝐹. Then
(i) For any scalar 𝛼 ∈ 𝐹 and 𝟎 ∈ 𝑉, 𝛼. 𝟎 = 𝟎.
(ii) For 0 ∈ 𝐹 and any vector 𝑢 ∈ 𝑉, 0. 𝑢 = 𝟎.
(iii) If 𝛼. 𝑢 = 𝟎, where 𝛼 ∈ 𝐹 and 𝑢 ∈ 𝑉, then 𝛼 = 0 or 𝑢 = 𝟎.
(iv) For any 𝛼 ∈ 𝐹 and any 𝑢 ∈ 𝑉, (−𝛼). 𝑢 = 𝛼. (−𝑢) = −(𝛼. 𝑢).

Subspaces:
Let 𝑉 be a vector space over a field 𝐹 and let 𝑊 be a subset of 𝑉.
Then 𝑊 is a subspace of 𝑉, if 𝑊 is itself a vector space over 𝐹 with
respect to the operations of vector addition and scalar multiplication
on 𝑉.
Theorem: (Equivalent condition for subspaces)
Suppose 𝑊 is a subset of a vector space 𝑉. Then 𝑊 is a subspace of
𝑉 if the following two conditions hold:
(a) The zero vector 𝟎 belongs to 𝑊(i.e. 𝟎 ∈ 𝑊)
(b) For every 𝑢, 𝑣 ∈ 𝑊 and 𝛼 ∈ 𝐹, 𝑢 + 𝑣 ∈ 𝑊,𝛼. 𝑢 ∈ 𝑊.

6. Let 𝑽 = ℝ𝟑 . Show that 𝑾 is a subspace of 𝑽, where:(a) 𝑾 =

{(𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒄) ∶ 𝒂 = 𝒃 = 𝒄}, (b)𝑾 = {(𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒄) ∶ 𝒂 = 𝟎}
Solution:
(a) Clearly, the zero vector (0,0,0) of ℝ3 belongs to 𝑊 since all
entries are same. Also, for any 𝑢 = (𝑎, 𝑎, 𝑎), 𝑣 = (𝑏, 𝑏, 𝑏) ∈ 𝑊 and 𝛼 ∈ ℝ,
𝑢 + 𝑣 = (𝑎 + 𝑏, 𝑎 + 𝑏, 𝑎 + 𝑏) ∈ 𝑊, 𝛼. 𝑢 = (𝛼𝑎, 𝛼𝑎, 𝛼𝑎) ∈ 𝑊. Therefore, W is a
subspace of ℝ3.
(b) Clearly, the zero vector (0,0,0) of ℝ3 belongs to 𝑊 since first
entry is zero. Also, for any 𝑢 = (0, 𝑏1 , 𝑐1 ), 𝑣 = (0, 𝑏2 , 𝑐2 ) ∈ 𝑊 and 𝛼 ∈ ℝ,
𝑢 + 𝑣 = (0, 𝑏1 + 𝑏2 , 𝑐1 + 𝑐2 ) ∈ 𝑊, 𝛼. 𝑢 = (0, 𝛼𝑏1 , 𝛼𝑐1 ) ∈ 𝑊. Therefore, W is a
subspace of ℝ3.

7. Let 𝑽 = ℝ𝟑 . Show that 𝑾 is not a subspace of 𝑽, where:(a) 𝑾 =

{(𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒄) ∶ 𝒂 ≥ 𝟎}, (b)𝑾 = {(𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒄) ∶ 𝒂𝟐 + 𝒃𝟐 + 𝒄𝟐 ≤ 𝟏}
Solution:
 (a) Consider 𝑢 = (𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐) ∈ 𝑊 and 𝛼 = −1 ∈ ℝ. Then 𝛼. 𝑢 = (−1). (𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐) =
(−𝑎, −𝑏, −𝑐) ∉ 𝑊 since first entry is negative. Therefore, 𝑊 is not
a subspace of ℝ3.
(b) Consider 𝑢 = (𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐) ∈ 𝑊 and 𝛼 = 4 ∈ ℝ. Then 𝛼. 𝑢 = 4. (𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐) =
1 1 1
(4𝑎, 4𝑏, 4𝑐) ∉ 𝑊 since 16(𝑎2 + 𝑏2 + 𝑐 2 ) > 1 for the choice (𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐) = ( , , ).
2 2 2

Therefore, 𝑊 is not a subspace of ℝ3.

