© Pietro Del Rosso ~ Tutti i diritti sono riservati. - © proibita la riproduzione anche parziale del presente handbook senza V'espressa autorizzazione scritta dell’autoreMARITIME ENGLISH (Content and Language Integrated Learning) Handbook for Deck Officers in conformity with IMO International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and Watch keeping for Seafarers (S.T.C.W.) and I.M.O. Model Course 3.17 © Pietro del Rosso The reproduction, even partial, of this handbook is forbidden without the prior written permission of the author.Notice of Terms of use All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form, by any means electronically, mechanically, by photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the author. TABLE OF CONTENTS UNIT 1 Types of vessels Page 04 UNIT 2 Offshore units Page 48 UNIT 3 Ship terminology Page 64 UNIT 4 The building of a ship Page 70 UNIT 5 Ship’s equipment & gear__| Page 77 UNIT 6 Introduction to Navigation | Page 110 UNIT 7 Nautical Charts Page 116 UNIT 8 Short Range Aids to | page 176 Navigation UNIT 9 Compasses Page 137 UNIT 10 Dead Reckoning Page 144 UNIT 11 Piloting Page 147 UNIT 12 Celestial Navigation Page 151 UNIT 13, ‘Aids to Navigation Page 153 UNIT 14 Navigation Regulations Page 177 UNIT 15, Navigation Processes Page 184 UNIT 16 Marine Meteorology Page 193 UNIT 17 Global Maritime Distress & Safety System | Page 218 ([Link].S.S.) UNIT 18 Safety & Survival | Page 235 Equipment UNIT 19 Inert Gas System Page 279 UNIT 20 International Laws &|Page 284 Regulations UNIT 21 Shipping Documents Page 327 Appendix A IMO FAL FORMS Page 341 Appendix B Certificates and | Page 354 Documents required to be carried on board ships References & Page 374 Bibliography Analytical Index Page 375UNIT 1 TYPES OF VESSELS Merchant ships may be broadly classified as : 1) Liners; 2) Tramps; 3) Specialized vessels. Liners are vessels which operate on a regular schedule service in a prearranged route irrespective of whether they are full or not. They have advertised dates of departure and arrival, and can carry cargo or passengers or both. Passenger liners are designed to carry people from one place to another at a high speed and in great comfort. Most of them carry mails and a small amount of cargo. Their arrival and departures follow a strict schedule. Cargo liner or freighter carry a cargo on a fixed route and has a fixed schedule, although a few of them have accommodation for up to 12 passengers. The sizes and types of cargo liners vary according to the routes they follow and the cargo they deal with. Most of them carry general cargo, although bulk cargoes are sometimes carried, and some are designed to transport perishable cargoes, in refrigerated holds and compartments. Tramps, or general trader, on the contrary, do not sail on a fixed route as a rule. They are usually cargo vessels whose ports of call are governed by the necessity of carrying certain cargoes from place to place. Most of all they carry bulk cargo such as coal, timber, grain, sugar, ores, fertilizers, copra etc, which are carried in complete shiploads, while they do not usually carry passengers. The port of calls of tramps will differ according to the time of the year and commercial demands, so that tramps might roam from ocean to ocean for a considerable time before returning to their home port. These vessels must satisfy a number of conditions to be commercially worthwhile; they must be of sufficient size to carry a profitable cargo and must be able to cope with bad weather in any ocean. They must not be too large to enter the smaller ports of the world; speed is necessary but increases running costs, so a compromise between fuel consumption and speed, or “dispatch”, is desirable.Bulk carriers Bulk carriers are vessels designed to carry loose cargo in bulk. These ships are usually discharged by grabs or by suction pipes. The loading is carried out by feeding the cargo through a shooter or by mean of a conveyor belt. Bulk carriers have large upper and lower ballast tanks to facilitate automatic grain stowage and to provide the empty ship enough draught and a better behaviour when it is empty in transit. Ships carrying ore have a special design and since ore is very heavy (its stowage factor is about 0.5 m?/t) vessels need only small holds to be fully loaded. Holds should not be located too low or too close to the sides of the vessel. Some bulk carriers can also operate as tankers. This combination carrier is often called an Ore Bulk Oil (OBO) carrier, a multi-purpose bulk carrier designed for switching between bulk shipments of oil, bulk grain, fertilizer and ore trades. This type of vessels with engine aft are growing in popularity. OBO carrierCrude Oil Tankers Crude oil tankers are vessels which are used to carry crude oil from a loading port near an oil field or from the end of a pipeline to a refinery. Usually these ships are very large. Their carrying capacity is up to 500,000 tons and usually have a limited number of tanks (18-21), and two or three slop tanks. Ballast tanks are located besides or below the cargo tanks. New tankers are compulsorily double-hull. The large crude oil tankers are subdivided into the following classes: * Ultra Large Crude Carriers (ULCC) with over 300,000 dwt * Very Large Crude Carrier (VLCC) with 200,000- 300,00 dwt * Suez max (old max Suez draught) ca. 150,000-160,000dwt * Aframax (Standard size tanker of ca. 105,000dwt).Crude oil tankers receive their cargoes from shore facilities through a hose or via a flexible pipeline arm mounted on the jetty in port. The hoses are temporarily connected, at mid height, to transverse pipes on deck (manifolds). Oil is pumped on board by shore pumps. From the transverse lines, oils goes to drop lines, vertically down into the ship, to the bottom lines. Three or four longitudinal pipelines with branches deliver oil to each tank. A valve is installed at the end of each branch. To discharge oil, the vessel’ pumps in the pump room draw oil from the cargo tanks, and press it upwards to the deck lines, from aft to the manifolds located midships. There are various valves to isolate pumps, tanks and separate pipelines from each other. Loading and discharging takes 24-36 hours per operation. In addition to the cargo pipeline system, the following cargo related pipeline systems can be found on deck and in the tanks: * Inert gas system to fill up the empty spaces created while discharging with inert gas (a gas with no oxygen) to prevent explosions. Oil will not burn as long as the percentage of oxygen is below 5%. Inert gas is also used to slow down corrosion of ballast tanks. During the loading inert gas is discharged into the atmosphere. * Tank-wash system used to eliminate deposits from the inside wall before repairs, docking or reloading. During discharging, the tanks are washed with cargo, to reduce sediments. Before dry-docking or repairs, tanks are washed with water, through the same system. + Heating coil system in at least the slop tanks. Usually crude does not need to be heated during the voyage. + Ballast system, to fill and empty the ballast tanks, which is fully separated from the cargo system. Product tankers Unlike crude oil, the term “products” refers to the products of refineries and petrochemical industries. Product tankers have a large number of tanks with a total carrying capacity of about 50,000 tons. The piping systems on a product tanker are different from those used for crude oil tankers. Usually each tank is provided with its own filling and discharge line to the manifold and its own cargo pump. Possible cargo are oil products such as gasoline, kerosene, naphtha, diesel