MANAGE ENVIRONMENT

Water Supply Engineering is a branch of Civil Engineering that deals with the
Development of Sources of Supply, Distribution, and Treatment of water.

Water Supply Engineering helps us to supply clean water to particular cities/towns (i.e.,
homes).

The community, society, and industry need water for different uses. Water demand is
the accurate estimation of total water. The unit of Water demand is LPCD (liters per
person per day). While planning the water supply scheme for an area, it is essential to
determine the total water required for a different purpose.

Types of Water Demands

 Domestic Water Demand.
 Industrial Water Demand.
 Institutional and Commercial Water Demand.
 Demand for Public.
 Fire Demand.
 Waste and Theft.

Per capita demand. Total consumption of water for a water supply system in a year
divided by the population and the number of days in the year is called per capita
demand.

Per capita demand or annual average daily demand is calculated as (Total yearly
demand in litres/(365 * Design Population)).

Factors Affecting Water Demand

a. Size of town or city

Water demand increases with an increase in the size of the town or city.

An extra amount of water is required for street cleaning, gardening, flushing, etc. This
increases the water demand.
b. Living Standard

The consumption of rate of water directly depends upon the economic status of the
consumer.

Upper-class(Rich) consumers use more water than lower-class ( Poor) consumers.

c. Climatic Condition

Water demand is more in hot weather than in cold.

During hot weather; the loss of water from the human body is more in the form of sweat
which makes people more thirsty and requires more water for balancing the body. So
water consumption increases causing an increase in water demand.

d. Industrial And Commercial Activities

Industrial and commercial activities increase the rate of water demand.

e. Quality of Water

As the quality of water increases, the rate of consumption and use of water by the
consumer also increases.

Simply, good quality water leads to an increase in demand for water. If the quality of
water is bad then it leads to a decrease in water demand of water.

f. System of Water Supply

Water may be supplied intermittently (i.e. for a limited time during certain fixed hours of
the day) or continuously for all 24 hours of the day.

The rate of water demand is low in the intermittent system of water supply.
Forecasting Population

Population forecasting is a method to predict/forecast the future population of an area.

Usually, the population at the design period of water supply systems is predicted to find
the water demand at that time, as the systems are required to fulfill their purposes till
the end of the design period.

The following are the standard methods by which the forecasting of population is
done: 1. Arithmetical Increase Method. 2. Geometrical Increase Method. 3.
Incremental Increase Method 4. Decreasing Rate Method 5. Simple Graphical
Method 6. Comparative Graphical Method 7. Master Plan Method 8. The Logistic
Curve Method 9. The Apportionment Method.

1. Arithmetical Increase Method:

This method is based on the assumption that the population is increasing at a

constant rate. The rate of change of population with time is constant.

2. Geometrical Increase Method:

This method is based on the assumption that the percentage increase in population
from decade to decade remains constant. In this method the average percentage of
growth of last few decades is determined; the population forecasting is done on the
basis that percentage increase per decade will be the same.

3. Incremental Increase Method:

This method is improvement over the above two methods. The average increase in
the population is determined by the arithmetical method and to this is added the
average of the net incremental increase once for each future decade.

4. Decrease Rate of Growth Method or Decreasing Rate Method:

It has been seen that all life grows within limited space. If the complete growth of a
very old city is plotted, it will be seen that the curve has S-shape, which indicates
that early growth takes place at an increasing rate, latter growth is at a decreasing
rate which indicates that saturation limit is reached.

In this method, the average decrease in the percentage increase is worked out and
is then subtracted from the latest percentage increase for each successive decade.
5. Simple Graphical Method:

In this method the populations of last few decades are correctly plotted to a suitable
scale on the graph with respect to decade. The curve is smoothly extended to
forecast the future population. The graph of present city is plotted from the
beginning and it will show the growth curve

6. Comparative Graphical Method:

In this method, the cities having conditions and characteristics similar to the city
whose future population is to be estimated are first of all selected. It is then
assumed that the city under consideration will develop as the selected similar cities
have developed in the past. This method has a logical background, and if statistics
of development of similar cities are available quite precise and reliable results can
be obtained.

Consider Fig. 5.2. Let the population of a city A be given for 4 decades (say 1940,
1950, 1960 and 1970) the population time curve is then plotted.

Now, Suppose it is required to estimate the population of the city A at the end of
year 2010. And let the available data show that this city A has reached the present
population of 42500 in the year 1970. Then the available data of similar cities Band
C is analyzed. Let it be found that city B has reached 42500 in the year 1940 then
its curve is plotted beyond the year 1940 onward.

However, this curve for city B should start from point P which represents the present
population of city A. Similarly, the population of city C is plotted from the year it has
reached 42500 onwards. Now the curve for city A is carefully extended between the
curves of cities B and C

7. The Master Plan Method or Zoning Method:

The development of towns and cities is not allowed in haphazard way. For the
development of the towns and cities, their master plans are prepared. The city is
divided into various zones such as commercial centres, industrial areas, residential
areas, the schools, colleges, parks etc. The future expansion of the cities is strictly
regulated by various bylaws of corporations and other local bodies, according to the
master plan.

The master plans are prepared for the development of the cities for 25-30 years.
The population densities for various zones of the towns to be developed are also
fixed. Now when the population of a particular zone is fixed, it is very easy to design
the water supply schemes for the particular zones. The future development of the
water works is also designed on the basis of the master plan.
9. The Apportionment Method:

This is also known as the ratio method of forecasting future population. In this
method the census population record is expressed as the percentage of the
population of the whole country. The population of the city under consideration and
the country’s population for the last four to five decades are collected from the
census department.

The ratio of the town under consideration to the national population is calculated for
these decades. Now a graph is plotted between these ratios and the time. The
extension of this graph will give the ratio corresponding to the future years for which
the forecasting of population is to be done.

The ratio so obtained is multiplied by the expected national population at the end of
the designed period, for determining the expected national population of the town
under reference.

This method is suitable for those towns and cities whose development is likely to
take place according to the national growth.

SOURCES OF WATER

Here are the main five water sources:

 Municipal.
 Ground water (well)
 Surface water. Lake. River. Stream (creek) Shallow well.
 Rainwater.
 Seawater.

Factors affecting water availability

 Climate. Low levels of rainfall and high temperatures lead to water deficits . ...
 Geology. Rainfall flows down to the rocks beneath the ground. ...
 Pollution. ...
 Over-abstraction. ...
 Limited infrastructures. ...
 Poverty. ...
 Politics. ...
 Impacts on water insecurity.
Water treatment

Water treatment is the process of removing all those substances, whether biological, chemical, or
physical, that are potentially harmful to the water supply for human and domestic use. This treatment
helps to produce water that is safe, palatable, clear, colorless, and odorless. Water also needs to be non-
corrosive, meaning it will not cause damage to pipe

1. Screening
To protect the main units of a treatment plant and aid in their efficient operation, it is
necessary to use screens to remove any large floating and suspended solids present in
the inflow. These materials include leaves, twigs, paper, rags, and other debris that
could obstruct flow through the plant or damage equipment.

