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AS2 Module 3 - Ruminants

Q: How does the implementation of dehorning practices benefit cattle management?

Dehorning cattle offers several benefits: it reduces the space needed for cattle in feedlots and during transportation, leading to better efficiency. Additionally, dehorning leads to a more uniform appearance of cattle and helps prevent injuries that can occur during animal fights .

Q: In what ways does regular record-keeping contribute to improving herd quality in cattle farming?

Regular record-keeping in cattle farming helps identify genetically superior cattle that should be used for breeding, while allowing farmers to spot slow-gaining heifers and bulls producing undesirable traits. By culling these underperforming animals, herd quality can be improved, which leads to increased profitability in beef production .

Q: How does pasture management complement parasite control in cattle and sheep farming?

Effective pasture management complements parasite control by reducing the exposure of cattle and sheep to infective stages of internal parasites. For instance, controlling snail populations and using safe pastures can mitigate liver fluke infestations. Regular deworming and the application of recommended chemicals for deticking are supported by these measures to ensure comprehensive pest management .

Q: What is the impact of castration on the growth rate of bull calves, and when should it be considered as an option?

Castration can reduce the liveweight gain rate by 15% to 20%, indicating it should only be considered when separating males from females is difficult due to inadequate infrastructure. Castration is mainly recommended from a few weeks to seven months of age to control breeding and manage animal behavior effectively .

Q: How should farmers manage disease risks when integrating new cattle into an existing herd?

Farmers should quarantine new cattle for a minimum of 30 days, performing health checks and administering deworming, deticking, and immunization protocols during this period. This isolation allows for monitoring of any latent diseases, ensuring they do not spread to the existing herd. Maintaining high biosecurity and environmental control through sanitation and disinfection are also essential steps .

Q: Discuss the reasons for culling in cattle and its benefits to herd management.

Culling is necessary for cattle exhibiting poor reproductive performance, harboring undesirable traits, or failing to thrive despite adequate care. By removing these individuals, farmers can focus on breeding more robust, productive animals, which improves genetic quality and herd profitability over time. This approach helps maintain optimal resource use and enhances the overall performance of the cattle operation .

Q: What are the key distinguishing features of a crossbred animal in livestock production, and why are they significant?

Crossbred animals result from the mating of two purebred parents, inheriting diverse traits from both lineages. This genetic mixture can enhance heterosis or hybrid vigor, leading to potentially improved performance traits such as growth rate, fertility, and resistance to diseases, which are significant for optimizing livestock productivity and resilience under various farming conditions .

Q: What are the essential health management measures for cattle before beginning a breeding program, and why are they necessary?

Before a breeding program, it's essential to select breeders based on potential, conduct blood tests for diseases like brucellosis and leptospirosis, and consult veterinary authorities for guidance. Deworming with broad-spectrum anthelmintics, treating confirmed or widespread liver fluke infestations with flukecides, injecting Vitamins ADE to boost reproductive performance, and vaccinating against prevalent diseases are crucial steps. These measures ensure that breeders are healthy and have optimal reproductive performance, reducing the risk of disease transmission and reproductive failures .

Q: Identify and explain the importance of regular immunization schedules in cattle health management.

Regular immunization against prevalent diseases such as hemorrhagic septicemia, blackleg, brucellosis, and anthrax is crucial to prevent outbreaks and ensure the herd's health. Immunizations help build herd immunity, minimizing the chance of severe disease spread and reproductive losses, crucial for maintaining productivity and profitability in cattle farming .

Q: What practices are recommended for the management of breeding bulls to ensure high-quality offspring?

Breeding bulls should be selected from purebred stock as they contribute 50% of the genetic makeup of the offspring. Bulls are recommended to begin breeding at a mature age, at least two years, to ensure their physical condition is optimum. Supplemental feeding with grains or concentrates is crucial 60 to 90 days before and after the breeding period to maintain their strength and health. Bulls should be removed from the herd after 2.5 to 3 years, coinciding with when their offspring reach breeding age, thereby managing genetic diversity .