oil, lubricating oil, bitumen, but also vegetable oil, wine, drinking water and orange juice.Chemical tankers Chemical carriers are basically product carriers with a higher safety grade of the tanks, that is a wider distance between tank and outer shell or bottom. Tanks are also subject to more stringent restrictions, depending on the cargoes the ships is allowed to carry, in connection with the toxicity and flammability of the typical chemical cargo. All cargo tanks are separated from: - the outer shell by a ballast tank - the engine room bulkhead by a cofferdam, mostly in the form of a ballast pump room. (The cofferdam is a narrow, empty space fitted between two other spaces, to create a safe division, provided with a sounding pipe, a bilge connection and a connection with open-air). - the forepeak bulkhead by a cofferdam. This ensures that in case of leakage from one of the tanks, the consequences for crew and environment are reduced. To prevent contact between incompatible cargoes, a cofferdam is sometimes required between tanks. Chemical tankers have a GT which varies between 2500 and 23,000. The number of tanks in transverse direction varies between 3 for tankers up to 6000 tons and 6 for larger tankers. Chemical tankers are divided into classes, depending on the protection they provide against pollution: I for the most toxic cargoes, II and III for the less dangerous substances. Cargoes are divided into 4 classes of toxicity: A, B, C, D. A is the most toxic and D is the least one. Among cargoes are: acids, alkalines, alcohol, edible oils, chlorinated alkanes, amines, monomers, chemical substances ‘Chemical tankerLPG/LNG tankers Gas tankers are basically chemical tankers, for cargoes which would be gas under ambient temperature and atmospheric pressure. These cargoes are liquid when pressurised or brought under low temperature. When liquefied, the space of a gas is about 1/600 of the space needed under atmospheric conditions. Consequently, gases are carried as liquefied. Though safety devices applicable to chemical tankers also apply to gas tanker, the cargo storage arrangements and the cargo handling are completely different. This kind of cargo ships can be subdivided into three main categories: - pressurised ships, cargo under pressure at ambient temperature; - fully insulated/fully refrigerated ships, cargo at low temperature at atmospheric pressure; - semi-pressurised ships, cargo under pressure and at low temperature. Fully pressurised (FP) ships are mostly used for Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) transport between the smaller terminals. In these vessels the cargo is carried in closed cylindrical tanks, under ambient temperature, with such a pressure that the cargo in the tank is liquid, like butane cooking gas bottle. In case of LPG, there is a pressure from 8 bar in moderate temperature till 15 bar under tropical circumstances. LNG tankerFully Refrigerated (FR) ships carry cargo under atmospheric pressure, at very low temperature, that is - 42 °C, corresponding with the boiling point of propane. LPG is a mixture of propane and butane, with boiling points respectively of -42 °C and + 0.5 °C. A special type of fully refrigerated ship is the Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) carrier. When carrying LNG at atmospheric pressure, is required a temperature of - 162°C, because LNG is a mixture of methane and ethane. Under atmospheric pressure methane has a liquefying point of = 161 °C and ethane of - 88°C. Semi Pressurised /Semi Refrigerated (SP/SR) ships are a hybrid type between Fully Pressurised and Fully Refrigerated (FP/FR). Their construction started when the cryogenic steel became available, that is materials which could withstand low temperatures. If kept under cooled condition, the pressure this material develops is much lower. This has allowed to carry a large number of cargoes, in accordance with their cooling capacity. The development of these types of vessels started with Semi/Pressurised/ Semi Refrigerated ships (SP/SR) and went on with Semi Pressurised / Fully Refrigerated ships (SP/FR) with up to 30,000 m3up to 8 Bar. Ethylene carriers are a typical development of SP/FR carriers. The required cargo temperature is - 104 °C, In all gas tankers, to prevent air to enter the tanks and produce an explosive mixture, these are kept under at least a small positive pressure. Loading and unloading is carried out in a fully closed system, where no venting or vapours can escape into the atmosphere. During loading of LNG a vapour return line is used to liquefy the vapour ashore, and when loading LPG, the vapour is re-liquefied on board. The gas-cargo is carried in independent tanks. This means that the tanks are installed in a hold, on supports, mostly woods, with also wooden support for sideways forces. In case of leakages, this very cold liquid should never come in contact with the primary construction. Consequently two barriers are arranged: the primary barrier is the tank itself, a second barrier is required in case of leakage, for cargoes below - 10 °C. LPG tank constructions There are four types of LPG tank construction: * Fully refrigerated, atmospheric. Tanks of flat panel construction, inside a hold. These are designed for cargoes up to - 10 °C. In this case the secondary barrier is the hold, which is kept under inert gas. + Fully refrigerated, atmospheric. Spherical steel tank, placed in a hold, sometimes ranging from an expansion ring at half height. The secondary barrier is the hold; however, where the atmosphere is allowed to be air, inerting should be possible at short notice. * Cylindrical, horizontal tanks, at ambient temperature. The cargo is fully pressurised (max 18 Bar), insulated to prevent 10pressure increase. This type of tank is used on SP/FR ships and on ethylene carriers. * Box-type Membrane Tanks, with a very thin special stainless steel primary barrier, supported by a thick layer of foam insulation, inside a steel secondary barrier, again surrounded by insulation. The whole assembly is located in a hold on blocks. To keep the cargo cold, a small percentage of it, called boil-off, is allowed to vaporise. In LPG and Ethylene tankers the “boil-off” is collected and through compressing and cooling in a condenser, re-liquefied. By letting this condensate expand above the cargo, the whole cargo is cooled and brought at the required temperature for transport and discharge. This is the single stage cooling cycle. To obtain lower temperatures it is used a cascade cooling process. This process uses cargo or another refrigerant such as propylene in a secondary cooling cycle as a coolant in the first stage condenser. The latest LNG tankers are provided with re-liquefying plants, compressing the boil-off into liquid gas again. Today the propulsion of LNG tankers is changing from steam into diesel-electric, where one or more diesel engines are dual-fuel. Depending on the price of gas and fuel they burn either heavy fuel or boil-off gas.Container vessels Container vessels are becoming increasingly popular nowadays. The specific advantage of the use of containers is that the cargo can be transported directly from and to house or factory, and not just from port to port. In this case, the transport by water is just a link in the chain of transport. There may be different types of containers: dry, liquid and reefer containers. The ISO-standards distinguish the TEU and FEU, which differ in weight. TEU (twenty feet equivalent unit) has a nominal length of 20 feet (6.10 metres), though the actual length is 1.5” (38 mm) shorter, leaving some space between the containers. FEU (forty feet