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IB Economics SL Paper 1
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Economics Standard Level Paper 1

1 hour and 15 minutes

:
 1 hour and 15 minutes
Instructions to candidates

Do not turn over this examination paper until instructed to do so.

You are not permitted access to a calculator for this paper.
Answer one question.
Use fully labeled diagrams where appropriate.
The maximum mark for this examination paper is [25 marks].

1.)

a) Explain the difference between a specific tax and an ad valorem tax. Give
an example of each and discuss their impact on consumers and producers.
(10 marks)
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Taxes are an important tool used by governments to generate revenue for

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public spending, as well as to regulate economic activities. There are several
types of taxes that governments may use, including specific taxes and ad
valorem taxes.

A specific tax is a tax that is levied on a fixed amount per unit of a good or
( H T T P S : // T YC H R .CO M / W E - A R E - H I R I N G / )

service, regardless of its price. For example, if the government imposes a

specific tax of $1 per unit on cigarettes, the tax will be applied to every pack of
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cigarettes sold, regardless of the price of the pack. This means that the amount
of tax paid will be the same regardless of the price of the product.

On the other hand, an ad valorem tax is a tax that is levied as a percentage of

the value of a good or service. For example, if the government imposes an ad
valorem tax of 10% on a luxury car that costs $50,000, the tax paid will be
$5,000. The tax rate remains constant, but the amount of tax paid increases
with the price of the good or service.

The impact of specific and ad valorem taxes on consumers and producers can
:
The impact of specific and ad valorem taxes on consumers and producers can
vary. In the case of a specific tax, the burden of the tax is borne entirely by the
consumers. This is because the tax is added to the price of the product, and
the consumer is forced to pay the increased price. This leads to a decrease in

demand for the product, as consumers will look for cheaper alternatives.
Producers, on the other hand, may
FREEsee a decrease
TRIAL CLASS! in sales, but their profit
margins remain the same, as the tax is added to the price of the product.
In contrast, the burden of an ad valorem tax is shared between consumers and
producers. As the tax is a percentage of the price, the consumer pays a portion
of the tax through the increased price of the product, while the producer pays
the remainder. As the price of the product increases, demand decreases, and
producers may see a decrease in sales and profit margins.

To illustrate the impact of specific and ad valorem taxes, consider the example
of a tax on alcohol. If the government imposes a specific tax of $2 per liter on
alcohol, the price of a $10 bottle of wine will increase to $12. This will decrease
demand for the product, and producers may see a decrease in sales, but their
profit margin remains the same.

In contrast, if the government imposes an ad valorem tax of 20% on alcohol,

the tax on a $10 bottle of wine will be $2, and the price of the product will
increase to $12. This increase in price will lead to a decrease in demand for the
product, and producers may see a decrease in sales and profit margins.
In conclusion, specific and ad valorem taxes are two different types of taxes

that can have different impacts on consumers and producers. A specific tax
places the burden of the tax entirely on consumers, while an ad valorem tax is
shared between consumers and producers. The choice of tax type depends on
the government’s objectives, and policymakers must consider the potential
impact on various stakeholders before implementing a tax.

b) Using diagrams, to what extent does an indirect tax minimise negative

consumption externalities? [15 marks]
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There is an urgent need for increasing the tax on the sale of tobacco products,
such as bidis, which are considered demerit goods as they are harmful to
society. They create negative consumption externalities – costs that are
suffered by a third party. For instance, as a consequence of passive smoking,

