TIMBER - A CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL

INTRODUCTION

Definition: Timber denotes wood which is suitable for building or carpentry and for various
engineering and other purposes.

Wood: The organic matter obtained from trees is called wood.

TYPES OF TREES

Trees are classified into two groups.

• Endogenous trees: The trees which grow inwards in longitudinal fibrous mass are called
endogenous trees.
• Exogenous tress: The trees which grow in out wards across horizontal section of stem
are called exogenous trees. These trees are only fit for engineering construction.
Exogenous trees are again subdivided in to two types.
o Conifers or Evergreen: They give soft wood. They have pointed leaves.
Examples: Pine, Cypress, Cedar, Blue gum, etc
o Deciduous or broad leaf Trees: These have hard wood. These have broad leaves.
Examples: Teak, Camphor, Mahogany, Mvule, etc.

COMPARISON OF SOFTWOOD AND HARD WOOD

SOFTWOOD HARD WOOD

1. Ever green 1. Deciduous (shades leaves)
2. Bears cones 2. Bears seeds
3. Has needle like leaves 3. Has broad leaves
4. Mainly for general use 4. Ideal for heavy structural work
5. Less resistant to insect attack. 5. Resists insect attack

STRUCTURE OF TREE

From the visibility aspect, the structure of a tree can be divided into two categories

• Macro structure
• Micro structure

Macro structure is the visible structure of wood to the naked eye.

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 The following figure shows the macro structure of exogenous tree.

Cross-section of a trunck

Pith: The innermost central portion or core of the tree is called pith or medulla.

Heart wood: The inner annual rings surrounding the pith are known as heart wood.

Sap wood: The cuter annual rings between heart wood and cambium layer is known as sap wood.

Cambium layer: Thin layer of sap between sap wood and inner bark is known as cambium layer.

Inner bark: The inner skin or layer covering the cambium

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layer is known as inner bark.

Outer Bark: The outer skin or cover of the tree is known as outer bark.

Medullary rays: The thin radial fibers extending from pith to cambium layer are known as
medullary rays.

Micro structure: The structure of wood apparent only at great magnifications is called micro
structure and consists of the following:

• Conductive cells
• Mechanical cells
• Storage cells

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD TIMBER

➢ Appearance: A freshly cut surface of timber should exhibit hard and of shining
appearance.
➢ Color: A color should preferably be dark
➢ Defects: A good timber should be free from series defects such as knots, flaws, shake etc
➢ Durability: A good timber should be durable and capable of resisting the action of fungi,
insects, chemicals, physical agencies, and mechanical agencies.
➢ Elasticity: The timber returns to its original shape when load causing its deformation is
removed.
➢ Fire resistance: A dense wood offers good resistance to fire.
➢ Hardness: A good timber should be hard.
➢ Mechanical wear: A good timber should not deteriorate easily due to mechanical wear
or abrasion.
➢ Shape: A good timber should be capable of retaining its shape during conversion or
seasoning
➢ Smell: A good timber should have sweet smell. Unpleasant smell indicates decayed
timber
➢ Sound: A good timber should give a clear ringing sound when struck
➢ Strength: A good timber should be sufficiently strong for working as structural member
such as joist, beam, rafter etc.
➢ Structure: The structure should be uniform.
➢ Toughness: A good timber should be tough (i.e.) capable of offering resistance to shocks
due to vibration.
➢ Water permeability: A good timber should have low water permeability, which is
measured by the quantity of water filtered through unit surface area of specimen of wood.
➢ Weight: The timber with heavy weight is considered to be sound and strong.
➢ Working conditions: Timber should be easily workable. It should not clog the teeth of
saw.

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 CONVERSION OF TIMBER

The preparation of logs from trees to timber is called Conversion. It involves sawing logs
into rectangular timber of various sizes.

Reasons to Convert Timber

▪ Allows timber to dry faster

▪ Provides timber of usable sizes and shapes
▪ Allows the quality of the timber to be seen

Methods of Conversion

Through and through sawing Plain/slash sawing

Advantages –

• Low cost and fast

• Maximum width of planks obtained from log.

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 • Little wastage.
• Reveals attractive grain pattern, especially in softwoods.