8. Let 𝑽 = 𝑷(𝒕), the vector space of real polynomials. Determine whether

𝑾 is a subspace of 𝑽 or not, where:
(a) 𝑾 consists of all polynomials with integral coefficients.(No)
(b) 𝑾 consists of all polynomials with degree ≥ 𝟔 and the zero
polynomial.(No)
𝑳𝒆𝒕 𝒖(𝒙) = 𝒙 + 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟐𝒙𝟒 + 𝒂𝒙𝟕 , 𝒗(𝒙) = 𝒙 + (−𝒂)𝒙𝟕. Then 𝒖(𝒙) + 𝒗(𝒙) = 𝟐𝒙 +
𝒙𝟐 − 𝟐𝒙𝟒 doesn’t belong to 𝑾. Therefore 𝑾 is not a subspace of
𝑷(𝒕).
(c) 𝑾 consists of all polynomials with only even powers of t.(Yes)
𝟎(𝒙) = 𝟎 + 𝟎𝒙𝟐 + 𝟎𝒙𝟒 + ⋯ ∈ 𝑾
Let 𝒖(𝒙) = 𝒂𝟎 + 𝒂𝟏 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒂𝟐 𝒙𝟒 + ⋯ ; 𝒗(𝒙) = 𝒃𝟎 + 𝒃𝟏 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝟐 𝒙𝟒 + ⋯

9. Let 𝑽 be the vector space of functions 𝒇: ℝ → ℝ. Show that 𝑾 is a

subspace of 𝑽, where:
(a) 𝑾 = {𝒇(𝒙): 𝒇(𝟏) = 𝟎}, all functions whose value at 1 is 0.
(𝒊) 𝑶(𝒙) = 𝟎 ∀𝒙 ∈ ℝ ⇒ 𝟎(𝟏) = 𝟎 ⇒ 𝟎(𝒙) ∈ 𝑾
(𝒊𝒊) Let 𝒇(𝒙), 𝒈(𝒙) ∈ 𝑾. Then 𝒇(𝟏) = 𝒈(𝟏) = 𝟎. (𝒇 + 𝒈)(𝟏) = 𝒇(𝟏) + 𝒈(𝟏) = 𝟎
This implies (𝒇 + 𝒈)(𝒙) ∈ 𝑾. (𝜶𝒇)(𝟏) = 𝜶𝒇(𝟏) = 𝟎 ⇒ (𝜶𝒇)(𝒙) ∈ 𝑾.
Therefore, 𝑾 is a subspace of 𝑽.
(b) 𝑾 = {𝒇(𝒙): 𝒇(𝟑) = 𝒇(𝟏)}, all functions assigning the same value to 3
and 1.
(c) 𝑾 = {𝒇(𝒙): 𝒇(−𝒙) = −𝒇(𝒙)}, all odd functions.
Linear Combination
Let 𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , … , 𝑢𝑛 be vectors in 𝑉 and 𝛼1 , 𝛼2 , … , 𝛼𝑛 be scalars in 𝐹.
Then the linear combination of 𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , … , 𝑢𝑛 is 𝛼1 𝑢1 + 𝛼2 𝑢2 + ⋯ + 𝛼𝑛 𝑢𝑛 .

Linearly independent and linearly dependent

Let 𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , … , 𝑢𝑛 be vectors in 𝑉. Then the vectors 𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , … , 𝑢𝑛 are
called linearly independent vectors if 𝛼1 𝑢1 + 𝛼2 𝑢2 + ⋯ + 𝛼𝑛 𝑢𝑛 = 0 only for
all the scalar 𝛼1 , 𝛼2 , … , 𝛼𝑛 are equal to 0.

