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Geographic Information System 1-2 Fundamentals of GIS

1.1 Introduction to GIS

A Geographic Information System (GIS) is a computer-based tool for mapping and analyzing
geographic phenomenon that exist, and events that occur, on Earth. GIS technology integrates
common database operations such as query and statistical analysis with the unique visualization
and geographic analysis benefits offered by maps. These abilities distinguish GIS from other
information systems and make it valuable to a wide range of public and private enterprises for
explaining events, predicting outcomes, and planning strategies. Map making and geographic
analysis are not new, but a GIS performs these tasks faster and with more sophistication than do

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traditional manual methods.
Today, GIS is a multi-billion-dollar industry employing hundreds of thousands of people

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worldwide. GIS is taught in schools, colleges, and universities throughout the world. Professionals

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and domain specialists in every discipline are become increasingly aware of the advantages of
using GIS technology for addressing their unique spatial problems.

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We commonly think of a GIS as a single, well-defined, integrated computer system. However,
this is not always the case. A GIS can be made up of a variety of software and hardware tools. The

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important factor is the level of integration of these tools to provide a smoothly operating, fully
functional geographic data processing environment.
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Overall, GIS should be viewed as a technology, not simply as a computer system.

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In general, a GIS provides facilities for data capture, data management, data manipulation and

upon preserving and utilizing inherent characteristics of spatial data. g

analysis, and the presentation of results in both graphic and report form, with a particular emphasis

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The ability to incorporate spatial data, manage it, analyze it, and answer spatial questions is the
distinctive characteristic of geographic information systems.
A geographic information system, commonly referred to as a GIS, is an integrated set of
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hardware and software tools used for the manipulation and management of digital spatial
(geographic) and related attribute data.
There are three integrating part in a GIS :
Geographic : The spatial realities of the real world
Information : The meaning and use of data
Systems : The computer technology and support infrastructure

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Geographic Information System 1-3 Fundamentals of GIS

1.2 Basic Spatial Concepts

Spatial concepts as the driving force for spatial thinking and for the selection and use of spatial
tools. Eight concepts are the focus of spatial reasoning in the use of geographical information.
These concepts are demonstrable at all levels of space and time.
 Location - Understanding formal and informal methods of specifying “where”
 Distance - The ability to reason from knowledge of relative position
 Network - Understanding the importance of connections
 Neighborhood and Region - Drawing inferences from spatial context
 Scale - Understanding spatial scale and its significance
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 Spatial Heterogeneity - The implications of spatial variability

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 Spatial Dependence - Understanding relationships across space

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 Objects and Fields - Viewing phenomena as continuous in space-time or as discrete

1.3 Coordinate System

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A coordinate system is a reference system used for locating objects in a two or three
dimensional space
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Geographic Coordinate System
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A geographic coordinate system, also known as global or spherical coordinate system is a
reference system that uses a three-dimensional spherical surface to determine locations on the rin
earth. Any location on earth can be referenced by a point with longitude and latitude.
We must familiarize ourselves with the geographic terms with respect to the Earth coordinate
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system in order to use the GIS technologies effectively.
Pole : The geographic pole of earth is defined as either of the two points where the axis of t
rotation of the earth meets its surface. The North Pole lies 90º north of the equator and the South
Pole lies 90º south of the equator
Latitude : Imaginary lines that run horizontally around the globe and are measured from 90º
north to 90º south. Also known as parallels, latitudes are equidistant from each other.
Equator : An imaginary line on the earth with zero degree latitude, divides the earth into two
halves-Northern and Southern Hemisphere. This parallel has the widest circumference.

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Fig. 1.3.1 Division of earth into hemispheres

Longitude : Imaginary lines that run vertically around the globe. Also known as meridians,

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longitudes are measured from 180º east to 180º west. Longitudes meet at the poles and are widest
apart at the equator

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Prime meridian : Zero degree longitude which divides the earth into two halves-Eastern and
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Western hemisphere. As it runs through the Royal Greenwich Observatory in Greenwich, England

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it is also known as Greenwich meridian

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Fig. 1.3.2 Latitude and longitude measurements

Equator (0º) is the reference for the measurement of latitude. Latitude is measured north or g .ne
south of the equator. For measurement of longitude, prime meridian (0º) is used as a reference.
Longitude is measured east or west of prime meridian. The grid of latitude and longitude over the
globe is known as graticule. The intersection point of the equator and the prime meridian is the
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origin (0, 0) of the graticule.