This document provides an overview of beef cattle and dairy buffalo production in the Philippines. It discusses the prospects and challenges of the industries. The beef cattle industry has seen slow growth over the past decades. Backyard farms account for most cattle, while commercial farms make up a smaller percentage. Several regions are major beef producers. Milking practices for buffalo and health management for both species are also covered. The document aims to provide students with knowledge of breeding, feeding, and herd management for beef and dairy animals.

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Topics covered

Animal Nutrition,
Calving Management,
Livestock Marketing,
Castration Techniques,
Animal Health Programs,
Nutritional Requirements,
Livestock Economics,
Animal Identification,
Livestock Inventory,
Market Prices

0% found this document useful (0 votes)

47 views70 pages

AS2 Module 3 - Ruminants

Uploaded by

izzy9zyzy

We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.

Available Formats

Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

Topics covered

Animal Nutrition,
Calving Management,
Livestock Marketing,
Castration Techniques,
Animal Health Programs,
Nutritional Requirements,
Livestock Economics,
Animal Identification,
Livestock Inventory,
Market Prices

Republic of the Philippines

NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY

Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya
INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No.: Ani Sci. 2 1st sem-20232024

College: ___AGRICULTURE______
Campus :___Bayombong________

DEGREE PROGRAM CAS COURSE NO. AS2

SPECIALIZATION N/A COURSE TITLE Introduction to Livestock and Poultry

Production
YEAR LEVEL 2 TIME FRAME 25 hrs WK NO. 10-14 IM NO. 3

I. UNIT TITLE/CHAPTER TITLE: Introduction to Beef Cattle and Dairy Buffalo Production

II. LESSON TITLE:

Beef Cattle and Dairy Buffalo Production

a) Prospect and problems of the industry
b) Present system of raising cattle and buffalo
c) Breeds of cattle and buffalo
d) Breeding practices in cattle and buffalo
e) Herd division
f) Grazing management for beef cattle
g) Feeding management for diary animals
h) Milking practices of buffalo
i) Health management of beef and dairy buffalo
j) Herd health program
k) Common disease of large ruminants
l) Cost and return Analysis

III. LESSON OVERVIEW:

This lesson focuses on the Basic Principles, concepts and Guidelines about Beef Cattle and Dairy
Buffalo Production. It also covers the different methods, application of Health Management and Cost and
Return Analysis.

IV. DESIRED LEARNING OUTCOMES

 Know the opportunities, prospect, systems and dairy buffalo production

 List and characterize breeds of beef cattle and dairy buffalo
 Identify, understand and discuss management practices in beef cattle and diary buffalo production
 Acquaint with milking practices
 Identify and list down common diseases and parasites in large ruminants

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Republic of the Philippines
NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya
INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No.: Ani Sci. 2 1st sem-20232024

V. LESSON CONTENT

OVERVIEW OF THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY

The beef cattle industry is one of the least developed among the livestock and poultry
industries in the country. For the past 11 years, cattle inventory has only increased at a rate of 4.3
percent per year. Per capita annual consumption of beef in 1999 was 2.70 kg.

Inventory:

 Slow growth in inventory from 1.68 M in 1990 to 4.28 M in 2000

(4.3 percent per year growth rate)

 Backyard farms accounts for 92% of the total inventory; 8% are in commercial farms

 From 1990 to 2000, average annual growth rate of backyard farm was 5% while the
commercial farms grew by less than 1% per year.

 The top five producing regions are Ilocos, Southern Tagalog, Central Visayas, Northern
Mindanao and Western Visayas. The regions accounts for more than 53% of the total cattle
production.