Let 𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , … , 𝑢𝑛 be vectors in 𝑉. Then the vectors 𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , … , 𝑢𝑛 are

called linearly dependent vectors if 𝛼1 𝑢1 + 𝛼2 𝑢2 + ⋯ + 𝛼𝑛 𝑢𝑛 = 0 for some
𝛼𝑖 ≠ 0.
1. Express 𝑣 = (5,3,7) ∈ ℝ as a linear combination of 𝑢1 = (1,0,0), 𝑢2 =
(1,1,0), 𝑢3 = (1,1,1) ∈ ℝ.
Solution
The linear combination of 𝑢1 , 𝑢2, 𝑢3 is 𝛼1 𝑢1 + 𝛼2 𝑢2 + 𝛼3 𝑢3.
Now 𝑣 = 𝛼1 𝑢1 + 𝛼2 𝑢2 + 𝛼3 𝑢3
⇒ (5,3,7) = 𝛼1 (1,0,0) + 𝛼2 (1,1,0) + 𝛼3 (1,1,1) = (𝛼1 , 0,0) + (𝛼2 , 𝛼2 , 0) + (𝛼3 , 𝛼3 , 𝛼3 )
= (𝛼1 + 𝛼2 + 𝛼3 , 𝛼2 + 𝛼3 , 𝛼3 )
⇒ 𝛼1 + 𝛼2 + 𝛼3 = 5
𝛼2 + 𝛼3 = 3
𝛼3 = 7
⇒ 𝛼3 = 7; 𝛼2 = −4; 𝛼1 = 2
Therefore, 𝑣 = 2𝑢1 − 4𝑢2 + 7𝑢3
2. Express 𝑣 = (2, −5,3) ∈ ℝ as a linear combination of 𝑢1 = (1, −3,2), 𝑢2 =
(2, −4, −1), 𝑢3 = (1, −5,7) ∈ ℝ.
Solution
Now, 𝑣 = 𝛼1 𝑢1 + 𝛼2 𝑢2 + 𝛼3 𝑢3
⇒ (2, −5,3) = 𝛼1 (1, −3,2) + 𝛼2 (2, −4, −1) + 𝛼3 (1, −5,7)
⇒ 𝛼1 + 2𝛼2 + 𝛼3 = 2
−3𝛼1 − 4𝛼2 − 5𝛼3 = −5
2𝛼1 − 𝛼2 + 7𝛼3 = 3
 1 2 1 2
⇒ [𝐴, 𝐵] = (−3 −4 −5 −5)
2 −1 7 3
1 2 1 2
~ (0 2 −2 1 ) 𝑅3 ⇒ 𝑅3 − 2𝑅1 ; 𝑅2 ⇒ 𝑅2 + 3𝑅1
0 −5 5 −1
1 2 1 2
~ (0 2 −2 1) 𝑅3 ⇒ 2𝑅3 + 5𝑅2
0 0 0 3
The system of equations is inconsistent. (i.e. The system has no
solutions)
The vector 𝑣 cannot be express as linear combination of 𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 .
3. Express 𝐯 = (𝟑, 𝟕, −𝟒) in ℝ𝟑 as a linear combination of the vectors 𝐮𝟏 =
(𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑) , 𝐮𝟐 = (𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟕) and 𝐮𝟑 = (𝟑, 𝟓, 𝟔) .
Solution :
Let 𝛂𝟏 , 𝛂𝟐 , 𝛂𝟑 be scalars such that 𝐯 = 𝛂𝟏 𝐮𝟏 + 𝛂𝟐 𝐮𝟐 + 𝛂𝟑 𝐮𝟑 .
⇒ (𝟑, 𝟕, − 𝟒) = 𝛂𝟏 (𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑) + 𝛂𝟐 (𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟕) + 𝛂𝟑 (𝟑, 𝟓, 𝟔)