Coordinate measurement
The geographic coordinates are measured in angles. The angle measurement can be understood
as per following :

A full circle has 360 degrees 360º

1 circle A degree is further divided into 60 minutes 1º = 60′

A minute is further divided into 60 seconds 1′ = 60″

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Geographic Information System 1-5 Fundamentals of GIS

An angle is expressed in Degree Minute Second.

While writing coordinates of a location, latitude is followed by longitude. For example,
coordinates of Delhi is written as 28° 36′ 50″ N, 77° 12′ 32″ E.
Decimal Degree is another format of expressing the coordinates of a location. To convert a
coordinate pair from degree minute second to decimal degree following method is adopted :
8º36’50” = 28 + (36*1)+50(50*1/60*1/60)
= 28 + 0.6 + 0.138
= 28.6138

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We have 28 full degrees, 36 minutes - each 1/60 of a degree, and 50 seconds - each 1/60 of 1/60
of a degree.

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Local Time and Time Zones

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With rotation of earth on its axis, at any moment one of the longitudes faces the Sun (noon

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meridian), and at that moment, it is noon everywhere on it. After 24 hours the earth completes one
full rotation with respect to the Sun, and the same meridian again faces the noon. Thus each hour
the Earth rotates by 360/24 = 15 degrees.
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This implies that with every 15º of longitude change a new time zone is created which is

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marked by a difference of one hour from the neighboring longitudes specified at 15º gap. The
earth's time zones are measured from the prime meridian (0º) and the time at Prime meridian is
called Greenwich Mean Time. Thus, there are 24 time zones created around the globe. rin
Date
The International Date Line is the imaginary line on the Earth that separates two consecutive
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calendar days. Generally, it is said to be lying exactly opposite to the prime meridian having a
measurement of 180º meridian but it is not so. It zigs and zags the 180º meridian following the
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political jurisdiction of the states but for sake of simplicity it is taken as 180º meridian. Starting at
midnight and going east to the International Date Line, the date is one day ahead of the date on the
rest of the Earth.

Projected Coordinate system

A projected coordinate system is defined as two dimensional representation of the Earth. It is
based on a spheroid geographic coordinate system, but it uses linear units of measure for
coordinates. It is also known as Cartesian coordinate system.
In such a coordinate system the location of a point on the grid is identified by (x, y) coordinate
pair and the origin lies at the centre of grid. The x coordinate determines the horizontal position
and y coordinate determines the vertical position of the point.

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ww Fig. 1.3.3 Cartesian coordinate system

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In such a coordinate system the location of a point on the grid is identified by (x, y) coordinate
pair and the origin lies at the centre of grid. The x coordinate determines the horizontal position

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and y coordinate determines the vertical position of the point.

1.4 GIS and Information Systems

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1.4.1 Definitions of GIS
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“A geographic information system is a special case of information systems where the database

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consists of observations on spatially distributed features, activities or events, which are definable in
space as points, lines, or areas. A geographic information system manipulates data about these
points, lines, and areas to retrieve data for ad hoc queries and analyses” (Kenneth Dueker,
Portland State University, 1979).
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“A powerful set of tools for collection, storing, retrieving at will transforming and displaying
spatial data from the real world” Burrough,1986
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“A system for capturing , storing, checking, integrating, manipulating, analyzing and displaying
data which are spatially referenced on the earth ” Chorley, 1987.
“GIS is a configuration of computer hardware and software specifically designed for the
acquisition, maintenance and use of cartographic data” Tomlin,1990
“A Geographic Information System (GIS) is a computer-based tool for mapping and analyzing
things that exist and events that happen on earth. GIS technology integrates common database
operations such as query and statistical analysis with the unique visualization and geographic
analysis benefits offered by maps.” ESRI

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Geographic Information System 1-7 Fundamentals of GIS

“GIS is an integrated system of computer hardware, software, and trained personnel linking
topographic, demographic, utility, facility, image and other resource data that is geographically
referenced.” NASA.

1.4.2 Objectives of GIS

Some of the major objectives of GIS are to
 Maximizing the efficiency of planning and decision making
 Integrating information from multiple sources
 Facilitating complex querying and analysis

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 Eliminating redundant data and minimizing duplication

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1.5 History of GIS

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One of the first applications of spatial analysis in epidemiology is the 1832 "Rapport sur la
marche et les effets du choléra dans Paris et le department de la Seine". The French geographer
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Charles Piquet represented the 48 districts of the city of Paris by halftone color gradient according
to the percentage of deaths by cholera per 1,000 inhabitants.
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In 1854 John Snow depicted a cholera outbreak in London using points to represent the