equivalent unit) has a nominal length of 40 feet ‘Container vessel Containers are stowed in a cellular arrangement made up of rows, bays and tiers. Rows run abeam, or athwartship, bays run fore and aft and tiers are horizontal layers. Containers have a 3-digit code, and consequently, each container can be easily identified.are Ea mie Principle of bay-row-tier coordinates The main advantages to carry cargo in containers are * Short lay because of efficient and fast cargo handling; Few stevedores are required; * Less pilferage because cargo has been stored in locked containers. The main characteristic of container vessels are: - maximum amount of TEU’s or FEU’s amount of TEU's or FEU’s below the weather deck along with their heights - number of container tiers = presence of cargo gear = open or closed ship. There two main types of container vessels: a) intercontinental container vessels up to 9500 TEU b) container feeders, starting at 200 TEU. Intercontinental container ships can only go to the largest ports because of the ship’ size and the transfer capacity of the port. These type of container vessel do not have their own loading gear. Similarly to big tankers and bulk carriers, container vessels can also be classified on the basis of the passage criteria as follows: - Panamax ships: ships with a width less than 32.3 metres. They have the maximum width which allows them to pass the locks in the Panama Canal - Suezmax ships: ships with a maximum draught of 19 metres, which allows them to use the Suez Canal. Since the Suez Canal is being deepened, the Suez-Max size will be larger in the near future. Container feeders are small or medium-sized ships starting at 200 TUE specialized in the transport of containers from small port, the feeder ports, to large ports or main ports and vice versa, or for use in services which are not profitable for the larger container vessels.Roll-on/roll-off ships(Ro-Ro ships) Ro-Ro carriers To facilitate the transport of mobile cargo, Ro-Ro vessels have continuous decks, over the entire length of the ship. Due to the large area of these decks, the vessels loses their stability rapidly if a large quantity of water floods the lower decks after a collision or a damaged side door, resulting in a huge free surface. Consequently, the safety regulations for these vessels have been made more stringent by the requirement of the transverse division doors, dividing the deck in compartment with the purpose to improve the ship's stability. The tweendecks of these ships are often adjustable in height. Loading and discharging proceeds via ramps in the side or stern which form a watertight closure and also function as the driveway for the mobile cargo. During loading and unloading, the ship easily gets a list, which especially with a stern ramp, is twisting the ramps. To prevent this problem, a Ro- Ro is equipped with an anti-heeling system which automatically distributes water between two opposing ballast tanks, keeping the ship upright. To prevent shifts of wheeled cargo in bad weather, vehicles are fastened by means of a lashing system. During loading and discharging additional ventilation is required to eliminate the exhaust fumes of the diesel-driven lorries and tractors. Ro-Ro Car and Passenger ferries Almost all ferries transport both passengers and vehicles, whether they are navigating inland waterways or ocean and seas. The vessels usually shuttle between two ports on a very tight schedule. The passengers drive their own cars on board via a ramp, which is either part of the ship, or a movable ramp located on the quay, or a combination of these. Ferries have the same type of decks as the Ro-Ro carriers, and therefore, they face the same problem when water floods the decks. Possible cargo are: trucks and lorries, passengers, cars, trains, trailers (with containers).Ro-Ro ship Refrigerated vessels, or reefers are designed for the carriage of chilled or frozen meat, butter, or eggs and in general of perishable goods. These vessels operate on liner cargo services, and are provided with large insulated holds with refrigerating machinery to control the cargo temperature. When fruit is carried, in addition to the temperature, also air composition in the containers is being controlled in order to monitor the ripening process of fruit. Refrigerated vessel 15Cattle ships carry livestock such as sheep from Australia to the Middle East, and cows from Northwest Europe to the Mediterranean. The holds operate as stables. Silos with fodder are installed at the main or lower deck. Sheep are often fed automatically, while cows are fed semi- automatically: the fodder is mechanically moved from the silo to the deck where it is distributed manually through wheel-barrows. A network of conveyor belts and elevators dumps the manure overboard. An appropriate ventilation system is required: at least 45 air changes per hour. Cattle ships need a low stability to prevent that animals may breaks their += legs-_~=sdue_-~— to. ~—stthe__—ship's._—rolling. Cattle shipTimber carriers are provided with large unobstructed holds and large hatches to facilitate cargo handling. They are often called three-island ships and incorporate a raised forecastle, bridge and poop, in order to ny — facilitate the stowage of deck cargo which is usually packaged. ‘Timber carrierHeavy lift vessels are designed to transport unusually heavy or bulky cargoes which may be troublesome or impossible to carry for the ordinary liner cargo vessel. These vessels are equipped with jumbo derricks, capable of lifting over 200 tons. Ships can be further divided int -semi-subme! le heavy-lift ships - conventional heavy-lift ships -dock-ships ( semi-submersible). The construction and stability allows these ships to carry extremely large and heavy objects. The semi-submersible ships can, by letting in water, sink till the main deck is sufficiently below the waterline to take large floating objects like drilling rigs on deck (float on / float off). When water is pumped out, cargo is lifted and the ships sails with the cargo as one unit. Lashing and securing should be carefully calculated and carried. The conventional heavy-cargo vessels are often fitted with their own loading gears and when there is no heavy cargo, the vessels can operate as multipurpose vessels. Heavy lift vesselFast Craft Hovercraft A hovercraft is a platform which operates by “floating” above water on a self-created air cushion. Since there is no physical contact between platform and water, the friction can be greatly reduced. Waves are hardly created and the air cushion allows the platform to move in any direction. A high speed in forward direction can be reached through air-propellers and steering is performed through air-rudders. The depth of the air cushion be locally manipulated. 