PRELIM

LESSON 1: ETHICS, NORMATIVE AND FOUR THEORIES OF NORMATIVE ETHICS

MORALITY • Aristotle's Nicomachean
(AristotleanTeleogy). Constant
INTRODUCTION practice of virtues that will lead to that
• The world is rapidly changing in terms of its purpose or end.
society, economics politics, environment and ✓ Moral virtues: Prudence. justice,
technology. fortitude, temperance, goodness
• Human life becomes complex while trying to and generosity.
cope up with these local and global • Hume's non cognitive - passion and
transformation, way of life and norms. interest (Happiness)
• Moral problems/dilemmas are inevitable as • Kant's deontology - follow universal rules,
one tries to develop himself to the fullest. norms and duty (Categorical imperatives)
• Along the way, man must maintain a moral • Bentham's utilitarianism - one ought to
judgment, decision and action for right and do whatever will promote the greatest
good living in the society. good and happiness for the greatest
• Ethics and moral standard with right reason number: consequences and results
will lead people to the right path of life.
Morality
THE CONCEPTS: Ethics • Gk. Mos. Lt. mores means manner,
• Greek word- ethos which means, custom, character and behaviour.
habit, behaviours and character. • It refers to rightness or wrongness (Manebog
• A system of moral philosophy/principles - set et al, 2013).
of values and rules of human conduct
(human actions) Significance of the study of Ethics
• Science, it involves a systematic • Social moral problems: experts rebuild the
investigation before the judgement, whether necessary measures to address the present
the human actions are classified as bad or characteristics of moral issues today.
good, right or wrong. • To enlighten the people especially the young
• This includes systematizing, defending and ones to behave what is good and right in their
recommending concepts of right and wrong life. Teens are unable and unwilling to act in
behaviours. manner of moral way or may be they are
confused because different influences.
DIVISION OF ETHICS • To establish a solid foundation of values
• Meta ethics - is the study of the nature, system in school, particularly the manner of
scope and meaning of moral judgement, it interaction between the teachers and
deals with the questions, what do ethical students.
statement mean? Do ethical statements
have objective truth or a mere subjective Ethics in moral Life
expression of opinion? • Ethics needs to provide advantage and
• Applied ethics - seeks to apply ethical answer
principles to concrete social issues, poverty o Ethical theories are useful in practice
such as abortion, euthanasia, human when they affect the way human
sexuality, animal welfare, environment, beings behave.
poverty. etc. • Ethics can provide moral plan
• Normative ethics - are concern with basic o Despite the confusing mind and heart
principles of right or wrong, is morally about the moral issues or problems,
fundamentally about the consequences of ethics set an ethical rules and
our actions, inherent nature of the acts principles to take a cooler view of
perform, or character as actors. moral problems and provides us a
 moral plan which gives us a • Ex. If the act is good, gesture of approval,
framework that can be used to find a through thumb up gestures.
way through difficult issues. Prescriptivism
• Believing that moral statements are just
Ethics and People instructions and recommendation.
• Ethics is about the "other" • How people ought to do. Norms and rules.
o It shows concern to people rather • Ex. Students must have a complete uniform
one's own desire and self-interest. inside the school.
• It cares for the interest of people's
wellbeing and God with the ultimate Some useful rules in our lives -
good. Rules are ways rectify the life of individuals and
• Ethics as source for group strength peoples
o If the group believes that the actions • Etiquette - standard of moral judgement bad
of one is wrong because of the or good normally dictated by a socio-
foundation of morality people have economic elite.
the guts to correct the wrong doing • Legal - standard of moral statement by which
without any hesitation. we judge legal right or wrong in democracy
• Good people as well as good actions through representative of the people.
o Ethics is also about goodness of • Language - standard by which we judge
individuals and what it means to live what is grammatically right or wrong evolved
a good life. through the use
o Virtue ethics is concerned with the • Aesthetics - standard by we judge good or
moral character of human beings. bad art usually dictated by a small art
specialists.
Four Ethical Isms - various ways of making a moral • Morality is first consulting the reason, the act
judgment. is good in a circumstance by which there a
Subjectivism reason of doing it.
• Moral judgement is based on feelings,
emotions or attitudes, LESSON 2: MORAL AND NON-MORAL
• This is based on positive and negative
feelings about issues. Difference between moral and non-moral
• Moral judgement does not contain factual standard.
truths about goodness or badness. Moral standard (characteristics)
• Ex. Lie is either bad or good, depending on • First, actions may seriously injure or benefits
the person's feelings and attitudes. human beings.
Moral Realism - Ex. Charitable acts vs. rape, murder,
• There is a real objective moral facts or truths violence, stealing.
in the universe • Second, the validity of moral standard rest on
• Moral statements provide factual information the adequacy of reasons to support and
about these truths. justify them, not on the decision of majority
• Ex. Respect the rights is a universal moral and authority.
truth. • It has moral courage and moral law adhering
Emotivism conventionally accepted standard of conduct
• Moral statement either bad or good is shown of right and wrong based on conscience,
in gestures reason and law.
• Concern on expressing of those feeling in • Third, moral standards are to be preferred
signs. than other values including self-interest
 - Ex. Honesty is to be preferred than • You are presented with two or more actions,
cheating though by cheating you can all of which you have the ability to perform.
pass test. • There are moral reasons for you to choose
each of the actions.
Moral standard • You cannot perform all of the actions and
• Moral standards are based on impartial have to choose which action, or actions when
considerations, meaning individual's there are three or more choices, to perform.
interests are equally important. • Choices bring about end results may be both
• These characteristics of moral standard positive or negative, or two negative results.
anchor the broader sense, the existence of • For the negative end of the choice it would
society or philosophical term "other" result to problem or “nababagabag”
• This means individual responsibility is not • For the two negatives, one is less, the other
isolated with social responsibility lesser, will also cause bothered feelings and
• Can do: the agent is confused about the right
- promote human welfare and good decision.
future (animals, environment, and • Ex. Jose as an honor pupil of grade V is
human beings) confronted with a situation whether to allow
- Individual or group has known about his best Mano to copy the answer during the
what is right or wrong, considering test or not, Jose’ choice to allow his friend to
these components. copy or not copy may result two negative
- Norms - (action/behaviors) as effects. If he would allow Mario to copy his
general rules about our answer, he may lose the trust of his teacher
actions/behaviors and his honor is at risk, if he would not allow
Example: Always tell the truth, and Mario to copy his answer Mario will fail in the
it's wrong to kill people. test and their friendship is affected.
• According to Oxford Dictionary, it is between
Non-moral conflicting personal viewpoints or moral that
• It is not moral, unconnected with morals, and you have. For an individual, a situation in
having no relations with ethics or moral which a difficult situation has to be made
considerations between two choices, two course of action,
• Good or bad. manners, etiquette, laws and either of which entails transgressing moral
other rules of behaviors set by parents, principle.
teachers and other authority, • Handling these situations, feelings/emotions
- Ex1: the law and standard of cannot help.
grammar or language, arts and sports
- Ex2: one instructed not to eat when Three levels of moral dilemmas
the mouth is full 1. Individual dilemma
- Ex3: do not text during class • It concerns with an individual
discussion experiencing difficulty because he is
• These don't require moral judgment whether confronted with two options.
immoral or moral, bad or good • Hence, moral dilemmas are situations
where two or more moral values or duties
LESSON 3: MORAL DILEMMA make demands on the decision-maker
who can only honour one of them.
What is a Moral Dilemma? • Thus, he will violate at least one
• It is referring to our standards for judging important moral concern, no matter what
right and wrong. A moral dilemma is a he or she decides to do.
situation where:
 • The decision-maker has to choose • In many cases there are mixed
between a wrong and another wrong. messages, such as inconsistent
• It defines the latter as situations where application of policies or a tendency to
the decision-maker has a moral duty to overlook borderline or even directly
do one thing. but is tempted or under unethical behavior.
pressure to do something else (Kvalnes, • This is the "it's not my job" mentality.
2015).
• Ex.: B.F. Goodrich of vehicles parts, won Here are some other common missteps:
a military contract design, test and • Senior leaders fail to "walk the talk" - they are
manufacture aircraft brakes. The guilty of modelling inappropriate behavior.
specification of the brake was given. • Leaders often have an irrational sense of
Vandivier was given the responsibility to entitlement, feeling "I should be allowed to do
write a report on the test runs. The brakes this." or "I deserve this."
did not comply with the specifications. • Individuals may begin cutting corners due to
Superiors wanted his falsify the test data misplaced incentives.
and the reports. Vandivier agreed to • When an organization begins rewarding the
cooperate due to personal and financial wrong things, this can lead to cutting corners
commitments. on safety, quality, etc.
• Vandivier's beliefs (Moral Standard) are: • Individuals may also feel the need to be
- The right to tell the truth obedient to authority, even when they are
- Wrong to endanger lives of others being asked to do something they feel is
- Integrity is good wrong.
- Dishonesty is bad • Individuals also have the need for closure,
• These decisions require considering multiple which can lead to conflict avoidance. For
options and seldom involve a clear right or example, an employee may not be sure how
wrong answers. to approach a possibly unethical situation, so
• They provide a much greater insight into our he or she may simply opt to close it out
practical moral framework and ethical stance without having the difficult conversation
than do the answers to questions about about ethics.
whether "x" is moral or ethical. (Dave Wise, • Defensive "logic" is prevalent. This manifests
2018) as "everyone is doing it, so why not me?" or
"why should I stick my neck out?"
2. Organizational • This happens because we often are pitting
• Ethical dilemmas in the workplace are two favorable outcomes against each other -
quite common, and they're not always often fairness versus compassion. "Right"
easy to answer. versus "right" is the toughest ethical