As of 01 July 2020, the total cattle inventory in the country was estimated at 2.60 million
heads,1.4 percent higher than previous year same period count of 2.56 million heads. Among all
ages, cow accounted for 42.9 percent of the total cattle population, heifer shared 18.9 percent,
yearling contributed 15.5 percent, while the remaining 22.6 percent were combined population of bull
and cattles of other ages (Figure 2).

Production

The total cattle production from July to September 2020 was estimated at 52.95 thousand
metric tons, liveweight. This was -10.7 percent lower compared with the previous year’s same quarter
output of 59.27 thousand metric tons, liveweight.
Among the regions, Northern Mindanao was the top producer of cattle during the quarter with a
production of 7.62 thousand metric tons, liveweight. This was followed by Ilocos Region with 6.69
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Republic of the Philippines
NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya
INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No.: Ani Sci. 2 1st sem-20232024

thousand metric tons, liveweight and Western Visayas with 4.85 thousand metric tons, liveweight.
These three regions accounted for 36.2 percent of the country’s total cattle production.
Compared with their levels in the same period a year ago, 14 regions recorded decreases in
production during the period with Central Visayas reporting the biggest decline of -33.6 percent. This
region registered a production of 4.16 thousand metric tons, liveweight this quarter, from 6.26
thousand metric tons, liveweight in the same period of 2019 (Figure 1).

Prices

The average farmgate price of cattle for slaughter during the quarter was quoted at PhP
121.61 per kilogram, liveweight. This was 8.1 percent higher than the average farmgate price of PhP
112.54 per kilogram, liveweight in the same period of 2019.
During the reference period, the highest average farmgate price of cattle for slaughter was
recorded in July at PhP 122.38 per kilogram, liveweight, while the lowest was in August at PhP
120.99 per kilogram, liveweight (Figure 3).

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NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY
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INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No.: Ani Sci. 2 1st sem-20232024

Competitive Advantages on Beef Production

 Increasing demand for beef; income elasticity of demand for beef is higher than that of
other meat;

 Ability to transform low quality and fibrous materials (e.g. grasses and crop residues) into
high value protein food products;

 Abundant supply of crop residues especially in small farms;

 Favorable climate for fodder production; and,

 Cattle production and meat processing technologies are available for increased
productivity.

Constraints in the Cattle Sector

 Low breeding base

 High financing cost for breeder operations
 High cost of inputs
 Lack of infrastructures
 Competition in the use of land
 Changing policy guidelines, e.g pasture lease, tariff

Constraints in the Cattle Sector

 Low breeding base

 High financing cost for breeder operations
 High cost of inputs
 Lack of infrastructures
 Competition in the use of land
 Changing policy guidelines, e.g pasture lease, tariff
 Import substitutes particularly carabeef, and,
 Policy to unify and integrate the beef industry

Interventions

 Build-up population base through well-defined breeding program

 Increase animal productivity through improved husbandry practices and application of
biotechnologies
 Promote appropriate feeding and encourage utilization of non-conventional feedstuffs
 Effect strict quarantine procedures and efficient disease control and eradication programs
 Improve marketing and pricing system
 Review policies on importation and credit system

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Republic of the Philippines
NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya
INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No.: Ani Sci. 2 1st sem-20232024

BEEF PRODUCTION SYSTEMS IN THE PHILIPPINES

Ranching or Extensive System

A. Cow-calf operation

The initial and most fundamental step in beef enterprise is the production of calves and raising it
to weaning age. The calf is, so to speak, the raw material out of which the finished animal eventually
be made. The breeding herds in which calves are produced need little grain or other fattening feeds.
Consequently, the raising of beef calves is confined chiefly to those sections that have an abundance
of comparatively cheap, low-carrying capacity grazing lands. Hence, we find the important ranches
located in provinces that are sparsely settled or in hilly areas where the land is too rolling to be
farmed to advantage (i.e. Nueva Ecija, Nueva Vizcaya, Masbate, Mondoro, Bukidnon etc.)
The aim of the low-calf operation is to produce stockers and feeders. It has the following
characteristics:

1. Uses grade or Philippine cows and purebred or high-grade bulls; and

2. Involves selling calves at weaning as stockers; or as feeder stocks after grazing them out on
the range; or as fat slaughter cattle after feeding them out; or selling heifers to other ranchers for
breeding purposes (depending on the availability of feeds or pastures)

B.
Figure 1. Ranching System of Cattle Production
Purebred program or breeder
farm operation

The breeding of purebred or

registered cattle is a highly
specialized form of beef production.
Because of the relatively large amount of capital required for animals and equipment, and because of
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INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No.: Ani Sci. 2 1st sem-20232024

the skill and sound judgment that must be possessed by the manager before success is possible.
This phase of cattle breeding is one better suited to men of considerable experience than to
beginners. It should however, be the ultimate goal of a large number of breeders, particularly if it is to
be carried on in connection with the production of the highest type of cattle for the open market.

The aim of the purebred program or breeder farm operation is to produce breeder stocks to be
sold to other ranchers. It uses purebred cows and bulls and requires large capital for
animal/equipment, better feeding and salesmanship.

Figure 2. Breeder Farm Operation

C. Feedlot Fattening Operation

Feedlot fattening of cattle has become important to the livestock industry of the Philippines for
three main reasons:

1. It provides the farmers with extra income.

2. It gives farmers year-round work and allows the use of cheap, plentiful farm by-products such
as corn stovers, hay, silage, rice straw, copra meal, rice bran and sugarcane tops which might
otherwise be wasted.

3. It helps meet the urgent demand for high-protein foods in the Filipino diet.

Because of its high nutritional value and appealing flavor, properly fattened cattle are in great
demand in the market place. However, feedlot cattle operations have found popular acceptance only
in Batangas, Tarlac, and Pangasinan, with few operations found in other parts of the country like
Masbate, Bukidnon, Cotabato and Iloilo. While large fattening operations exist, the majority of farmers
work in small-scale, fattening two or three heads at a time.

The objective of a feedlot fattening operation is to add weight to the animal and increase its
value. The feedlot fattening operation is characterized by the following:

1. Returns from cattle feeding come from the difference between the buying and selling prices,
and the gain in weight.
NVSU-FR-ICD-05-00 (081220) Page 54 of 117
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INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
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2. Turnover of capital is faster in this operation than in ranching. Feeder stocks are usually
require a fattening period of only 120-180 days from the date of purchase.

3. Use of high-energy feeds in order to give the cattle a better finish (more fat covering the
carcass) and appearance.

4. Requires very little area. A sheltered feeding area of one and a half to two square meters per
head is required, with fenced lofting area of five square meters per head.

5. Located in areas where large quantities of livestock feeds are raise and,

6. May also be integrated with pineapple and sugarcane enterprises or any set-up, which
produces large quantities of by-product feeds.

Figure 3. Feedlot Cattle Operation

D. Backyard Cattle Raising or Semi-Subsistence or Small Holder

The backyard sector constitutes 92% of the total cattle population. The aggregate share of the top
five regions accounts for 56.9% of the total population. These regions are Ilocos, Southern Tagalog,
Central Visayas, Northern, Mindanao and Davao Region. The aim is to produce livestock that can be
sold to augment farm income. Backyard cattle raising is characterized by the following:

1. One or two heads of either fattening or breeding cattle raised is raised on a farmer’s spare
time.
2. Farmers usually tethers animals (Figure 4) to graze around the home lot and then supplements
this with wastes like rice straw or corn stovers or stalks when back in the pen

3. Others practice soiling and supplementing with ipil-ipil, as source of protein, and rice bran, corn
bran or copra meal at 1-2 kg per animal and,
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Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya
INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
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4. In Batangas, force-feeding (supak) of feeds mixture is a common practice among backyard

cattle raisers.