⇒ (𝟑, 𝟕, − 𝟒) = ((𝛂𝟏 + 𝟐𝛂𝟐 + 𝟑𝛂𝟑 ), (𝟐𝛂𝟏 + 𝟑𝛂𝟐 + 𝟓𝛂𝟑 ), (𝟑𝛂𝟏 + 𝟕𝛂𝟐 + 𝟔𝛂𝟑 ))
⇒ 𝛂𝟏 + 𝟐𝛂𝟐 + 𝟑𝛂𝟑 = 𝟑
𝟐𝛂𝟏 + 𝟑𝛂𝟐 + 𝟓𝛂𝟑 = 𝟕
𝟑𝛂𝟏 + 𝟕𝛂𝟐 + 𝟔𝛂𝟑 = − 𝟒
The augmented matrix (𝐀, 𝐁) is
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟑
(𝐀, 𝐁) = (𝟐 𝟑 𝟓 𝟕 )
𝟑 𝟕 𝟔 −𝟒
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟑
(𝐀, 𝐁) = (𝟐 𝟑 𝟓 𝟕 )
𝟑 𝟕 𝟔 −𝟒
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟑 𝐑 ⇒ 𝐑 𝟐 − 𝟐𝐑 𝟏
~ (𝟎 − 𝟏 − 𝟏 𝟏 ) 𝟐
𝐑 𝟑 ⇒ 𝐑 𝟑 − 𝟑𝐑 𝟏
𝟎 𝟏 − 𝟑 − 𝟏𝟑
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟑
~ (𝟎 − 𝟏 − 𝟏 𝟏 ) 𝐑𝟑 ⇒ 𝐑𝟑 + 𝐑𝟐
𝟎 𝟎 − 𝟒 − 𝟏𝟐
By back substitution method,
𝐑 𝟑 ⇒ −𝟒𝛂𝟑 = −𝟏𝟐 ⇒ 𝛂𝟑 = 𝟑
𝐑 𝟐 ⇒ −𝛂𝟐 − 𝛂𝟑 = 𝟏 ⇒ − 𝛂𝟐 − 𝟑 = 𝟏 ⇒ 𝛂𝟐 = − 𝟒
𝐑 𝟏 ⇒ 𝛂𝟏 + 𝟐𝛂𝟐 + 𝟑𝛂𝟑 = 𝟑 ⇒ 𝛂𝟏 + 𝟐(− 𝟒) + 𝟑(𝟑) = 𝟑 ⇒ 𝛂𝟏 + 𝟏 = 𝟑 ⇒ 𝛂𝟏 = 𝟐
∴ The linear combination is 𝐯 = 𝟐𝐮𝟏 − 𝟒𝐮𝟐 + 𝟑𝐮𝟑 .
4. Express the polynomial 𝐯 = 𝟑𝐭 𝟐 + 𝟓𝐭 − 𝟓 as a linear combination of the
polynomial 𝐩𝟏 = 𝐭 𝟐 + 𝟐𝐭 + 𝟏 , 𝐩𝟐 = 𝟐𝐭 𝟐 + 𝟓𝐭 + 𝟒 , 𝐩𝟑 = 𝐭 𝟐 + 𝟑𝐭 + 𝟔 .
Solution :
Let 𝛂𝟏 , 𝛂𝟐 , 𝛂𝟑 be scalars such that 𝐯 = 𝛂𝟏 𝐮𝟏 + 𝛂𝟐 𝐮𝟐 + 𝛂𝟑 𝐮𝟑 .
⇒ 𝟑𝐭 𝟐 + 𝟓𝐭 − 𝟓 = 𝛂𝟏 (𝐭 𝟐 + 𝟐𝐭 + 𝟏) + 𝛂𝟐 (𝟐𝐭 𝟐 + 𝟓𝐭 + 𝟒 ) + 𝛂𝟑 (𝐭 𝟐 + 𝟑𝐭 + 𝟔 )
⇒ 𝟑𝐭 𝟐 + 𝟓𝐭 − 𝟓 = (𝛂𝟏 + 𝟐𝛂𝟐 + 𝛂𝟑 )𝐭 𝟐 + (𝟐𝛂𝟏 + 𝟓𝛂𝟐 + 𝟑𝛂𝟑 )𝐭 + (𝛂𝟏 + 𝟒𝛂𝟐 + 𝟔𝛂𝟑 )
⇒ 𝛂𝟏 + 𝟐𝛂𝟐 + 𝛂𝟑 = 𝟑
𝟐𝛂𝟏 + 𝟓𝛂𝟐 + 𝟑𝛂𝟑 = 𝟓
𝛂𝟏 + 𝟒𝛂𝟐 + 𝟔𝛂𝟑 = − 𝟓
Solving the system of equations by Gauss elimination method we
have the augmented matrix (𝐀, 𝐁) is given by
𝟏 𝟐 𝟏 𝟑
(𝐀, 𝐁) = (𝟐 𝟓 𝟑 𝟓 )
𝟏 𝟒 𝟔 −𝟓
Now we have to convert the matrix 𝐀 to an upper triangular matrix.
𝟏 𝟐 𝟏 𝟑
(𝐀, 𝐁) = (𝟐 𝟓 𝟑 𝟓 )
𝟏 𝟒 𝟔 −𝟓
𝟏 𝟐 𝟏 𝟑 𝐑 ⇒ 𝐑 𝟐 − 𝟐𝐑 𝟏
~ (𝟎 𝟏 𝟏 − 𝟏) 𝟐
𝐑𝟑 ⇒ 𝐑𝟑 − 𝐑𝟏
𝟎 𝟐 𝟓 −𝟖
𝟏 𝟐 𝟏 𝟑
~ (𝟎 𝟏 𝟏 − 𝟏) 𝐑 𝟑 ⇒ 𝐑 𝟑 − 𝟐𝐑 𝟐
𝟎 𝟎 𝟑 −𝟔
By back substitution method ,
𝟑𝜶𝟑 = −𝟔 ⇒ 𝜶𝟑 = −𝟐
𝜶𝟐 + 𝜶𝟑 = −𝟏 ⇒ 𝜶𝟐 = 𝟏
𝜶𝟏 + 𝟐𝜶𝟐 + 𝜶𝟑 = 𝟑 ⇒ 𝜶𝟏 = 𝟑
∴ The linear combination is = 𝟑𝐩𝟏 + 𝐩𝟐 − 𝟐𝐩𝟑 .