non-smokers bear costs such as an increased risk of lung cancer. The market
overallocated resources for this demerit good, leading to market failure. Let’s
use the example of cigarettes to illustrate the impact of the indirect tax.
In Fig.1, the additional benefit incurred by the Indian consumers from
consuming an extra tobacco product, Marginal Private Benefit (MPB), is greater
than the additional benefits to society, Marginal Social Benefit (MSB). The
demand curve depicts the MSB accrued to society, and MPB, whereas the
supply curve represents the Marginal Social Cost (MSC), which includes the
existing tax.
:
For tobacco, the external cost to society is represented by the vertical distance
between MSB and MPB. The social optimum quantity is determined by the
intersection of the MSB and MSC curves. However, there is excessive production
of tobacco products as seen at Qm. Hence, the consumption of tobacco is
greater than the socially optimal quantity, leading to a welfare loss.
To minimize the production of such demerit goods to achieve the social
optimum quantity (Qopt), economists recommend a hike in the indirect tax on
tobacco products. Theoretically, this will lead to a decrease in tobacco supply
as there is an increase in production costs. This is represented in Fig.2 by an
upward shift of the supply curve from Marginal Private Cost (MPC) to S1. The
quantity produced and consumed would drop from Qm to Qopt due to the
intersection of curves S1 and MPB. As a result, the price would rise from Pm to
Pc.
:
A high price may be a disincentive for consumers to purchase tobacco
products or even initiate the usage of such, predominantly amongst the youth.
Moreover, the Indian government would generate revenue. This revenue can
not only be reinvested into crucial sectors of the economy such as healthcare
and education.
However, there are several drawbacks to this policy since the addictive nature
of tobacco products makes their demand inelastic, i.e. the market demand
does not fall drastically when there is a price increase. Thus, the actual effect of
this indirect tax likely does not completely shift the quantity of consumption
close to Qopt (Fig 2). This is demonstrated in Fig 2 where the MPC curve does
not fully overlap S1, but rather shifts to S2. It causes the price of tobacco
products to rise from Pm to Pa, whereas quantity reduces from Qm to Qa (Fig
2). Shifting the quantity from Qm to Qopt will require a very high indirect tax
which has regressive effects such as inefficiencies in correcting market failure
as firms reduce production or may even close down in the long run. Although

the recommendation of the tax amount is 75% of the retail price, the
government may not have perfect information. While this level of taxation may
be effective for lower socioeconomic classes, higher social classes may not be
as affected. However, in the long run, millions of other lives would be affected
as they depend on the trade of bidis for sustenance. Furthermore, there is a
possibility of black markets emerging as individuals may not be willing to pay
higher prices.
Instead, non-market-based policies, such as regulation, can be implemented
to correct this market failure. For instance, the government could limit the
amount of tobacco products produced or impose a ban on tobacco use in
:
amount of tobacco products produced or impose a ban on tobacco use in
public places where consumption is high. They could impose severe penalties
for consumers who violate the ban which further deters their consumption.
Importantly, this policy is not affected by the price elasticity of demand, which
is crucial in the case of tobacco products as they are highly inelastic. However,
one major drawback with regulation is that it may disrupt equity between
firms. If regulation policies are enforced upon firms who are not producers of
tobacco products, but have a small percentage of tobacco in their products,
the regulation may be unfair. Moreover, the government may incur significant
costs to enforce this policy. Threats from black markets also remain an
inevitable consequence under both policies. Overall, despite these drawbacks,
regulation would be more effective than indirect taxes due to the inelastic
nature of tobacco, lack of information and regressive effects.

2.)

a) Explain two factors which might cause economic growth. (10 marks)

Economic growth refers to an increase in the production of goods and services

in an economy over a period of time. It is a key macroeconomic objective for
governments as it is associated with rising living standards, increased
employment opportunities, and higher tax revenues. There are various factors
that can cause economic growth. In this essay, we will focus on two key factors
– technological advancements and an increase in aggregate demand.

The first factor that can cause economic growth is technological

advancements. Technological advancements refer to the creation and
application of new and improved technologies, which can lead to an increase
in productivity and efficiency. This, in turn, can lead to an increase in output
and economic growth.
For example, in the 19th century, the invention of the steam engine led to the
development of new industries such as textiles, transportation, and agriculture.
This resulted in an increase in productivity and output, which led to economic
growth. Similarly, in the 20th century, the invention of the computer and the
internet has led to the development of new industries such as software, e-
:
internet has led to the development of new industries such as software, e-
commerce, and telecommunications. This has resulted in an increase in
productivity and output, which has contributed to economic growth.

Another factor that can cause economic growth is an increase in aggregate

demand. Aggregate demand refers to the total amount of goods and services
that households, firms, and governments are willing to buy at a given price
level. An increase in aggregate demand can lead to an increase in output and
economic growth.

