Electrical Distribution System
Component of electrical distribution system
1. Transmission lines.
2. Distribution lines.
3. Wiring System (3P3W, 3P4W)
4. Conductors
5. Transformers
Understanding the electricity bills
1. Energy units: Typical Units: Rs per kWh
2. Market Adjustment
This is used for uncontrolled costs the utility incurs, such as:
Fuel cost adjustments for generation, and
Costs for operating peak generating equipment
3. Other unplanned expenses passed on .
4. Time of Use i.e.
On-peak pricing is applied during high demand periods.
Off-peak pricing is applied in other times.
Demand Charges (MDI)
Typical Units: Rs/kW per month
Measurement of power draw, not energy use.
This charge reflects the infrastructure burden on the utility since the instantaneous
demand must be met with appropriate generation, transmission, and distribution
equipment.
Demand Charges (MDI)
MDI / Production / KWH
300000 300
283 276
261 266
250000 251 246 46976 250
228 43028 42120 52312
213
MDI
205 38844
200000 40576 197852 200
45248
184241 182142 189
176319
50284 168993
159093 Series3
150000 145277 38764 50504 150 Series2
Series1
119754
100000 103563 100
97130
50000 50
0 0
Aug-12 Sep-12 Oct-12 Nov-12 Dec-12 Jan-13 Feb-13 Mar-13 Apr-13 May-13
Load Factor
Defined as “average/maximum electric demand.”
Usually not billed directly, but customers with low load factors will end
up getting high demand charges.
Maximum demand is metered and appears on the utility bill.
Average demand is calculated:
Avg. Demand = Total kWh/total hours in this period
Demand Factor
t is defined as the ratio of the maximum coincident demand of a system, to the total connected load
of the system.
The resultant is always 1 or less and can range from 0.8 to 1 to as low as 0.15 to 0.25 for some
plants with very low diversity. The lower the demand factor, the less system capacity
required to serve the connected load. It is computed as:
Demand Factor = Maximum Demand (kW) / Total Connected Load (kW)
Power Factor
Type of Electric Loads
• Resistive Load
• Inductive Load
• Inductive load causes current lagging in voltage
• Phase difference is measured by Phase angle
What is Power Factor ?
Voltage and current in phase Current lagging voltage
P=VxI P = V x I x Cos Ø
Coffee Analogy
Power factor is the ration of coffee (W) to coffee + Foam
(VA)
As the foam increases the coffee decreases, and thus p.f. is
reduced.
Power Triangle
Power factor = Cosф = Active Power / Apparent Power
Power factor
Calculating Power Factor capacitor Bank KVAR
A facility is operating with demand of 4000 KW . The 5000 KVA
Transformer is fully loaded. How many KVAr are required to bring the
power factor to unity.
Calculating required Capacitor rating by using table
Example
A plant with demand of 600 kW is operating at 0.75 p.f. What capacitor KVAr is required to correct the
present power factor to 0.95 ?
Step 1: Determine multiplier from the table to improver the p.f. from 0.75 to 0.95 i.e. 0.553
Step 2 : capacitor KVAr = kW x multiplier from table capacitor KVAr i.e.
= 600 x 0.553 = 331.8
How to Test Capacitor Bank ?
Sample Test Report Location Volts
Amper
kW kVAr
Rated
e kVAr
237.40 18.15 0.04 4.27
Meter #01
238.15 18.05 0.12 4.23
Capacitor Bank 12.50
249.70 18.10 0.01 4.48
#01
418.71 18.10 0.17 12.98
239.90 28.50 0.12 6.78
Meter #01
235.90 28.50 0.26 6.63
Capacitor Bank 25.00
246.30 29.05 0.02 7.07
#02
416.89 28.68 0.40 20.48
236.40 34.60 0.01 8.10
Meter #01
235.40 34.70 0.20 8.15
Capacitor Bank 25.00
247.00 34.25 0.01 8.39
#03
414.99 34.52 0.22 24.64
Benefits of power factor improvement
It reduces Power demand KVA
It reduces the line losses
It eliminate the chances of penalty from utility company.
Automatic power factor controller.
Power Quality Analysis of Electrical Distribution
system
Harmonics Analysis of Electrical Distribution System
What is Harmonics?
A way of describing the distortion to voltage or current
waveform
Power Quality Analysis of Electrical Distribution
system
Harmonics Distortion
in voltage waveform
Power Quality Analysis of Electrical Distribution
system
Harmonics Distortion
in Current waveform
Power Quality Analysis of Electrical Distribution
system
Sample results of Harmonics Test
Harmonics Analysis of Electrical
Distribution System
Parameter IEEE 519
Voltage THD for LV 8%
Current THD for LV 8%
What Generates Harmonics?