There are coarse and fine screens.

1. Coarse screens are made of corrosion-resistant steel bars spaced 5–15 cm

apart, which are used to exclude coarse materials (such as logs and fish) from
entering the treatment plant. The screens are positioned at an angle of 60º to
facilitate removing the collected material by mechanical raking.
2. Fine screens, which come after the coarse screens, keep out material that can
block pipework at the plant. They consist of steel bars that are spaced 5–20 mm
 apart. A variation of the fine screen is the micro strainer, consisting of a rotating
drum of stainless steel mesh with a very small mesh size (ranging from 15 µm to
64 µm, i.e., 15–64 millionths of a meter). Suspended matter as small as algae
and plankton (microscopic organisms that float with the current in water) can be
trapped. The trapped solids are dislodged from the fabric by high-pressure water
jets using clean water and carried away for disposal.

2. Aeration

After screening, the water is aerated (supplied with air) by passing it over a series of
steps to take in oxygen from the air. This process helps in expelling soluble gases such
as carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide (both of which are acidic, so this process makes
the water less corrosive) and expels any gaseous organic compounds an undesirable
taste to the water. Aeration also removes iron or manganese by oxidation of these
substances to their insoluble form. Iron and manganese can cause peculiar tastes and
can stain clothing. Once in their insoluble forms, these substances can be removed by
filtration.

In certain instances, excess algae in the raw water can result in algal growth blocking
the sand filter further down the treatment process. In such situations, chlorination is
used in place of, or in addition to, aeration to kill the algae, termed pre-chlorination. This
process of water treatment comes before the main stages in the treatment of the water.
The pre-chlorination also oxidizes taste- and odor-causing compounds.

3. Coagulation and Flocculation

After aeration, coagulation occurs to remove the fine particles (less than 1 µm in size)
suspended in the water. In this process, a chemical called a coagulant (with a positive
electrical charge) is added to the water, which neutralizes the fine particles' negative
electrical charge. The coagulant's addition takes place in a rapid mix tank where a high-
speed impeller rapidly disperses the coagulant.

Since their charges are now neutralized, the fine particles come together, forming soft,
fluffy particles called 'flocs.' Two coagulants commonly used in the treatment of water
are aluminum sulfate and ferric chloride.
The next step is flocculation. Here the water is gently stirred by paddles in a flocculation
basin, and the flocs come into contact with each other to form larger flocs.

The flocculation basin often has a number of compartments with decreasing mixing speeds as the
water advances through the basin. This compartmentalized chamber allows increasingly large
flocs to form without being broken apart by the mixing blades.

4. Sedimentation
Once large flocs are formed, they need to be settled out, and this takes place in a
process called sedimentation (when the particles fall to the floor of a settling tank). The
water (after coagulation and flocculation) is kept in the tank for several hours for
sedimentation to take place. The material accumulated at the bottom of the tank is
called sludge; this is removed for disposal.

5. Filtration
Filtration is the process where solids are separated from a liquid. In water treatment, the
solids that are not separated in the sedimentation tank are removed by passing the
water through sand and gravel beds. With a flow rate of 4–8 cubic meters per square
meter of filter surface per hour, rapid gravity filters are often used.

When the filters are full of trapped solids, they are back-washed. In this process, clean
water and air are pumped back up the filter to dislodge the trapped impurities, and the
water carrying the dirt (referred to as backwash) is pumped into the sewerage system if
there is one. Alternatively, it may be discharged back into the source river after a
settlement stage in a sedimentation tank to remove solids.
6. Chlorination
After sedimentation, the water is disinfected to eliminate any remaining pathogenic
micro-organisms. The most commonly used disinfectant (the chemical used for
disinfection) is chlorine, a liquid (such as sodium hypochlorite, NaOCl), or a gas. It is
relatively cheap and simple to use. When chlorine is added to water, it reacts with any
pollutants present, including micro-organisms, over a given period of time, referred to as
the contact time. The amount of chlorine left after this is called residual chlorine. This
stays in the water through the distribution system, protecting it from any micro-
organisms that might enter it until the water reaches the consumers.

World Health Organization Guidelines (WHO, 2003) suggest a maximum residual

chlorine of 5 mg l–1 of water. The minimum residual chlorine level should be 0.5 mg l–1
of water after 30 minutes of contact time (WHO, n.d.). There are other ways of
disinfecting water (e.g., using the gas ozone or ultraviolet radiation). Still, these do not
protect it from microbial contamination after it has left the water treatment plant.
Following disinfection, the treated water is pumped into the distribution system.

7. Supplementary Treatment
Supplementary treatment may be needed for the benefit of the population. One such
instance is the fluoridation of water, where fluoride is added to water. It has been stated
by the World Health Organization that ‘fluoridation of water supplies, where possible, is
the most effective public health measure for the prevention of dental decay. The
optimum fluoride level is around 1 mg per liter of water (1 mg l–1).

water quality parameters

The physical parameters include color, taste, odor, temperature, turbidity, solids, and
electrical conductivity. On the other hand, chemical parameters can include pH, acidity,
alkalinity, chlorine, hardness, dissolved oxygen, and biological oxygen demand.

Classification of water
Based on its source, water can be divided into ground water and surface water. Both
types of water can be exposed to contamination risks from agricultural, industrial, and
domestic activities, which may include many types of pollutants such as heavy metals,
pesticides, fertilizers, hazardous chemicals, and oils

Water quality can be classified into four types—potable water, palatable water,
contaminated (polluted) water, and infected water. The most common scientific
definitions of these types of water quality are as follows:

1. Potable water: It is safe to drink, pleasant to taste, and usable for domestic
purposes,
 2. Palatable water: It is esthetically pleasing; it considers the presence of chemicals
that do not cause a threat to human health.
3. Contaminated (polluted) water: It is that water containing unwanted physical,
chemical, biological, or radiological substances, and it is unfit for drinking or
domestic use.
4. Infected water: It is contaminated with pathogenic organism.

Physical parameters of water quality

Turbidity

Turbidity is the cloudiness of water. It is a measure of the ability of light to pass through
water. It is caused by suspended material such as clay, silt, organic material, plankton,
and other particulate materials in water.