1. Propellers 2. Air 3. Fan 4. Flexible skirtCatamarans A catamaran is a vessel with two hulls, each with a very large ratio, creating a low wave resistance. The two hulls are connected with each other at deck level by a rectangular platform. The combination of the two hulls provides a large stability. The waterline area and the displacement is low. Consequently, the catamaran can only carry light cargoes, like passengers over short distances in protected water between islands, at rivers, canals, in river deltas etc. A variant is the trimaran, having three hulls, with the middle hull being bigger than the two outer ones. ‘Catamaran Trimaran 20Auxiliary vessels Tugs Seagoing tugs Tugs are relatively small, sturdy ships with a large pulling power. A common feature of all tugboats is their low aft deck in order to provide the towing line with some freedom of movement. The point of application of the force in the towing line must be located close to the midships so that the force can affect the manoeuvrability to the minimum. However, when the ship is on a long tow, the wire is fastened sideways at the stern by a locking arrangement. The wire is stowed on a stowing winch, located midships, usually with a double drum, so that in case of failure there is always a spare wire. The towing wire can be up to 1000 metres in length, with a meter of 100 mm. The main feature is their bollard- pull, that is the towing force at zero speed. Seagoing tugs are used for: salvage towing anchor handling in the offshore industry environmental service assistance to ships with engine and/or steering problem Any floating object (floating wrecks, drilling rigs etc.) that should be brought to a position at sea (or inland) can be towed by tugboats. Seagoing tug 21Escort tugs Escort tugs are used to escort large ships along dangerous passages, and have been developed following a number of serious accidents. Escort tugs operate in confined coastal waters and are small, sturdy seagoing tugs that can push or pull a large ship away from a dangerous area when its own propulsion is not sufficient. Escort tugs should be highly manoeuvrable and are often provided with azimuthing thrusters. 22Harbour tugs Harbour tugs are used in ports, inland waterways and coastal areas for: * assisting and towing vessels in and out of ports assisting seagoing tugs when these are towing a bulky object in confined waters salvaging, or assisting in salvage in ports or coastal areas fighting fires and environmental disasters keeping ports free of fixed ice Harbour tug 23Icebreakers Icebreakers are similar to tugboat because require a large engine power in a relatively small ship. Their main function is to cut a channel through an ice layer at sea, in port, a river or other waterways. These ships should be able to withstand floating ice. The fore part of the ship is especially reinforced and must have a very high impact value at low temperatures. The wear resistance of the steel of the shell plating and the propeller is subject to high requirements. Ice is usually broken by moving the sloping bow on the ice, until the weight of the fore part of the ship breaks the ice. Icebreaker 24Pilot boats Entering and departing a port should be carried out safely. Often the ship’ crew has a limited knowledge of local conditions. Dangers, recent changes, customs and rules differ from port to port or can be changing continuously. That is the reason why a pilot comes on board before entering that particular port. The pilot can board or disembark by: - a tender (small fast boat) coming towards the ship from the actual port - a pilot boat at station at sea, close to port, with small tenders - a helicopter ( often only for very large ships). Indications on how to manoeuvre are provided from shore by the so- called Vessel Traffic Service (VTS). A VTS controls the shipping using a shore-radar system and radio communications. A shore-based controller informs the ship’s crew and the pilot on possible hazards about the traffic. Pilot boat 25Dredgers Trailing hopper suction dredger Trailing hopper suction dredgers are used to maintain or deepen channels and fairways. These vessels are usually equipped with two adjustable suction pipes which drag over the bottom sucking water with sand. Dredging pumps in the holds and /or in the suction pipes pump a mixture of water and material from the sea floor into the holds (called hoppers). They are able to dredge to a depth of 150 m. The solid material settles in the hopper while the excess water flows overboard. To be able to dredge through waves, the suction pipes are suspended from special davits, which operate with heaving compensation. This ensure that the nozzle are in contact with the seabed. When the vessel is at its load line mark, it will navigate to the discharging site. The discharge of the water/sand mixture can be done in two ways. If the cargo can position itself at the exact destination, with sufficient water depth, the cargo simply drops out and is discharged by opening flaps or valves in the bottom. The second method of discharging is rain bowing: the bow of the ship is brought as close as possible to the dumping position and water/sand mixture is pumped out through a bow jet to the required position. Some small hopper suction dredgers, called split-rail suction dredgers are made up of two halves (port and starboard), hinged at the deck-level, which can be separated, open the bottom over the whole length and discharge the cargo. The cargo can be sand, gravel, stratum or clayish soil, undesired port sediment. ‘Trailing suction hopper dredger Split-rail suction dredger 26Cutter suction dredgers Cutter suction dredgers are used for tougher types of soils, which cannot be simply sucked up. These vessels rake the seabed through a rotating cutter around the lower end of the suction pipe and are often used in the development of new ports and new waterways. Cutter suction dredgers are normally barges which can be equipped with their own means of propulsion. Two spud poles are fitted at the rear end, with one lowered to pin-point the barge to the bottom. The other pole is pulled up. The dredgers turn around the lowered spud pole which pulls itself to port and starboard in a swinging motion from two anchors, laid out transversely from the forward end, far away, while they are cutting and sucking the bottom material. By changing the spud pole one to another, at the end of each sideways turn, the dredger works itself forward. The soil/water mixture is usually pumped by the dredging pump through a floating transport pipeline to the destination, or pumped in barges alongside. Cutter Suction Dredger a Cutter Suction Dredger Trawlers are fishing vessels which drag their bag-shaped nets through the water. In pelagic fishery, the nets are suspended between the water surface and the seabed. In bottom fishery, the net is dragged over the seabed and requires a high pulling power. The construction and equipment of these fishing vessels depends on the fishing method and the species of fish to catch. The fish is kept on board during the fishing trip as refrigerated cargo. The most important types of trawlers are the derrick-cutter and the stern trawler. The derrick-cutter trawler pulls its two nets, on either side, from the ends of two derricks, which are fitted low, at the double foremast. Each net is kept open by a transverse beam, provided with sliding shoes and 27waking-up chains. The derricks are lowered as close to the water and possible during fishing, to prevent stability problems when one of the nets suddenly fills up with fish, or and, or gets hooked at a wreck. The stern trawler has only one net, launched from a slipway at the stern. This net is kept open by two boards, shearing away, one to either side by ship speed. Stern-trawlers are usually larger than derrick trawlers. Trawlers require enormous power at the end of a pull, when the net is full. Stern Trawler 28Freezer Trawlers, unlike the normal trawlers, can remain at sea for many weeks as the catch is sorted, washed, gutted and then frozen into blocks and kept at a temperature of about - 28 °C, until port is reached. The fish is later thawed out and either sold as fresh fish or kept in storage. Fish factory trawlers are similar to freezer trawlers, but have the possibility to process the catch. In fact, this is not only cleaned and gutted, but also filleted, skinned and processed ready for the market. Fish factory 29Navy vessels Aircraft carriers Aircraft carriers are ships equipped