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locations of some individual cases, possibly the earliest use of a geographic methodology in
epidemiology. His study of the distribution of cholera led to the source of the disease, a
contaminated water pump (the Broad Street Pump, whose handle he disconnected, thus terminating
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the outbreak).
The early 20th century saw the development of photo zincography, which allowed maps to be g .ne
split into layers, for example one layer for vegetation and another for water. This was particularly
used for printing contours – drawing these was a labor-intensive task but having them on a separate
layer meant they could be worked on without the other layers to confuse the draughtsman.
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The year 1960 saw the development of the world's first true operational GIS in Ottawa, Ontario,
Canada by the federal Department of Forestry and Rural Development. Developed by Dr. Roger
Tomlinson, it was called the Canada Geographic Information System (CGIS) and was used to
store, analyze, and manipulate data collected for the Canada Land Inventory – an effort to
determine the land capability for rural Canada by mapping information about soils, agriculture,
recreation, wildlife, waterfowl, forestry and land use at a scale of 1:50,000.
In 1986, Mapping Display and Analysis System (MIDAS), the first desktop GIS product
emerged for the DOS operating system. This was renamed in 1990 to MapInfo for Windows when
it was ported to the Microsoft Windows platform. This began the process of moving GIS from the
research department into the business environment.

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Geographic Information System 1-8 Fundamentals of GIS

The first known use of the term "Geographic Information System" was by Dr. Roger
Tomlinson in the year 1968 in his paper "A Geographic Information System for Regional
Planning“. Tomlinson is also acknowledged as the "father of GIS”.

1.6 Components of a GIS

1.6.1 Hardware
It consists of the equipments and support devices that are required to capture, store process and
visualize the geographic information. These include computer with hard disk, digitizers, scanners,
printers and plotters etc.

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1.6.2 Software

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Software is at the heart of a GIS system. The GIS software must have the basic capabilities of

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data input, storage, transformation, analysis and providing desired outputs. The interfaces could be

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different for different software’s.
Key software components are

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 Tools for the input and manipulation of geographic information
 A database management system (DBMS)
 Tools that support geographic query, analysis, and visualization nee
 A graphical user interface (GUI) for easy access to tools
The GIS software’s being used today belong to either of the category –proprietary or open rin
source. ArcGIS by ESRI is the widely used proprietary GIS software. Others in the same category
are MapInfo, Microstation, Geomedia etc. The development of open source GIS has provided us
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with freely available desktop GIS such as Quantum, uDIG, GRASS, MapWindow GIS etc., GIS
softwares.
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1.6.3 Data
The data is captured or collected from various sources (such as maps, field observations,
photography, satellite imagery etc) and is processed for analysis and presentation.

1.6.4 Methods/Procedures
These include the methods or ways by which data has to be input in the system, retrieved,
processed, transformed and presented.

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1.6.5 People
This component of GIS includes all those individuals (such as programmer, database manager,
GIS researcher etc.) who are making the GIS work, and also the individuals who are at the user end
using the GIS services, applications and tools

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Fig. 1.6.1 Components of GIS
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1.7 GIS Subsystems / Software Functional Elements
A GIS has four main functional subsystems. These are:
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 a data input subsystem;
 a data storage and retrieval subsystem
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 a data manipulation and analysis subsystem
 a data output and display subsystem

1.7.1 Data Input

Data input is the operation of encoding the data and writing them to the database and creates the
foundation for useful GIS. However, the process of good database creation is very time consuming
and complex operation upon which the usefulness of the GIS depends.
A data input subsystem allows the user to capture, collect, and transform spatial and thematic
data into digital form. Data input involves data acquisition including identification and collection
of data required for applications. It covers all aspects of transforming data captured from existing

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Geographic Information System 1 - 10 Fundamentals of GIS

maps, field observations, and sensors into a compatible digital form. A wide range of computer
tools is available for this purpose, including the digitizer, lists of data in text files, scanners and the
devices necessary for recording data already written on magnetic media such as tapes, drums and
disks
Various sources for data input may be :
 text files
 existing maps
 aerial photographs
 satellite imagery

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 airborne scanners

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 field measurements

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Fig 1.7.1 Data input

1.7.2 Data Storage and Retrieval

The data storage and retrieval subsystem organizes the data, spatial and attribute, in a form
which permits it to be quickly retrieved by the user for analysis, and permits rapid and accurate
updates to be made to the database. This component usually involves use of a Database
Management System (DBMS) for maintaining attribute data. Spatial data is usually encoded and
maintained in a proprietary file format.

