Chapter | _ Contents : propositional legic , Prediaqte logic laws of logic, quantifiers, Norma\ form Inference theory of Predicate tegte calculus Mathematical Induction that is logic ? The orcl logic is derbved from +he greek word | ‘logos’ Which means reasoning. logic is +he scienc of reasoning Logic #$ has practical applications ~ designing of computtog machines in 7 pecifications of system artificial inte tlegence > omopliter gramming > pregramming Langit z aswell as to many areas of Study Proposition > A proposition is a declarcative Stateme denence ("ea sentence +hat declares Some fact) _that is either +rue or false, bur not oH, Examples - — 1 Delhi is the Capital of Inclia 2 [+2 = : - 3. toronto is capital of Canada 7 4 249-5 _ - __propositions 1,2 Of true 2,4 are false __ consider sne folowing tenes | iShat is toe time 2 Read +hic Carefully 3 a4 —1 4 - 2 itt I Or Pot Propasitions because they qre ok declarative Statements ets 24. are nok propasitions git/ fr fora AUth values Ca pnot be determing, 3,4 can ke 4+umed inte Proposition _ 7 ewe ase = values +0 the vanabies Se ; Letters are used 40 clerote propositional trains like pq T... The tnith value of a PTO Pasi ESteig pared loge eerie ice ear ere is fowe +Bepesitions cobich cannot be simplieres fu: i. are -termed as atamic Propasi+iavze The area of logic that +ermed as | deals w2i+h propesiHon + Rroposi+ional teulus OY Pro posit+icnal _ = logia, ——______, New Mone Med COMPound PropesiHo are formed from -€x'Sting prepositionc _| USINg logical San (oer ——_—__ oe — —— ————Negatian> Ler p pea PrepOsiHON . The negatior ot _ lee eee eee Statemen, “tris net tre aise that p” ee . a eee The negation of * michele PS runs Linu’ — iss 1S“ wichel's PC does nor run Linux — Truth +abie. os (2 Laid eee antes —P-and_q be propositions alee teene ————eenjunrctien of pand q denoted “by _PAg is the ——Prepasiticn “ 6 andl q* .Example: P+ Sun is Shining Us Iris raining PAW = he sun is Shining and i+ 'S raining oc The Sun iS shining tous it ic raining. ————Disjunchoo : let p and q be propositione dsjucc OF p and q denoted py PVq_ 1s the proprwiticon “por q". The digjumcHon pvgy is false wren both gy arip cve faise Truth Table P qu Pvay - : al + 7 - : v e T : 5 a T e e e Pi A Stidept (whe has taken Calculus Can fake this clasc Ys: RA student peho has taken introductory com per Sci€nce can tate this cl. eva: AP student whe has taken calculus or intreducioy Computer Science Can take +hie clas: Exclusive or = .e+ p and q be propositions The exclusive OY ,denoted byPOY, is the proposition +nat is +e when exactly one & p and 4 are true __Orhertwise fase. 7 vv POY . 7 _ — 1c E — THF at T T _ _— Example? P's f Student Gan have Salad with dinner — Y: A Student an have ith_dinner: PAY: PB stident an have Soup or Salad but net es{= __botp with dinner. \ ey | Conditional Statements - : y Implication/cordusion + Let Pand q we PrOPOSIMone > Tre corditi onal statement Pq jc the Propositiun The. conditional statement pq >> we p tren q* | is false when pis true and q is false otherwise © as it ic +vue SN a She vill Fied a job _ PIS called hypotnesis antecedent, premise _ + GIS Called conclusion , comeqguence. } EE Truth table 7 - ——— BS aa eee ae 7 eet area re e et i TF F a { EET T 7 7 et = FOF 7 a a = Example _p Maria leayne diccret mathe matics 4 — — QZ: Mavia finds a joe 3 - Pq + fe mavia learns discrete mathematics , tren _ atthe IF - eM cons+miction is used 10 many preqra—__ -mming languages __., Converse nbapositive and toverse . Statements can be formed starting from p=>q- Proposition G->p is caited converse of p32q New _condi+ionat OY — wp iS contmaposirive CP > Va iS cenverse. inverse Exaynpie VP: Tre home +eam twins 7 elt P&: Tr is raining . TF itis raining “then the home team wins Impress. P77 % * The home teom wins Whenever it is Yau ning anverse, 4 p > IF th ; _horre