The seven classifications of ceramic materials on the basis of application are:

GLASSES, CLAY PRODUCTS, REFRACTORIES, ABRASIVES, CEMENTS, CARBONS, ADVANCED MATERIALS

I. GLASSES
- Glasses are a familiar group of ceramics; containers, lenses, and fiberglass represent
typical applications. they are non-crystalline silicates containing other oxides, notably
Calcium Oxide, sodium oxide, potassium oxide, and Aluminum oxide, which influence
the glass properties.

• GLASS-CERAMICS

Glass-ceramic materials have been designed to have the following characteristics: relatively
high mechanical strengths; low coefficients of thermal expansion (to avoid thermal shock);
good high-temperature capabilities; good dielectric properties (for electronic packaging
applications); and good biological compatibility. The most common uses for these materials
are as ovenware, tableware, oven windows, and range tops—primarily because of their
strength and excellent resistance to thermal shock.
II. CLAY PRODUCTS

One of the most widely used ceramic raw materials is clay. This inexpensive ingredient, found
naturally in great abundance, often is used as mined without any upgrading of quality
III. REFRACTORIES

Another important class of ceramics used in large tonnages is the refractory ceramics.
The salient properties of these materials include the capacity to withstand high
temperatures without melting or decomposing and the capacity to remain unreactive
and inert when exposed to severe environments (e.g., hot and corrosive fluids). In
addition, their abilities to provide thermal insulation and support mechanical loads are
often important considerations, as well as resistance to thermal shock (fracture caused
by rapid temperature changes).

Clay Refractories
The clay refractories are subclassified into two categories: fireclay and high-alumina. The primary
ingredients for the fireclay refractories are high-purity fireclays—. The principal ingredient of the high-
alumina refractories is bauxite, a naturally occurring mineral that is composed mainly of aluminum
hydroxide Al (OH)3 and kaolinite clays

Nonclay refractories

Raw materials for nonclay refractories are other than clay minerals. Refractories included in this group
are silica, periclase, extra-high alumina, zircon, and silicon carbide materials. . These materials, well
known for their high-temperature load-bearing capacity, are commonly used in the arched roofs of
steel- and glass-making furnaces;

Refractory ceramics are available in precast shapes, which are easily installed and
economical to use. Precast products include bricks, crucibles, and furnace structural
parts. The monolithic refractories are typically marketed as powders or plastic masses
that are installed (cast, poured, pumped, sprayed, vibrated) on site. Types of monolithic
refractories include the following: mortars, plastics, castable, ramming, and patching.
Figure 13.11 shows a workman removing a sample of molten steel from a high
temperature furnace that is lined with a refractory ceramic.

IV. ABRASIVES

Abrasive ceramics (in particulate form) are used to wear, grind, or cut away other material, which
necessarily is softer. The abrasive action occurs by rubbing action of the abrasive, under pressure,
against the surface to be abraded, which surface is worn away. Common applications for abrasives
include grinding, polishing, lapping, drilling, cutting, sharpening, buffing, and sanding. A host of
manufacturing and high-tech industries use these materials.

Abrasive materials are sometimes classified as naturally occurring (minerals that are mined) and
manufactured (created by a manufacturing process); some abrasives (e.g., diamond) fall into both
classifications. Naturally occurring abrasives include the following: diamond, corundum (aluminum oxide),
V. CEMENTS

Several familiar ceramic materials are classified as inorganic cements: cement, plaster of Paris, and lime,
which, as a group, are produced in extremely large quantities. The characteristic feature of these
materials is that when mixed with water, they form a paste that subsequently sets and hardens. This trait
is especially useful, in that solid and rigid structures having just about any shape may be formed
expeditiously. Also, some of these materials act as a bonding phase that chemically binds particulate
aggregates into a single cohesive structure. Under these circumstances, the role of the cement is similar
to that of the glassy bonding phase that forms when clay products and some refractory bricks are fired.
One important difference, however, is that the cementitious bond develops at room temperature.

VI. CARBONS

A. Diamond

The physical properties of diamond are extraordinary. Chemically, it is very inert and resistant to attack by
a host of corrosive media. Of all known bulk materials, diamond is the hardest–as a result of its extremely
strong interatomic sp3 bonds. In addition, of all solids, it has the lowest sliding coefficient of friction. Its
thermal conductivity is extremely high, its electrical properties are notable, and, optically, it is transparent
in the visible and infrared regions of the electromagnetic spectrum—in fact, it has the widest spectral
transmission range of all materials. The high index of refraction and optical brilliance of single crystals
makes diamond a most highly valued gemstone. Several important properties of diamond, as well as
other carbon materials, are listed in Table 13.14.
B. Graphite

Graphene is highly anisotropic— property values depend on the crystallographic direction along which
they are measured. Applications for graphite are many, varied, and include lubricants, pencils, battery
electrodes, friction materials (e.g., brake shoes), heating elements for electric furnaces, welding
electrodes, metallurgical crucibles, high-temperature refractories and insulations, rocket nozzles,
chemical reactor vessels, electrical contacts (e.g., brushes), and air purification devices.

c. Carbon fibers

Small diameters, high-strength, and high-modulus fibers composed of carbon are used as reinforcements
in polymer-matrix composites. Carbon in these fiber materials is in the form of graphene layers. However,
depending on precursor (i.e., material from which the fibers are made) and heat treatment, different
structural arrangements of these graphene layers exist.

VII. ADVANCED MATERIALS

Although the traditional ceramics discussed previously account for the bulk of production, the
development of new and what are termed advanced ceramics has begun and will continue to establish a
prominent niche in advanced technologies. In particular, electrical, magnetic, and optical properties and
property combinations unique to ceramics have been exploited in a host of new products. Advanced
ceramics include materials used in microelectromechanical systems as well as the nanocarbons
(fullerenes, carbon nanotubes, and graphene).