• These are about the organizations with challenge to navigate, (Chris Ceplenski Jul
great policies and procedures and follow 30, 2013).
the laws and regulations, there's still a
high risk of unethical behavior. 3. Systematic
• Ex. Some employees may not know the • It refers to vague system in the society or
resources exist to help in decision- organization, the members or employees
making. They may not know who to turn are misled and the tendency they cannot
to with questions. Any time an function as what they are supposed to do.
organization is not fully supporting
people, they're increasing the possibility How to manage/ resolve moral dilemmas?
of high risk behaviour. 1. Know your values
• Why do some organizations stumble • There are certain values about which
when it comes to ethics? society agrees.
 • Ex. we tend to value honesty. Our 1. that the action in itself from its very object
discussion here isn't designed to change be good or at least indifferent;
your values - instead, it's about applying 2. that the good effect and not the evil effect
them. Before you can apply them, you be intended;
have to know what they are. 3. that the good effect be not produced by
means of the evil effect;
2. Select a model 4. that there be a proportionately grave
• According to the book, Moral issues in reason for permitting the evil effect
Business ethical theories can be divided (1949, p. 43)
into two classifications:
a. consequential theories (the formal LESSON 5: FREEDOM, RESPONSIBILITY AND
term for this is teleological theories) CONSCIENCE
b. non-consequential theories (formal
name is deonteleogical theories). Foundation of Morality: Freedom, Responsibility
and Conscience
Freedom is the power or right to act, speak, or think
LESSON 4: DOUBLE EFFECT PRINCIPLE ‘whatever’ one wants but this ‘whatever’ is a dynamic
word.
Double Effect Principle-DEP • Paradox: You are free to choose but not free
The principle has its historical roots in the medieval of the consequence of your choice.
natural law tradition especially in the thought of • This freedom might be absolute (universal)
Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) and relative
• It had been refined both in its formulation and • To exercise this freedom of choice may result
application by the generations of Catholic to positive and negative consequences in a
moral theologians. complicated and non complicated situations.
This principle aims to provide specific guidelines for • The true freedom is always connected with
determining when the action. these concepts.
• It is morally permissible to perform an action - Moral obligation is related to justice
• It is in pursuit of a good end in full knowledge. (Kai Nielsen)
• The action will also bring about bad results. - Accountability
The application of this principle to morally complex - Responsibility
cases in which one cannot achieve a particular - Foundation of any moral actions
desired good result without also bringing about some • Man is free, yet there are things that the
clear evil. agent ought to act and follow.
The principle of double effect once largely confined - Like, rules, policy, practices and
to discussions by Catholic moral theologians, in principles.
recent years has figured prominently in the • Kai Nielsen recommends that man must
discussion of both ethical theory and applied ethics perform what he ought to perform to
by a broad range of contemporary philosophers maximize happiness and minimize pain.
• The conditions provided by Joseph Mangan - Freedom, one is ought to do is always
include the explicit requirements that the bad connected with others’ freedom.
effect not be intended: - So then in this context, freedom is
• A person may licitly perform an action that he relative, because one cannot fully
foresees will produce a good effect and a bad perform freedom base at his
effect provided that four conditions are pleasure.
verified at one and the same time: - “Where freedom ends, the freedom of
• The Double Effect Requirements (Four others begin.”
conditions)
This freedom is coupled with responsibility • There is nothing wrong if the judgment
• Freedom and responsibility are not separate conforms with true conscience.
entities; freedom is responsibility. • It is dangerous if this certain conscience is
• One can be free to share in the shaping of based on erroneous conscience.
his own destiny only to the extent to when he Doubtful Conscience
is responsible for his own destiny. • It cannot form a definitive judgment on a
• He cannot be free to shape his own destiny certain action because of doubt.
except to the extent to which he abstain from • In this sense, a person clarifies his doubts
interfering with the destiny of another. before he acts, thus, he can perform good
• Freedom means you will have to be action most of the time.
responsible for every act, for every breath; Scrupulous Conscience
you do or don’t do, you will be responsible, • It cannot form a definite judgment on a
(Osho, August 15, 2011).; certain action because of fear to commit evil
• Gal. 5:15 acts.
“For freedom Christ has set us free; stand • Action is not just doubted, it is not actually
firm therefore, and do not submit again to a performed because of fear.
yoke of slavery” Lax Conscience
• 1 Peter 2:16 English Standard Version • It is manifested by indifferent acts in
(ESV) performing an act, either good or bad.
“Live as people who are free, not using your • A person performs action regardless of its
freedom as a cover-up for evil, but living as positive or negative effects.
servants of God.” • He does not mind nor care about the results
of his actions.
Conscience
• Lt. word conscientia means trial of oneself Four ways to correct our conscience
• It is the proximate norm of morality, (Agapay, • First, search the truth by using the intellect,
1991). freedom and will.
• It is innate nature of man to confront an - With the intellect power, we have the
action, whether it is good or evil. ability to discover the truth.
• It is a practical judgment or reason deciding • Second, we to consistently perform a good
upon individual action. action, until it becomes better, then best
- Develop your virtues that can make a
Kinds of Conscience sound decision.
Correct or True Conscience - Being good is the result of consistent
• It judges good as good and evil as evil. act of doing good.
• Ex. A person who honestly helps other • Third, we have to translate the principle of
without asking for any remuneration is very doing good and avoiding evil in our daily lives
good. Cheating is bad no matter how we - Facing moral dilemma is less
justify. troublesome when we developed the
Erroneous or False Conscience practice of choosing and doing what
• It judges good as evil, evil as good. is good and evil.
• Ex. Cheating is good if it the only way to pass • Fourth, we have to exercise our real and
the examination authentic freedom to become responsible
Certain Conscience - As free agent, we are responsible in
• It is a subjective assurance of an act that is all actions.
lawful or unlawful.
• Ex. extramarital affair is considered good
based on one point’s of view.
 PRELIM EXAM – ETHICS
(Not sure ang score, double check na lang din)
1. What does a moral person uphold for than to lie?
Truth
2. What is this concept which coupled with authentic freedom?
Kindness
3. What is always the focus of Conscience?
Innerself
4. What does Correct conscience search for?
Truth
5. Is the Double effect principle perfect tool to deal with moral dilemmas / Issues?
False
6. Does Ethics care for the interest of people's wellbeing and God as the ultimate good?
True
7. What is the design of freedom to people (others) and environment?
Do good things
8. In dealing with moral dilemma, what does one need to know?
Know your values/virtues
9. In the context of moral dilemmas/difficulties, what does decision maker choose between two or
more options, or situations?
Good and good
10. In the context of moral dilemmas, one may violate at least one important moral concern, no
matter what he or she decides to do
True
11. What is the kind of freedom when one claims and practices personal gain?
Relative Freedom
12. What is this kind of moral judgement based on feelings, emotions or attitudes?
Subjectivism
13. What is this action that may seriously injure or benefits human beings?
Moral
14. What is an important element of true conscience?
Responsibility/will
15. What is the type of ethics which concerns with basic principles of right or wrong actions, inherent
nature of the acts performs, or character as actors?
Normative Ethics
16. What is this man's action not connected with moral nor ethics?
Non moral standard
17. What is the first requirement of the DEP?
The object be good or at least indifferent;
18. What is the negative result of dilemmas?
Problems
19. What is this kind of conscience when the agents judges good as good, evil as evil?
Correct conscience
20. What is the second condition/requirement of DEP?
The action in itself from its very object be good or at least indifferent;
21. Constant practice of virtues will lead to that purpose or end (happiness), what type of theory?
Aristotelian Teleology
22. What is type of theory that seeks to apply ethical principles to concrete social issues such as
poverty, abortion, euthanasia, human sexuality, animal welfare, environment, and poverty. etc.
Applied ethics
23. What is role of the ethics in terms of implementing the existing law?
Monitor one's action
24. What does Moral responsibility include for?
Care for environment and people
25. What is the basis of moral standards?
Impartial consideration
26. What was the historical root of the double effect principle?
Medieval natural law tradition
27. What level of moral dilemma when one is experiencing difficulty because he is confronted with
two options?
Individual dilemma
28. What is other teaching of ethics, when moral judgment is based on real objective moral facts or
truths of the universe?
Moral Realism
29. What are objects of concerns for moral judgment?
Human actions
30. What is other term of general standard for our human actions?
Norms
31. What is the concept when it benefits and injures human beings?
Moral Standard
32. What is this term, when one is confronted with two or more situations and eventually will result
to problems?
Moral dilemmas
33. What is other consideration of validity of moral standard?
Reason
34. What is the concept related to Ethics?
Character
35. What is this branch of Philosophy which helps to rectify human actions?
Ethics
36. What is the result of human actions when it is guided with the principles of ethics?
Good results
37. Who was the origin of this principle of Double Effect Principle (DEP)?
Thomas Aquinas
38. What kind Virtue is to be preferred than cheating though by cheating you can pass the test?
Honesty
39. When one is ought to do and act something, we should always remember.
Good effects
40. When one is ought to do something, we should always remember?
Our task
41. When one judges good action as good then it is.
Right conscience
42. When one judges good as evil, then this is the work of _________.
False Conscience
43. Which one is not connected with true concept of freedom?
Coercion
44. Which one is an example of non-moral standard?
Follow the rules set in the class
45. Which one is not part moral groups of human actions?
Etiquette
46. Which one is not part of Organizational ethical dilemmas in the workplace?
People
47. Which one is not part of the moral virtues of Aristotle?
Pride
48. Which one is not related with moral dilemma?
Hope
49. Which one is not related with the aims of double effect principle?
Know what is right or wrong.
50. Which one is not the acronym of double effect principle?
PEP
MIDTERM