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1.7.3 Data Manipulation and Analysis
Fig. 1.7.2 Data Storage

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The data manipulation and analysis subsystem allows the user to define and execute spatial and
attribute procedures to generate derived information. This subsystem is commonly thought of as

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the heart of a GIS, and usually distinguishes it from other database information systems and
Computer-Aided Drafting (CAD) systems.

1.7.4 Data Output

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The data output subsystem allows the user to generate graphic displays, normally maps, and rin
tabular reports representing derived information products.
The critical function for a GIS is, by design, the analysis of spatial data.
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Fig. 1.7.3 Data Output

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Geographic Information System 1 - 12 Fundamentals of GIS

It is important to understand that the GIS is not a new invention. In fact, geographic
information processing has a rich history in a variety of disciplines. In particular, natural resource
specialists and environmental scientists have been actively processing geographic data and
promoting their techniques since the 1960's.

1.8 Applications of GIS

GIS is involved in various areas. These include topographical mapping, socioeconomic and
environment modeling, and education. The role of GIS is best illustrated with respect to some of
the representative application areas that are mentioned below

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 Tax Mapping,
 Business,

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 Logistics,

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 Emergency evacuation,
 Environment

1.8.1 Tax Mapping

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Raising revenue from property taxes is one of the important functions of the government

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agencies. The amount of tax payable depends on the value of the land and the property. The correct
assessment of value of land and property determines the equitable distribution of the community

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tax. A tax assessor has to evaluate new properties and respond to the existing property valuation.
To evaluate taxes the assessor uses details on current market rents, sale, maintenance, insurance
and other expenses. Managing as well as analyzing all this information simultaneously is time
consuming and hence comes the need of GIS. Information about property with its geographical
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location and boundary is managed by GIS. Land units stored in parcel database can be linked to
their properties. Querying the GIS database can locate similar type of properties in an area. The
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characteristics of these properties can then be compared and valuation can be easily done

1.8.2 Business
Approximately 80 percent of all business data are related to location. Businesses manage a
world of information about sales, customers, inventory, demographic profiles etc. Demographic
analysis is the basis for many other business functions: customer service, site analysis, and
marketing. Understanding your customers and their socioeconomic and purchasing behavior is
essential for making good business decisions. A GIS with relevant data such as number of
consumers, brands and sites they go for shopping can give any business unit a fair idea whether
their unit if set up is going to work at a particular location the way they want it to run.

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1.8.3 Logistics
Logistics is a field that takes care of transporting goods from one place to another and finally
delivering them to their destinations. It is necessary for the shipping companies to know where
their warehouses should be located, which routes should the transport follow that ensures minimum
time and expenditures to deliver the parcels to their destinations. All such logistics decisions need
GIS support.

1.8.4 Emergency Evacuation

The occurrence of disasters is unpredictable. We as humans are unable to tell when, where and

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what magnitude of disaster is going to emerge and therefore solely depend on disaster preparedness
as safety measures. It is important to know in which area the risk is higher, the number of

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individuals inhabiting that place, the routes by which the vehicles would move to help in

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evacuating the individuals. Thus preparing an evacuation plan needs GIS implementation.

1.8.5 Environment
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GIS is being increasingly involved in mapping the habitat loss, urban sprawl, land-use change

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etc. Mapping such phenomena need historical landuse data, anthropogenic effects which greatly

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affect these phenomena are also brought into GIS domain. GIS models are then run to make
predictions for the future.

1.9 Proprietary and Open Source Software

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1.9.1 Open-Source GIS Software g .ne
Many GIS tasks can be accomplished with open-source GIS software, which are freely
available over Internet downloads. With the broad use of non-proprietary and open data formats
such as the Shape File format for vector data and the Geotiff format 26 for raster data, as well as
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the adoption of OGC standards for networked servers, development of open source software
continues to evolve, especially for web and web service oriented applications. Most widely used
open source applications:
 GRASS - Originally developed by the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers, open source : a
complete GIS
 MapServer - Web-based mapping server, developed by the University of Minnesota.
 Chameleon - Environments for building applications with MapServer.
 GeoNetwork opensource - A catalog application to manage spatially referenced resources
 GeoTools - Open source GIS toolkit written in Java, using Open Geospatial Consortium
specifications.

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 gvSIG - Open source GIS written in Java.

1.9.2 Proprietary Software

With proprietary software there is one point of contact, with the open source software the
support comes from the community. License cost versus capacity development : potentially save
enough money on software to save jobs. License on tools are hard to sell, more profits from the
participation in projects that need improvements on the tool or capacity development using the
tool. Proprietary tools tend to lock the user in: hard to make improvements, stuck with formats.
Bugs are easier removed by the community. New developments are quicker implemented.