5. Determine whether the vectors 𝒖 = (𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑), 𝒗 = (𝟐, 𝟓, 𝟕), 𝒘 = (𝟏, 𝟑, 𝟓) are
linearly independent are not.
Solution
Let 𝛂𝟏 , 𝛂𝟐 , 𝛂𝟑 be scalars such that 𝛂𝟏 𝐮 + 𝛂𝟐 𝐯 + 𝛂𝟑 𝐰 = 𝟎.
Then 𝛂𝟏 (𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑) + 𝛂𝟐 (𝟐, 𝟓, 𝟕) + 𝛂𝟑 (𝟏, 𝟑, 𝟓) = 𝟎
⇒ 𝜶𝟏 + 𝟐𝜶𝟐 + 𝜶𝟑 = 𝟎
𝟐𝜶𝟏 + 𝟓𝜶𝟐 + 𝟑𝜶𝟑 = 𝟎
𝟑𝜶𝟏 + 𝟕𝜶𝟐 + 𝟓𝜶𝟑 = 𝟎
The coefficient matrix is
𝟏 𝟐 𝟏
𝐀 = (𝟐 𝟓 𝟑)
𝟑 𝟕 𝟓
𝟏 𝟐 𝟏
~ (𝟎 𝟏 𝟏) 𝐑 𝟐 ⇒ 𝐑 𝟐 − 𝟐𝐑 𝟏 ; 𝐑 𝟑 ⇒ 𝐑 𝟑 − 𝟑𝐑 𝟏
𝟎 𝟏 𝟐
𝟏 𝟐 𝟏
~ (𝟎 𝟏 𝟏) 𝐑 𝟑 ⇒ 𝐑 𝟑 − 𝐑 𝟐
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
Here all the three rows are non-zero rows. The vectors are linearly
independent.
6. Check whether the vectors 𝒖 = (𝟏, 𝟐, −𝟏), 𝒗 = (𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟏), 𝒘 = (𝟑, 𝟓, 𝟎) are linearly
independent or not.
Solution:
𝟏 𝟐 −𝟏 𝟏 𝟐 −𝟏
Consider 𝐀 = (𝟐 𝟑 𝟏 ) ~ (𝟎 −𝟏 𝟑)
𝟑 𝟓 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
The no. of given vectors (3) is not equal to the no. of non-zero
rows(2). Therefore, the vectors are linearly dependent.

Note: If the given vectors form a square matrix and determinant of the
matrix is zero then the given vectors are linearly dependent. If the
given vectors form a square matrix and determinant of the matrix is
non-zero then the given vectors are linearly independent.

7. Check whether the vectors 𝑢 = (1,2,3,4), 𝑣 = (1, −1,1, −1), 𝑤 = (2,1,3,3) are
linearly independent or not.
Solution
1 2 3 4
Consider 𝐴 = [1 −1 1 −1]
2 1 3 3
1 2 3 4
~ [0 −3 −2 −5] 𝑅2 ⇒ 𝑅2 − 𝑅1 ; 𝑅3 ⇒ 𝑅3 − 2𝑅1
0 −3 −3 −5
1 2 3 4
~ [0 −3 −2 −5] 𝑅3 ⇒ 𝑅3 − 𝑅2
0 0 −1 0
The number of nonzero rows is equal to number of given vectors.
Therefore, given vectors are linearly independent.