 TOPIC 1: MORAL AGENT Ex.: Drinking liquor is bad involving the minor, but
worse when adult join in tolerating the minor to
Moral Agent drink.
• Acts of man - are acts performed by men without • Why - This refers to the motive and purpose of the
being master of them through his intellect and will, doer.
therefore acts of man are involuntary actions. • How - It refers to the manner of how the act is
• Human acts - actions performed by the agent with performed.
reasons Ex.: Self-defense case, the person able to kill the
aggressor, using the aggressor's knife or able to
Essential elements of human acts kill him accidentally because his prime reason to
• Knowledge - actions are done by the conscious resist is to protect his family, then that is morally
person, knows what he is doing and the effects as acceptable.
well. • Ends - Purpose or the action intended by the
• Freedom - actions are done by the conscious doer/actor.
person, act freely with his ability, volition and This will affect the object of the act even if it is
powers good.
• Voluntaries - actions are done by the conscious Increase or decrease the degree of human acts
person who willingly makes decision to do the act Modifiers of the Human Acts
without coercion coming from other person.
• Ignorance - refers to the lack of knowledge of
Moral Determinants of the Human Acts moral duties which human beings should have:
absence of intelligence.
• Objects (acts itself) - thing done by the agent.
Absence of knowledge that ought to do
Everyday we can perform things, like, going to
Negation of knowledge.
school, cooking, washing dishes, etc.
• Concupiscence/Passion - are strong
• Circumstances - are the factors that will increase
disposition/emotions of a person to possess
or decrease the degree of the human acts.
something as good or tendencies to avoid
Good acts can turn into bad effects because of the
something evil.
circumstance.
• Fear - the disturbance and apprehension of mind
• Who - It refers to the doer/receiver of the actions
caused by thought of impending evil, this will affect
which includes the other components such age,
the human actions.
societal and economic status, educational
attainment and health. • Violence - an application of external force on the
Ex.: Aged and minor person are not held fully agent to compel him to do something against his
accountable to his action based on the existing will.
law. • Habit - it is the disposition of the mind and body
• What - It is the nature of the act or the act itself. for doing something which is acquired through
The act is naturally good or evil based on our repetition of the same act. It may be formed with
ability to determine its nature regardless of other or without knowledge of its immorality.
circumstances.
Ex.: Killing, giving food.
• Where - This refers to the place where the act is TOPIC 2: MEANING OF CULTURE
performed. There are neutral actions, neither good Meaning of Culture
or bad which become good or evil because of this
circumstance. • “It is the sum of all the forms of art, of love, and of
Saying bad words to other person will turn into thought, which, in the course of centuries, have
worst when it is said inside the church during the enabled man to be less enslaved." - Andre
mass. Malraux
• With whom - An act performed with the other • It refers to the set of beliefs, practices. learned
person including the age. behavior whereas society encompasses people
who share mutual beliefs, values and way of living.
 • A society is defined by the culture we share Ex.: Women from male-dominated societies
especially the individuals' characters. perceive men to be superior Women from cultures
• Morality finds its root in 'mos' which means which dictate that their clothing should cover the
custom which on the other hand governs social entire body and even their faces, may think of a
and cultural norms. skirt or a low-cut dress, as provocative.
• So, does our culture predefines our morality or • Research has shown that our culture does play a
ethical principles? (Piyali Mitra). role in the way our brain processes information
• Culture affects our perception, Culture influences then to one's behaviors.
our behaviors, Culture shapes our personality. Ex.: Bayanihan and its essence is helping
eventually will lead individual to help others
Culture Affects Perception/Behaviors especially with needs.
• Culture is the invisible bond which ties people Cultural Relativism vs. Ethnocentrism
together.
• It refers to the pattern of human activity. • Principle of regarding the beliefs, values, and
• The art, literature, language, and religion of a practices of a culture from the viewpoint of that
community represent its culture. culture itself.
• Our cultural values and beliefs manifest • The view that moral or ethical systems, which vary
themselves through our lifestyle. Our moral from culture to culture, are all equally valid and no
values, represent our culture. one system is really "better" than any other.
• The importance of culture lies in its close • These customs cannot be judged either in correct
association with the ways of thinking and living. or correct, right or wrong.
• Differences in cultures have led to a diversity in the • Therefore, any opinion on morality or ethics is
people from different parts of the world. subject to the cultural perspective of each person.
• Culture is related to the development of our • Ultimately, this means that no moral or ethical
attitude. system can be considered the "best" or "worst,"
• Our cultural values influence how we approach and no moral or ethical position can be considered
living. "right" or "wrong."
• According to the behaviorist definition of culture, it • No Universal and objective truth in Ethics is
is the ultimate system of social control where acceptable, only the customs and practices of
people monitor their own standards and behavior. different societies and groups exist, only the basis
• Our cultural values serve as the founding of their moral codes and standards.
principles of our life. Ethnocentrism
• They shape our thinking, behavior, and
personality. • With bias or prejudice
• How we perceive things is largely affected by our • Considered one culture to be superior than the
judgment skills, preconceived notions. attitude, other cultures
and emotions. Ex. In our society one tribe has the feeling of being
• In perceiving something as good or bad, our interior and superior with the other cultures,
biases play a role and so does our way of thinking. indigenous people which some claim inferior only
• Our culture determines the structure of our because they are not open to cultural integration
thinking, which influences our perceptions. with the other cultures. The Aetas may believe
• People who belong to cultures that promote they are not the same with people in the urban or
individualism tend to look at only the main aspects rural areas, they may feel inferior than the other or
of a situation. feeling superior than others with the reason they
don't want to mingle with them.
• Our culture forms the framework for our thoughts
and behavior. Cultural Relativism not Tenable in Ethics
• The ideas ingrained in our minds by our culture
influence the way we perceive people and • Different cultures have various moral codes which
situations. lead to conclude that there is no universal truths.
• No universal truths in ethics by virtue of claims
from each culture.
 • Hence, since each one's differences in practice • Since there are disagreements among different
and beliefs, no such things as standard allegation cultures, we cannot assume that these truths are
of what is right and wrong, therefore it is developed by one group of people.
subjective. • In fact, the only logical place for these concepts to
• If the moral claim cannot be judged objectively or originate is from something more universal, or at
universally then it means that there is no universal least more fundamental, than culture.
truth in ethics, relativists. • Ethics' contention of universal and objective
• In this the case, it may be two or more claims exist, standards and norms to unify humanity which
one is approval of the claim, the other disapproval benefits all cultures not only few.
of latter claim.
Various elements of cultural relativism, which serve as
their claims: TOPIC 3: FILIPINO-MORAL BEHAVIOR
Filipino understanding of moral behavior: Strength
• Different societies/tribes have different moral
codes. • human life is always situated in culture, a culture
• These moral codes determine what is right or that provides life with of its structures, and the
wrong within the society. human cultures which guides us along particular
• No objective standard to be employed to judge ways of life and is this way give us a clear sense
one moral code's better than the other. of how life should be lived, Moga, 2004.
• Moral code in our society has no special status, it
Here are some of our Filipino cultures.
is but among many.
• It may be arrogance to judge the conduct of other 1. Religions is a value (Religious)
people, we should maintain the attitude of
tolerance or respect towards the practices of other • Filipinos are known to be religious people in Asia.
cultures. • We have remarkable practices that make us
unique followers of God through Jesus Christ.
Ethics • We celebrated, Pista ng itim na Nazareno with
• A society that embraces the notion no ultimate annual procession.
right or wrong, will lose the ability to make • This deep faith in Christ is rooted in our Filipino
judgment at all. culture.
• Tolerance, therefore, becomes an "ultimate good" • We have also the fluvial procession of Our Ina in
in and of itself, which is contradictory to the entire Bicol which shows our love to our Mother, Our
idea of relativism. Lady of Penafrancia.
• Heinous crimes such as rape and murder demand • Belief in Jesus as a child is also honored in Cebu
a moral judgment - but strict cultural relativism City during the feast of Sto. Nino.
cannot say that such things are always wrong. • We are also God-fearing people which lead to the
• In practice, cultural relativism cannot overcome attitudes of following his command, and fear to do
the boundaries of logic, nor can it override the bad things against God's Will.
sense of morality inherent to mankind. • As Filipino, we have a high regard with the other
• We instinctively know that some things are wrong, religions and other religious groups, we show
so cultural relativists attempt to tweak their respect.
philosophy to fit that need. 2. Hospitality
• Declaring certain actions "mostly" wrong, or
"mostly" right is nothing more than making up the • It is a common practice and virtue among Filipinos
rules as one goes. towards their guest, offering something good.
• Since this philosophy is nonsensical, there must Ex.: When a person visits a friend's house, the
be some fundamental absolutes of right and host greets him or her with a very warm welcome
wrong, regardless of the opinions of any given The host will immediately let their visitor sit down
society. and will prepare a meal or a snack plus drinks for
the visitor. The host will insist that the friend will
not leave the house with an empty stomach. A
 host will always make sure you had a great time • We gathered in any occasion just to meet our
visiting them. family despite the distance and condition.
• People offer their guest room to visitors if they're
going to spend the night. 6. Observing cleanliness
• Meals offered to guests are very special. • Filipinos are known to be clean in all aspects.
• A host always finds a way to prepare great tasting • We value cleanliness, our house, hands, body and
food that her visitor even in spiritual aspect because of religious
3. Pakikisama: Solidarity with others participation.

