BIO 133- PHYSIOLOGY

CHAPTER NO 10: CONTROL OF BODY MOVEMENT

● PROPRIOCEPTION: afferent information
about the position of the body and its parts in
10.1 MOTOR CONTROL HIERARCHY space
● The neurons involved in controlling skeletal
muscles can be thought of as being NOTE:
organized in a hierarchical fashion
SOOOO here is the summary!

Highest: HIGHER CENTERS (GENERAL

INTENTION); forms complex plans according to
individual intention and communicates with the middle
level via command neurons; areas involved are
memory, emotion, motivation, sensorimotor cortex

Middle: MIDDLE LEVEL…; converts plan received

from above to a smaller motor programs, then
transmitted through descending pathways to the local
level; areas involved are sensory motor cortex, also
cerebellum, basal nuclei and brainstem (but only
indirectly)

Last: LOCAL LEVEL; specifies tension of particular

muscle and angle of specific joints at specific times;
areas involved are brainstem/spinal cord interneurons,
afferent, and motor neurons

VOLUNTARY AND INVOLUNTARY ACTIONS

● VOLUNTARY MOVEMENT: with the
following characteristics:
1 The movement is accompanied by a conscious
awareness of what we are doing and why we
are doing it
2 attention is directed toward the action or its
purpose
● INVOLUNTARY MOVEMENT: describes
● SENSORIMOTOR CORTEX: widespread action that do not have these characteristics:
regions of the frontal and parietal lobes that Unconscious, Automatic, and reflex
act together to control muscle movement ● Most motor behavior, therefore, is neither
● Basal ganglia/nuclei, thalamus, purely voluntary nor purely involuntary but
cerebellum has elements of both.
○ exert their effects on the local level
ONLY INDIRECTLY via the
descending pathways from the
cerebral cortex to brain stem
● As the movement progresses, information
about what the muscles are doing feeds
back to the motor control centers, which
make program corrections.

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BIO 133- PHYSIOLOGY
CHAPTER NO 10: CONTROL OF BODY MOVEMENT
10.2 LOCAL CONTROL OF MOTOR NEURONS ● MUSCLE SPINDLE: peripheral endings of
● relay points for instructions to the motor afferent nerve fibers wrapped around
neurons from centers higher in the motor modified muscle fibers, several of which are
control hierarchy enclosed in a connective-tissue capsule
● important in adjusting motor unit activity to
unexpected obstacles and to painful stimuli INTRAFUSAL FIBERS EXTRAFUSAL FIBERS
INTERNEURONS
● most of the synaptic input to motor neurons modified muscle fibers skeletal muscle fibers
from the descending pathways goes to within the spindle that form a bulk of the
interneurons that synapse with motor muscle and generate its
neurons activated by GAMMA force and movement
● comprise 90% spinal cord neurons; some MOTOR NEURONS
(smaller-diameter activated by ALPHA
are near the motor neurons; sometimes
neurons) MOTOR NEURONS
called as local interneurons
(large-diameter motor
● Interneurons with longer processes are
neurons)
important for integrating complex
movements
● ALPHA-GAMMA COACTIVATION:
● important elements of the local level of motor
mechanism that prevents the reducing of
control hierarchy (integrating from higher
available sensory information about muscle
centers, peripheral receptors, and other
length
interneurons)
● crucial in determining which muscles are TWO KINDS OF STRETCH RECEPTORS
activated and when (especially during
repetitive and rhythmic movements) NUCLEAR CHAIN NUCLEAR BAG FIBER
LOCAL AFFERENT INPUT FIBER
● The afferent fibers carry information from
sensory receptors located in three places: responds best to how a responds to both the
1 SKELETAL MUSCLES controlled by the muscle is stretched magnitude of a stretch
motor neurons and the speed with
2 OTHER MUSCLES (e.g., those with which it occurs
antagonistic actions) *collectively, they are termed as
3 TENDONS, JOINTS, AND SKIN of body parts MUSCLE-SPINDLE STRETCH RECEPTORS
affected by the action of the muscle
● Extrafusal fibers of a The two ends of
intrafusal muscle fibers
STRETCH REFLEX
● reflex arc; present because a path makes
excitatory synapses directly onto motor
neurons that return to the muscle that was
stretched
● important in maintaining balance and posture
o knee-jerk reflex
LENGTH-MONITORING SYSTEMS
● Stretch receptors embedded within muscles
monitor muscle length and the rate of
change in muscle length