One way to increase aggregate demand is through fiscal policy. Fiscal policy
refers to the use of government spending and taxation to influence the level of
aggregate demand in an economy. For example, the government can increase
its spending on infrastructure projects such as roads, bridges, and airports. This
will create jobs and increase the income of households, which will lead to an
increase in consumer spending. This, in turn, will lead to an increase in output
and economic growth.

Another way to increase aggregate demand is through monetary policy.

Monetary policy refers to the use of interest rates and the money supply to
influence the level of aggregate demand in an economy. For example, the
central bank can lower interest rates, which will encourage households and
firms to borrow and spend more. This will increase consumer spending and
investment, which will lead to an increase in output and economic growth.

In conclusion, technological advancements and an increase in aggregate

demand are two key factors that can cause economic growth. Technological
advancements lead to an increase in productivity and efficiency, while an
increase in aggregate demand leads to an increase in output and consumer
spending. Governments can use a combination of fiscal and monetary policies
to stimulate economic growth by promoting technological advancements and
increasing aggregate demand.

b) Evaluate the effectiveness of the expansionary monetary policy. [15

marks]
:
marks]

Fig.3: Effect of increasing money supply on interest

rates
The Central Bank manipulates its interest rates in an attempt to bolster the
economy from a recession. A recession is a period of a decline in economic
activity, as a result of negative economic growth for two consecutive quarters.
The Central Bank enforces an expansionary monetary policy – the reduction of
interest rates – to increase the economy’s Aggregate Demand (AD). AD is the
total demand for goods and services in an economy at different price levels.

As seen in Fig.3, the reduction in interest rates from I1 to I2 does not occur on its
own, but is a response from increasing the money supply from S1 to S2. As this
supply rises, the demand for money (Dm) expands, reducing the cost of
borrowing.
:
 Fig.4: Effect of reducing interest rates
Reduced interest rates boost the components of AD such as consumption and
investment as households and firms tend to spend more and save less,
consequently increasing AD. This is represented by a rightward shift from AD1 to
AD2 in Fig.4. To meet with higher demands, markets and businesses would
expand production by increasing employment, which results in a hike in wages.
This contributes to their cost of production, directly affecting price level as
shown from PL1 to PL2.

Keynes, a British economist, argued that AD is the primary driving force in an

economy for which prices and wages are inflexible. In the Keynesian model, an
increase in AD leads to a higher real GDP. However, this only occurs while spare
capacity is prevalent, as represented by the horizontal region of the Aggregate
Supply (AS) curve. Once the spare capacity is exhausted, the firm is forced to
produce at a higher price level. Hence it is efficient to produce at the full
employment level of output (Y2), resulting in economic growth.

Firstly, the increase in AD will eventually lead to economic growth. It can then
be inferred that economic growth will give rise to multiple benefits such as
reduced poverty due to higher incomes and better education, improving
society as a whole. Stakeholders such as consumers are able to borrow and
spend with ease, hence resulting in higher living standards. Firms could benefit
from the lower interest rates by increasing their investment in R&D, which could
lead to increased efficiency and lower prices, making it prudent for the health
of the economy in the long run.

However, there are a few drawbacks. Although consumption and investment

:
However, there are a few drawbacks. Although consumption and investment
may increase, it could take several months for a distinctive change to occur as
interest rates are only a component of the various deciding factors. This policy
also disfavors lower-income groups as it not only leads to inflation as firms set
higher prices, but also reduces their ability to borrow loans as banks fear that
the consumers will not pay them back. Lastly, the Federal Reserve may lose
focus on pursuing other goals, such as exchange rate stability.

Alternatively, market-based supply-side policies could be implemented as

they increase the economy’s productive potential by improving the quality and
quantity of inputs. As market and business investments are one of the main
ways by which the economy could prevent itself from entering recessionary
territory, the appropriate policy must focus on those aspects mainly. The
government may provide an incentive to work as disposable income rises
when lowering income taxes. Whereas for the firms, a reduction in corporate
tax gives an incentive to raise productivity by increasing the quality and
quantity of capital. Furthermore, the government can increase spending on
long term assets such as education and infrastructure, thereby creating jobs
directly. As education allows the development of skills, there will be a larger
skilled labour force in the economy, whereas infrastructure reduces production
and transportation costs, increasing productivity and leading to long-run
economic growth. This helps achieve all macroeconomic objectives to a larger
extent. However, as they are very expensive to do, it involves an opportunity
cost.