Disadvantages

• Not suitable for structural timber

• Some boards are all sapwood- with this method cupping caused by tangential
shrinkage is a problem(cupping is the warping of the plank away from the heart of the
tree)

Quarter sawing Radial/quarter sawing

Disadvantage
• Expensive, as the log has to be first quartered then turned for every cut.
• Because the log is quartered then cut again narrower boards are produce

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 Advantages
• An attractive grain pattern is produced
• Boards are more stable and shrink less
• Boards wear more evenly, important for flooring
Tangential sawing

Disadvantages
• Prone to shrinkage (Cupping)
• It is expensive as the log is turned 90º for each cut
Advantages
• Produce board with flame figure
• Tangential boards are strong boards, used for beams and joists
• Heartwood and sapwood are easily separated
• These boards can take a nail without splitting because of the position of their annual rings
• warping of the plank away from the heart of the tree

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 SEASONING OF TIMBER

As fresh timber which is obtained from trees, contains about 30 to 40 % sap or moisture. This
sap is very harmful for the life of a timber. Therefore, it is necessary to remove that sap by
applying some special methods. All those methods which are used for removing the sap from
timber are collectively termed as seasoning of timber.

ADVANTAGES OF SEASONED TIMBER:

o It has reduced weight

o It is strong and durable
o It has resistance to decay or rot
o It takes high polish,
o It is easier to work
o Its life is more.

TYPES OF TIMBER SEASONING: The main types of timber seasoning are:

o Natural Seasoning
o Artificial Seasoning which includes the following:
▪ Kiln Seasoning,
▪ Chemical Seasoning
▪ Electric Seasoning
o Water Seasoning

Natural Seasoning: In the air seasoning or natural seasoning or natural drying, seasoning of
timber, timber is dried by direct action of air, wind and sun. In this method, the timber logs are
arranged one over the other, keeping some space or distance between them for air circulation of

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fresh air. Generally, this type of seasoning requires few months to over a year, this is very slow

process.

Artificial seasoning: (a) Kiln Seasoning, (b) Chemical Seasoning, (c) Electric Seasoning,

(a) Kiln Seasoning: In kiln seasoning timber is placed in a chamber with some special
heating arrangement. In this process one thing should be kept in mind that heating
system should be under control, otherwise timber will be crack or wrap . The time
required for this seasoning is 3 to 12 days. This is quick process.

(b) Chemical Seasoning: In chemical seasoning carbon dioxide, ammonium carbonate or

urea are used as agents for seasoning, those are applied in dry state, the inter surface of
timber dries first than outer side. This ensures uniform seasoning. The time required for
this seasoning is 30 to 40 days.

(c) Electric Seasoning: In this method electric current is passed through the timber logs.
The time required for this seasoning is 05 to 08 hours.

Water Seasoning: In water seasoning, timber logs are kept immersed whole in the flowing
water. The sap present in timber is washed away. After that logs are taken out from water and are
kept in open air, so water present in timber would be dried by air. The time required for this type
of seasoning is 2 to 4 weeks.

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 DEFECTS IN TIMBER

Timber Defects are of Two Types

1. Growth Defects – come from trees

2. Manufacturing Defects– come from mill

Growth Defects

Most common defects in timber include:

• Heart Shakes
• Star Shakes
• Cup Shakes
• Radial Shakes
• Rind Galls
• Wind Cracks
• Knots

Heart Shakes: These are splits occurring in the centre of the tree and running from the pith
(inner most part) towards the sap wood from the medullary (vascular tissues) rays. In some
timbers, these splits are hardly visible and in some timbers these are quite permanent. Heart
shakes are caused by shrinkage of interior parts due to age. A heart shake straight across the
trunk is not a serious defect.

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Radial Shakes: These are similar to the star shakes and occur in felled timber when exposed to
the sun during seasoning. Radial shakes are generally irregular, fine and numerous. In this many
splits are appeared.

Rind Galls: These are typical enlarged swellings and occur due to branches cut-off.

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Wind Cracks: These are shakes or splits on the sides of a bark of timber due to shrinkage of
exterior surface exposed to atmospheric influence.

Knots: These are the roots of the small branches of the tree. These are not harmful.

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Manufacturing Defects ‰

▪ Splits – caused by shrinkage stresses ‰

▪ Checks ‰ Crooking – occur due to uniform shrinkage ‰
▪ Bowing – occur due uniform shrinkage ‰
▪ Twisting – occur due uniform shrinkage ‰
▪ Cupping – occur due uniform shrinkage ‰
▪ Wane – is an irregular rounding of edges or faces that is caused by sawing pieces too
close to the perimeter of the log ‰

STRESS GRADING OF TIMBER

Timber grading is the process by which timber is sorted into groups with ideally, similar
appearance or structural properties in each group. Inevitably there is a range of properties within
a group and significant overlap in properties between the groups.

