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[76]
● Boreum. The southern cap is called Planum Australe.
● Mars's equator is defined by its rotation, but the location of
its Prime Meridian was specified, as was Earth's (at
Greenwich), by choice of an arbitrary point; Mädler and Beer
selected a line for their first maps of Mars in 1830. After the
spacecraft Mariner 9 provided extensive imagery of Mars in
1972, a small crater (later called Airy-0), located in the Sinus
Meridiani ("Middle Bay" or "Meridian Bay"), was chosen by
Merton Davies, Harold Masursky, and Gérard de
Vaucouleurs for the definition of 0.0° longitude to coincide
[77][78][79]
with the original selection.
● Because Mars has no oceans and hence no "sea level", a
zero-elevation surface had to be selected as a reference
[80]
level; this is called the areoid of Mars, analogous to the
[81]
terrestrial geoid. Zero altitude was defined by the height
at which there is 610.5 Pa (6.105 mbar) of atmospheric
[82]
pressure. This pressure corresponds to the triple point of
water, and it is about 0.6% of the sea level surface pressure
[83]
on Earth (0.006 atm).
● For mapping purposes, the United States Geological Survey
divides the surface of Mars into thirty cartographic
quadrangles, each named for a classical albedo feature it
[84]
contains. In April 2023, The New York Times reported an
updated global map of Mars based on images from the Hope
[85]
spacecraft. A related, but much more detailed, global
[86]
Mars map was released by NASA on 16 April 2023.
● Volcanoes
● Main article: Volcanology of Mars
 ●
● Picture of the largest volcano on Mars, Olympus Mons. It is
approximately 550 km (340 mi) across.
● The vast upland region Tharsis contain several extinct
volcanoes, which include the shield volcano Olympus Mons
(Mount Olympus). The edifice is over 600 km (370 mi) wide.
[87][88]
Because the mountain is so large, with complex
structure at its edges, giving a definite height to it is difficult.
Its local relief, from the foot of the cliffs which form its
[88]
northwest margin to its peak, is over 21 km (13 mi), a little
over twice the height of Mauna Kea as measured from its
base on the ocean floor. The total elevation change from the
plains of Amazonis Planitia, over 1,000 km (620 mi) to the
[89]
northwest, to the summit approaches 26 km (16 mi),
roughly three times the height of Mount Everest, which in
comparison stands at just over 8.8 kilometres (5.5 mi).
Consequently, Olympus Mons is either the tallest or second-
tallest mountain in the Solar System; the only known
mountain which might be taller is the Rheasilvia peak on the
[90]
asteroid Vesta, at 20–25 km (12–16 mi).
● Impact topography
● The dichotomy of Martian topography is striking: northern
plains flattened by lava flows contrast with the southern
highlands, pitted and cratered by ancient impacts. It is
possible that, four billion years ago, the Northern
Hemisphere of Mars was struck by an object one-tenth to
two-thirds the size of Earth's Moon. If this is the case, the
Northern Hemisphere of Mars would be the site of an impact
 crater 10,600 by 8,500 kilometres (6,600 by 5,300 mi) in
size, or roughly the area of Europe, Asia, and Australia
combined, surpassing Utopia Planitia and the Moon's South
Pole–Aitken basin as the largest impact crater in the Solar
[91][92][93]
System.
● Mars is scarred by a number of impact craters: a total of
43,000 craters with a diameter of 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) or
[94]
greater have been found. The largest exposed crater is
Hellas, which is 2,300 kilometres (1,400 mi) wide and 7,000
metres (23,000 ft) deep, and is a light albedo feature clearly
[95][96]
visible from Earth. There are other notable impact
features, such as Argyre, which is around 1,800 kilometres
[97]
(1,100 mi) in diameter, and Isidis, which is around 1,500
[98]
kilometres (930 mi) in diameter. Due to the smaller mass
and size of Mars, the probability of an object colliding with
the planet is about half that of Earth. Mars is located closer
to the asteroid belt, so it has an increased chance of being
struck by materials from that source. Mars is more likely to
be struck by short-period comets, i.e., those that lie within
[99]
the orbit of Jupiter.
● Martian craters can have a morphology that suggests the
[100]
ground became wet after the meteor impacted.
● Tectonic sites

●
 ● Valles Marineris, taken by the Viking 1 probe
● The large canyon, Valles Marineris (Latin for "Mariner
Valleys", also known as Agathodaemon in the old canal
[101]
maps ), has a length of 4,000 kilometres (2,500 mi) and a
depth of up to 7 kilometres (4.3 mi). The length of Valles
Marineris is equivalent to the length of Europe and extends
across one-fifth the circumference of Mars. By comparison,
the Grand Canyon on Earth is only 446 kilometres (277 mi)
long and nearly 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) deep. Valles Marineris
was formed due to the swelling of the Tharsis area, which
caused the crust in the area of Valles Marineris to collapse.
In 2012, it was proposed that Valles Marineris is not just a
graben, but a plate boundary where 150 kilometres (93 mi)
of transverse motion has occurred, making Mars a planet
[102][103]
with possibly a two-tectonic plate arrangement.
● Holes and caves
● Images from the Thermal Emission Imaging System
(THEMIS) aboard NASA's Mars Odyssey orbiter have
revealed seven possible cave entrances on the flanks of the
[104]
volcano Arsia Mons. The caves, named after loved ones
of their discoverers, are collectively known as the "seven
[105]
sisters". Cave entrances measure from 100 to 252
metres (328 to 827 ft) wide and they are estimated to be at
least 73 to 96 metres (240 to 315 ft) deep. Because light
does not reach the floor of most of the caves, they may
extend much deeper than these lower estimates and widen
below the surface. "Dena" is the only exception; its floor is
visible and was measured to be 130 metres (430 ft) deep.
The interiors of these caverns may be protected from
micrometeoroids, UV radiation, solar flares and high energy
[106][107]
particles that bombard the planet's surface.
● Atmosphere
●