team wins. i+ is ing contrapairvng Sp» If the heme team cloes not win, i+ is not reir in Ieee wp 30%: TlIbIS Pot raining then the pome ne does Or win raiittonas: Bi Equivalence or bi- implication = Ler The _bicandi Fional State ment “PI and only if gy, PRard q be propesitior Pe? q is the proposition P P= you can fake the fiight 4? you byy a ticker Pesy= you can + the flight 16 and only if _ You buy a ticeer- ____ Example > cons ivuct the truth table ef +he compound proposition (ev wa (PAM Y MP wy PV ey PAY (Pvva)—> (eae) ToT FF 7 T Te or eR eT ot £ a ee ee : _ ee tT TT e Fe Precedence of lagical operators -ae my Applications oF Propasitional lagic » ‘\ 2 TDarsiating english Sentences _ Trans lating eeaeae ———LOte_compaund Statement removes ambiguiry S ~—English languqge es Sentences iwhen translates i —logical pression helps to Analyze +NeiC truth va ————+3-System _specifiaui ore + Logi Ql EX PrESSiong can + Ore essential to specify hardvoare and Settware systems. > Boolean sear ches : logical connecti -————-&tensively in Searches Cf lage Collection of infor ~————+-Such_as indexes of wep pages. J+ 6 termed as Boolean searenes . _ i -— 2 gic _Puezies ; Legica) ~—————Puz2!08 9: sudpeu YES Are us = legic circuits . propesitional logic. can be applied to puiisvesnensens design of COmpurer harducare 7 a ~~ 2opasittonal equivalences Sree eeree eee eee Ee —————_Tau tology + -A_Compount Siateme nt that Is _aipays tre ——-—1$_callec) tautology. — | can tradiotion s _, false A_compound -ProPostHon +rgt S_calied a contradiction. IS loaye —oringency + A compound sre proposi+ion thar if nei, a seutology Nor a contrad fCHor iS called a contr aap Pv op pawp ats Fe a a cE: i FE c T F 4. wo nS Tauttology Contradiction Logical Equivalences The compourd propesitions P 99d gq are logicaliy~ Syuivaient iF P<*e is q tautology Ib is denoted as P=4y. Oo Show that V(P Va) and rep A 4 are log aaliy eqesi valet Po&% pyy wlPvq) WP op wp avy <> wPrng fee T F F F fa ie iL oe fe + Ff Hd ie eee ea rf UU = ies Ee all iu ae a 7 OF Mm @D s@ th can be conctuded that YCva) and MPA VY ar€ logically equivaent. Also APVYa)es OPA OQ iS 4 +acitology Show thar pa and Seva are logicaly equivalent I ie VY op py wpva (P»V<> (w~pva) ase a F r ent ale iE a FE = eee eee ee T ei: Sones ali se e F T J T 7 41 Rea ber _ es From @«@ it car pe conctuded that Py and OPV gy are logically equivalent Show tak PyCVA) and (eva) ACPvr) are lagically equivalen._ ph gw VAY Ppyy pyr. PvCany) Cpva)a(evr) wees T Bi ee 2 oe bi) a aa Tee F Tes oo st. 1 ee E is 1 al T = a Fim 7 T iT oe + a ioe Ff F 7 & r a - fe oe F T F eS a Pp F F F e F eF. Tk e T 7 + ]= From +he truth table it can be © ncludeet thar PY (MAY and (PVG) A (Pyr> are je ne Qui valent Blcallg Lows of logic: ; 7 + -——__| Pat=ep pps Ky) laws / - — : __.© (ena) © (pve) 0 _Examplez = Show hat ors ) ard Pn 04, are eg ical equivAlent USING the oe 7 4 ekpoq) : : logical equivalences invelving apditional stateme P24 = OP vg P34 29a OP : Pv gy = Py PAg 2 9 (Pax)PADDY _ PW a (Por) = PCa —.. (Par) A @ er = (pvp) or —. (P2W V (Par = ps(qvyd _ ~ Por) v (vor) = (PAD or Logical equivalences involving biconditi onal Statements P< = (pay aA(V>P— ——— Per 4 = wp eraqg _ — Pa % = (PAY (wpa ra) + —— © (pe-v) = Pp Oy i 7 Example? Show that (PV (@PAW)) and wpAvY are — logically Equivalent using laws of logic w(Py (@PAg)) = Mp pA w(@PAW -- De Movgar's lav a a wp A (ewe van) ~~ pe Mergan’s jad — _— OP A Cevea) s- Doable negaticoo (MP AP) V COPADA) = distributive law =F _v (wpa wa) + Negatico jawe __ 2 (OPama) VP OB mutative tau a =) OPANOG we Identity law Using laws of logic, show tar (Pay) (PV® is a Ag nied by equiVaience of (PAD > Cevy) = (PAW) v (PVH) = Ganclitional Sraverment = }pvew) v (eve - Demorgans law (MP VP Vv @vva) - asseciative & commu ~ ive 1a PVP CAVED. commen slow.Sahsfiability> A compound PYOPOSi Hom 18S Gaticg; if