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Most widely used notable proprietary software applications and providers :
 ESRI - Products include ArcView 3.x, ArcGIS, ArcSDE, ArcIMS, and ArcWeb services.

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 GRAM++ GIS - Low-cost GIS software product developed by CSRE, IIT Bombay.

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 Autodesk - Products include MapGuide and other products that interface with its flagship

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AutoCAD software package.
 Cadcorp - Developers of GIS software and OpenGIS standard

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 Intergraph - Products include GeoMedia, GeoMedia Profesional, GeoMedia WebMap
 ERDAS IMAGINE - A proprietary GIS, Remote Sensing, and Photogrammetry software
developed by Leica Geosystems Geospatial Imaging.
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 SuperGeo - Products include SuperGIS Desktop & extensions, SuperPad Suite,
SuperWebGIS & extensions, SuperGIS Engine & extensions, SuperGIS Network Server and rin
GIS services.

1.10 Types of Data - Spatial, Attribute Data

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1.10.1 Spatial Data
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Geospatial data, spatial information or geographic information. Spatial data - describes the
absolute and relative location of geographic features. It is represented by vector and raster forms
(including imagery). Spatial data are generally multi-dimensional and auto correlated.
Spatial data also refers to all types of data objects or elements that are present in a geographical
space or horizon. It is the data or information that identifies the geographic location of features and
boundaries on Earth, such as natural or constructed features, oceans, and more.
Spatial data is usually stored as coordinates and topology, and the data that can be mapped. It
enables the global finding and locating of individuals or devices anywhere in the world.

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1.10.1.1 Representation of Space

Burrough & McDonnell (1998) described two ways to represent the space (an area, landscape
or some bigger unit), which are as follows :
a. Discrete Entities : The space could be seen as occupied with entities that are described by
their properties and can be located on earth using coordinate systems. The entities have a
clear boundary. Buildings, roads, land parcels etc. are the example of discrete entities.
b. Continuous fields : The variation of an attribute over the space as a continuous field. No
physical boundary can ever be observed in such case. Temperature, pressure, elevation etc.
across an area are the examples of continuous fields

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1.10.1.2 Types of Data Representation

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The data can be represented in any of the format
 Numeric data
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 Vector data
 Raster data syE
Numeric data
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Numeric data is statistical data which includes a geographical component or field that can be
joined with vector files so the data can be queried and displayed as a layer on a map in a GIS.
The most common type of numeric data is demographic data from the US Census.
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Vector data
Vector data is a data that has a spatial component, or X,Y coordinates assigned to it. Vector
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files can contain sets of points, lines, or polygons that are referenced in a geographic space.
There are three types of features : t
 Point (vertex, node) is a 0-dimensional object and has the property of location (x,y).
 Line (edge, link, chain, arc) is a one-dimensional object that has the property of length. An
arc starts with a node, has zero or more vertices, and ends with a node.
 Polygon is a two-dimensional object with properties of area and perimeter.

Fig. 1.10.1 Vector entities

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Raster data
Raster data is a data in a .JPG, .TIF, .GIF or similar format.
Items scanned using a flatbed scanner like the map given below is examples of raster files.
Images taken with a digital camera produce these same types of files

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w .Ea Fig. 1.10.2 Rater data format

1.10.1.3 Data Content syE

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Based on data content, spatial data can be classified as :

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Temporal - Constantly changing data, i.e. data that represents the dynamic variables at
different time frames (t1, t2). Example of temporal data layers would be rainfall, stream discharge,
and land use.
Thematic - Contains information on some unique aspect or attribute class; i.e. watershed rin
boundaries, soils, geology. g .ne
1.10.1.4 Data Structure
Discrete Data - Discrete Data is object-based, categorical or discontinued data. It represents
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objects defined as points, lines, or areas. Examples are weather stations, rivers, lakes.
In addition, we can find exact spatial objects (discrete features with well-defined boundaries)
and inexact spatial objects (discrete features also called “fuzzy entities” with no precise
boundaries, i.e. the boundaries are transitional).
Continuous Data - Continuous Data is field-based or surface data. It covers a continuous
space, represented by a large number of discrete units. An example is an elevation map
(represented as a raster).