Turbidity in drinking water is esthetically unacceptable, which makes the water look
unappetizing. The impact of turbidity can be summarized in the following points:

1. It can increase the cost of water treatment for various uses.

2. The particulates can provide hiding places for harmful microorganisms and
thereby shield them from the disinfection process.
3. Suspended materials can clog or damage fish gills, decreasing its resistance to
diseases, reducing its growth rates, affecting egg and larval maturing, and
affecting the efficiency of fish catching method.
4. Suspended particles provide adsorption media for heavy metals such as
mercury, chromium, lead, cadmium, and many hazardous organic pollutants
such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
(PAHs), and many pesticides.
5. The amount of available food is reduced because higher turbidity raises water
temperatures in light of the fact that suspended particles absorb more sun heat.
Consequently, the concentration of the dissolved oxygen (DO) can be decreased
since warm water carries less dissolved oxygen than cold water.

Turbidity is measured by an instrument called nephelometric turbidimeter, which

expresses turbidity in terms of NTU or TU. A TU is equivalent to 1 mg/L of silica in
suspension.

Turbidity more than 5 NTU can be visible to the average person while turbidity in muddy
water, it exceeds 100 NTU . Groundwater normally has very low turbidity because of the
natural filtration that occurs as the water penetrates through the soil.

3.1.2 Temperature

Palatability, viscosity, solubility, odors, and chemical reactions are influenced by

temperature. Thereby, the sedimentation and chlorination processes and biological
oxygen demand (BOD) are temperature dependent. It also affects the biosorption
process of the dissolved heavy metals in water .Most people find water at temperatures
of 10–15°C most palatable.

Color

Materials decayed from organic matter, namely, vegetation and inorganic matter such
as soil, stones, and rocks impart color to water, which is objectionable for esthetic
reasons, not for health reasons.

Color is measured by comparing the water sample with standard color solutions or
colored glass disks. One color unit is equivalent to the color produced by a 1 mg/L
solution of platinum (potassium chloroplatinate (K2PtCl6)).

The color of a water sample can be reported as follows:

 Apparent color is the entire water sample color and consists of both dissolved
and suspended components color.
 True color is measured after filtering the water sample to remove all suspended
material.

Color is graded on scale of 0 (clear) to 70 color units. Pure water is colorless, which is
equivalent to 0 color units.

Taste and odor

Taste and odor in water can be caused by foreign matter such as organic materials,
inorganic compounds, or dissolved gasses. These materials may come from natural,
domestic, or agricultural sources.

The numerical value of odor or taste is determined quantitatively by measuring a

volume of sample A and diluting it with a volume of sample B of an odor-free distilled
water so that the odor of the resulting mixture is just detectable at a total mixture volume
of 200 ml.

Solids

Solids occur in water either in solution or in suspension. These two types of solids can
be identified by using a glass fiber filter that the water sample passes through. By
definition, the suspended solids are retained on the top of the filter and the dissolved
solids pass through the filter with the water.

If the filtered portion of the water sample is placed in a small dish and then evaporated,
the solids as a residue. This material is usually called total dissolved solids or TDS.
Total solid(TS)=Total dissolved solid(TDS)+Total suspended solid(TSS)
E2

Water can be classified by the amount of TDS per liter as follows:

 freshwater: <1500 mg/L TDS;

 brackish water: 1500–5000 mg/L TDS;
 saline water: >5000 mg/L TDS.

The residue of TSS and TDS after heating to dryness for a defined period of time and at
a specific temperature is defined as fixed solids. Volatile solids are those solids lost on
ignition (heating to 550°C).

These measures are helpful to the operators of the wastewater treatment plant because
they roughly approximate the amount of organic matter existing in the total solids of
wastewater, activated sludge, and industrial wastes describes the interrelationship of
solids found in water.They are calculated as follows:

pH

pH is one of the most important parameters of water quality. It is defined as the negative
logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration. It is a dimensionless number indicating the
strength of an acidic or a basic solution. Actually, pH of water is a measure of how
acidic/basic water is. Acidic water contains extra hydrogen ions (H+) and basic water
contains extra hydroxyl (OH−) ions.

Acidity

Acidity is the measure of acids in a solution. The acidity of water is its quantitative
capacity to neutralize a strong base to a selected pH level. Acidity in water is usually
due to carbon dioxide, mineral acids, and hydrolyzed salts such as ferric and aluminum
sulfates. Acids can influence many processes such as corrosion, chemical reactions
and biological activities.

Carbon dioxide from the atmosphere or from the respiration of aquatic organisms
causes acidity when dissolved in water by forming carbonic acid (H2CO3). The level of
acidity is determined by titration with standard sodium hydroxide (0.02 N) using
phenolphthalein as an indicator.

Alkalinity

The alkalinity of water is its acid-neutralizing capacity comprised of the total of all
titratable bases. The measurement of alkalinity of water is necessary to determine the
amount of lime and soda needed for water softening (e.g., for corrosion control in
conditioning the boiler feed water). Alkalinity of water is mainly caused by the presence
of hydroxide ions (OH−), bicarbonate ions (HCO3−), and carbonate ions (CO32−), or a
mixture of two of these ions in water. As stated in the following equation, the possibility
of OH− and HCO3− ions together are not possible because they react together to
produce CO32− ions:

OH−+HCO3−→CO32−+H2O

Chloride

Chloride occurs naturally in groundwater, streams, and lakes, but the presence of
relatively high chloride concentration in freshwater (about 250 mg/L or more) may
indicate wastewater pollution. Chlorides may enter surface water from several sources
including chloride-containing rock, agricultural runoff, and wastewater.

Chloride ions Cl− in drinking water do not cause any harmful effects on public health, but
high concentrations can cause an unpleasant salty taste for most people. Chlorides are
not usually harmful to people; however, the sodium part of table salt has been
connected to kidney and heart diseases . Small amounts of chlorides are essential for
ordinary cell functions in animal and plant life.

Chlorine residual

Chlorine (Cl2) does not occur naturally in water but is added to water and wastewater for
disinfection. While chlorine itself is a toxic gas, in dilute aqueous solution, it is not
harmful to human health. In drinking water, a residual of about 0.2 mg/L is optimal. The
residual concentration which is maintained in the water distribution system ensures
good sanitary quality of water.

Sulfate

Sulfate ions (SO42−) occur in natural water and in wastewater. The high concentration of
sulfate in natural water is usually caused by leaching of natural deposits of sodium
sulfate (Glauber’s salt) or magnesium sulfate (Epson salt). If high concentrations are
consumed in drinking water, there may be objectionable tastes or unwanted laxative
effects, but there is no significant danger to public health.