Stress grading is mainly for structural sawn timber which involves assessing the strength of
individual pieces of timber so that they can be used to optimize their potential as engineering
materials. The timber often called “Stress grade timber” is derived through sorting out ungraded
timber into groups called Stress Grades. The sorting procedure is termed Stress Grading. There
are three methods used to sort out timber into stress grades:

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 • Visual Stress Grading

• Mechanical Stress Grading

• Hybrid Systems that involve both of the above.

Visual stress-grading

The sorting of timber is based on the occurrences of strength-reducing features such as knots,
slope of grain and splits.

Mechanical stress-grading

This is based on measurements of the modulus of elasticity. This measurement is termed the
‘Grading Modulus’

NB- In concept, any method of sorting may be used, provided it will consistently produce timber
with a reliable set of structural properties.

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 DETERIORATION OF TIMBER

Types and Causes of Timber Deterioration

• Natural Defects In Timber Elements

• Fungi (Brown and White Rot)
• Insects
• Termites
• Carpenter Ants
• Powder-post Beetles
• Caddis Flies

• Marine Borers

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 • Delamination of Glulam Beams
• Fire
• Impact or Collisions
• Abrasion or Wear
• Overstress
• Weathering or Warping
• Animals

PRESERVATION OF TIMBER

It means protecting from fungi and insects attack so that its life is increased. The following are
the widely used:

• Tar
• Paints
• Chemical salt
• Creosote

Tar Treatment: Hot coal tar is applied to timber with brush. The coating of tar protects the
timber from the attack of fungi and insects. It is a cheapest way of protecting timber. Main
disadvantage Appearance is not good after tar is applied

Paints Treatment: Two to three coats of oil paints are applied on clean surface of wood. The
paint protects the timber from moisture. Paint improves the appearance of timber. The paint is to
be applied from time to time. Solignum paint is a special paint which protects timber.

Chemical salt Treatment: These are the preservatives made by dissolving salts in water. The
salts used are copper sulphate, masonry chloride, zinc chloride and sodium fluoride. After
treating the timber with these chemical salt paints and varnishes can be applied to get good
appearance.

Creosote oil treatment: Creosote oil is obtained by distillation of coal tar. The seasoned timber
is kept in an air tight chamber and air is exhausted. Then creosote oil is pumped into the chamber
at a pressure of 0.8 to 1.0 N/mm2 at a temperature of 50°C. After 1 to 2 hours timber is taken out
of the chamber.

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 WEAKNESS OF TIMBER „

Two weakness of timber:

• Combustibility
• Susceptibility to attack by decay and insects „

NB Treatment

• Fire rated timber is place in a pressure vessel and impregnated with chemical salts that
greatly reduce its flammability
• Decay and insects pressure impregnated
• Creosote is an oily derivative of coal that is widely used in engineering structures but
because of its toxicity and paint ability it is unsuitable for most purposes.
• Pentachlorophenol – cannot be painted
• Waterborne salts – greenish color to wood typically used
• Heartwood of some species of wood is naturally resistant
▪ Redwood „
▪ Bald cypress „
▪ Cedar „

TIMBER PRODUCTS

These are manmade boards which are made by gluing timber layer/plies or fibers. Timber
products are broadly classified into three:

• Laminated wood
• Structural Composite timber
• Wood panel products

Laminated wood

• small strip g s of wood glued together

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 Advantages

o Possible to have different Sizes „

o Possible to have different Shapes „
o Can control Quality

Types of joints „

o Scarf joint „
o Finger joint

Structural Composite Timber

Products that are made up of ordinary plywood veneers

• Laminated veneer timber (LVT) uses the veneers in sheets and looks like a thick sheet of
plywood with no cross bands „
• Parallel strand timber (PST) the veneers are sliced into narrow strands that are coated
with adhesive oriented longitudinally pressed into a rectangular cross section and cured
into a rectangular cross section and cured under heat and pressure.

Timber Panel Products „

• Panels require less labor for installation than boards because fewer pieces must be
handled boards because fewer pieces must be handled „
• More important use of forest resources
• Better strength characteristics in both principle directions

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Wood panel product types „

Veneered panels

• Plywood – thin wood veneers glued together grain on front and back pieces run in same
direction „ While grain in the middle pieces runs in While grain in the middle pieces runs
in opposites direction (better strength)

• Composite panels – two parallel face veneers bonded to core of wood fiber. „

Non-Veneered panels

• Oriented Strand Board (OSB): „ Made up of long strand like wood particles compressed
and glued into 3 to 5 layers
• Wafer Board: „ Large wafer like flakes of wood compressed and bonded
• Particle Board: „ Small wood particles compressed and bonded