Figure 4. Small Holder Cattle Production System (Cattle are tethered)

BEEF CATTLE BREEDS, BREEDING AND REPRODUCTION

Black Angus

Origin: Scotland
Characteristics:
1. Black in color
2. Perform well in the feedlot
3. Polled with smooth haircoat
4. Well-marbled meat

Figure 5. Black Angus Cow

Red Angus

Origin: United States

Characteristics:

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INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No.: Ani Sci. 2 1st sem-20232024

1. Red in color

2. Polled with smooth haircoat

3. Can tolerate warmer temperature

4. Perform well in the feedlot

5. Well-marbled meat

Figure 6. Red Angus Bull, Cow and Calf

Charolais

Origin: France
Characteristics:
1. Body color ranges from light to light straw with pink skin

2. They are large and heavily muscled breed

3. Most are naturally horned

4. High feed efficiency

5. Well-adapted to many areas

6. Mature bull weigh 907 to 1,134 kg

7. Mature cow weigh 680 to816 kg

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INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
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Figure 7. A Charolais Bull

Beefmaster

Origin: Texas, USA

Characteristics:

1. Variety of color but red and duns are the most dominant colors

2. Some are horned but some also are polled

3. Good disposition, fertility, gain, conformation, hardiness and milk production

Figure 8. A Beefmaster Cow and its Calf

Hereford
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INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
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Origin: Hereford, England

Characteristics:

1. White faced, white flanks, white tail and white crest on its neck

2. Body color ranges from cherry to mahogany red

3. Medium-sized body but increase in weigh gains and mature weight is attained by breeders

4. Docile and are easily handled

5. They have superior foraging abilities, vigor and hardiness

6. Popular for their general producing ability

7. Mature bulls weigh about 834 kg

8. Mature cow weigh about 544 kg

Figure 9. A Hereford Bull

Brahman

Origin: United States

Characteristics:

1. Body color ranges from light gray to almost black

2. Humps over the shoulder

3. Have loose dewlap

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4. Large drooping ears

5. Heat tolerant

6. Resistant to disease and insect

7. Good mothering ability

8. Good forager

9. Produce quality carcass

10. Mature bulls weigh about 726 to 998 kg

11. Mature cow weigh about 454 to 635 kg

Figure 10. A Brahman Bull

Beefmaster

Origin: Southern Texas, USA

Characteristics:

1. Red and duns are more common than other colors

2. Some are horned and polled
3. Good disposition, fertility, conformation, hardiness, and milk production

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Figure 11. A Beefmaster Herd

Shorthorn

Origin: Northern England

Characteristics:

1. Dual purpose breed

2. Both polled and horned

3. Body color are predominantly red, white or any combination of the two

4. Produce desirable carcass

5. Adaptable to many climates

6. Excellent crossing ability with other breed

7. Mature bulls weigh about 1,088g

8. Mature cow weigh about 680 kg

Figure 12. A Shorthorn Bull

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Santa Gertrudis

Origin: King Ranch, Texas

Characteristics:

1. Cherry red in color

2. Horned

3. Have loose hides with folds of skin on the neck, and a sheath or navel flap

4. The hairs grow short and straight in warm climates

5. Excellent in feedlot

6. Desirable carcass

7. Resistant to disease and insects

Figure 13. A Santa Gertrudis Herd

Red Poll

Origin: Eastern England

Characteristics:

1. Light to very dark red in color

2. Switch of tail contain some natural white color

3. Polled

4. Dual purpose type

5. High proportion lean meat

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Figure 13. A Santa Gertrudis Bull

BEEF CATTLE BREEDING

Breeding is defined as the controlled propagation of cattle to improve qualities desirable to

man.

Modern Goal:

1. To develop types that will meet market demand

2. Be productive under adverse climatic conditions

3. Efficient in converting feeds to animal products

Variations due to Genetics and Environment

Cattle traits are either qualitative or quantitative

Qualitative traits show discontinuous variations

 Coat and color

 Horned or polled

 Certain blood characteristics

 Blood types
 Presence or absence of particular enzyme

Generally, inheritance of qualitative traits is simple in accordance with laws of heredity.