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BIO 133- PHYSIOLOGY
CHAPTER NO 10: CONTROL OF BODY MOVEMENT
10.3 THE BRAIN MOTOR CENTERS AND THE
MONOSYNAPTIC POLYSYNAPTIC
DESCENDING PATHWAYS THEY CONTROL
REFLEX REFLEX

afferent nerve fibers in they have at least on CEREBRAL CORTEX

the stretched muscle interneuron and usually ● critical function in both the planning and
synapse directly on the many afferent or ongoing control of voluntary movements
motor neurons to that efferent neurons ● functioning in both the highest and middle
muscle without any levels of the motor control hierarchy
interneurons TWO AREAS OF SENSORIMOTOR CORTEX ON
● RECIPROCAL INNERVATION: divergence THE POSTERIOR PART OF FRONTAL LOBE:
of neuronal pathways to influence both the 1 PRIMARY MOTOR CORTEX/ MOTOR CORTEX
agonist and antagonist muscles of a 2 PREMOTOR AREA
particular body movement
○ characteristic of many movements OTHER AREAS:
not just the stretch reflex, and in 1 SENSORY MOTOR CORTEX
some circumstances antagonist ● lies mostly on the surface of frontal lobe
muscle groups are simultaneously where the cortex folds down between two
contracted to stiffen a limb joint hemispheres
● SYNERGISTIC MUSCLES: muscles whose 2 SOMATOSENSORY CORTEX
contraction assists the intended motion (e.g., 3 PARIETAL-LOBE ASSOCIATION CORTEX
knee-jerk reflex) ● the neurons of the motor cortex that control
muscle groups in various parts of the body
TENSION-MONITORING SYSTEMS
are arranged anatomically somatotopic
● since tension depends on some factors (e.g.,
map
length of muscle, load, and degree of the
muscle fatigue) feedback is necessary to
inform the motor control systems of the
tension actually achieved
● provided by vision, afferent input from skin,
muscle and joint receptors
● additional receptor type specifically monitors
the stretching of muscle tendons
● GOLGI TENDON ORGANS: receptors
employed in this system; endings of afferent
nerve fibers that wrap around collagen SUBCORTICAL AND BRAINSTEM NUCLEI
bundles in the tendons near their junction ● structures may play a minor role in
with the muscle motivation and initiating movements (but
WITHDRAWAL REFLEX very important planning and monitoring
● resulting action moves the affected limb them)
away from the harmful stimulus ● role: establish the programs that determine
● CROSSED-EXTENSOR REFLEX: enables the specific sequence of movements needed
the contralateral leg to support the body’s to accomplish a desired action
weight as the injured foot is lifted by flexion ● BASAL NUCLEI: consist of a closely related
group of separate nuclei

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BIO 133- PHYSIOLOGY
CHAPTER NO 10: CONTROL OF BODY MOVEMENT
PARKINSON’S DISEASE CEREBELLUM
● the input to the basal nuclei is diminished, ● located dorsally to the brainstem
the interplay of the facilitatory and inhibitory ● influences posture and movement indirectly
circuits is unbalanced, and activation of the by means of input to brainstem nuclei and to
motor cortex reduced regions of the sensorimotor cortex
● major part of the initial defect arises in the ● provide timing signals to the cerebral cortex
neurons of SUBSTANTIA NIGRA (black and spinal cord for precise execution of the
substance) different phases of a motor program
o brainstem nucleus; dark pigment in ● helps coordinate movements that involve
its cells several joints and stores the memories of
o normally project to the basal nuclei, these movements so they are easily
where they release dopamine from achieved the next time they are tried
their axon terminals ● participates in planning movements
● clinically characterized by: o integrating information about the
1 AKINESIA: reduced amount of movement nature of an intended movement
2 BRADYKINESIA: slow movement with information about the
3 MUSCULAR RIGIDITY surrounding space (as a
feedforward)
4 TREMOR AT REST
● CEREBELLAR DISEASE: cannot perform
5 OTHER MOTOR AND NONMOTOR limb or eye movements smoothly but move
ABNORMALITIES (may also be present)
with INTENTION TREMOR
● MTP (1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine):
o cannot combine the movements of
one chemically clearly linked to destruction
several joints into a single, smooth,
of substantia nigra
coordinated motion
○ impurity sometimes created in the
o unstable posture and awkward gait
manufacture of a synthetic
DESCENDING PATHWAYS
heroin-like opioid drug TWO TYPES:
○ when injected → Parkinson’s like
syndrome CORTICOSPINAL BRAINSTEM PATHWAYS
PATHWAYS
DRUGS USED TO TREAT PARKINSON’S
DISEASE: originate in the cerebral originate in the brainstem,
cortex
1 AGONISTS (stimulators) OF DOPAMINE
RECEPTORS ● Neurons from both types end at synapses on
2 INHIBITORS OF THE ENZYMES that alpha and gamma motor neurons or on
metabolize dopamine at synapses interneurons that affect the,
3 PRECURSORS OF DOPAMINE ITSELF ● Some of the descending fibers affect afferent
● LEVODOPA (L-DOPA): widely systems via:
prescribed drug ○ presynaptic synapses on the
terminals of afferent neurons (as
THERAPIES: these fibers enter the CNS)
○ synapses on interneurons in the
1 Lesioning (destruction) of overactive areas of
ascending pathways
basal nuclei
○ Overall effect: regulate their
2 DEEP BRAIN STIMULATION: surgically influence on either the local or brain
implanting electrodes in region of basal nuclei motor control areas