Nitrogen

There are four forms of nitrogen in water and wastewater: organic nitrogen, ammonia
nitrogen, nitrite nitrogen, and nitrate nitrogen. If water is contaminated with sewage,
most of the nitrogen is in the forms of organic and ammonia, which are transformed by
microbes to form nitrites and nitrates. Nitrogen in the nitrate form is a basic nutrient to
the growth of plants and can be a growth-limiting nutrient factor.
A high concentration of nitrate in surface water can stimulate the rapid growth of the
algae which degrades the water quality . Nitrates can enter the groundwater from
chemical fertilizers used in the agricultural areas. Excessive nitrate concentration (more
than 10 mg/L) in drinking water causes an immediate and severe health threat to
infants. The nitrate ions react with blood hemoglobin, thereby reducing the blood’s
ability to hold oxygen which leads to a disease called blue baby or methemoglobinemia
.

Fluoride

A moderate amount of fluoride ions (F−) in drinking water contributes to good dental
health. About 1.0 mg/L is effective in preventing tooth decay, particularly in children.

Excessive amounts of fluoride cause discolored teeth, a condition known as dental

fluorosis. The maximum allowable levels of fluoride in public water supplies depend on
local climate. In the warmer regions of the country, the maximum allowable
concentration of fluoride for potable water is 1.4 mg/L; in colder climates, up to 2.4 mg/L
is allowed.

Iron and manganese

Although iron (Fe) and manganese (Mn) do not cause health problems, they impart a
noticeable bitter taste to drinking water even at very low concentration.

These metals usually occur in groundwater in solution as ferrous (Fe2+) and manganous
(Mn2+) ions. When these ions are exposed to air, they form the insoluble ferric (Fe3+)
and manganic (Mn3+) forms making the water turbid and unacceptable to most people.

Copper and zinc

Copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn) are nontoxic if found in small concentrations. Actually, they
are both essential and beneficial for human health and growth of plants and animals.
They can cause undesirable tastes in drinking water. At high concentrations, zinc
imparts a milky appearance to the water. They are measured by the same methods
used for iron and manganese measurements.

Hardness

Hardness is a term used to express the properties of highly mineralized waters. The
dissolved minerals in water cause problems such as scale deposits in hot water pipes
and difficulty in producing lather with soap.

 Temporary hardness which is due to carbonates and bicarbonates can be

removed by boiling, and
 Permanent hardness which is remaining after boiling is caused mainly by sulfates
and chlorides
  Dissolved oxygen
 Dissolved oxygen (DO) is considered to be one of the most important parameters
of water quality in streams, rivers, and lakes. It is a key test of water pollution.
The higher the concentration of dissolved oxygen, the better the water quality.
 Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)
 Bacteria and other microorganisms use organic substances for food. As they
metabolize organic material, they consume oxygen. The organics are broken
down into simpler compounds, such as CO2 and H2O, and the microbes use the
energy released for growth and reproduction .
 When this process occurs in water, the oxygen consumed is the DO in the water.
If oxygen is not continuously replaced by natural or artificial means in the water,
the DO concentration will reduce as the microbes decompose the organic
materials. This need for oxygen is called the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD).
The more organic material there is in the water, the higher the BOD used by the
microbes will be. BOD is used as a measure of the power of sewage; strong
sewage has a high BOD and weak sewage has low BOD.
 The complete decomposition of organic material by microorganisms takes time,
usually 20 d or more under ordinary circumstances. The quantity of oxygen used
in a specified volume of water to fully decompose or stabilize all biodegradable
organic substances is called the ultimate BOD or BODL.
 BOD is a function of time. At time = 0, no oxygen will have been consumed and
the BOD = 0. As each day goes by, oxygen is used by the microbes and the BOD
increases. Ultimately, the BODL is reached and the organic materials are
completely decompose

Chemical oxygen demand (COD)

The chemical oxygen demand (COD) is a parameter that measures all organics: the
biodegradable and the non-biodegradable substances. It is a chemical test using strong
oxidizing chemicals (potassium dichromate), sulfuric acid, and heat, and the result can
be available in just 2 h. COD values are always higher than BOD values for the same
sample.

Biological parameters of water quality

One of the most helpful indicators of water quality may be the presence or lack of living
organisms. Biologists can survey fish and insect life of natural waters and assess the
water quality on the basis of a computed species diversity index (SDI) ; hence, a water
body with a large number of well-balanced species is regarded as a healthy system.
Some organisms can be used as an indication for the existence of pollutants based on
their known tolerance for a specified pollutant.

Microorganisms exist everywhere in nature. Human bodies maintain a normal

population of microbes in the intestinal tract; a big portion of which is made up of
coliform bacteria. Although there are millions of microbes per milliliter in wastewater,
most of them are harmless. It is only harmful when wastewater contains wastes from
people infected with diseases that the presence of harmful microorganisms in
wastewater is likely to occur.

Bacteria

Bacteria are considered to be single-celled plants because of their cell structure and the
way they ingest food. Bacteria occur in three basic cell shapes: rod-shaped or bacillus,
sphere-shaped or coccus, and spiral-shaped or spirellus. In less than 30 min, a single
bacterial cell can mature and divide into two new cells.

Under favorable conditions of food supply, temperature, and pH, bacteria can reproduce
so rapidly that a bacterial culture may contain 20 million cells per milliliter after just 1
day. This rapid growth of visible colonies of bacteria on a suitable nutrient medium
makes it possible to detect and count the number of bacteria in water.

There are several distinctions among the various species of bacteria. One distinction
depends on how they metabolize their food. Bacteria that require oxygen for their
metabolism are called aerobic bacteria, while those live only in an oxygen-free
environment are called anaerobic bacteria. Some species called facultative bacteria can
live in either the absence or the presence of oxygen.

At low temperatures, bacteria grow and reproduce slowly. As the temperature

increases, the rate of growth and reproduction doubles in every additional 10°C (up to
the optimum temperature for the species). The majority of the species of bacteria having
an optimal temperature of about 35°C.

A lot of dangerous waterborne diseases are caused by bacteria, namely, typhoid and
paratyphoid fever, leptospirosis, tularemia, shigellosis, and cholera. Sometimes, the
absence of good sanitary practices results in gastroenteritis outbreaks of one or more of
those diseases.

Algae

Algae are microscopic plants, which contain photosynthetic pigments, such as

chlorophyll. They are autotrophic organisms and support themselves by converting
inorganic materials into organic matter by using energy from the sun, during this
process they take in carbon dioxide and give off oxygen. They are also important for
wastewater treatment in stabilization ponds. Algae are primarily nuisance organisms in
the water supply because of the taste and odor problems they create. Certain species of
algae cause serious environmental and public health problems; for example, blue-green
algae can kill cattle and other domestic animals if the animals drink water containing
those species.