• From the other values of family ties.

• Here, we develop this care and concern for other TOPIC 4: MORAL VIRTUES
people.
Developing Virtues and Habit
• Filipinos the sweetest and most loving people.
• Anywhere, we try sustain a good and harmonious • Rachels (2007) stated that character is the focus
relationship with people, familiar or non-familiar of discussing ethics of virtues and ethics of right
ones. action (Aristotle Nicomachean).
• Avoid conflict, and even not to contradict or • Aristotle, Virtue is a trait of character manifested in
oppose their own beliefs. habitual action, the repetition of doing the good
• This is a stature of good and virtuous Filipino by acts, repeating the bad is vices.
doing good things to others would result • Aristotle’s virtue:
happiness. - Courage
• Aristotle said, “Only the good can be happy, and - Self-control
only the virtuous can be good.” - Generosity
- Truthfulness
4. Authority Figures
• Once these virtues are always practiced, they will
• This will mold children to be respectful to the lead to moral development.
elders/parents. - If one wants to acquire these virtues, he must
• This respect even extend to the practice them repeatedly.
community/society including teachers in school. - Example, courage is developed only when a
• Doing a contrary action to the concept of respect person willingly and consistently confronts
is bad. challenges by overcoming fear.
• Respect has many expressions: like the use of po • Answers to these questions guide to develop
and hu, kissing the hands of elders, etc. theories on rightness and obligations.
• Respect is more than these expressions because - What traits of character make one a good
it is the affirmation of these elements towards the person?
authority. - What is the right thing to do?
- Understanding • Theories cited by Rachels
- Love - Ethical egoism – each person ought to do
- Obedience whatever will best promote his own interest.
- Utilitarianism – we ought to do whatever will
5. Family promote the greatest happiness for the
• We, Filipinos love and care our own family more greatest number.
than anything else. - Kant’s theory – our duty is to follow rules that
we could consistently will to be universal laws,
• Parents do anything to send to school for the good
rules that would be followed by all people in all
future in spite of poverty.
circumstances.
• We show support to all members of our family.
- Social contract theory – the right thing to do
• Most Filipinos maintain the feeling and obligation is to follow the rules that rational, self-
to support our family even we have our own new interested people can agree for mutual
family, in any forms. benefits.
Moral Character Development Pre-Conventional Level 1 - it corresponds how the infant
and the children think, in this level their reasoning centered
• The moral goal of behaviors, that parents raised on one' actions
their children, want them
• As the children grow older and when we cannot be Two stages (1@2) - Avoidance and punishment
there to correct them, while doing bad things and
• 1st stage - (Punishment)
right things even when no one is looking. (Rick
- The reasoning centers on obedience and
Rubel)
avoidance of punishment.
• The children should understand the concept of our
- For the young child an action is good, if it
character is made up of all virtues and ideally
enables one to escape from punishment, and
constantly practice them, and it has four ways:
bad if leads to punishment.
1. Seeing their actions in the context of their
- Later the child enters into another stage.
virtues.
• The 2nd stage (Exchange of favors) - The
2. See their virtues in the light of ideal character
reasoning and learn to act according to what one
(How can I improve my character to be the
thinks will serve her best self-interest (exchange
best I can be?).
of favors). Thus, what is good at this age is what
3. Show the children the attributes of a role
the child thinks can bring pleasure.
model – a person they can emulate. Example.
If a child doesn’t have a role model to emulate, • Kohlberg used the term pre-conventional to refer
they may not have a clear understanding of to these two stages since at this age.
how to employ those virtues. • A young child basically thinks only in terms of the
4. Allowing our children opportunities from their pain (punishment) or pleasure (reward) brought
mistakes and improve their characters. about the consequences of the actions.
• Developing one’s character is an interactive • The concentration is on herself and what she can
process, and part of the improvement process is feel, instead of her society's convention on what is
to understand. right and what is bad.
• Vices get us in trouble and focusing on Conventional level 2 - (Good boy/girl) This is the age in
strengthening the corresponding virtues to resist which he older children.
that vice.
• We have to hold children to a high moral standard Two stages (3@4)
by correcting their poor decisions and improper • 3rd stage - (Good boy/girl)
actions. - Conforming with the group's expectation.
• It is vitally important that we challenge their wrong - The individual starts to act according to what
decisions and help them reason better. the larger group she belongs expects her to
• Then we should explain why it is wrong and not be be.
afraid to pass judgment on their actions (we are - The general tendency at this age is to conform
not labelling them, just helping them judge their first to the values of the immediate group such
actions). as her family, playmates or later on the
• The moment we overlook moral behaviors in our barkadas.
children we have just accepted a diminished moral - Older children and adolescents eventually
standard for the child. Once we allow poor begin to value the expectations of the larger
behaviors but not correcting it, we may be sending - group they belong to whether it be in school,
a moral signal to the child that is irrevocable. religions or the state.
• 4th stage- (Law and Order)
- A person acts according to the prescribed
TOPIC 5: MORAL DEVELOPMENT-KOLHBERG laws.
- He fulfilled his duties and responsibilities
Stages of Moral Development (Kohlberg)
based on the system that exists in the society.
• Some theories revealed that young children - One is to uphold the laws which he considers
developed their moral standard based on their inflexible and unchangeable
experiences
 - The individual at this stage values most the - This is the "Golden Rule" model. A list of rules
laws, rules, and regulations of her society and inscribed in stone is no longer necessary.
thus her moral reasoning is shaped by - God is understood to say what is right
dutifulness to the external standard set by the because it is right; His sayings are not right,
society. just because it is God who said them. Abstract
principles are the basis for moral decision
Post Conventional level making, not concrete rules.
• 5th stage (Social contract) - Stage 6 individuals are rare, often value their
- Moral maturity therefore is seen in an agent principles more than their own life, often seen
who acts on what she has understood her as incarnating the highest human potential.
roles and duties in the society. - Thus, they are often martyred by those of
- Laws are social contracts that must be lower stages shamed by seeing realized
followed. human potential compared with their own
- The moral agent sees the value of the social partially realized levels of development.
contract namely agreements that rational (Stoning the prophets, killing the messenger).
agents have arrived at whether explicitly or Ex.: Mohandas Gandhi
implicitly. Jesus of Nazareth
• 6th stage (Universal ethical principle) Gautamo Buddha
- The morally responsible agent recognizes that Martin Luther King, Jr.
what is good or right is not reducible to Dag Hamerskjold
following the rules of one's group.
- Instead, it is a question of understanding
personally what one ought to do and deciding, TOPIC 6: REASON AND IMPARTIALITY
using one's free will, to act according.
Reasons and Impartiality
- It is beyond the social contract, the agent
chooses to perform human actions based on • Maximum requirements of ethics
universal ethical principles that one is
determined by herself. Reason has important role in ethics.
- The questions of what one ought to do goes • The role of reason in determining whether the acts
back to 's insights the individual moral agent are moral or immoral.
and her rationality. • In the absence of reason, moral judgment is
- Kohlberg's insights are that, ultimately one absurd, even if it is based on belief and feelings.
must think of herself what she ought to do.
• Reason will avoid bias in our moral judgement.
This stand recognizes the supposed fact that
• Impartiality is a principle of justice holding that
there might be instances when the agent must
decisions should be based on objective criteria.
choose to go against what the community of
• The quality of being impartial; freedom from bias
rational thinkers deems as good if she thinks
or favoritism; disinterestedness;
she must, assuming that she has committed
her full rationality in arriving at that decision. • It should be equitableness; fairness.
• Everyone aspires for this higher and highest level Feelings and Reasons
of moral development
- If ever one may reaches this stage acts out of • Human beings are by nature emotional whether it
universal principles based upon the equality is negative and positive.
and worth of all living beings. • And offer advantages and disadvantages in our
- Having rights means more than individual moral judgment and decision in life.
liberties. • They occupied a large contribution on how we
- This means that every individual is due respond to challenge and a situation
consideration of his dignity interests in every • They are essential elements in the level of human
situation, those interests being of equal survival, particularly where a quick and useful
importance with one's own. response is needed.
 • At the same time, when it is necessary for us to • Ask what source of principle is the basis for this
make a crucial moral decisions and judgment moral judgment;
• Feeling and reason have played a very important - Constitution
role in every moral decision. - Culture
• The two elements are not enough to achieve and - Natural law
arrive at impartial moral judgment. - Religious tradition
- Supplement of Biblical principles
4. List the alternatives creatively
TOPIC 7: SEVEN STEPS OF MORAL REASONING
• Record possible choices or potentials for possible
7-step moral reasoning model good one.
• This is for the benefit of making a moral decision. • It gives advantages to come up with a broader
• Rae (1996) suggested the procedure can help you selection of ideas.
ask the right questions in the ethical deliberation. 5. Compare the alternatives with the virtues
• It is oriented towards the virtues and principles
with consideration of consequences as a • This step eliminates the alternatives as they are
supporting role. weight by the moral principles.
• It is free from cultural, ethnic and religious - Which one has the bearing of the case
background bias though consistent with the Bible - Ethical issues/dilemma here will be resolved
and its principles. as all alternatives are eliminated except one.
- Be sure that all relevant virtues and values are
satisfied.
1. Gather the Facts-(guide questions) - In any case, often principles and virtues are
• Facts should be clear. weighted accordingly.
- Do you have all the facts necessary to make - Make sure you have a good person for each
a good decision? weighting.
- What do we know? 6. Consider the consequences
- What do we need to know?
• In this light, it might become clear that the dilemma • If the principle is not yielded, consider the
is not ethical but about communication or strategy. consequences of your alternatives.
• Take the alternatives and work out the positive
2. Determine the ethical Issues and negative consequence of each.
• Focus about the competing interests or goods. • Estimate the benefits each positive and negative
- This what creates dilemma results can offer. Some might have a greater
• Moral values and virtues must support the weigh than the others.
competing interest for the ethical dilemma to 7. Make a decision
appear.
• If there is no identified values/virtues, then there is • Based on the process, ethical decision should be
no identified ethical dilemma. made.
• Often people hold these position strongly with the • Every ethical decision, there are some negative
passion because of the values/virtues beneath results, sacrificing, unpleasant, pain, etc.
them. • Even in making good decision you might lose
sleep over it.
3. Determine what virtues/principles have a bearing on • But this is for the good of all despite the moral
the case dilemma/issues.
• Certain values and principles are central to the
competing interests/positions.
• Determine if some should be given more weight
that the others.
 TOPIC 8: DEVELOPING WILL • Situation
- On the way to school, one day you saw a man
Developing the Will
on shabby clothes (taong grasa) got hit by a
What does it take to have a moral courage? passing vehicle. The driver of the car did not
stop. The man felt unconscious all his stuffs
• It begins with the kind of person we are, our values scattered on the road. There were other
and beliefs and our strengths of character. people on the street, but you were the closest
• Moral courage is the core component of morality to the man. Reason tells you that the right
that defines who we are in relation to the rest of thing to do is to help him. Are going to help
humanity. him?
• The following are some ways by which we can • Moral courage is the willingness to act for moral
develop our moral courage: reasons even at the risk and adverse
- Practice what we preach in the small consequences.
decisions that we make every day. Character • Reasons and will are very important elements in
does not depend on what we say no matter this moral courage and make decision.
how well we say it. What we do that counts. • To reason, know and think are the products of the
- When tempted to lie to save ourselves, don't, intellect.
it is so easy to lie especially if it is our • To desire, enjoy, judge, move and decide are just
reputation that is on the line. What we should the products Will.
always remember is, it usually does not end • One or the other alone cannot do something in
with one lie. You need more lies to make the moral decision and action.
first lie believable. Having moral courage is
• It means both the intellect and will are factors for
telling the truth and facing the consequences.
successful and good life.
Ex: You break your curfew and your mom is
• Moral judgment is moved to moral decision and
angry. She is about to ground you tell your first
action.
lie. There was a road accident with the heavy
traffic. Your mom asked you why don't text or
call.
Second lie: My phone ran out of battery your
mom then asked, on what road did the
accident happen and was anyone hurt?
Third lie: I don't remember because I slept
through the traffic. Your mom asks again, why
do you smell like alcohol?
• Develop patience to understand the needs and
hurt others it is usually so difficult to be patient
especially when we are on schedule.
- But devoting a little of our time just to listen
may mean a lot to another.
- I may even change a life.
Moral Courage: Difference between Reason and Will
• In a situation where we know the right choice to
make decision is based on information and
perceived feelings
• What are the chances that we will make the choice
and act on it?
• We have the following situation below and then
reflect your answers?
QUIZ NO. 1 – M