1.10.2 Attribute Data

Attribute data describes characteristics of the spatial features. Also called as Non spatial data
and characteristic data.
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These characteristics can be quantitative and/or qualitative in nature. Attribute data is often
referred to as tabular (Numeric) data. Non-spatial data are generally one-dimensional and
independent. It’s a separate data model used to store and maintain attribute data for GIS
software. These data models may exist internally within the GIS software, or may be reflected in
external commercial Database Management Software (DBMS).
Variety of different data models exist for the storage and management of attribute data.
The most common are :
 Tabular Model
 Hierarchical Model

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 Network Model
 Relational Model
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 Object Oriented Model
Most early GIS software packages stored their attribute data in Tabular model. The next three

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models are those most commonly implemented in Database Management Systems (DBMS).

1.10.2.1 Tabular Model

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The object oriented is newer but rapidly gaining in popularity for some applications.

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It stores attribute data as sequential data files with fixed formats (or comma delimited for
ASCII data), for the location of attribute values in a predefined record structure.
This type of data model is outdated in the GIS arena. rin
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It lacks in method of checking data integrity, as well as being inefficient with respect to data
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e.g. limited indexing capability for attributes or records, etc. t

Fig. 1.10.3 Example showing tabular model

1.10.2.2 Hierarchical Model

It is the earliest database model that is evolved from file system where records are arranged in a
hierarchy or as a tree structure. Records are connected through pointers that store the address of the

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related record. Each pointer establishes a parent child relationship where a parent can have more
than one child but a child can only have one parent. There is no connection between the elements
at the same level. To locate a particular record, you have to start at the top of the tree with a parent
record and trace down the tree to the child.

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Fig. 1.10.4 Example showing hierarchical data structure
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The figure above describes the electronic gadgets in day today use. We can see that flash is a

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child of mp3 players, which is a child of portable electronics, which is a child of electronics. The
topmost element electronics has no parent. Tube, LCD, plasma, CD players and 2 way radios are
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1.10.2.3 Network Data Structure Model
A network is a generalized graph that captures
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relationships between objects using connectivity.
A network database consists of a collection of
records that are connected to each other through
links. A link is an association between two
records. It allows each record to have many
parents and many children thus allowing a natural
model of relationships between entities.

Fig. 1.10.5 Example showing network data

structure model

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1.10.2.4 Relational Data Structure Model

The relational data model was introduced by Codd in 1970. The relational database relates or
connects data in different files through the use of a common field. A flat file structure is used with
a relational database model. In this arrangement, data is stored in different tables made up of rows
and columns. The columns of a table are named by attributes. Each row in the table is called a
tuple and represents a basic fact. No two rows of the same table may have identical values in all
columns.
There are two crucial data integrity constraints viz. primary key and foreign key. A primary key
is an attribute whose value is unique across all tuples (rows) in a relation (table). The primary key

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of one table appearing as an attribute of another table is known as a foreign key in that table

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Fig. 1.10.6 Example showing relational data structure model

1.10.2.5 Object Oriented Model

 The object-oriented database model manages data through objects.
 An object is a collection of data elements and operations that together are considered a
single entity.
 The object-oriented database is a relatively new model.
 This approach has the attraction that querying is very natural, as features can be bundled
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together with attributes at the database administrator's discretion.

 To date, only a few GIS packages are promoting the use of this attribute data model.

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Fig. 1.10.7 Example showing object oriented model

1.11 Scales/ Levels of Measurements

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Measurement is defined as application of rules to assign numbers to objects (or attributes).

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Measurement rules are the procedures used to transform the qualities of attributes into
numbers (e.g., type of scale used).
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Three important properties :
 Magnitude is the property of “moreness”. Higher score refers to more of something.
 Equal interval is the difference between any two adjacent numbers referring to the same
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amount of difference on the attribute?
 Absolute zero is the scale have a zero point that refers to having none of that attribute?
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Measurement Scales
 The scale determines the amount of information contained in the data.
 The scale indicates the data summarization and statistical analyses that are most appropriate.
 The attributes shown in a thematic map can be recorded by four different scales.
 Numerical values may be defined with respect to nominal, ordinal, interval or ratio scales of
measurement.
 It is important to recognize the scales of measurement used in GIS data as this determines
the kinds of mathematical operations that can be performed on the data.