Viruses

Viruses are the smallest biological structures known to contain all genetic information
necessary for their own reproduction. They can only be seen by a powerful electronic
microscope. Viruses are parasites that need a host to live. They can pass through filters
that do not permit the passage of bacteria. Waterborne viral pathogens are known to
cause infectious hepatitis and poliomyelitis. Most of the waterborne viruses can be
deactivated by the disinfection process conducted in the water treatment plant.

Protozoa

Protozoa are single-celled microscopic animal, consume solid organic particles,

bacteria, and algae for food, and they are in turn ingested as food by higher level
multicellular animals. Aquatic protozoa are floating freely in water and sometimes called
zooplankton. They form cysts that are difficult to inactivate by disinfection.

Indicator organisms

A very important biological indicator of water and pollution is the group of bacteria called
coliforms. Pathogenic coliforms always exist in the intestinal system of humans, and
millions are excreted with body wastes. Consequently, water that has been recently
contaminated with sewage will always contain coliforms.

A particular species of coliforms found in domestic sewage is Escherichia coli or E. coli.

Even if the water is only slightly polluted, they are very likely to be found. There are
roughly 3 million of E. coli bacteria in 100 mL volume of untreated sewage. Coliform
bacteria are aggressive organisms and survive in the water longer than most
pathogens. There are normally two methods to test the coliform bacteria—the
membrane filter method and multiple-tube fermentation method. Since the test of
coliform bacteria is very important for public health, the first method will be described in
details in the coming section.

Testing for coliforms: membrane filter method

A measured volume of sample is filtered through a special membrane filter by applying

a partial vacuum.

The filter, a flat paper-like disk, has uniform microscopic pores small enough to retain
the bacteria on its surface while allowing the water to pass through. The filter paper is
then placed in a sterile container called a petri dish, which contains a special culture
medium that the bacteria use as a food source.
Then, the petri dish is usually placed in an incubator, which keeps the temperature at
35°C, for 24 h. After incubation, colonies of coliform bacteria each containing millions of
organisms will be visible. The coliform concentration is obtained by counting the number
of colonies on the filter; each colony counted represents only one coliform in the original
sample.

Drinking water standards

WHO produces international norms on water quality and human health in the form of
guidelines that are used as the basis for regulation and standard setting world-wide.

The Guidelines for drinking-water quality (GDWQ) promote the protection of public
health by advocating for the development of locally relevant standards and regulations
(health based targets), adoption of preventive risk management approaches covering
catchment to consumer (Water Safety Plans) and independent surveillance to ensure
that Water Safety Plans are being implemented and effective and that national
standards are being met.

Water pollution

Water pollution is the contamination of water sources by substances which make

the water unusable for drinking, cooking, cleaning, swimming, and other
activities. Pollutants include chemicals, trash, bacteria, and parasites. All forms of
pollution eventually make their way to water.

What Are the Causes of Water Pollution?

Water is uniquely vulnerable to pollution. Known as a “universal solvent,” water is able
to dissolve more substances than any other liquid on earth. It’s the reason we have
Kool-Aid and brilliant blue waterfalls. It’s also why water is so easily polluted. Toxic
substances from farms, towns, and factories readily dissolve into and mix with it,
causing water pollution.

Agricultural

Not only is the agricultural sector the biggest consumer of global freshwater resources, with
farming and livestock production using about 70 percent of the earth’s surface water supplies,
but it’s also a serious water polluter. Around the world, agriculture is the leading cause of water
degradation. In the United States, agricultural pollution is the top source of contamination in
rivers and streams, the second-biggest source in wetlands, and the third main source in lakes.
It’s also a major contributor of contamination to estuaries and groundwater. Every time it rains,
fertilizers, pesticides, and animal waste from farms and livestock operations wash nutrients and
pathogens—such bacteria and viruses—into our waterways. Nutrient pollution, caused by
excess nitrogen and phosphorus in water or air, is the number-one threat to water quality
worldwide and can cause algal blooms, a toxic soup of blue-green algae that can be harmful to
people and wildlife.
Sewage and wastewater

Used water is wastewater. It comes from our sinks, showers, and toilets (think sewage)
and from commercial, industrial, and agricultural activities (think metals, solvents, and
toxic sludge). The term also includes stormwater runoff, which occurs when rainfall
carries road salts, oil, grease, chemicals, and debris from impermeable surfaces into
our waterways

More than 80 percent of the world’s wastewater flows back into the environment without
being treated or reused, according to the United Nations; in some least-developed
countries, the figure tops 95 percent. In the United States, wastewater treatment
facilities process about 34 billion gallons of wastewater per day. These facilities reduce
the amount of pollutants such as pathogens, phosphorus, and nitrogen in sewage, as
well as heavy metals and toxic chemicals in industrial waste, before discharging the
treated waters back into waterways. That’s when all goes well.

Oil pollution

Big spills may dominate headlines, but consumers account for the vast majority of oil
pollution in our seas, including oil and gasoline that drips from millions of cars and
trucks every day. Moreover, nearly half of the estimated 1 million tons of oil that makes
its way into marine environments each year comes not from tanker spills but from land-
based sources such as factories, farms, and cities. At sea, tanker spills account for
about 10 percent of the oil in waters around the world, while regular operations of the
shipping industry—through both legal and illegal discharges—contribute about one-
third. Oil is also naturally released from under the ocean floor through fractures known
as seeps.

Radioactive substances

Radioactive waste is any pollution that emits radiation beyond what is naturally released
by the environment. It’s generated by uranium mining, nuclear power plants, and the
production and testing of military weapons, as well as by universities and hospitals that
use radioactive materials for research and medicine. Radioactive waste can persist in
the environment for thousands of years, making disposal a major challenge.
Accidentally released or improperly disposed of contaminants threaten groundwater,
surface water, and marine resources.

Groundwater pollution

When rain falls and seeps deep into the earth, filling the cracks, crevices, and porous
spaces of an aquifer (basically an underground storehouse of water), it becomes
groundwater—one of our least visible but most important natural resources. Most
people rely on groundwater, pumped to the earth’s surface, for drinking water. For some
folks in rural areas, it’s their only freshwater source. Groundwater gets polluted when
contaminants—from pesticides and fertilizers to waste leached from landfills and septic
systems—make their way into an aquifer, rendering it unsafe for human use. Ridding
groundwater of contaminants can be difficult to impossible, as well as costly. Once
polluted, an aquifer may be unusable for decades, or even thousands of years.
Groundwater can also spread contamination far from the original polluting source as it
seeps in.

Effects of water pollution

In other words, it is toxic water that cannot be drunk or used for essential purposes like
agriculture, and which also causes diseases like diarrhoea, cholera, dysentery, typhoid
and poliomyelitis that kill more than 500,000 people worldwide every year.

Ways We Can Reduce Water Pollution

 Dispose of Toxic Chemicals Properly: ...