This term is not related with the components of human actions.

ANS.: Needs

It is the determinant of the human action, when it talks the thing done by an
agent.
ANS.: Object

It is the determinant of the human action when it concerns with goal.

ANS.: End/Purpose
It is the component of human actions, when the conscious and willing person
makes decision without coercion.
ANS.: Voluntaries

Which one is not a modifier of human action?

ANS.: Love
Fear is the disturbance and apprehension of mind caused by thought impending
evil.
ANS.: True

It refers to circumstance of the human action when it describes the nature of the
act or the act itself.
ANS.: What

The person was able to kill the aggressor accidentally with his own dagger
harassing his family members, with prime purpose of protecting his loved ones.
The case is self-defense.
ANS.: Morally acceptable
It is the modifier of human actions which stresses on the strong dispositions of a
person to possess something as good and avoid something which is evil.
ANS.: Concupiscence
It is the essential element of human actions when the agent is conscious of the
actions and anticipate its effects.
ANS.: Knowledge
QUIZ NO. 2 – M
It is the level of moral development when the young one sees it is good to obey
and bad if he is punished because of the doing.
ANS.: Pre—conventional

He fulfilled his duties and responsibilities based on the system that exists in the
society.
ANS.: Conventional

He fulfilled his duties and responsibilities based on the system that exists in the
society.
ANS.: Kohlberg

It is a level of moral development when one considers laws as social contract that
must be followed.

ANS.: Post-Conventional Level

What level of moral development when the morally responsible agent recognizes
that what is good or right is not reducible to following the rules of one’s group?

ANS.: Post-Conventional Level

Moral maturity therefore is seen in an agent who acts on what she has understood
her roles and duties in the society.
ANS.: Post-Conventional
Everyone aspires to reach the higher level of moral development, that is based
on
ANS.: Equality and justice

The highest level of moral development is when the agent chooses to perform
human actions based on universal ethical principles that one is determined by
herself.

ANS.: Post-Conventional
It is the description of the highest level of moral development.
ANS.: Value one's principle more than his own life

It is the description of sixth stage of moral development.

