Asst. Lec.
Ruaa Ali Electronics Devices & Circuits 2nd Class
Chapter Two
Semiconductor Diodes
2.1 Introduction to semiconductor
A semiconductor material is one whose electrical properties lie
in between those of insulators and good conductors. For
examples germanium and silicon.
In term of energy bands, semiconductors can be defined as those
materials which at room temperature have:
- Partially-filled conduction band.
- Partially-filled valance band.
- A very narrow energy gap (of order of 1ev) between them.
2.2 Energy Levels:
In the isolated atomic structure there are discrete (individual)
energy levels associated with each orbiting electron, as shown in
Fig. 1.8a. Each material will, in fact, have its own set of
permissible energy levels for the electrons in its atomic
structure. The more distant the electron from the nucleus, the
higher the energy state, and any electron that has left its parent
atom has a higher energy state than any electron in the atomic
structure.
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Asst. Lec. Ruaa Ali Electronics Devices & Circuits 2nd Class
Fig. (1): Energy levels: (a) discrete levels in isolated atomic
structures; (b) conduction and valence bands of an insulator,
semiconductor, and conductor.
Between the discrete energy levels are gaps in which no
electrons in the isolated atomic structure can appear.
That ionization is the mechanism whereby an electron can
absorb sufficient energy to break away from the atomic structure
and enter the conduction band. The energy associated with each
electron is measured in electron volts (ev).
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Asst. Lec. Ruaa Ali Electronics Devices & Circuits 2nd Class
The unit of measure is appropriate, since
W= QV ev ---------- (2.1)
as derived from the defining equation for voltage V = W/Q. The
charge Q is the charge associated with a single electron.
Substituting the charge of an electron and a potential difference
of 1 volt into Eq. (1.1)will result in an energy level referred to as
one electron volt. Since energy is also measured in joules and
the charge of one electron = 1.6x10-19 coulomb.
W = QV = (1.6x10-19 C) (1V)
1ev = 1.6x10-19 J ---------- (2.2)
2.3 Types of semiconductors:
Semiconductors may be classified as under:
a- Intrinsic (pure semiconductor).
b- Extrinsic (impure semiconductor).
- N- type
- P- type
a- Intrinsic semiconductor
An intrinsic semiconductor is one which made of the
semiconductor material in its extremely pure form. Examples:
pure germanium and silicon which have forbidden energy gaps
of 0.7 ev and 1.1 ev respectively. Energy gap is so small that
even at ordinary room temperature; there are many electrons
which possess sufficient energy to jump across the small energy
gap from the valance to conduction band.
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Asst. Lec. Ruaa Ali Electronics Devices & Circuits 2nd Class
Alternatively, an intrinsic semiconductor may be defined as one
in which the number of conduction electrons is equal to the
number of holes.
Schematic energy band diagram of an intrinsic semiconductor at
room temperature is shown in Fig. (2).
Fig. (2): energy band
b- Extrinsic semiconductors
Those intrinsic semiconductors to which some suitable impurity
or doping agent has been added in extremely small amount
(about 1 part 108) are called extrinsic or impurity
semiconductors.
- Donor or Accepter –
Depending on the type of doping material used, extrinsic
semiconductors can be further subdivided into two classes:
(i) N- type
(ii) P- type
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Asst. Lec. Ruaa Ali Electronics Devices & Circuits 2nd Class
(i)- N- type extrinsic semiconductor
This type of semiconductor is obtained when pentavalent
material like antimony (Sb) is added to pure germanium crystal
as shown in Fig. (3), each antimony atoms forms covalent bonds
with the surrounding four germanium atoms with the help of
four of its five electrons. The fifth electron is superfluous and is
loosely bound to the antimony atom.
Hence, it can be easily excited from the valance band to the
conduction band by the application of electric field or increase
in the its thermal energy.
The concentration of electrons in the conduction band is
increased and exceeds the concentration of holes in the valance
band. It is seen from the above description that in an N- type
semiconductor, electrons are the majority carriers while holes
constitute the minority carriers.