 Shop with Water Pollution in Mind: ...
 Do Not Pour Fat and Grease Down the Drain: ...
 Use Phosphate-Free Detergent and Dish Cleaner: ...
 Check Your Sump Pump or Cellar Drain: ...
 Dispose of Medical Waste Properly: ...
 Eat More Organic Food:

waterborne disease

Waterborne illness is caused by recreational or drinking water contaminated by disease-

causing microbes or pathogens. Of note, many waterborne pathogens can also be
acquired by consuming contaminated food or beverages, from contact with animals or
their environment, or through person-to-person spread.

Some common water-related illnesses are diarrhea, giardiasis, dysentery, typhoid fever, E. Coli
infection, and salmonellosis.

Gravitational water supply scheme

A gravity-flow water system starts above the intake, with a protected catchment area. Activities
must be controlled in this area to keep the water source clean. The intake can be a protected
spring or clean stream. The stream may have a small dam that raises the water level locally.
Pumping Water Scheme

A pump is a mechanical device that lifts liquids from a lower level or low-pressure area to a
higher level or high-pressure area. It is a heavy-duty equipment with low suction and high
discharge pressure. This makes it easier to pump a fluid from a certain depth and push the fluid
to the desired height.

Pumps can also be used as a booster in a pipeline network system. Pumps have evolved into
an endless variety having different sizes, types, and applications. This article covers the
requirements, factors of selection, and types of pumps in the water supply system.

Combined gravity and pumping system

Combined gravity and pumping system Treated water is pumped and stored in an
elevated distribution reservoir. Then supplies to consumer by action of gravity. The
excess water during low demand periods get stored in reservoir and get supplied during
high demand period. Economical, efficient and reliable system.

Materials of water supply pipes

Common Materials Used for Water Supply Pipes

 Galvanized steel or iron.

 Copper.
 Polybutylene.
 Unplasticized Polyvinylchloride (PVC)
 Polyethylene.

DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM OF WATER SUPPLY

Water distribution systems (WDS) comprise a set of pipes, pumps, valves and tanks
arranged together to deliver water of suitable quality from the water source (or sources)
to the final users.

Pipe layout networks

There are, in general, four different types of pipe networks; any one of which either singly or in
combinations, can be used for a particular place. They are: Grid, Ring, Radial and Dead End
System.

Dead End Water Distribution System

Dead end system, the name itself defining that it contains dead ends in the pipe system. So, the
water does not flow continuously in the dead end system. In this system the whole pipe network
is divided into several sub networks. Those are namely main line, sub mains, branch lines and
service connections. Firstly, one main line is laid through the center of the city or area. Sub
mains are laid on both sides of the main line and then sub mains divided into branch lines from
which service connections are given. At every starting point of sub main line, a cut off valve is
provided to regulate the flow during repair works etc. On the whole, this network diagram will
look like a tree shape, so it is also called as tree system. This type of system is used mostly for
the olden cities which are built in irregular manner without any planning. Now a days, this
system is not preferable.

Advantages of Dead End System

 Pipes in this network can be laid easily.

 The pressure and discharge in each pipe can be determined very easily and
accurately which makes design calculations very simple.
 The diameters of pipes of main, sub mains and branches can be designed based
on the required demand of population. So, cost of the project can be reduced.
 Dead end system requires less number of cutoff valves.

Disadvantages

 The pressure is not constant and is very less at remote parts.

 Because of dead ends water stagnation takes place which results in deposition of
sediment. To remove this sediments, more number of scour valves are to be
provided at the dead ends which increase economy.
  If there is any damage occurs in the branch line, the whole portion should be
stopped to repair that which creates discomfort to the other users in that sub
main line.
 In this system, Limited discharge is available for firefighting.

Grid Iron Water Distribution System

Grid iron system also contains main lines, sub mains and branch lines. But in this system dead
ends are eliminated by interconnecting all the lines. Hence, the water flow continuously in this
system without stagnating. So, this system is also called as interlaced system or reticulation
system. It is more suitable for well-planned cities.

Advantages of Grid Iron System

 Water will flow continuously without any dead ends or sediment deposits.
 Head loss is minimum in this case because of interconnection of pipes.
 The discharge will meet the required discharge for firefighting.
 Repair works can be easily done just by closing cutoff valve in that line which do
not affect the other users.

Disadvantages

 Because of circulating flow from all directions, the pipes used in this system
should be of large diameters and longer lengths.
 We cannot determine the accurate discharge, velocity or pressure in a particular
pipe. So, design is difficult.
 Laying of pipes will be done by skilled workers which consume more cost.
 Cutoff valves required should be more in this system.

Ring Water Distribution System

Ring system, can also be called as circular system in which the main pipe line is provided
around the city or area i.e., peripherally. From this main line, the branch lines are projected
perpendicularly and they are also connected with each other. So, every street of the distributed
area will get sufficient quantity of water. For a town with well-planned streets and roads, Circular
system is more suitable.

Advantages of Ring System

 No stagnation of water
 Repair works can be done without affecting larger network.
 Large quantity of water is available for firefighting.

Disadvantages

 Longer length and large diameter pipes are required.

 More number of cutoff valves are necessary.
  Skilled workers are necessary while laying pipes.

Radial Water Distribution System

Radial system is quite opposite to the ring system. In this system, whole area is divided into
small distribution districts or zones and an individual distribution reservoir is provided for each
distribution zone. The reservoir provided is generally of elevated type. From this reservoir the
pipe lines are laid radially to the surrounded streets. All distribution reservoirs are connected
with main line which is passing through center of the city. This type of system is suitable for
areas with radially designed roads.

Advantages of Radial System

 The water distributed with high velocity and high pressure.

 Head loss is very small because of quick discharge.

Disadvantages

Cost of the project is more because of number of individual distribution reservoirs.

Characteristics of municipal solid waste

Municipal solid waste is made up of a variety of materials, including food, glass, textiles, metals,
and plastics. Municipal solid waste is complex in nature, with characteristics that vary according
to location, culture, legislation, economics, and waste management factors.

Collection of municipal solid waste

Littering of municipal solid waste shall be prohibited in cities, towns and in urban areas
notified by the State Governments. To prohibit littering and facilitate compliance, the
following steps shall be taken by the municipal authority, namely:

 Organizing house-to-house collection of municipal solid wastes through any of

the methods, like community bin collection (central bin), house-to-house
collection, collection on regular pre-informed timings and scheduling by using
musical bell of the vehicle.