To conclude, monetary policy benefits multiple stakeholders and promotes

economic growth. Nevertheless, the policy could introduce harmful impacts on
society due to time lags, unpredictability, and indirect effects. Hence, an
alternative policy of increasing government expenditure is recommended to
stimulate economic growth with greater efficiency.
:
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3.)

a) Compare and contrast the concepts of absolute and comparative

advantage in international trade.

International trade is a key driver of economic growth and development. One

of the fundamental concepts that underpin international trade is the idea of
comparative advantage and absolute advantage.

Absolute advantage refers to a situation where one country is able to produce

a certain good or service more efficiently and effectively than another country.
For example, Saudi Arabia has an absolute advantage in the production of oil
due to its abundant natural resources, whereas Japan has an absolute
advantage in the production of high-tech goods due to its advanced
technology and skilled workforce.

Comparative advantage, on the other hand, refers to a situation where one

country can produce a certain good or service at a lower opportunity cost than
another country. This means that the country can produce a good or service at
a lower cost than its trading partner, even if it is not more efficient than the
trading partner in producing that good or service. For example, if the
opportunity cost of producing wheat in the United States is lower than that of
producing wheat in Canada, the United States has a comparative advantage
in producing wheat, and Canada has a comparative advantage in producing
a different good or service, such as timber.
:
Comparative advantage is a key principle of international trade, as it allows
countries to specialize in the production of goods and services where they
have a comparative advantage, and then trade with other countries for goods
and services where they do not have a comparative advantage. This leads to
increased efficiency, lower costs, and higher economic growth for all countries
involved.

However, there are also potential limitations and criticisms of the theory of
comparative advantage. One criticism is that it assumes that all countries
have access to the same technology and resources, which may not be the
case in reality. Another criticism is that it does not take into account the
distributional effects of trade, which may lead to winners and losers within
countries.

To further elaborate, it is important to understand that absolute advantage is a

measure of productivity, while comparative advantage is a measure of
opportunity cost. Absolute advantage is a straightforward concept as it
focuses on the country that can produce a good or service with fewer
resources or at a lower cost compared to another country.

Comparative advantage is a more nuanced concept as it involves an

opportunity cost calculation. Opportunity cost is the cost of one alternative in
terms of the next best alternative. The country that has the lowest opportunity
cost of producing a good or service is said to have a comparative advantage
in producing that good or service. This means that a country can produce a
good or service at a lower cost than its trading partner, even if it is not more
efficient than the trading partner in producing that good or service.
For example, consider a hypothetical scenario where the United States can
produce 10 units of wheat or 4 units of steel per hour, while China can produce
6 units of wheat or 3 units of steel per hour. The United States has an absolute
advantage in both wheat and steel production, as it can produce more units of
both goods in an hour compared to China. However, if we consider the
opportunity cost of producing one unit of wheat or steel, we can see that the
:
United States has a comparative advantage in wheat production, while China
has a comparative advantage in steel production. The opportunity cost of
producing one unit of wheat in the United States is 2/5 units of steel, while the
opportunity cost of producing one unit of wheat in China is 1/2 units of steel.
This means that the United States gives up less steel for every unit of wheat
produced compared to China, and hence has a comparative advantage in
wheat production.

Overall, comparative advantage is a more flexible and dynamic concept

compared to absolute advantage, as it takes into account the opportunity cost
of production, which can change over time as a result of changes in
technology, resources, and trade policies. Comparative advantage allows
countries to specialize in the production of goods and services where they
have a comparative advantage, leading to increased efficiency, lower costs,
and higher economic growth for all countries involved. However, it is important
to acknowledge the potential limitations and criticisms of the theory of
comparative advantage, such as the assumption of equal access to
technology and resources, and the potential distributional effects of trade.

b) To what extent does the theory of comparative advantage explain

patterns of international trade and economic development?