Environment plays a very minor role.

The quantitative traits show continuous variations between the extremes. The mean types among
the characteristics are most frequent to change. These are:
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 Growth rate

 Liveweight

 Body measurement at maturity

 Milk yield

 Milk composition

Such traits are influenced by many genes, with each gene exerting relatively small effect.
Environmental factors are responsible for a considerable part of the variation.

There is no distinct borderline between qualitative and quantitative traits. Qualitative traits can
be analyzed with regard to a single gene and its behavior. Quantitative traits are best studied by
appropriate statistical methods. It permits the analysis even with unknown member of genes or their
interrelationships.

It is possible to establish the fraction of total variation in the population that is caused by the
additive effects of the genes. This fraction is known as heritability.

 A heritability of 1.00 show that all variations observed in the population of the trait is
determined by genetics

 A heritability of 0.00 means that is entirely due to environment

 A heritability of 0.50 means that the variation is equally due to genetics and environment

Some heritability estimates in beef cattle and other are for comparative purposes only.

1. Beef
ADG (from weaning to slaughter =0.40)

2. Dairy
Fat and protein content of milk = 0.55

3. Merino sheep
Daily weight gain from weaning to slaughter
Group = 0.30
Individual = 0.55

4. Chicken
Egg size = 0.60

Generally, heritability is very low for fertility and resistance to infectious diseases and high for
growth rate, body size at maturity and composition of milk

NVSU-FR-ICD-05-00 (081220) Page 64 of 117

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INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No.: Ani Sci. 2 1st sem-20232024

BREEDING SYSTEMS

1. Breeding systems are defined as several types of mating to combine desirable qualitative
and quantitative characteristics through mating systems, which are planned or non-random.

2. Random mating (or unplanned). This means that each possible mating in a population has
the same probability or occurrence. This is normally used in breeding experiments to minimize
genetic changes in a control population wherein selected populations are controlled.

3. Inbreeding. It is the mating of closely related individuals within a breed. This increases
homozygosity and decreases heterozygosity

 Close breeding. It is the mating of close relatives, e.g. father x daughter; son x mother;
brother x sister

Brahman X Brahman

F1 Male

 When the male matures and breeds the dam or mother, then this is close breeding. Or if
the F1 is a female and once mature is bred to the sire, then this is close breeding.

4. Line breeding is the breeding of not so close relatives, e.g. cousins. This is a form of mild
inbreeding designed to concentrate the genes of a certain ancestor of the genetic constitution
of the progeny.

Strain breeding is a very mild form of inbreeding which leads to increase homozygosity within the
strain in the long term.

Effects of Inbreeding

1. Marked decrease in fertility

2. Reduces vigor

3. Decrease in growth rate of offspring

4. Reduces viability of offspring

5. Crossbreeding is the breeding of individuals from two or more established purebreds.

Objectives:

1. To increase heterozygosity

2. To take advantage of hybrid vigor or heterosis

Hybrid vigor or heterosis is defined as the average quality of the first generation exceeding
the average of the two parental breeds. It is displayed mainly in the fitness traits, fertility and viability.

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Example:

Brahman X Angus

F1 50% Brahman; 50% Angus

Afrikander X Hereford

F1 50% Afrikander; 50% Hereford

Types of Crossbreeding

1. Systematic crossbreeding. This is a crossbreeding with two or more breeds involved in a

breeding program lasting several years. This way, a crossbred, which may eventually
stabilized in to a breed, e.g. Bragus (Brahman x Angus), Charbray (Charolais x Brahman) may
occur. Or a crisscross or triple cross can be developed with the best-desired characteristics
such as daily gain, carcass weight, etc.
Example: A, B, C breeds

A triple cross:

A X B

F1 50% A; 50%

B X C

F2 25% A; 25% B; 50% C

2. Upgrading. This is the mating of purebred sires to nondescript or native females and their
offspring generation after generation.