 Devising collection of waste from slums and squatter areas or localities including
hotels, restaurants, office complexes and commercial areas.
 Wastes from slaughter houses, meat and fish markets, fruits and vegetable
markets, which are biodegradable in nature, shall be managed to make use of
such wastes.
 Bio-medical wastes and industrial wastes shall not be mixed with municipal solid
wastes and such wastes shall follow the rules separately specified for the
purpose.
 Collected waste from residential and other areas shall be transferred to
community bin by hand-driven carts or other small vehicles.
  Construction or demolition wastes or debris shall be separately collected and
disposed off following proper norms. Similarly, wastes generated at dairies shall
be regulated in accordance with the State laws.
 Waste (garbage, dry leaves) shall not be burnt.
 Stray animals shall not be allowed to move around waste storage facilities or at
any other place in the city or town.

Segregation of municipal solid waste

Segregation refers to the process of separation of municipal solid waste into four groups
i.e., organic, inorganic, recyclables and hazardous wastes. It is a critical requirement
since it enables recycling, reuse, treatment and scientific disposal of different
components of waste.

Waste management

Waste management or waste disposal includes the processes and actions required to
manage waste from its inception to its final disposal. This includes the collection,
transport, treatment, and disposal of waste, together with monitoring and regulation of
the waste management process and waste-related laws, technologies, and economic
mechanisms.

Waste can be solid, liquid, or gases and each type has different methods of disposal
and management. Waste management deals with all types of waste, including
industrial, biological, household, municipal, organic, biomedical, radioactive wastes. In
some cases, waste can pose a threat to human health. Health issues are associated
with the entire process of waste management. Health issues can also arise indirectly or
directly: directly through the handling of solid waste, and indirectly through the
consumption of water, soil, and food. Waste is produced by human activity, for example,
the extraction and processing of raw materials.[4] Waste management is intended to
reduce the adverse effects of waste on human health, the environment, planetary
resources, and aesthetics.

The aim of waste management is to reduce the dangerous effects of such waste on the
environment and human health. A big part of waste management deals with municipal
solid waste, which is created by industrial, commercial, and household activity.

Handling rules and regulations of waste management

Waste management laws govern the transport, treatment, storage, and disposal of all manner
of waste, including municipal solid waste, hazardous waste, and nuclear waste, among many
other types. Waste laws are generally designed to minimize or eliminate the uncontrolled
dispersal of waste materials into the environment in a manner that may cause ecological or
biological harm, and include laws designed to reduce the generation of waste and promote or
mandate waste recycling. Regulatory efforts include identifying and categorizing waste types
and mandating transport, treatment, storage, and disposal practices.
Waste to energy for municipal solid waste

Waste-to-energy plants burn municipal solid waste (MSW), often called garbage or
trash, to produce steam in a boiler, and the steam is used to power an electric generator
turbine. MSW is a mixture of energy-rich materials such as paper, plastics, yard waste,
and products made from wood.

Biomedical waste rules

The Biomedical waste means any waste, which is generated during

the diagnosis, treatment or immunization of human beings or animals or

in research activities pertaining thereto or in the production or testing of

biological and including categories mentioned in schedule I of the Rules.

It shall be the duty of every occupier of an institution generating

bio-medical waste which includes a hospital, nursing home, clinic,

dispensary, veterinary institution, animal house, pathological laboratory,

blood bank by what ever name called to take all steps to ensure that

such waste is handled without any adverse effect to human health and

the environment.

1. Scope and Applicability: The rules apply to all healthcare establishments, research
institutions, laboratories, blood banks, veterinary institutions, and other facilities that
generate, handle, or dispose of biomedical waste. This broad scope ensures that all
sources of biomedical waste are adequately regulated and managed.
2. Segregation, Packaging, and Labeling: The rules mandate that all biomedical
waste must be segregated at the source of generation into color-coded bags or
containers, based on the category of waste. The waste must also be packaged and
labeled according to specified guidelines to ensure safe handling, transportation,
and disposal.
3. Storage and Transportation: The rules specify the requirements for the storage and
transportation of biomedical waste, including the use of leak-proof, puncture-
resistant containers and vehicles designed for the safe transportation of biomedical
waste. Healthcare establishments are required to store biomedical waste in
 designated storage areas, and waste must be transported to authorized treatment
and disposal facilities within a stipulated time frame.
4. Treatment and Disposal: The rules prescribe various treatment and disposal
methods for different categories of biomedical waste, including incineration,
autoclaving, microwaving, chemical treatment, and deep burial. Healthcare
establishments must ensure that biomedical waste is treated and disposed of
according to the prescribed methods and must maintain records of waste treatment
and disposal.
5. Authorization and Reporting: The rules require all healthcare establishments to
obtain authorization from the relevant state pollution control board for the generation,
handling, and disposal of biomedical waste. Healthcare establishments must also
maintain records of biomedical waste management and submit annual reports to the
state pollution control board.
6. Monitoring and Compliance: The rules provide for regular monitoring and
inspection of healthcare establishments by designated authorities to ensure
compliance with the prescribed standards and guidelines. Non-compliant healthcare
establishments are liable to face penalties, including fines, imprisonment, and
cancellation of authorization.
SUPERVISE WORKS

Setting out is bringing the dimensions from a plan to the real situation. The activity
consists of establishing the exact location and measurements of the house to be built.
The first activity of setting out is to clear the ground of any debris, vegetation and other
obstructions.

Checking of setting out is done to

 Identification of pegs
 Method used
 Check building regulation compliance Inspection

Programme of work and site instructions

 Programming of works and instructions is done by

 Use of correct specific job equipment or machinery
 Is conducted construction superintendent or project manager
 Ensuring that the work planned

Marking of Site registers

 Marking of Register on site are essential

 To have day to day statistics
 To avoid time fraudsters
 For production of bonuses and salaries purposes

ALLOCATE CIVIL ENGINEERING RESOURCES

Resource allocation in the construction industry plays a critical role in project

management. Staying ahead of, and prioritizing, your team member allocations helps to
build workforce planning strategies to ensure organizational goals are being met and
projects are progressing efficiently.

Effective resource allocation will mean understanding the scope of projects and
availability of team members within the organization. This will often include input from
the Project Manager in terms of project scope, task dependencies, required resources,
and resource dependencies. Ops Managers will then identify available team members
that meet the skills and experience requirements demanded by the project.
Resource allocation sheet is verified

In this sheet, you can allocate resources, based on roles, to a project or WBS-code
based shell. The Resource Allocation sheet is available at the company level and also
in projects and shells in which resource allocation is enabled.

 Verification of resource allocation sheet

 To identify quantity of resources
 For inventory purposes
 Help identifying and assigning resources to various activities
 Includes everything from software to hardware

Plant and equipment log sheet

An equipment maintenance log is a document that records activities that have been
performed on an asset. It takes at least a handful of key equipment to keep a plant
operational. It is unimaginable how much time and effort goes into maintenance
activities for each asset annually.