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o Nominal scales - Qualitative, not quantitative distinction (no absolute zero, not equal
intervals, not magnitude)
o Ordinal scales - Ranking individuals (magnitude, but not equal intervals or absolute
zero)
o Interval scales - Scales that have magnitude and equal intervals but not absolute zero
o Ratio scales - Have magnitude, equal intervals, and absolute zero (so can compute
ratios)

Nominal Scale

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Nominal Scales - There must be distinct classes but these classes have no quantitative
properties. Therefore, no comparison can be made in terms of one category being higher than the
other.
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For example - There are two classes for the variable gender - males and females.
There are no quantitative properties for this variable or these classes and, therefore, gender is a
nominal variable. syE
Other Examples :
 Country of origin
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 Biological sex (male or female) nee
 Animal or non-animal
 Married vs. Single rin
Sometimes numbers are used to designate category membership g .ne
Example : Country of Origin
 1 = United States t
 3 = Canada
 2 = Mexico
 4 = Other
However, in this case, it is important to keep in mind that the numbers do not have intrinsic
meaning

Ordinal Scale
Ordinal Scales - There are distinct classes but these classes have a natural ordering or ranking.
The differences can be ordered on the basis of magnitude.
For example - Final position of horses in a race is an ordinal variable. The horses finish first,
second, third, fourth, and so on.
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The difference between first and second is not necessarily equivalent to the difference between
second and third, or between third and fourth.
Does not assume that the intervals between numbers are equal

Fig. 1.11.1 Example : finishing place in a race (first place, second place)

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Interval Scale
The data have the properties of ordinal data, and the interval between observations is expressed

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in terms of a fixed unit of measure.

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Designates an equal-interval ordering - The distance between, for example, a1 and a2 is the

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same as the distance between a4 and a5.
Example - Celsius temperature is an interval variable. It is meaningful to say that 25 degrees

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Celsius is 3 degrees hotter than 22 degrees Celsius, and that 17 degrees Celsius is the same amount
hotter (3 degrees) than 14 degrees Celsius. Notice, however, that 0 degrees Celsius does not have a

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natural meaning. That is, 0 degrees Celsius does not mean the absence of heat!

Ratio Scale
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Fig. 1.11.2 Levels of measurement

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Ratio Scales - captures the properties of the other types of scales, but also contains a true zero,
which represents the absence of the quality being measured. Has an absolute zero that is
meaningful. Can construct a meaningful ratio (fraction), for example, number of clients in past six
months.
It is meaningful to say that “...we had twice as many clients in this period as we did in the
previous six months.

1.12 Two Marks Questions with Answers

Q.1 Define GIS

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Ans. : GIS stands for Geographical Information System. According to Burrough,1986
GIS is defined as an integrated tool, capable of mapping, analyzing, manipulating and storing

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geographical data in order to provide solutions to real world problems and help in planning for
the future.
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GIS deals with what and where components of occurrences. For example, to regulate rapid
transportation, government decides to build fly-over (what component) in those areas of the
city where traffic jams are common (where component).
Q.2 List the components of GIS ngi
Ans. : Hardware, Software, Data, Method, People.
Q.3 List out the three basic kinds vector entities in GIS.
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Ans. : The Vector Model uses points and their coordinates (X, Y) to represent spatial featuresrin
(ESRI). There are three types of features:
Point (vertex, node) is a 0-dimensional object and has the property of location (x,y).
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Line (edge, link, chain, arc) is a one-dimensional object that has the property of length. An
arc starts with a node, has zero or more vertices, and ends with a node.
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A polygon is a two-dimensional object with properties of area and perimeter.

Q.4 What are the applications of GIS?

Ans. :
 Tax Mapping
 Business
 Logistics

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 Emergency evacuation
 Environment
Q.5 Differentiate Spatial and Attribute data.
Ans. :
Sr. Spatial data Attribute data
No.

1. Describes the absolute and relative Describes characteristics of the spatial

location of geographic features. features

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2. It is represented by vector and raster
forms (including imagery).
These characteristics can be quantitative
and/or qualitative in nature

3.
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dimensional and auto correlated
Non-spatial data are generally one-
dimensional and independent.

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Q.6 What are the 4M analysis in GIS?
Ans. : ngi
In a GIS, we measure environmental parameters, develop maps portraying earth

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characteristics, monitor changes in surrounding space and time, and also model alternatives of
actions and processes operating in the environment. These are called four Ms of GIS
Q.7 Write any 4 advantages of GIS. rin
Ans. :
 Geospatial data better maintained in a standard format
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 Revision and updating easier
 Geospatial data and information easier to search, analyze and represent
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 Value added products can be generated
 Geospatial data can be shared and exchanged freely
 Productivity and efficiency of staff is improved
 Saving in time and money
 Better decisions making
Q.8 Which is called as characteristics data? Why?
Ans. : Attribute data is known as Characteristic Data. Attribute data- describes characteristics of
the spatial features.
These characteristics can be quantitative and/or qualitative in nature.
Attribute data is often referred to as tabular(Numeric) data.
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Non-spatial data are generally one-dimensional and independent.