to be used for taking off and landing of specialised aircraft and helicopters. There are different types of aircraft carriers * CTOL (Conventional Take Off and Landing). Aircraft carriers usually need catapults, driven by steam power to accelerate the aircraft take-off. Take off is performed from the bow, in forward direction, with usually two catapults beside each other. Brakes-cables are installed to catch the landing aircraft. The landing strip is laid under an angle of about 25° with centreline to facilitate take-off and landing simultaneously. CTOL aircraft carrier 30* STOVL (Short-Take off and vertical landing) aircraft carriers are smaller than CTOL's. They are a sort of ski-jump for greater lift during take-off and not have the auxiliaries that CTOL’s have. Helicopter carriers just have a flat deck. Cruisers Cruisers mostly have a displacement of over 10,00’ tons and are sufficiently armed to operate on their own. Their tasks are surveillance, blocking, protection of convoys and supporting large fleets. Russian Cruiser Moska Slava, the largest warship operating in the Black Sea 31Destroyers A destroyer is smaller than a cruiser but is also fitted to operate independently. These are multifunctional warships designed to fight submarines and surface vessels and to escort convoys. ‘Type 42 Destroyer HMS Glasgow 32Frigates Frigates are very versatile warships which are suitable for air defence, anti- submarine warfare and surface warfare. They have a wide array of sensors, communication devices and large numbers of sonar’s. There are several different weapon systems on board which are controlled from the control room and can follow and attack a target fully automatically. Frigates are often equipped with a helicopter landing platform. These warships have a length of about 130 metres and a crew of 150. The vessels are lightweight, highly manoeuvrable with a large propulsion power (gas turbine) divided ‘over two engine rooms. At a speed of 30 knots they can come to a complete stop within 1.5 ship- length. Italian Navy Frigate " Maestrale” Corvettes Corvettes have a displacement 700-2000 tons and are well armed. They are best equipped to operate in regional operations and are seldom used for long-range operations. K130 Class Corvette of the German Navy 33Submarines Submarines are hard to detect when underwater and, therefore, are very popular in the navies worldwide. There are different types of submarines: Ballistic Missile Nuclear Submarine, large submarine (120-170 metres) armed with ballistic missiles. These ships are part of the strategic nuclear deterrence force of the super powers. They can stay below the surface for months if necessary. Nuclear-powered Attack Submarine, large submarine armed with a) torpedo, against surface vessel and submarines; b) underwater-to- surface missiles (USM) against surface vessels; c) cruise missiles against land-based targets General purpose Diesel-Electric Submarines. Small to medium submarines armed with torpedoes and USM's. The propulsion is provided by propellers getting their power from large batteries (accumulators). To recharge the batteries through their diesel generators submarines have to snorkel (submarine at periscope depth) at regular intervals. ‘The Royal Navy's Astute Class submarine is a nuclear-powered attack submarine 34Fast attack Craft (FAC) FAC's have a displacement of less than 70 tons, a speed of 25 knots, or more and are designed for fast hit-and run tactics within a range of 100 miles from the coast. Roussen Class (62m Super Vita) Fast Attack Missile Craft, Greece 35Offshore Patrol Vessel (OPV) Ships with a displacement of about 70 tons that can patrol the waters of the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) for an extended period of time. Usually OPV’s are lightly armed and equipped with a helicopter deck which enhances their patrolling capabilities. Offshore patrol vessel 36Mine Counter Measure Vessel (MCMV) A MCMV is any vessel that is designed to located and destroy mines. There are two different types of MCMV: - Mine hunters which are equipped with several types of mine detecting sonar’s. They usually have a Remotely Operated Vehicle for investigation of a sonar contact and the delivery of an underwater destruction charge (mine) Mine hunter - Fleet minesweeper which are capable of towing means to sweep anchored as well as bottom mines through acoustic, magnetic or pressure ignition. 37Amphibious Ships Vessels designed to launch an amphibious force to a coastal operation area. Floating landing craft or helicopters are used for disembarkation of the force. There are many types of amphibious ships. ‘Amphibious ships 38Landing craft Landing craft are smaller than amphibious craft, designed to sail towards a beach and allow vehicles, troops and equipment to leave the ship through a ramp at the bow of the ship. They are not designed to operate under rough conditions and are usually transported to the area of the operation in an amphibious ship. es Landing craft 39)Support vessels There are different types of support vessels: Intelligence collecting ships designed to gather information on other ships and coastal installations in other countries. 40Replenishment Oiler designed to carry water, stores, fuel and ammunition and can supply these goods to other ships at sea, whilst underway. Replenishment Oiler 4Hydrographic survey ships designed to survey the bottom of the sea to make charts for navigation. Hydrographic Survey ship 42Oceanic Research Ship designed to gather information about the physical and biological characteristics of the sea. 43Rescue and Salvage Ships can be likened to seagoing tugs and are provided with fire-fighting equipment. Rescue and salvage shipWork-ships Cable laying ships Cable laying ships are vessels specially designed to lay one or more cables on the sea floor. If the distance exceeds the length of one cable, cables have to be joined together on board the ship. These vessels can also repair a broken or damaged cable. In the cable-laying process is essential that the positions of the cables on the sea floor correspond with their positions on the map. Modern cable ships are therefore equipped with multiple adjustable, and often also azimuth, propellers in combination with Dynamic positioning & Tracking. The cables are spirally stowed in large circular drums from where the cable is pulled out by the cable hanging behind the ship, from the centre of the coil, at considerable speed. Cable laying ship 45UNIT 2 OFFSHORE UNITS In the oil and gas industry the term “offshore” indicates the industrial activities in open sea, including the search (exploration) of oil and gas, production (exploitation) and their transportation to the shore. The offshore is part of the industry that designs, builds and operates the offshore structures to carry out the offshore activities. Stages of Offshore activities The sequence of production development, from search to delivery is made up of the following phases: * Search Evaluation of seismic information Exploration drilling Production drilling Crane barge Production platform FPSO/ FSO Shuttle tanker or pipeline. Description of offshore units Seismic survey vessel A seismic survey vessel is designed to produce detailed information for oil companies as a basis for actual production. This information is the result of the assessment of the waves of the reflected sound in the sea floor. To obtain these results sound waves are produced by a vessel through air guns; the reflections are collected by a number of detectors within long cables (streamers) towed by the survey vessel. 