there 1s an assignment of +rurh values to ibs variables that makes it true. klhen no such ~aSS'9N ments _ExiStS , Ce +he compound Pre poSitton is false for ay eSSignments truth valves to is ~Yonables, the Compound proposition iS unsetises, _betermine whether each of the Com pound Propesi CRV wer) A CaVMIA CrveP) let P=T, get yeT iZ _ them the compound proposition has truth value, CTVE) ACTVPACTVFE) = TATAT = T. v1 The Conditional starcoment is Sarisfiable _ Applications of saris fiability: Many problems 10 _ diverse Oras Such aS robotics, software resting | artificial inteuigence planning, Computer aided design, machine wisten, jategrated— Cireuing design Scheduling, Computer Net Werteing — and genetics can _ be Mmedelled in terms of eopesitHonal sarisFabil; | Predicates - consider the stateMents involving Variables, such as i PB Betas HUH S_ 7 - a Computer gz 1S under attack py an louder _ Ss computer 2 IS -FuncHoning properly _}e The truth value ct +hese staterme mis cannot be _ Known unt 2s specified. once x is Specifé 7 these statements become proposition = The. statement “9 1S greater than 3” has - vw —~_ a fewO parts > Suby ect property of phe subject = predicate. Lim iThe ssatement_can_be denotecl as POA, Where P__ denotes the precticate. re " # iS greater Han 8” _ and x is the variable. par) is +ermed as valve See ropositional functien. Pat 2. one a _vatue iS __ assigned +o +he Variable x, the srereme dt POO) pe cmmes a proposition __ ee — Lexarnpte - Let “pee denote &>3 | Then PU) Is 423. Which is true —_____— = PC is a72 is false. ___ Exampie? let ACK) clenote tne Statement “computer ee TS under attack by an intruder’, suppose Thar eb the com puters 00 campus, only cSs2 and MATH! _ dare currently eder cate oy Jinteucters linet ___ Qre truth values of ACESID, ACcs2) ACMOETHIDE _ Acs) is Obtained by setting = GSI in the Sictema at AC® Because csi is not liSted as compute under attrace, ACcsD is false Because cs2. ; anc! MATH) are onthe (s+ of compiners under = attack , (oe KNoUD +hat __ACGS2) an MPTHI) are hue. examen) denote +e Statement “xeute” i Then —prtith value rf _propnasiticn tt QCL2) is J=2+ ds false Qala.) is 3=0+3 Is tue eee Quant CierS > consider tne Sraremenis: Au bird. fly Some flowers smell sweet _ None of the fruits cre biter. pee ____Few birds sing ee Af Hae Eee Hee “some, none, Few are used for quan +4 ication» Trerc are +00 +ypes of quantifiers . 0D oivers q) “Gulanti fiers: Cyhicn +elle Us that 7 predicated is +rue for every element unde, = — Consideration. _ OD) &XIstential Quant fiers E ——+1s one or more dement under consideration, for a h the predicate iS true Which tells us tha grass — The _arta OF logic that deals with Predi. quantifiers is A+es cing aauled the predicate —caleuius. Ee Universal quantifier: Many Mathematical Statements Hus true for au values ot avaiable in a particular AOMain, calied as_ universe of discourse’/Nomatn of discourse’ : Such statement ¢ using un versal — Be preseq ee avant Acation. the GOlVerSal quanti ercanon | lar demain is rhe proposi call values ce —Gssert Hoat gq ereper+ Pd 6 for a Partcu = —_+har —2£'!9 +e domai poe Z | ArION OF PC IS the “Statem eos: |‘ pce) for oi Walues of 3 in the comin’ Hy —.Nerarion vy xpad + JS calied universal quae Heor a 4 —Exampie: Let POO be +ne State ment A122: Wiha is the _ + ruth value pt the quanti Ficahon POD. here _ 26'S domain cee of ai) real _. Solution: Because Pod WS true for 2, the quant Ficarico numbers All ren) numbes VHPOCO is ue oe i Example: GCO41s tne SAME Ment 4 zee 9! 