ANS.: It is the description of sixth stage of moral development.
 MIDTERM EXAM – ETHICS
1. What is the component of human actions, when the conscious and willing person makes decision
without coercion and other’s power?
Voluntaries
2. Which one is not part of the components of human actions?
Faith
3. What is the determinant of the human action, when it talks the thing done by an agent?
Object
4. What is the determinant of the human action when it concerns with the purpose?
End
5. Which one is not part of the determinants of the human acts?
Process
6. Which one is not related with the concept of culture?
Profession
7. A society is defined by the culture we share especially the individuals’ characters.
Correct
8. These customs cannot be judged either in correct or correct, right or wrong, what is the doctrine of
this culture?
Cultural Relativism
9. What teaching when it considers one culture to be superior than the other cultures?
Ethnocentrism
10. What environment is the primary orientation of our culture?
Family
11. When the Human Act is performed, which element below is not part of it?
Intellect
12. What is this modifier of human action when one shows love and interest to something?
Passion
13. What is the modifier of human action which sets the disposition of the mind and body for doing
something which is acquired through repetition of the same act?
Habit
14. What does it mean when there is an absence of knowledge that one is ought to do?
Ignorance
15. In cultural relativism, what is this denied truth?
Universal truth
16. What is this disturbance or apprehension of the mind caused by thought of impending evil?
Fear
17. What is the foundation of our family value system, this our Filipino belief and practices?
Culture
18. Which practice that we, Filipinos are known especially offering guest room to visitors if they're
going to spend the night in the house?
Hospitality
19. What is the Filipino value, when children are being obedient and respectful to the elders/parents?
Authority figures
20. What is this Filipino value that one maintains the feeling and obligation to support them?
Family centeredness
21. Who was the Philosopher stressing that virtue is a trait of character manifested in habitual action?
Aristotle
22. Which ethical theory below contends that we ought to do whatever will promote the greatest
happiness for the greatest number?
Utilitarianism
23. Which one is not part of the Aristotle’s virtues?
Curiosity
24. Who are the primarily responsible people for the moral development of the growing children?
Parents
25. What is the result when the bad actions/things are repeatedly done?
Vice
26. What level of moral development when the child’s thinking and action about good and bad, if it
enables one to escape from punishment, and bad if leads to punishment?
Pre-Conditional
27. Who was the one who introduced the stages of Moral Development?
Kohlberg
28. What level of moral development when the morally responsible agent recognizes that what is good
or right is not reducible to following the rules of one’s group?
Post conventional
29. What level when Moral maturity therefore is seen in an agent who acts on what she has
understood her roles and duties in the society?
Post conventional
30. What level of moral development when one fulfilled his duties and responsibilities based on the
system that exists in the society?
Conditional
31. What is the social contracts that must be followed by the members of the society on moral
development?
Law
32. What is the basis of the agent to perform the highest stage of moral development?
Universal principles
33. What is the description of stage two in the moral development? (Kohlberg).
Compensation/reward
34. What is level of moral development when one performs the action in terms of fulfilling his duties
and responsibilities based on the system that exists in the society?
Conditional level
35. Where does social contract belong according to the level of moral development?
Post conventional level
36. Which concept below is connected with Impartial reasoning?
Objectivity
37. Which principle holds the concept of impartiality?
Principle of justice
38. Which one is not under the considerations of moral judgment?
Games
39. Which one is not under the characteristics of impartiality?
Prejudice
40. What is the description of partial judgment?
Prejudice
41. What is the benefit of moral reasoning model?
Moral decision
42. What is the first step of this reasoning model?
Gathering facts
43. How do you characterize the fact in the reasoning model?
Clear
44. What is the focus of this step of reasoning model, determine what virtues have bearing the case?
Competing interest
45. What is the last step of this reasoning model?
Make a moral decision
46. What is the Aristotelian ethics?
Virtue ethics
47. What is the effect if there is an absence of reason in our decision?
Absurd
48. What are the maximum requirements of ethics?
Reason and impartiality
49. What is this one of the principles and the basis for moral judgment?
Natural law
50. What is this one of the foundations of reasoning model?
Virtues
FINALS
 LESSON 1 – F: Frameworks and Principles behind Aristotle stressed to two kinds of virtues
Moral Disposition • The virtues of the intellect, pertains to fully rational
part of the soul.
Moral theories and mental: Why are they important? • Moral virtues (virtue of the character), the basis of
• These moral principles/ theories will guide the characteristic as being good person.
moral agent to perform responsible moral acts, for
good and meaningful living. By repeating doing good things, man will become better
• Man's good action aims to achieve his own later on the best developed person in term of character
happiness. and potentials.
• Some views and principles will be discussed. • Reason can help man identify the right from wrong
• Continue to do good t and right thing, avoid evil.
Aristotles: Virtue Ethics
• He was a Greek philosopher like Plato, Socrates St. Thomas Aquinas: Natural Law
and very popular with work in morality. • Italian philosopher, theologian of the medieval
• He was familiar with his concept of telos. period, Angelic Doctor.
• Ultimate goal of man is his self-realization, the end • He believes, like Aristotle, man's action is directed
that man should attend in his life. towards the end.
• Virtue is a habit, and happiness is a virtue. • Man acts guided with reason, has definitely a
• Three descriptions of Aristotelian Ethics: purpose.
1. Self-realizationism - Ex. Going to school for the purpose fishing the
✓ The person acts in line with his nature and study and have profession in the future.
realizes his full potentials. • This achievement will mean s sense of self-
✓ As a moral his achievement is happiness. satisfaction and happiness.
2. Eudaimonistic • For Aquinas happiness is final end of man's every
✓ It describes man's happiness as something action.
good and the means to obtain it. - Happiness is not taken from material
3. Aretaic possession, not found in this imperfect world.
✓ Virtue based, it deals with the development
of man's character expressed in doing what Natural Law and its Tenets
he should do, or ought to do • Law as an ordinance of reason for the common
good, promulgated by a person in authority who has
Aristotle mentioned the three human natures. care for the community.
a. Vegetative
• Like plants and animals, man is able to develop Elements of this definition of Law
and grow. • Ordinance of reason, an authentic law must rational
b. Sentient/sensitive nature basis on its nature and its implementation as well.
• Like animals, man has senses, these senses • It is promulgated by a person in authority. It refers
are used to perform the acts. to group of people who have the power to
• Example: Seeing, touching, smelling, tasting promulgate, propose and approve bill in line with
and hearing the interest of the populace.
c. Rational nature • This law is designed for the common good.
• This makes man different from plants and Authentic law aims towards the general welfare of
animals. people in the society, not for the few.
• He has the ability to reason especially in times
of moral dilemma. Aquinas has four types of Law
• Doing this man is fulfilling self-realization. 1. Eternal Law
d. Virtue as a habit • It is the rational plan of God.
• By mere of repeating the good acts. • All creatures have to be governed by this law
• Repeating the bad acts is a vice based on God's mind and design towards the
• Virtue refers to the excellence of moral and end.
intellectual character. 2. Natural Law
• Though connected with the other laws, it is
accessible human nature, it refers to rational
 nature and natural ability to distinguish the these not performances of the duties and
good from evil. obligation. Will these acts of performing your
• Moral law orders man to do good and avoid evil duties result happy and good life? Or other way
• Aquinas mentioned synderesis means the around.
faculty which gives him the inclination to some
specific good. Good Will
• If man's actions bring him closer to the • It is Intrinsically good.
realization of his end as human then his moral, • Happiness is always related to good will.
not immoral. • For Kant, happiness is meaningless if not
3. Human Law connected with good will.
• These are the positive laws which include civil • Any positive values: intellectual abilities, talents,
and criminal law virtues, will lead to evil if there is no good will.
• Enlightened by reason based of natural law.
4. Divine Law Categorical Imperative
• Focus on revelation, aims the realization • Kant's Universalizability, person is ought always
towards man's end, this will be obeyed by man to behave as if his course of conduct were to
to gain salvation. become a universal code of behaviour, or
considered universal law.