Q.9 What are the levels of measurement?
Ans. : The scale determines the amount of information contained in the data.
The scale indicates the data summarization and statistical analyses that are most appropriate.
Nominal scales - Qualitative, not quantitative distinction (no absolute zero, not equal
intervals, not magnitude)
Ordinal scales - Ranking individuals (magnitude, but not equal intervals or absolute zero)
Interval scales - Scales that have magnitude and equal intervals but not absolute zero
Ratio scales - Have magnitude, equal intervals, and absolute zero (so can compute ratios)

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Q.10 Write the types of Coordinate Systems
Ans. : Cartesian Coordinate system - can be represented by a grid with a numbering system that

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can locate information on a horizontal and vertical axis.

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Polar coordinate system - information are located using only an angle and a distance (radius).

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Global coordinate system - is where two numbers (latitude and longitude) are used to
reference a specific location on the earth.
Q.11 What is Geographical co-ordinate system?
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Ans. : This is a one of true co-ordinate system .The location of any point on the earth surface
can be defined by a reference using latitude and longitude. nee
Q.12 What are the hardware components of a GIS?
Ans. : Hardware is the computer on which a GIS operates. Today, GIS software runs on a wide rin
range of hardware types, from centralized computer servers to desktop computers used in stand-
alone or networked configurations.
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Q.13 What are the software components of a GIS?
Ans. :
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 Data acquisition/Input
 Data processing and preprocessing
 Database management (storage and retrieval)
 Spatial data manipulation and analysis
 Product generation: output and visualization
Q.14 What are the data input devices used in a GIS?
Ans. : The different methods of input into a GIS are by
 Keyboard entry
 Manual digitizing
 Scanning and automatic digitizing.

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Q.15 What are the data output devices used in a GIS?

Ans. : The important data output devices used ina GIS are
1. Plotter : Used to plot the graphical information after analysis on a paper
2. Printer : Used to print the information after analysis on a paper
3. VDU : Visual display unit - used to display the results after analysis
4. Tape Drive: Used to atore the results after analysis and take it to other systems.
Q.16 List the important GIS software’s.
Ans. : Standard GIS Softwares

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 ARCGIS
 ARCVIEW

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 ARCINFO
 MAPINFO
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 ERDAS
 ENVI syE
 AUTOCADMAP
 IDRISI
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Q.17 What is DBMS? nee
Ans. : A Database Management System (DBMS) is a software package with computer programs
that control the creation, maintenance, and use of a database. It allows organizations to rin
conveniently develop databases for various applications by Database Administrators (DBAs) and
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other specialists. A database is an integrated collection of data records, files, and other objects. A
DBMS allows different user application programs to concurrently access the same database..
Q.18 Define attribute values
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Ans. : An attribute-value system is a basic knowledge representation framework comprising a
table with columns designating "attributes" (also known as "properties", "predicates," "features,"
"dimensions," "characteristics" or "independent variables" depending on the context) and rows
designating "objects" (also known as "entities," "instances," "exemplars," "elements" or
"dependent variables"). Each table cell therefore designates the value (also known as "state") of
a particular attribute of a particular object.
Q.19 What are the input formats of GIS software?
Ans. :
 text files

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Geographic Information System 1 - 27 Fundamentals of GIS

 existing maps
 aerial photographs
 satellite imagery
 airborne scanners
 field measurements
 other GIS databases
Q.20 Differentiate Latitude and longitude.
Ans. : Latitude : Imaginary lines that run horizontally around the globe and are measured from

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90º north to 90º south. Also known as parallels, latitudes are equidistant from each other.

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Longitude : Imaginary lines that run vertically around the globe. Also known as meridians,
longitudes are measured from 180º east to 180º west. Longitudes meet at the poles and are
widest apart at the equator
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1.13 Long Answered Questions with Answers
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Q.1 Write about the components of GIS in detail. (Refer section 1.6)
Q.2 Illustrate the concept of Coordinate System. (Refer section 1.3) g .ne
Q.3 Explain the workflow of Geographic Information System in detail. (Refer section 1.7)
Q.4 Discuss briefly about Spatial and Attribute data. (Refer section 1.10) t
Q.5 Discuss in detail about Software Functional elements. (Refer section 1.7)
Q.6 While writing coordinates of a location, latitude is followed by longitude. For example, coordinates of
Delhi is written as 28° 36′ 50″ N, 77° 12′ 32″ E. Convert a coordinate pair from degree minute second
to decimal degree. (Refer page No. 1 - 5)
Q.7 Write in detail about Proprietary and open source Software of GIS. (Refer section 1.9)
Q.8 Explain the types of data models in Attribute data. (Refer section 1.10.2)



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Notes

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