47Jack-Up The jack up drilling is used for exploration drilling for a water depth of about 10 metres to max. 150 metres. The jack-up barge is a triangle or rectangular-shaped barge which is towed to the work location. At the location the barge lowers its legs until they reach the seabed and then climbs into the legs, lifting itself to a working height, safe above the waves. Jack-up barges are mainly used for exploration drilling (usually 3 legged) and as a work barge for construction work (typically 4 legged). Long distance transport of jacks-up is carried out by towing through a tug or by heavy lift transport ship. Jack-up 48Drilling ship A ship-shaped drilling unit is used for drilling, exploration and production wells in medium-deep water (150-3000 metres water depth). A modern drill ship can obtain an average speed of 14 knots in transit with a high drilling equipment storage capacity. The vessel is ideal for drilling consecutive wells in different parts of the world. To maintain position during drilling operations the ships, depending on the water depth, are either anchor-moored with 8 or 12 anchors on long wires and chains, or rely on Dynamic Positioning (DP). Drilling ship 49A semi-submersible drilling unit is used for drilling the exploration and production wells in 150-2,500 meter water depth. Anchor units can operate in up to 1500 meter water depth. Dynamically positioned vessels can operate irrespective of water depth. An important advantage of the semi- submersible type is the better motion behaviour of the platform in harsh environment, which gives a larger working window. Semi-submersible drilling unit 50Crane vessel They are ship-shape and semi-submersible barges or vessels, equipped with one or two heavy-duty offshore cranes. The largest crane vessels are the Semi-Submersible Crane Vessels (SSCV). The maximum hoisting capacity is 7,000 tonnes per crane. The crane vessels are used for lifting and installation of large modules (weighing up to 12,000 tonnes) for fixed offshore platforms, from transport barges onto the fixed platform. Some crane vessels also have pipe-laying facilities. The base of the platform (jacket) is either launched from a barge or lifted onto the sea-bed by the crane vessel before installing the topside modules. After the jacket is installed this is firmly connected to the seabed by steel piles which are driven down by large hydraulic hammers suspended from the offshore cranes. On top of the jacket, various items are fitted and interconnected. These box-shaped structures, called modules are, as far as practicable, pre- fabricated and fastened to the jacket. The weight of each module is limited by the weight the available offshore crane unit can handle. Crane vessel Saipem 3000 SIFixed production platforms Production platform are onshore prefabricated structures which provide a working platform for production drilling, production and are the starting point of a pipeline to a collecting unit. After construction ashore the platform is carried lying on its side on a barge to the production location at sea and launched from the barge into a vertical position on the seabed. Afterwards it is nailed to the seabed by piles, through a floating offshore crane. Modules are subsequently lifted onto platform, interconnected and a drilling derrick is installed. After commissioning, the drilling can start, and the production begins after drilling several holes, installing well-heads with the required pipeline connections. Most platforms stand in 20- 150 meter water depths. Fixed production platform 52Tension Leg Platform (TLP) The TLP is used for drilling and production purposes. The unit looks like a semi-submersible drilling unit and is fastened to the seabed through vertically tensioned steel cables. The buoyancy of the platform applies tension to the cables. The TLP is more economical than the fixed platform, especially for deeper water. If the production in a particular field ends, this type of platform can be moved to another location. ‘Tension leg Platform (TLP) 53Floating Production Storage and Offloading (FPSO) A FPSO vessel produces crude oil from fluids pumped up from the oil wells. On the vessel the fluids are processed to separate the crude oil from water and gas and the oil is temporarily stored on board until oil is offloaded to a shuttle tanker. The DP-FPSO is a recent development through a Dynamic Positioning (DP) system by means of azimuth thrusters. Usually an FPSO is kept on position by a spread anchor mooring system. The FPSO vessel weathervanes around the turret to keep to the least amount the drift forces and the roll motion by turning its bow into the waves. The turret is a vertical tube, going from the ship, from above deck to below the flat bottom, around which the whole FPSO can freely rotate. The flexible pipelines (risers) that bring the fluid to the surface are connected to the turret from below. The oil is produced from several oil wells in the field and transported to the risers by in-field pipelines. ‘Schematic view of the process and storage on board an FPSOShuttle tankers In the absence of a pipeline from the production facility to the shore terminal a shuttle tanker can be used to load oil from the FPSO and carry this as cargo to the shore terminal. The shuttle tanker is placed behind the stern of the FPSO and connects itself by a hose with the FPSO, to a special adapter in the bow, the bow-coupler. The stern of the FPSO therefore is provided with a crane to assist with the coupling. The shuttle tanker can be connected with mooring lines from the FPSO, keeping its engine in stern mode to be free from FPSO, but most of them are dynamically positioned. ‘Shuttle tanker 55Pipe-laying barges /semi-subs/ vessels For the installation of sub-sea oil and gas pipelines different barges and vessels are used: * Anchor-moored or dynamically positioned flat bottom barges * Semi-submersibles + Ship-shaped vessel Many of these pipe laying vessels, in addition to pipe-laying equipment are also provided with a heavy-duty crane for construction and/or installation work. Since the pipe-lines (joints) are welded together, a full pipe joining/welding and coating factory is installed on deck. After welding the pipe joints, non destructive testing (NDT) is carried out before the pipe is moved aft, horizontally, over the so-called firing line through the pipe stringer. Welding the pipes together and carrying them through the stringer (a guidance beam) to the seabed is called S-lay. S-lay is used widely up to 2500 meter water depth. For water which is over 1000 meter deep a J-lay tower (the pipe looks like a hockey stick) is commonly used. This J-lay tower is installed vertically and allows welding, coating, NDT and lowering in a vertical manner. ‘Traditional S-lay J-lay tower on board Saipem 56Platform Supply Vessel (PSV) Supply vessels have many functions and are used for the supply of fuel, drilling mud, fresh water (drilling) equipment and pipes to or from offshore platforms or other vessels. In addition, they can provide fire fighting and towing operations of floating units. During these supply operations DP is often used to keep its position. For towing operations PSV’s require large diesel engines. PSV’s can often perform anchor handling operations. They have no helideck and no cranes. They have a long aft deck and are provided with below-deck storage tanks. PVS (Platform Supply Vessel) 37Anchor Handling Tug (AHT) An anchor handling tug is used to set and retrieve anchors of moored offshore units and for towing these units. It looks like a PSV, but is has a shorter aft deck and an open stern with a stern roll and large winches to pull anchors on the deck. If the