Registration of manpower and verification of

resources is done by:

 Setting clear expectation

 Engaging them regularly
 Day to day audit

ALLOCATION OF RESOURCES TO RELAVANT ACTVITIES

Resource allocation is the process of organizing a company's assets for different

activities and tasks. By conducting resource allocation, a key step in project
management, business leaders can make sure their teams have the necessary support
to achieve strategic goals.

Assignment of resources to relevant activities by

 job to be done
 job importance
CONTROL QUALITY

Testing of plant and equipment

Plant inspection and testing are essential to ensure that the plant or equipment is
operating efficiently, effectively, and safely. Regular inspections can help identify
potential hazards and defects before they cause accidents, downtime, or equipment
failure.

Tested plant and equipment is checked

 Checking tested plant and equipment before use to identify

 Whether work equipment can be operated
 Efficiency
 Equipment problem before they Escalate
 Maintenance scheduling
 Prevent disaster and make
 Or to ensure consistent product quality
 Or prevent the use of unsafe assets,

Supplier quality assurance certificate

The Certified Supplier Quality Professional works with an organization's supply chain
and suppliers to continuously improve performance of key system components
(increase lifecycle, reduce scrap, improve repair processes) by implementing process
controls and developing quality assurance plans.

Checking of supplier quality assurance certificate done to

 Review specifications
 Maintain consistent operations
 Create new opportunities
 Improve customer service
 Reduce business risk
 Improve the return on audits

Concrete

a mass formed by concretion or coalescence of separate particles of matter in one

body. 2. : a hard strong building material made by mixing a cementing material (such as
Portland cement) and a mineral aggregate (such as sand and gravel) with sufficient
water to cause the cement to set and bind the entire mass.
Concrete Testing - Three tests that can verify the quality of concrete

 Slump Test. A concrete slump test is conducted in-field on fresh concrete mix. ...
 Compressive strength test. The compressive strength of concrete a common
performance measure used by engineers to design building and other structures.
...
 Drying shrinkage test.

Concrete test results are verified

 Verification of concrete tests is done

 To check the potential strength of the concrete under controlled conditions
against the desired strength
 To establish a strength-age relationship for the concrete under job conditions as
a control for
 To avoid biasness

Compaction

What is compaction? Soil compaction occurs when soil particles are pressed together,
reducing pore space between. Heavily compacted soils contain few large pores, less
total pore volume and, consequently, a greater density. A compacted soil has a reduced
rate of both water infiltration and drainage.

Compaction tests is conducted to

 Establish the maximum density

 Remove air voids

 Increase the bearing capacity and stiffness of in-situ

 Increase bearing capacity

 Increase durability
 Increase resistance to deformation
 Decrease frost damage
 Increase stability
 Decrease permeability

Proctor Compaction Test

The most common laboratory test for soil compaction is the Proctor compaction test.

The Proctor test was invented in the 1930s by R. R. Proctor, a field engineer for the
Bureau of Waterworks and Supply, in Los Angeles, California. The process, which
simulates the in-situ compaction processes typically performed during construction of
earth dams or embankments, is the most common laboratory test conducted to derive
the compressibility of soils.

The type of compaction and the provided energy for a given soil volume are standard
and, thus, the test focuses on the change of a sample’s moisture content to derive the
optimum water content (wopt).

The standard Proctor test includes a 0.95-liter volume cylindrical mold in which the soil
mass is placed and compacted in 3 layers. Each layer is compressed by dropping 25
times a 2,5 kg weight falling from an elevation of 30 centimeters.

A modified version of the test was introduced after World War II, in the 1950’s, when
heavy machinery could result in higher compaction. In the new approach, the cylindrical
mold remains the same, however, the drop weight is increased to 4,5kg and the
dropping height to 45 centimeters. In addition, the soil is compacted in 5 layers with 25
blows per layer.

The test is conducted for 5 moisture contents to obtain the optimum water content
(wopt), for which the value of the dry unit weight is maximum (γd,max).

Test Equipment

The equipment utilized to conduct the test includes:

 10-centimeter diameter cylindrical compaction mold equipped with a base and a

collar
 Proctor rammer weighing 2,5 kg or 4,5 kg depending on whether the standard of
the modified test is conducted
 No.4 Sieve
 Steel straightedge
 Moisture containers
 Graduated cylinder
 Mixer
 Controlled oven
 Metallic tray and a scoop

Typical cylindrical compaction molds and rammers

Test Procedure

The procedure of the Proctor Compaction Test consists of the following steps:

1. Obtain about 3 kg of soil.

2. Pass the soil through the No. 4 sieve.
3. Weight the soil mass and the mold without the collar (W m).
 4. Place the soil in the mixer and gradually add water to reach the desired moisture
content (w).
5. Apply lubricant to the collar.
6. Remove the soil from the mixer and place it in the mold in 3 layers or 5 layers
depending on the method utilized (Standard Proctor or Modified Proctor). For
each layer, initiate the compaction process with 25 blows per layer. The drops
are applied manually or mechanically at a steady rate. The soil mass should fill
the mold and extend into the collar but not more than ~1 centimeter.
7. Carefully remove the collar and trim the soil that extends above the mold with a
sharpened straight edge.
8. Weight the mold and the containing soil (W).
9. Extrude the soil from the mold using a metallic extruder, making sure that the
extruder and the mold are in-line.
10. Measure the water content from the top, middle and bottom of the sample.
11. Place the soil again in the mixer and add water to achieve higher water content,
w.

Calculations

First, the compaction water content (w) of the soil sample is calculated using the
average of the three measurements obtained (top, middle and bottom part of the soil
mass).

Subsequently, the dry unit weight (γd) is calculated as follows:

where: W = the weight of the mold and the soil mass (kg)

Wm = the weight of the mold (kg)

w = the water content of the soil (%)

V = the volume of the mold (m3, typically 0.033m3)

This procedure should be repeated for 4 more times, given that the selected water
contents will be both lower and higher from the optimum. Ideally, the selected points
should be well distributed with 1-2 of them close to the optimum moisture content.

The derived dry unit weights along with the corresponding water contents are plotted in
a diagram along with the zero-voids curve, a line showing the dry unit weight correlation
with the water content assuming that the soil is 100% saturated. No matter how much
energy is provided to the sample, it is impossible to compact it beyond this curve. The
zero-voids curve is calculated as follows:
where: GS = the specific gravity of soil particles (typically, GS~2.70)

γW = the saturated unit weight of the soil (kN/m3)

Typical curves derived from the Standard and Modified Proctor tests, as well as the zero
air voids curve are presented in

Typical curves derived by the Standard and Modified Proctor tests. The zero air voids
curve is also shown