Timber Fasteners: „

These are the weakest links in timber construction. The following are some of the common
timber fasteners:

▪ Nails
▪ sharpened metal pins
▪ Screws
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 ▪ Lag screws
▪ Machine bolts
▪ Carriage bolts
▪ Tooth plates

Timber Manufactured Building Components – General uses: „

1. Trusses – both roof and floor

- Roof trusses – use less wood than comparable frame of conventional rafters and
ceiling joists
2. Rafters
3. Plywood beams
o I beams
o Box beams : Use timber more efficiently – Made up of plywood and
dimensional timber
4. Door frames and shutters
5. Window frames
6. Piles
7. Columns
8. Poles
9. Staircases

ADHESIVES USED IN PLYWOOD

Urea Formaldehyde, sometimes known as Plastic Resin Glue, is extensively used in plywood
production. It is a synthetic resin made by combining formaldehyde and urea is generally used as
bonding agent and binder for:
▪ Particleboard
▪ Plywood sheets,
▪ Hardboard
▪ Oriented strain board.
Urea Formaldehyde sets hard, has a history of reliability, and is moisture resistant.

Others Adhesives include:

1. Melamine glue

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 This is a hard, thermosetting plastic material similar to laminate. It’s made from
melamine and formaldehyde and is typically used to strengthen urea formaldehyde glues
and increase the resistance to weathering.

2. Phenolic glue

This is a synthetic polymer made by combining phenol with formaldehyde.

It’s generally used as bonding agents and binder for particleboard, plywood sheets,
hardboard, and oriented strain board.
It’s especially useful for waterproofing, making it ideal for construction panels, beams,
and for marine plywood. It sets hard and rigid, has been proved to be effective, and is
moisture resistant. Phenolic glue also needs heat and pressure to cure.

FACTORS AFFECTING TIMBER STRENGTH

The following are the factors affecting the strength of timber:

o Moisture Content
o Density
o Wood Grain
o Defects
o Preservative treatment.

Moisture Content

Higher moisture content will reduce the strength and durability of timber. Excess moisture will
cause timber to decay.

Density

Timber with higher Density will have higher compressive strength and better durability due to
dense microstructure

Timber Defects

Any irregularities in structure of timber will reduce its strength and durability. Some common
defects are:

• Natural Defects
• Shakes
• Knots
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 • Wane etc
• Defects due to processing at the Mill
• Crook
• Twist
• Cup
• Defects due to Biological agents (insects and fungi)
➢ Insects e.g. Termites, Bettles and Pinborers
➢ Fungi- Brown rot, White rot.

TESTS CARRIED OUT ON TIMBER

Timber used as building material and as a sustainable raw material has many advantages in terms
of ecology and economic efficiency. The mechanical benefits of timber as a building material
must also be noted. The micro structure of timber ensures a low tare weight and a very high load
capacity. Based on its weight, timber can bear 14 times that of steel; its compressive strength
corresponds to that of reinforced concrete. Timber is highly tensile and elastic, making it ideal
for use as a building material in earthquake zones. It is important therefore to have the
mechanical properties of timber tested before use, especially for highly specialized construction
works. The following are common tests carried out on timber

• Tensile strength
• Flexural strength,
• Shear strength
• Compressive strength

ADVANTAGES OF TIMBER

Timber is a cost-efficient building material which has many great characteristics for outdoor structures
and products. It is often chosen due to its good lasting performance and natural appearance, depending
on timber type/grade. The following are some of the advantages of timber as a construction material:

1. In terms of Specific Strength Timber can be used for both load bearing structures and
non-load bearing instruments
2. It can be easily converted to any shape and size
3. With the advent of superior adhesives and other forms of timber connectors, it can be
combined with many other materials in construction works
4. The wastage in timber construction is less because all wastes can be put into one use of
the other.
5. It has high resale and salvage values
6. Timber has better insulating properties than any other material
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7. Durability of timber can be very high if properly seasoned and preserved
8. Timber constructions are light in weight
9. Timber is quite good for aesthetic and decorative purposes/appearance.
DISADVANTAGES OF TIMBER

• As timber is natural and cellular it moves with changes in climatic conditions. Timber
shrinks, swells, twists, cracks and bends over time under different climatic conditions.
• Most timbers are prone to pest, rot, mold and fungi attacks, some are far better than
others but they both require a minimum of treatments for outdoor structures.
• Timbers tend to silver or look old if left natural and unpainted.
• Timber maintenance can seem to be higher than other building materials.

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