Example:

100% Brahman (Dam) X 100% Batangas Cattle (Sire)

F1 50% Brahman; 50% Batangas Cattle

(Select the female and bred to 100% Brahman)

F2 75% Brahman; 25% Batangas Cattle

(Select the female and bred to 100% Brahman)

F3 87.50% Brahman; 12.50% Batangas Cattle

(And so fort)

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REPRODUCTION

Reproductive Phenomena

Sexual maturity (bulls/heifers) 6 to 8 months

Estrous 18 to 24 days (21 days average

Estrus duration

Exotic/European breed 14 to 18 hours

Indigenous/Zebu 10 to 12 hours
Ovulation 10 to 14 hours after end of estrus

Parturation 283 (average)

Bull ejaculates 2 to 12 ml of 500 or more sperm cells per ml

Maximum hours of sperm cells survival in
the oviduct 48

Many sperm cells reach the oviduct In 6 to 7 hours after deposition in the vagina

There are many thousand egg cells

produced by a female but those released are
few One egg is released at a time

Site of fertilization Oviduct (fallopian tube)

Signs of Estrus

Estrus is the period of sexual receptivity of the female to the male. The following are the
manifestation of the animal during this period:

1. Mount others

2. Reddening and swelling of vulva

3. Mucous discharge

4. Isolate itself

5. Seem sickly and has no appetite

6. Frequent urination

7. Bellowing or mooing

8. Standing still when mounted (the most reliable or true sign of estrus)

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Due to the reproductive phenomena in both male and female cattle, a simple guideline is
adopted when artificial insemination (AI) is practice:

Females observed in estrus in the morning are inseminated late afternoon of the same day. Those
observed in the afternoon are inseminated not later than, noontime, the next day

Artificial insemination (AI) and embryo transfer (ET) are modern reproduction techniques,
which multiply countless times, the capacity of superior male or female, respectively.

Through a dilution technique for example, a 1-bull ejaculate can be diluted up to 20% with a
standard motility concentration. This technique multiplies the number of times that can be serviced by
the bull as against one service through natural breeding. The diluted sperm cells can then be
preserved indefinitely by freezing it then put in liquid nitrogen tank.

The estrus of females can also be manipulated or synchronized using drugs such as
Prostaglandin F2 alpha. Estrus is then predetermined and a large number of females are inseminated
almost at the same time.

Embryo transfer involves superovulation of superior females. Several follicles can develop and
multiple ovulations can occur. Insemination can be done and embryos are collected non-surgically.
The collected embryos can be frozen and stored in liquid nitrogen tanks for future transfer to
surrogated dams.

Other transfer can be done to surrogate dams treated to synchronize estrus and
physiologically ready to receive and implant the embryos. This is also done non-surgically.

Some Indicators of Good Breeding or Reproductive Management

1. Conception rate (CR). It is the percent of breeding females that conceived versus the total
exposed females

Pregnant = 65
Exposed = 100
CR = 65%

A 65% AI rate is very high; an 85 to 90% natural rate is exceptional.

2. Percent (90 or 120 day) non-returns. This is the percent of breeding females confirmed
pregnant at 90 to 120 days by pregnancy diagnosis, versus the total exposed females. This
is similar to conception rate

3. Calving rate. This is the percent of breeding females that give birth versus total exposed
females.

4. Calving interval. This is the average length of time (in days) between successive calving

- Can be calculated for each cow or the entire herd

- One year is ideal
- Eighteen (18) months is common

5. First heat after parturition. This is the occurrence of estrus after giving birth to a young. The
first heat is related to calving interval

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NUTRITION
Ruminants can totally subsist on highly fibrous diets, like grasses, legumes, tree leaves, and
can efficiently utilize farm by-products concentrates. This is due to the unique digestive anatomy of
the ruminant, a foregut fermenter with a four-compartment compound stomach namely: the reticulum,
rumen, omasum and abomasums.