Happiness as Constitutive on moral and Cardinal • “End-in-itself”, meaning as one acts he has to
Virtues consider his own person and others as an end, not
• Man's pursuit in life is Happiness so the actions to as means. It implies that we respect each others as
be done should be right and good. end-in-itself, not as means to attain our goal
• Thomas terms these virtues as Cardinal virtues.
(Same virtues with Aristotles) Kinds of Rights
✓ Prudence - one's ability to discern what is • Man is born with many rights.
good, right and proper in a particular moral a. Legal rights
situation. • It is a claim recognized by law (and
✓ Temperance - one's ability to practice implemented by the state) for the purpose one's
moderation at all times, extreme or excess security.
is bad, Happiness is in the middle. - Ex. Property, engage with transaction,
✓ Fortitude - one's ability to overcome fear participate in the election, speech, to
and danger, avoid danger for a greater organize, legal due process, etc.
cause is better than facing it. • It is a shield against those who want to violate
✓ Justice - one's ability to give to a person our freedom stipulated in the constitution, and
what is due to him, giving what is due to the the existing legal code of the land.
person requires reason and impartiality. • The legal rights are inclusive to sets of human
Justice is given only when one rights enacted as human positive laws, form the
understands what other person deserves church or the state.
or vice versa. b. Moral rights
• It is defined as right of the creator of a creative
Immanuel Kant: Deontological Ethic work to protect the integrity of the work
• German Philosopher of the modern era, very (Merriam-Webster)
popular because of his Critique of Practical • This definition stressed the word integrity for a
Reason. particular human, must be protected by law.
• Fundamental teaching: Reason is the source of • Alongside with the claim of the right, are the
any moral or ethical judgment, able to assist to duties that one ought to perform.
distinguish good as moral, evil as immoral. • It means that there is a reciprocity of the rights
• Feeling has no space in the act of discerning and duties.
between evil and right. - Ex. If you say that I have this right, then
• Kant promotes that only the will is intrinsically good, others are duty bound to respect that
the good is freely chosen. claim, and you do also to others. Moral
• A free agent acts based on his sense of duty and rights oblige us to seek the ways to
obligation, that he ought to do. improve the outcomes of the actions
- Ex. Going to school, attending your classes,
wearing proper uniform, wearing ID, etc. Are
John Stuart Mill: Utilitarianism ✓ It is very important role of justice in the society for
• He defended Bentham's Utilitarianism against other maintaining harmony and order.
critique, focus on it. ✓ Rawls described just society as characterized by
• Bentham believes that pleasure and pains are the freedom of equal citizenship, wherein the rights of
motivating factors of human behaviours. everyone is secured, free from any forms of
• Hedonism holds that pleasure or happiness is the violation.
most important goal in life. ✓ Primarily the subject of justice, is the basic structure
• Two kinds of hedonism: Psychological and ethical. of the society, the way social institutions distribute
a. Psychological hedonism - states that human fundamental rights, duties to individuals prescribed
actions are motivated by pleasure and pain. the laws.
This means that man acts is such a way that • Rawls, Fairness is something that involves
pleasure is achieved and pain is avoided. distributive justice, characterized by a fair
b. Ethical hedonism- holds that that the only distribution of social goods, such as wealth,
good and that good actions are considered opportunities, liberties and privileges.
good only if they lead toward the attainment of
pleasure, while they are evil if they inflict pain. Distributive justice
• It is about economic justice
Utilitarianism • It requires an allocation, income wealth, and power
• It is another framework of morality, teleological or be evaluated in light of its effects to the people.
consequentialist. • It is a just distribution of the earth's resources and
• The morality of the matter lies on the consequences benefits to all people.
of the actions may bring about, whether it is good
or evil. Egalitarian Theory
✓ If the actions have benefits to more people, in • It is a principle or doctrine to refer equal rights,
spite the nature of the action itself, then the benefits and opportunities for all citizen of
choice is considered good. • the state.
• The principles of utility, • It is also a political doctrine which holds that all
✓ Action is best when it produces the greatest people should have treated as equal and
happiness for the greatest number, (Price, • have the same political, economic, social and civil
2000). rights.
✓ Moral decision, are the most important thing in • To all are the same.
goodness and evil acts.
• This framework holds that happiness of the majority Capitalism
of people is the greatest good, allows bad actions • Economic system, trade, industry and means of
to happen. production are controlled by few for gain in the
market company.
LESSON 2 – F: Promoting Common Good: Justice and • Happiness is the result of what the few capitalists
Fairness get from what they want, exporters of common
goods.
The nature of the theory • The more money the company makes, the more
• Justice is generally defined as fairness. they can invest in production, the more it makes
• It is the establishment or determination of rights in money.
a society according to its rules of law of equality. • However, the more disadvantages exist on the part
• Although justice is a global concept, the way it is of the consumers like inequality.
understood and administered varies from culture to ✓ Inequality can be understood based on the
culture. capitalist mantra, in order to be rich, you have
• It has important roles to play in maintaining social to work hard for them.
order.
• Fairness is the quality of making judgment free from
discrimination.
✓ It is about having a proper perspective
✓ Justice is an action that is morally right and fair.
✓ It is about the right thing to do.
✓ It is first virtue of the of social institution, (John
Rawls, 1999)
 LESSON 2 – F: State and citizen: Responsibility: the basic services) are made available to
Taxation enable every citizen to have a decent life
thus. promoting the greatest good.
State and citizen: Responsibility: Taxation - The government finds ways to make sure
• Through distributive justice, we learned that equal that the benefits of tax collection are
distribution in society pertains not only to the distributed throughout the country for citizen
benefits that may be gained but also the burden that to enjoy thus, for the greatest number.
should be shared by its citizens. - The revenues collected from taxpayers and
✓ One of the burdens is the duty to pay the government uses, is a way to achieve
government in the form of taxes. redistribution of resources to ensure that ach
✓ A tax is defined as a compulsory or enforced citizen gets some benefits (Baron, 2012).
monetary contribution that is imposed by the b. Virtue of ethics
government on the activities, expenditure, - Moderate taxes imposed by the government
income, occupation, privilege and property, of allow the exercise of several virtues.
individual and organizations, using the power of - Moderate taxes mean higher take home pay
taxation. (Definition of tax, n.d.). which encourages taxpayers to develop their
✓ The taxes are the reason for the existence of talents.
government and therefore for a government to - Higher take home pay also allows charity
prevail, tax need to be collected. works.
✓ Taxation is a means for government to finance - The virtue of independence is also achieved
their expenses by imposing charges on its when the tax is moderate to low.
citizens and business organization, it can also - This allows the person to save more for what
be used by government to reinforce and limit is needed thus making his goal of
certain economic decisions (Definition of independence achievable (Baron.2012).
taxation, n.d.) c. Egalitarianism Theory.
✓ The power of the tax is the means used by - This would ensure that equality in the form of
government to distribute the operational cost benefits by transferring money from the rich
for all its public needs among those who are well off to the least well off in the form of
privileged to enjoy its benefits but must also services.
bear its burden. - In addition, imposing higher taxes on the rich,
✓ The theory is that taxes are imposed on ensure that the government can provide same
persons, properties and rights for the support of services to everyone (rich and poor).
government in exchange for the general - Thus, through taxation and responsible
advantages and protection which the government spending the common good is
government provides to the tax payers, their promoted and ensured.
properties and rights. - The rationale by collecting taxes is for the
✓ The basis of the power to tax rests on the people to support the government in its task of
reciprocal duties properties and rights of promoting and ensuring the common good.
protection support between the state and its - Hence, the government should make sure that
citizens. the benefit from the taxes collected are shared
✓ Thus, taxes are imposed for two reasons: equally by the citizens of the state.
a. It is a means to raise revenues (money
collected for public use) for the use and
support of government to enable it to carry
out its functions.
b. It is a means to promote general welfare,
social and economic development of a
country and its people.