5 ig the truth Value of ane domain consists oF all req) NUM bess 2 4GEO 1S Met true for every real number #, because + QS2 is false "Le 2=3 ig a counter example FOR NBO. 8 VRA@CO I6 face ~txampie. : Pc? is. Rox - ~ Tf x belongs +e domair_ot “eal numbers i MEPCH) IS false eo (h4Y 4 Yo, + Tt belongs +o domain of inte gess i Ate POD Ss true CO Existential quantifier + Many mathematical statements. PONE + ASsert thar there Is ar element with a certain —. Property. Such Statements arc expressed using — existential quantification. Wit exisrentiq) qualification. we form a propesition Hat js +rue if and oaniy if POO 1s tru at 1east one Valu win tne domain Tne existential quantifimtian af P@O is the propo- sition! There exists an element xin fhe clomain Such +hay poe” Notation * + XPCO - “Zils alledine existential quand Fier ___ Example > jet P00 dene 273 What is the a +ruth value of the quanti fication 32ePCx) , here se belongs to +ne domain pf al) real Numbers? __Solurion + ® 23 \s spmetimes tate _ fer inStance. when x=4 - The existential quanti ficarroo OF PGO _, Fx POO is +e sep _—_— Ex cnplec : (XD js sdaremernr acs 9e+!" iad IS ine truth value of the quanti Fcattion 4 2800. x belongs jo the domain of real Numbers 2 rehert Colm: Because Garris False fer every ea) number14 QOO iS fave. Normal forms bE Well formed formula’ (wtf) Of PROPOSIHONA) Jo, also Galilea PHOPOS I HONA) For’ oy SDPPIY Foy & S109 CensisHog of propasitiena) Variable PNM ECHVES and parentheses used ia Proper Many Example C CPV4) A (WP var) A(WS vq)) is aq wofe _Oitt Propesitional variables PS E % Anexpression of the form Pvq VOUS 15 a 4 disjunction i 2 AO expression of the form PANMYaAsS 1S a 7 Conjunction I] = Conjunction is alse termed as preduct and disjunction is +ermed ac scum . “product of variables and thew nega. OS 9 [ fermula is called elemeniary product oPAw, AAT. Orauns -? 94M of variables and theic negatiens ina formula Jo allied elementary sum wpva, avup,_ PS a litera). 2 A variable or Negation of a variable is ed SHence an elemenany sum is _a disjunction co J re ra\s and _elemettary prmduct 1S @ conjucctes of \irerals Ss FE Disjunct) ve normal form CONF) > A formula cohich 5 ig equivalent tea gwen ftermula and consists a Sur Of elementary product iS called a digyuocr _nermal forrn CONP) # To bring any formula +o disjuactive norma) taum, first replace 2 ANd $2 __USINg A_and y_ and & "men se De Mergan'’s. law. whenever neces.FE Copjuretwe - Disjunctive Norma) Form is sum ob PICA Example: Optaio disjunctive norma) forms cf ~ bh Pa) a 9y 1. Cop va) anmq - - (MPAMa)y (HAVA)... ctistmbutive lavo 2 (png) «> (pva) This is equivalent +0 —— — [wera a ceva) | v Lew (pac) A ecevad) | fie a (eval v [ ceaad aber acai). Demterger oF aad — - —_ ao a DNF 3 awvr ee VDAC) oR a PAY) V (PAY v (rAWv CYAT) ONE a aa i . - FF _Conjuctive norma) forrn = A formula whiar is _ - egirivalent 40 a given formula and censists pf a Product of elementery sums iS Called a - 6Onjunchive norma) form of +ne given for | Example bP q Away 2 COP V4) AVG 2s (PAX) <> (PVA) - = Tt Hisense: = (eva) A Lepva) a (Pag) a | [evwcena) vcevad] A Leva) v w(paay| L cpaw vieva) | a [oteva) van] _ "(py ceva) (pycpvas) AC vPva) A \ (wp OPVROA) A (Wa vOPYOS) Br CNE_ principal ; itona Variables . Consider Tier 2 -ana_a_be— pape | four conjunctions given belo — ——__—_ Pag, PA OY WRAY, OPA OY. a four con crions Oe calied_ qminterne’ OF pq __These four conjunc ___ For a _given_ Formula ,. an equivalent formula consi ___ of dis} unchions of _minter S_anly is _Kneten as its ___ principal disjunctive normal form: Such rormal for is called sum-=of- products — canonical form. oneider the following rmeutP table: pap ay PAY PAMY OPAG OPA OH _ ee Ee + __ TRA TOF T FS uFTr Roof FUT — a = F Tt _ Now consider tne tritn alles for P>a, P<=>y Papacy meet pec. Perq — 2 | eee aes ene Hl T F & F - — F Tr 1 - Ee ee T T 7 — vewpanv(apAe) __.Example> obtain +he principal disjuoctive normal form _for (PAW) v CwPAr) VAD orm cPAa) = (pny) ACY VMR) _ = (PAMAN Vv CPAw vor), @ePar) = = (@PAD A (q.voq) |i = COpPAYAY) VCOPAT NOG) _ ae eee IL = (opayandy Cop ncoanr) _ cua) an) A (P vop) =_(arap>v (anv pop) = CPAVYAY vy (@p naar)