Fig. (3): Antimony impurity in n-type material
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Asst. Lec. Ruaa Ali Electronics Devices & Circuits 2nd Class
(ii) P- type extrinsic semiconductor
This type of semiconductor is obtained when traces of trivalent
impurity like boron (B) is added to pure germanium crystal. In
this case, the three valance electrons of boron atom form
covalent bonds with four surrounding germanium atoms but one
bond is left incomplete and gives rise to a hole as shown in Fig.
(2).
Thus boron which is called an accepter impurity, causes as
many positive holes in a germanium crystal as there are boron
atoms thereby producing a P- type (P for positive) extrinsic
semiconductor.
Since concentration of holes in the valance band is more than
the concentration of electrons in the conduction band.
Fig. (4): Boron impurity in p-type material.
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Asst. Lec. Ruaa Ali Electronics Devices & Circuits 2nd Class
2.4 Majority and Minority Carriers
In the intrinsic state, the number of free electrons in Ge or Si is
due only to those few electrons in the valence band that have
acquired sufficient energy from thermal or light sources to break
the covalent bond or to the few impurities that could not be
removed. The vacancies left behind in the covalent bonding
structure represent our very limited supply of holes. In an n-type
material, the number of holes has not changed significantly from
this intrinsic level. The net result, therefore, is that the number
of electrons far outweighs the number of holes. For this reason:
In an n-type material Fig. (5a) the electron is called the
majority carrier and the hole the minority carrier.
For the p-type material the number of of holes far outweighs the
number of electrons, as shown in Fig. (5b). Therefore:
In a p-type material the hole is the majority carrier and the
electron is the minority carrier.
When the fifth electron of a donor atom leaves the parent atom,
the atom remaining acquires a net positive charge: hence the
positive sign in the donor-ion representation.
For similar reasons, the negative sign appears in the acceptor
ion.The n- and p-type materials represent the basic building
blocks of semiconductor devices. We will find in the next
section that the “joining” of a single n-type material with a p-
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Asst. Lec. Ruaa Ali Electronics Devices & Circuits 2nd Class
type material will result in a semiconductor element of
considerable importance in electronic systems.
Fig. (5): (a) n-type material, (b) p-type material.
2.5 The pn Junction
Equilibrium conditions:
1. A pn junction is fabricated from a single slice of
semiconductor.
One side doped p- type.
One side doped n- type.
2. In trying to neutralize charges.
free electrons in n- type diffuse across junction to p-type.
free holes in p-type diffuse to n-type.
electrons & holes close to junction recombine.
3. A depletion region (free of mobile charge carries) develops
on either side of junction
fixed negative ions on p-side.
fixed positive ions on n-side.
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Asst. Lec. Ruaa Ali Electronics Devices & Circuits 2nd Class
These residual charges prevent further diffusion so that
recombination between holes and electrons it inhibited.
4. A potential difference develops across the junction
equilibrium potential Vo.
depletion region has high resistivity.
Because there are no mobile charge carriers.
5. The behavior of the pn-junction may altered on application of
an external voltage across its end, the potential may be applied
in either
A forward potential difference.
A reverse potential difference.
2.5a Forward potential difference
1- If the pn junction is subjected to a forward external potential
difference applied across it
the p region made positive with respect to n- region.
forward potential of V applied
the equilibrium condition is disturbed.
2- Depletion region is very resistive compared to rest of material
any external potential dropped almost entirely across
depletion region.
the junction potential reduces to Vo-V
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Asst. Lec. Ruaa Ali Electronics Devices & Circuits 2nd Class
the width of the depletion region is also reduced
the electrons in n-type can fall down the potential barrier
to p- type.
the holes in p-type likewise fall down to the n- type
there is a net flow of current from p to n- types.
Fig (6): A pn junction under forward potential conditions
2.5b Reversed potential difference
1- The p-type is made negative with respect to the n-type.
2- The external voltage adds to the internal voltage
the potential barrier is increased
the width of the depletion region increases
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Asst. Lec. Ruaa Ali Electronics Devices & Circuits 2nd Class
thus majority carriers are repelled further from junction
electrons in n- type and holes in p- type.
3- The only current present is that due to a few thermally
generated minority carriers on each side of junction
holes in n-type, electrons in p-type.
produces a reverse leakage current from n to p.
Fig. (7): A pn junction under reverse Potential conditions
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