1) Non-Linear Circuit (analogue)
Examples. Transformer magnetizing current, Capacitor charging current
2) Switching Circuit (digital) cause harmonics (AC/DC conversion).
Examples. Inverter, Rectifier, Thyristors, Furnace, Heater, Electronics equipment
Effect of Harmonics on Electrical Circuits
• Engineering Perspective
• Business Perspective
False Tripping of
Protection
Engineering Perspective
Capacitor bank
failure and Ageing
Voltage Harmonics
Distortion
Electronic
communication
interference
Equipment failure
losses (motors)
Harmonics
Distortion
Reduce transformer
life and fast ageing,
and energy losses
Excessive heating
losses
Current Harmonics
Distortion
Energy Losses in
motors and
distribution system
Neutral over current.
neutral heat up
Business Perspective Increased maintenance and
replacement cost (OPEX)
Interruptions and downtimes cost.
Current Harmonics Distortion
Reduced system capacity and thus
increase CAPEX by unnecessary of
expansion.
Loss of energy and Money
Mitigation of harmonics ?
1. Devices/Control System, not generating/suppressing
harmonics
I. Increasing number of pulses for rectifiers
II. Waveform Control
III. DC Reactor for Inverter
• Inverter has many switching devices which generate a lot of
harmonics. DC Reactor should be installed for suppressing harmonics
from the Inverter. AC reactor on inverter primary side also suppress
harmonics to power system, but DC reactor is more effective.
Mitigation of harmonics ?
2. Devices protecting equipment/system from harmonics
I. Series reactor
• Series Reactor for Power factor Improvement Capacitor is effective.
• In Pakistan Static Capacitors (SC) are well installed near power receiving
• point for avoiding fine/penalty from power company.
• But Series Reactors (SRX) are not installed in almost factories.
• So Static Capacitors (SC) are suffered from harmonics.
• Series Reactors (SRX) should be installed for protection of
capacitors and preventing harmonics to flow out from
capacitors.
Mitigation of harmonics ?
2. Devices protecting equipment/system from harmonics
cont.…
II. Active filter
It eliminates / reduces harmonics by providing negative
phase harmonics (compensation).
It is very effective but expensive.
Current Unbalance
800
750
700
650
600
Amp
550
500
450
400
350
300
Current L1 Max Current L2 Max Current L3 Max
Current Unbalance
Current unbalance may be caused by the following
Large and/or unequal distribution of single-phase load .
Phase to phase loads – This occurs with some equipment that simply requires single phase,
but at line-to-line voltage (e.g., a 415 volt welder).
Unbalanced three phase loads – Some three phase loads are comprised of both single and
three-phase equipment.
Important
current unbalance is the primary cause of voltage unbalance.
• Voltage unbalance degrades the performance and shortens the life of a three-phase
motor.
• Voltage unbalance at the motor terminals can cause current unbalance .
• Unbalanced currents lead to increased vibrations
• Mechanical stresses,
• Increased losses
Voltage Unbalance
Results in
• lower efficiency,
• Motor overheating, which reduces winding insulation life
Voltage Unbalance
420
418
416
414
412
410
408
Vrms ph-ph L12 Avg Vrms ph-ph L23 Avg Vrms ph-ph L31 Avg
Voltage Unbalance
• It degrades the performance and shortens the life of a three-phase motor.
• This unbalance at the motor terminals can cause current unbalance .
• Unbalanced currents lead to increased vibrations.
• Mechanical stresses.
• Increased losses
Voltage Unbalance
Results in
• lower efficiency,
• Motor overheating, which reduces winding insulation life
How to calculate % voltage imbalance
% voltage imbalance = Maximum deviation from the average ÷ average ×
100
example
If your voltage readings were , 224, 221, 215 Volts
First thing we calculate the avg. voltage that is 220 V
The difference between 221 and 220 is 1 volt. The difference between 224 and
220 is 4 volts. The difference between 215 and 220 is 5 volts.
So the maximum deviation in this example is 5 volts. Now we use the equation:
% voltage imbalance = 5 V ÷ 220 V = .0227 × 100 = 2.27%
Common causes of voltage unbalance include:
Faulty operation of power factor correction equipment
Unbalanced or unstable utility supply.
Unevenly distributed single-phase loads on the same power system
Faulty operation of Step Down transformers.
It is recommended that voltage unbalances at the motor terminals do not
exceed 1%.
Consequences of voltage Unbalance
Housekeeping
Issues of Electrical
distribution
system
Housekeeping Issues of Electrical distribution system
Housekeeping
Issues of Electrical
distribution
system
Housekeeping Issues of
Electrical distribution system
Typical energy Losses across
the electrical distribution
system