Ethics of Tax Collection

• The morality of tax collection has been supported
by the moral frameworks.
a. Utilitarianism
- Economic goal in the government is to make
sure that the goods and services (especially
 LESSON 3 – F: Globalization • While religion makes claims about cosmology,
social behavior, and the “proper” treatment of
Globalization: Ethics through Thick and Thin, Ethics others, etc.
and Religion • Ethics include no such moralizing. If something is
• This helps explores the different ethical concepts bad, ethics tells us we should not do it, if something
both particular and universal terms and method in is good, obviously there is no harm in doing it.
discussing issues in ethics. • Often the path that looks most desirable will have
• In thick description, ethics discloses the rich negative consequences, while the path that looks
normative meaning of the social practices and the most perilous for an individual or organization
social relation. will often result in doing the most good for others.
• Doing what is “right” is a lot harder than doing what
Globalization and pluralism is expedient or
• The world is rapidly changing with the occurrence
of new technologies. Ethical behaviors in the world today
• Globalization is increasingly closer integration of • Ethics and morality are always relevant and useful
countries and people of the world through: in the world today.
✓ Enormous reduction of transformation and • They serve as guides for human living and how to
communication cost live qualitatively in relation with each other despite
✓ Breakdown of barriers to the flow of goods, the difference of humanity.
service, capital and knowledge • The principles of ethics are based on the eternal
• Globally, every business is on a wild race to acquire laws of human existence without which human
more and more, mostly by short cut means along relationship can sustain.
the way, they commit actions are not desirable for • Some examples of the laws of ethics and morality
the society. are:
• Here, ethical considerations are needed to check ✓ Truthfulness
and guides everyone in the business, that's why ✓ Honesty and integrity
business ethics. ✓ Faithfulness
• This business ethics examines ethical principles ✓ Love and compassion
and to check moral problems or issues that arise in ✓ Kindness
the business environment. ✓ Charity
✓ Courage
Pluralism ✓ Justice
• It is not diversity alone, but the energetic
engagement with diversity. Universal values
• Mere diversity, without real encounter and • It is the same value or worth for all, or almost all
relationship will yield increasingly tension in our people.
society. ✓ Peace and Freedom
• To deal with, it is not tolerance, but an active ✓ Social Progress
seeking for understanding across lines of ✓ Equal rights and Human Dignity
differences ✓ Justice and Equality
• Tolerance is the necessary virtue but does not ✓ When all people have reason to believe it has
require to each others. value.
• Mahatma Gandhi argued that non-violence is a
Ethics and religion universal value,
• Often, religion and ethics are treated as the same ✓ Most people in the world agree for non-violence
thing, with various religions making claims about as a virtue.
their belief systems.
• Despite religious differences there is one claim in
general that all religious traditions believe that their
faith represents a path to enlightenment and
salvation.
• By contrast, ethics are universal decision-making
tools that may be used by a person of any religious
persuasion, including atheists.
 LESSON 4 – F: Challenge to Millennial

• Fillennials are the Filipino's version of millennials.

• According to time Magazine, millennials are people
born from 1980- 2000. These people are presently
in the college level or already part of the working
class (Valeriano, 2016).
• The term Millennials was coined, particularly for the
young people of the west.
• But through globalization, it appears that people
from the same birth years applied the term to
themselves.
• How do these fillennials handle the impact of
globalization?
✓ Based on observation, they seem to be
handling it well.
✓ They motivated themselves in political and
social issues and their heightened awareness
of global issues.
✓ They know more about the happening around
the world real time and ahead of the early
evening news.
✓ The power of information and how it may affect
these young minds should not be taken for
granted.
✓ Filipino family values and responsibility should
be ingrained in their minds every time
whenever they go online.
✓ The challenge of globalization and pluralism
should be dealt with not only by the millennials
but also by the adults in an environment who
are aware of how the internet can affect
feelings, thoughts and moral decisions.
✓ The fillennials should be taught to be more
careful on how they conduct themselves online.
✓ But greater responsibility rests on the parents,
teachers and community who are supposed to
know better.
✓ These young global citizens should have in the
hearts and minds enough conviction to or not to
be swayed by the negative impact of
globalization and though keeping an open mind
stands firm on the side of universal moral
values.
 ETHICS – QUIZ 1 - FINALS
1. In the moral Philosophy of Aristotle, what is the meaning of Aristotelian teleology?
Virtue ethics
2. What is the meaning of the word telos?
End
3. Which one is not mentioned by Aristotle about the elements of human natures?
Relational
4. Which one is not mentioned by Aristotle about the elements of human natures?
Thomas Aquinas
5. Who was the Philosopher who stressed that reason is the source of any moral or ethical judgment,
able to assist to distinguish good as moral, evil as immoral?
Immanuel Kant
6. Which one is not related with the concept of happiness?
Self-preservation
7. Which one is not related with moral dispositions of the agents?
Feeling
8. What is the basis of development of man’s character expressed in doing what he should do, or
ought to do?
Virtue
9. Which one is not part of the nature of man? (Aquinas)
Economics
10. What is the other term of positive law by Aquinas?
Human Law
11. What is the meaning of Synderesis?
Innate
12. What is the ability to practice moderation at all times, extreme or access?
Temperance
13. For Kant, what is the source of any moral judgment, able to identify good as moral, bad as
immoral?
Reason
14. Who said that action is best when it produces the greatest happiness for the greatest number?
Price
15. For Kant, what is this element related to good will?
Happiness