AHT operates also as a supplier it is called an Anchor Handling Tug Supplier (AHTS) ‘Anchor Handling Tug Supplier (AHTS) 58Diving Support Vessel (DSV) Diving support vessels are designed to support divers who are performing inspections, construction or repair work on sub-sea structures. To facilitate the diving operations DSV’s are provided with driving bells and decompression chambers for divers. A hole in the middle of the ship, called moon pool is used to lower divers or sub sea tools. Such a sub-sea tool is the Remotely Operated Vehicle (ROV), a self-propelled underwater remote controlled robot for inspection or construction and repair work. Usually the ROV is connected to the Diving support vessel through a cable for power and control, the so-called umbilical cord. DSV’s are anchored moored or dynamically positioned and must satisfy the highest requirements because any drift-off of DSV could be dangerous for the divers. Diving support Vessel (DSV) 59Multipurpose Support Vessel (MSV) A multipurpose support vessel is similar to a driving support vessel, but has no facilities for divers. MSV’s are designed for a variety of tasks such as: * Survey work (e.g. seabed, pipeline, sub-sea structure). * Sub-sea construction, installation and maintenance or repair works * Trenching of cables or pipelines * Installation of flexibles * Operations on wells. MSV's typically are provided with a relatively large accommodation, a helideck, a flat work-deck aft, cranes, moon pool for lowering ROV’s or other equipment. The vessel can be ship-shaped or of the semi-submersible type. Multi purpose Support Vessel (MSV) 60Crew boat They are used for crew changes of drilling rigs or other craft in benign waters. They are fast boat about 20 metres long, with an accommodation for about 24 passengers in chairs and an open aft deck to take some spare parts and enough space to embark or disembark the crewmembers through crew-basket, suspended from the crane of the rig or ship. In some areas such as the North Sea, helicopters are used for crew changes ‘Crew boat Stand by vessels and chase vessels Stand by vessels are positioned in the vicinity of platforms or offshore operations to perform rescue operations in case of emergencies. Chase vessels are designed to chase ships away from platforms, offshore operations, seismic survey vessels and for supply operations. Often all these services can be combined in a single ship. Often converted fishing vessels are used as stand by vessels and chase vessels. Sas ‘Stand by & Chase Vessel 61UNIT 3_ SHIP TERMINOLGY Directions Directions on board ship are described by a number of terms which are peculiar to the idiom of seafarers. Assuming the ship is going ahead on a cruise, if one were standing in the middle part of the ship, facing ahead, one would be facing forward. Directly behind would be described as astern. The right hand, from forward to astern, is known as starboard; the left hand side from forward to astern is known as port. The position at right angles to the ship’s fore-and-aft (forward to astern) line is known as abeam. Thus, on the right hand side, this position is known as the starboard beam, and, on the left hand side, as the port beam. The extreme front end is called the stem (or bow). The central part of the ship is called amidships and between amidships and the bows is the foredeck. Abaft the superstructure amidships ("superstructure” is anything erected on the main deck) is the after deck and abaft that, the back end of a ship is called the stern. PORT SIDE PORT QUARTER PORT BEAM PORT BOW STARBOARD STARBOARD STARBOARD (QUARTER BEAM Bow + starsoaro sioe ———+ Most “floors” on board a ship are called decks, any ceilings or overheads are called deck-heads. The walls of the rooms, in cabins, or compartments, are called bulkheads. All cargo spaces are called holds, and are numbered. The hatch is an opening giving access to the hold. These hatches reduce the strength of a deck, as many cross-beams have to be left out. To restore this strength an upright steel wall, in the shape of shallow box without top or bottom, is put around the entry to the hold. This is called the hatch coaming (it also helps to keep out water). The word coaming is used for any structure which keeps water out of an entry or opening in the deck. The lower hold is the bottom of any hatch with ‘tween decks. The space between the ship 62outer plating and inner plating at the bottom, makes up the double bottom space subdivided into tanks. These are protected by boards called a ceiling. The whole body of a ship, not including fittings, is called the hull. The hull is the actual shell of the ship including her superstructure. Many modern cargo and passenger ships have a transverse propulsion unit or bow thrusters in the bow. Their purpose is to give greater manoeuvrability in confined waters, as ports, and so reduce or eliminate the needs for tugs. The rudder, which enables the vessel to maintain her course, is situated right aft. The bulbous bow can improve passenger and crew comfort, as it can reduce pitching in heavy seas and has been provided in tankers, bulk carriers, and modern cargo liners to increase speed when in ballast. ‘The green Line represents the natural bow wave of the hull. he blue Line reprovence the wave created by the bulb. he red line is the sun cf these two, he height of the bow wave ig substantially reduced, welch ‘the hull drag associated with the bow wave. The improves fuel economy, and increases range. 63Bulbuous bow Bow thrustersShip’s Dimensions Length overall (LOA): The length of the vessel over its extremities, from stem to stern. Length between perpendiculars: Length from aft perpendicular (centre of rudder stock) to forward perpendicular. Load line length: Length used in the freeboard calculations. Beam: Width of the hull, usually inside shell plating. Depth: Height from baseline to uppermost continuous deck at side, inside the plating. Draught: The maximum depth underwater, including shell plating. Load line: It is the water line of a vessel lying in the water. 4 | Freeboard. Plimsoll Mark: The Plimsoll mark or Freeboard mark is a symbol indicating the maximum immersion of a vessel in the water, leaving a minimum freeboard for safety. The mark is made up of a circle with a diameter of one foot (0,305 m), through which a horizontal line is drawn with its upper edge going through the centre of the circle. This level indicates the minimum freeboard in salt water summer time. Beside the circle is the load mark made up of a number of horizontal lines which indicate the minimum freeboard. All load lines are connected by a vertical line. The vessel may load cargo till the upper edge of the relevant load line is at he water level. To guarantee the safety of the people on board the Plimsoll Mark should be basically checked by the crew: the abbreviations of the marked load lines should be in the language of the flag state of the ship. In order to facilitate the check of the position of the Mark, above the mark a reference line is drawn: the Deck Line. The Mark and the Deck line must be marked permanently on the port and starboard side and mid-length. When a vessel carries a deck cargo of timber, and certain demands are met, the ship is allowed to have more draught (less freeboard). For this purpose, 65the vessel has a special Freeboard Mark to carry a deck cargo of timber, the so-called Timber Mark. The draught marks, load lines mark and Plimsoll mark shall be marked permanently on the shell plating. DECK UNE — uF te Le u o a 1 ww L R 5 Ww Lana WHA, Plimsoll marks Volumes and weights To establish a world-wide standard to calculate the size