Introduction
To better understand fluid flow, simplifying assumptions are made.
Fluid is ideal.
Fluid is incompressible.
Note that the second assumption is excellent for liquids but may not the same for gases.
Generally, closed conduit flow is characterized by a flow of fluid in a closed conduit having no
free surface, thus the fluid completely fills the conduit.
The three significant concepts in fluid flow are:
Law of Conservation of Mass
Law of Conservation of Energy
Law of Conservation of Momentum
Continuity Equation
The principle of conservation of mass expresses the fact that matter can neither be
created nor destroyed.
The continuity equation is a mathematical statement of the principle.
For steady flow, the rate at which mass enters a control volume equals the rate at which
mass leaves this same control volume.
What goes in at point 1 goes out at point 2.
By Continuity:
Q1 = Q2
A1 v1 = A2 v2
Sample Problem 1
Sample Problem 2
Sample Problem 3
Conservation of Energy
The principle of conservation of energy states that the energy possessed by a given mass
of fluid as it flows through a system remains constant unless energy is added or removed
from the fluid.
The total energy possessed by a given mass of fluid can be considered to consist of
potential, kinetic and flow (pressure) energy.
Potential Energy, P E
The amount of work needed to lift a particle of mass "m" to an elevation "z".
P E = mgz (N m)
Kinetic Energy, KE
The energy possessed by a particle of mass "m" moving at a speed of "v".
1
2
KE = mv (N m)
2
Flow Energy or Pressure Energy, F E
The work done by the pressure force in moving the fluid element through the system.
Pw P mg
FE = = (N m)
γ γ
Consider the pipe with t he fluid completely static.
The difference in pressure between points 1 and 2 is given by:
P 1 − P 2 = ρg(z 2 − z 1 )
P 1 − P 2 = ρgz
ρgz is similar to mgz or potential energy.
By observation, P 1 − P2 has the dimensions of potential energy per unit volume.
N Nm
=
2 3
m m
Set the fluid in the pipe in motion.
It can be observed that the total energy per unit volume at any point along the pipe is given by:
KE PE
+ + P ressure
volume volume
By law of conservation of energy, the energy anywhere along the pipe must be constant.
1 2
mv mgz
2
+ + P ressure = Constant
volume volume
1
2
ρv + ρgz + P ressure = Constant
2
This equation is called the Bernoulli's equation.
Bernoulli's Equation
Bernoulli's Equation may be written as the total flow energy, E.
1 w wP
2
v + wz + = E (joules)
2 g γ
Bernoulli's Equation may also be expressed as energy per newton weight or head.
2
v P
+ z + = E (m)
2g γ
2
v
= V elocity H ead (m)
2g
z = Elevation (m)
P
= P ressure H ead (m)
γ
P
= h
γ
Note: Pressure must be pressure gage.
Velocity Head and Discharge Relationship
2 2
v 8Q
=
2 4
2g π gD
Consider the last figure. If energy remains constant, then:
E1 = E2
2 2
v P1 v P2
1 2
+ z1 + = + z2 +
2g γ 2g γ
2 2
8Q P1 8Q P2
+ z1 + = + z2 +
2 4 2 4
π gD γ π gD γ
1 2
This is an ideal condition.
Flow is said to be under ideal condition if there is no head loss.
Head loss is associated with the energy lost in fluid flow as caused by friction, change in
conduit size, etc.
When head loss is considered, the Bernoulli's becomes:
E1 − H L = E2
2 2
v P1 v P2
1 2
+ z1 + − HL = + z2 +
2g γ 2g γ
2 2
8Q P1 8Q P2
+ z1 + − HL = + z2 +
2 4 2 4
π gD γ π gD γ
1 2
Where:
H L = H ead Loss (m)
Head Loss
Head loss is the measure of the reduction in the total head of the liquid as it moves
through a system.
Head loss is unavoidable and is present because of the friction between fluid and the
walls of the pipe and the friction between adjacent fluid particles as they flow along the
pipe.
This is unavoidable in real fluids.
Direction of Flow
Fluid flows from a point of higher energy to a point of lower energy.
Sample Problem 4
Sample Problem 5
Sample Problem 6 (Seat Work)
Sample Problem 7 (Seatwork)
Pumps
Pumps
Used to increase the energy head in a given system.
The energy provided by the pump is usually referred to as head added.
Consider the following system:
Observe that Pt. 2 is higher than Pt. 1.
The energy head at Pt. 1 may not be enough for the fluid to reach Pt. 2.
Consider the following system:
To help push the fluid to Pt. 2, additional energy or head is required.
Pump may be added.
The energy equation between points 1 and 2, assuming there is head loss, becomes:
E1 − H L + H A = E2
2 2
v P1 v P2
1 2
+ z1 + − HL + HA = + z2 +
2g γ 2g γ
Where:
H A = H ead Added (m)
Turbines
Turbines
Used to extract or harness energy from a given system.
Also known as motor.
The energy extracted by the turbines is usually referred to as head extracted.
Consider the following system:
Observe that Pt. 1 is higher than Pt. 2.
Because of gravity, the fluid flows naturally from Pt. 1.
Consider the following system:
Energy may be extracted or harnessed by using a turbine.
The energy equation between points 1 and 2, assuming there is head loss, becomes:
E1 − H L − H E = E2
2 2
v P1 v P2
1 2
+ z1 + − HL − HE = + z2 +
2g γ 2g γ
Where:
H E = H ead Extracted (m)
Power
Power
The rate at which work is done.
J oule
P = QγE ( )
s
Where:
3
m
Q = Discharge ( )
s
kN
γ = U nit W eight ( 3
)
m
E = T otal Energy H ead (m)
For the given pipe:
The power at Pt. 1 is:
P ower 1 = Q 1 γE 1
Where:
2
v P1
1
E1 = + z1 +
2g γ
Note:
Nm
1 = 1 W att
s
1 hp = 746 W atts
f t − lb
1 hp = 550
s
Output Power of a Pump:
P ower = QγH A
Input Power of a Turbine:
P ower = QγH E
Efficiency
Efficiency
Also known as mechanical efficiency of pump (or turbine), is the ratio of the power
delivered by the pump (or turbine) to the power supplied to the pump (or turbine).
output
η = × 100
input
Sample Problem 8
Sample Problem 9
Sample Problem 10
Graphical Interpretation of Bernoulli's Equation
Note: Constant pipe diameter.
Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL)
HGL is the level water would rise to in a small vertical tube connected to the pipe.
It is the sum of the elevation and pressure head.
It is also known as pressure gradient.
Energy Grade Line (EGL)
EGL is the graphical representation of the total flow energy.
It is always greater by a value of the velocity head than the HGL.
Properties of EGL and HGL
HGL and EGL always slope downward in the direction of the flow.
EGL may only rise with the presence of a pump.
The drop in the EGL is the head loss between two points.
Without head loss, the EGL is horizontal.
Sample Problem 11