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BIO 133- PHYSIOLOGY
CHAPTER NO 10: CONTROL OF BODY MOVEMENT
CORTICOSPINAL PATHWAYS ● UPPER MOTOR NEURONS: descending
● nerve fibers have their cell bodies in the pathways and neurons of the motor cortex
sensorimotor cortex and terminate in spinal ○ UPPER MOTOR NEURON
cord DISORDERS: abnormalities of this
● also called pyramidal tracts/system said neurons (e.g., hypertonia)
because of their triangular shape as they ● LOWER MOTOR NEURONS: the alpha
pass along the ventral surface of the medulla motor neurons/true motor neurons
oblongata ● SPASTICITY: form of hypertonia in which
● CORTICOBULBAR PATHWAY: fibers that the muscles do not develop increased tone
accompany the corticospinal fibers descend until they are stretched a bit
through the brain from the cerebral cortex ○ CLASP-KNIFE PHENOMENON:
o a pathway that begins in the the period of “give” occurring after a
sensorimotor cortex and ends in the time of resistance; like folding a
brainstem pocket knife
o control, directly or indirectly via ● RIGIDITY: a form of hypertonia in which the
interneurons, the motor neurons increased muscle contraction is continual
that innervate muscles of the eye, and the resistance to passive stretch is
face, tongue, and throat constant
o provide the main source of control
MUSCLE SPASMS MUSCLE CRAMPS
for voluntary movement of the
muscles of the head and neck brief, involuntary prolonged, involuntary,
● Convergence and divergence are hallmarks contractions, may or may not painful contractions
of the corticospinal pathway. be painful
● HYPOTONIA: condition of abnormally low
BRAINSTEM PATHWAYS
muscle tone accompanied by weakness,
● sometimes referred as EXTRAPYRAMIDAL
atrophy and decreased or absent reflex
SYSTEM or indirect pathways
responses
o to distinguish them from the
○ FLACCID: weak/soft; often used to
corticospinal pathways
describe hypotonic muscles
● involved more with coordination of the
large muscle groups of the trunk and AMYOTROPHIC LATERAL SCLEROSIS (ALS)
proximal portions of the limbs used in the ● lower motor neuron condition in which
maintenance of upright posture, in progressive degeneration of alpha motor
locomotion, and in head and body neurons causes hypotonia and atrophy of
movements when turning toward a specific skeletal muscles.
stimulus ● also referred as LOU GEHRIG’S DISEASE

10.4 MUSCLE TONE

● slight and uniform resistance when it its
stretched by an external force
● important diagnostic tool for clinicians
assessing a patient’s neuromuscular function
ABNORMAL MUSCLE TONE
● HYPERTONIA: abnormally high muscle
tone; the increased resistance is due to an
increased level of alpha motor neuron
activity

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BIO 133- PHYSIOLOGY
CHAPTER NO 10: CONTROL OF BODY MOVEMENT
10.5 MAINTENANCE OF UPRIGHT POSTURE AND
BALANCE
● maintenance of posture and balance
depends upon inputs from the eyes,
vestibular apparatus, and somatic
proprioceptors.
● to maintain balance, the body’s center of
gravity must be maintained over the body’s
base.
● The crossed-extensor reflex is a postural
reflex

10.6 WALKING
● requires the coordination of many muscles,
each activated to a precise degree at a
precise time
● initiate by allowing the body to fall forward to
an unstable position and then moving one
leg forward to provide support
● The activity of central pattern generating
networks in the spinal cord brings about the
cyclical, alternating movements of
locomotion
● These pattern generators are controlled by
corticospinal and brainstem descending
pathways and affected by feedback and
motor programs

Transes made by Tumale (2022)

Please do not reproduce and spread without my permission.