of a ship in 1969 at the Imo conference the new measurements for the “Gross Tonnage” and “Nett Tonnage” were introduced. In most countries the Gross Tonnage is used to calculated harbour dues and pilotage, or to determine the number of the crew. Register ton: it is used to determine the size of a ship and is based on volume with one register ton equals to 100 cft, or 2,83 m?. Gross Register Tonnage (GRT or GT): it is usually called Gross Tonnage and is calculated by a formula that takes into account the vessel's volume in cubic meters below the main deck and the enclosed spaces above the main deck. This volume is then multiplied by a coefficient and the result is a non-dimensional number. Nett Register Tonnage: it is also a non-dimensional number and can be obtained from the GT by subtracting the volume of spaces occupied by: crew, navigation equipment, part of propulsion equipment, workshops, ballast. The NT shall not be lower than 30% of the GT. Deadweight (ton): it is the weight a vessel can load till the maximum allowable immersion and is a fixed, unique value for each ship. Cargo Capacity (t): it is the total weight a cargo ship is designed to carry, at certain times. Cargo Capacity (ton)= Deadweight (ton) - ballast, fuel, provisions (ton) Displacement D or A (ton): it is the weight of the volume of water displaced by the vessel, therefore we can say that the displacement equals the total mass of the ship. An important point to watch closely is the ship's position below water. Since a ship is supported by fluid pressure she will incline in any direction according to the position of the weights placed on her. The trim, therefore, is the angle that a ship is making, fore and aft, with the water. Any 66individual ship may make better speed at one trim than at any other. An extreme difference between the water levels at each end of the ship indicates bad loading. The levels are read by numbers painted on the ship’s stem and stern. These are one foot apart and are called draught marks. This means a list (or heel), that is an inclination from one side to another, caused by an inappropriate loading. Above all, the Chief Officer must watch the Load Lines. This is extremely important. The load lines are not merely painted on the sides of ships, they are engraved or punched on, and then painted. If a ship-owner or master overloads a ship so that these lines are underwater the penalties are severe. These are the lines cut into both side of the vessel and shown on the Load Line Certificate. The divided circle on the left shows the depth to which the ship may be loaded in summer time. The one marked “W" means winter loading, the lower one marked “WNA” means that this is the maximum depth to which the ship may be loaded if she is going across the North Atlantic in winter. The other marks above these are, in order, tropical, fresh water, and fresh water tropical Loadines. OECK Line a WNA WINTER NORTH-ATLANTIC LOADLINE AB AMERICAN BUREAU OF SHIPS Three basics requirements of ships are: * buoyancy, the ability to float; * strength, the ability to stay together; * stability, the ability to stay right up. 67UNIT 4 THE BUILDING OF A SHIP Drawings Hundreds of drawings are required to build a vessel. Some drawings shall be submitted for approval to the Flag state and the relevant Classification Society. The most important drawings are: * General Arrangement Plan Lines Plan Construction Plan Profile and Deck Transverse Sections, including Midship Section Double Bottom Construction Fore and Aft ship Rudder, Stern frame Engine foundation Deckhouse Capacity Plan Pumping and Piping etc. General Arrangement Plan (GA): It roughly shows the division and arrangement of the ship. It displays the following views: a side view of the ship, the decks and includes also cross-sections, or a front and back view. These views and cross-sections includes, among other things: * The divisions into different compartments (such as tanks, engine room, holds) * Location of bulkheads * Location and arrangement of superstructures «Major equipment such as winches, loading gear, bow thrusters, lifeboats, etc.) In addition, the drawing includes some basic data such as: volumes of the holds, tonnage, deadweight, engine power, speed, class. a J CG (Gam wii cee General arrangement plans 68Shell Expansion: it provides information on the distribution of the various plates of the shell and other details over the complete hull. Shell expansion Capacity Plan: it a simplified version of the General Arrangement Plan indicating all tanks and holds with their volume and corresponding centres of gravity. Usually this drawing is connected with the Deadweight Scale, which shows the relation between draught, freeboard, displacement, immersion per centimetre and deadweight in fresh and salt water. Capacity Plan 69Building phases of a vessel Before a ship is built the shipping company decides, among other things the following requirements: «The required carrying capacity and tonnage The desired service speed and top speed The types of cargo the ship should carry The lay out of the cargo holds The system of hatches/hatch cover The preferred suppliers of engines, auxiliary navigation equipment, cargo gear, etc. « Number of crew and passengers to determine the number of cabins «Luxury and size of the cabins and general accommodation * Operational area The shipping company then submits this list of demands to several shipyards in order to have an offer (tender). The offer consists of a preliminary sketch, which is made up of an outline specification, a General Arrangement Plan and a and estimate of the price. On the basis of the offer, a shipping company will continue negotiations with 2 or 3 shipyards. Nowadays a computer programme is used for the following activities: * The design of the hull and superstructures shapes, maximum deck load, etc. * Hydrostatic calculations for the loaded vessel and for all types of emergencies which also provide the stability, longitudinal strength and resistance curves. The required engine power and dimensions of the propellers. It can sometimes take months for the shipyards to calculate an accurate price for the tender. Finally the order will be granted to one of the shipyards. This choice takes into account not only the price, but also other factors like the delivery date, the reputation of the shipyard and if the shipyard has constructed a vessel for the shipping company before. After this preparation which often may last one year, the parties involved sign the final building contract which establishes all the legal positions and commercial conditions between the shipyard, the shipping company and also the financer. The shipyard assigns to the future ships a yard number which is stated on all the drawings and documentation. The design time varies from 6 to 18 months in accordance with the complexity of the ship, while the building time varies between 6 and 24 months. A building group is formed by the shipping company and the shipping yard which both appoint people in their field of expertise, responsible for the entire building process until the delivery. The Design Department (often called Drawing Office) provides the detailed diagrams of all the mechanical, hydraulic, pneumatic an electrical systems and the accommodation. Some essential drawings must be submitted to the Classification Society and to the relevant body of the flag state (the state where the ship is to be registered). The working out of all the details to a complete and approved set of drawings takes tens of thousands or even hundreds of thousands of hours, which represents up to 10% of the total building price. 70