The theory of comparative advantage is a fundamental concept in

international trade that explains the benefits of trade between countries.
According to the theory, countries should specialize in producing goods and
services in which they have a comparative advantage, meaning that they can
produce at a lower opportunity cost than other countries. By doing so,
countries can trade with each other and benefit from increased efficiency,
lower costs, and higher economic growth.

To what extent does the theory of comparative advantage explain patterns of

international trade and economic development? This is an important question
as it addresses the relevance and limitations of the theory in the real world. In
:
this essay, we will explore the extent to which the theory of comparative
advantage explains patterns of international trade and economic
development, using real-world examples to support our analysis.

Firstly, the theory of comparative advantage explains the patterns of

international trade in terms of specialization and gains from trade. For
example, consider the case of Mexico and the United States. Mexico has a
comparative advantage in producing goods such as fruits, vegetables, and
textiles, while the United States has a comparative advantage in producing
high-tech goods such as electronics and aerospace products. By specializing
in their respective areas of comparative advantage, Mexico and the United
States can trade with each other and benefit from increased efficiency, lower
costs, and higher economic growth.

Mexico can export its fruits, vegetables, and textiles to the United States, while
the United States can export its high-tech goods to Mexico. This trade allows
both countries to benefit from the lower costs of production and the higher
quality of goods. The theory of comparative advantage explains this pattern of
trade, as each country specializes in the production of goods in which they
have a comparative advantage.
Secondly, the theory of comparative advantage also explains patterns of
economic development. Countries that specialize in producing goods and
services in which they have a comparative advantage can benefit from
increased efficiency and higher economic growth. For example, consider the
case of South Korea and Japan. Both countries have a comparative
advantage in producing high-tech goods, such as semiconductors and
electronics. By specializing in the production of these goods, both countries
have experienced rapid economic growth and development.

South Korea has become a global leader in the production of semiconductors,

while Japan has become a leader in the production of electronics. This
specialization has allowed both countries to benefit from increased efficiency,
lower costs, and higher economic growth. The theory of comparative
:
advantage explains this pattern of economic development, as both countries
have specialized in the production of goods in which they have a comparative
advantage.

However, it is important to note that the theory of comparative advantage has

some limitations and criticisms. Firstly, the theory assumes that there are no
barriers to trade, such as tariffs and quotas, which can limit the benefits of
trade. In reality, many countries impose trade barriers that can distort patterns
of international trade and economic development.

For example, the United States has imposed tariffs on steel imports from China,
which has limited China’s ability to export its steel to the United States. This has
distorted patterns of international trade and economic development, as China
has been forced to look for other markets to export its steel, which may not be
as profitable as the United States market.

Secondly, the theory of comparative advantage assumes that all factors of

production, such as capital and labor, are mobile between industries and
countries. In reality, this may not always be the case, as some factors of
production may be immobile due to cultural or legal barriers.

For example, the United States has a comparative advantage in producing

high-tech goods, such as software and artificial intelligence. However, these
industries require highly skilled workers, which may not be readily available in
other countries. This can limit the ability of other countries to specialize in these
industries and benefit from increased efficiency and economic growth.

In conclusion, the theory of comparative advantage explains patterns of

international trade and economic development to a large extent. The theory is
based on the idea that countries should specialize in producing goods and
services in which they have a comparative advantage, meaning that they can
:
produce at a lower opportunity cost than other countries. This specialization
allows countries to trade with each other and benefit from increased efficiency,
lower costs, and higher economic growth.

Real-world examples such as Mexico and the United States, and South Korea
and Japan, demonstrate the benefits of specialization and trade. However, the
theory of comparative advantage has some limitations and criticisms,
including the assumption of no trade barriers and the assumption of mobile
factors of production.
Trade barriers and immobile factors of production can limit the benefits of
trade and distort patterns of international trade and economic development.
Nonetheless, the theory of comparative advantage remains a fundamental
concept in international trade, and its relevance and limitations should be
considered in analyzing patterns of international trade and economic
development.

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 IB Tutor in Sussex (/ib-tutor-in-sussex)

IB Tutor in Melbourne (/ib-tutor-in-melbourne)

IB Tutor in Western Australia (/ib-tutor-in-western-australia)

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