Figure 15. The Rumen Figure 16. The Reticulum

Figure 17. The Omasum Figure 18. The Abomasum

Figure 19. The Ruminant Digestive System

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Carbohydrates are acted upon by enzymes released by the microorganisms to yield VFA, CO 2
and CH4. The VFA consists mainly acetic, butyric, and propionic acids, which produce major energy
sources for the animal. The fermentation gases are continuously eructated. If not, the animal suffers
from bloat. Feed proteins in the rumen are likewise broken down by microorganisms into ammonia
and CO2. Ammonia is absorbed across the rumen wall, enters the circulatory system, is converted
into urea in the liver and filtered out in the kidney via urine or re-circulated into the digestive system

via the salivary glands.

Figure 20. Rumen Bacteria Figure 21. Rumen Microorganisms

The reticulum together with the rumen, forms the fermentation region, Specifically, the
reticulum is the receiving area for the feed from the esophagus and the ingesta from the rumen back
to the mouth during rumination. The rumen is about 70% of the compound stomach and is non-
glandular, but can transport volatile fatty acid (VFA) through the villi. In the rumen, the ingesta is
ruminated and masticated several times to reduce the particles size for more efficient digestion by the
microorganisms. The rumen fluid abounds with bacteria, protozoa and fungi, which are responsible
for the continuous degradation of nutrients contained in the feed into fermentation end products.

Figure 22. The Villous Membrane

The efficiency of rumen microbial digestion is dependent on particle size of the feed, chemical
structure of the cell wall, nutrient deficiency and many other dietary factors. Particularly, the saliva
plays important role of maintaining the neutral pH inside the rumen, where acids are constantly
produced.

The omasum is filled with lamila , which increase the surface area for absorption for water,
VFA and bicarbonate. The unabsorbed nutrient then flow into the abomasums, which is a glandular
compartment capable of secreting pepsin and HCL. This is the site for initial digestion of proteins into
polypeptides. Compared with the neutral pH of the rumen, the abomasums is highly acidic.
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From the abomasums, the chyme flows into the duodenum where secretions from the liver,
pancreas and the intestine allow further breakdown of nutrients into simple compounds for absorption
similar to monogastric animals.

The bacteria can also synthesize water-soluble vitamins and can utilize non-protein nitrogen
from plant into microbial protein. The microorganisms also pass into the small intestine and are
themselves digested as sources of energy, protein and other nutrients.

NUTRIENTS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

1. Water. The main components of feed are water and dry matter. The dry matter contains the
organic material and inorganic elements. Water is essential in the transport of metabolic
products and wastes and in most chemical reactions in the body. The amount of water
consumed by cattle depends on the water content of feed, body size and environmental
temperature. A deficient in water intake depresses feed intake.

2. Energy. All animals require energy for maintenance, growth, work and production. The amount
of energy required for each of the above function varies with body size, level of production and
physiological state.

The most common source of energy for ruminants is carbohydrates, namely soluble (starch and
sugar) and structural (cellulose and hemicellulose), carbohydrates. Lipids are other source of energy
from plants.

The unit measure of energy is digestible energy or TDN, DE is the gross energy of the feed intake the
energy contained in feces, TDN is the sum digestible carbohydrates, protein, fiber and fat. One
kilogram of TDN is equal to 4.2 kcal of DE.

3. Protein. Proteins are large chemical units made up of amino acids. Monogastric animals
consume and digest proteins to be able to use amino acids for synthesis of muscles, tissues
and other body components. In ruminants, proteins are first utilized by the microorganisms in
the rumen for their own growth and reproduction. The microbial fermentation of proteins
produces ammonia and CO2 as main end products. Undigested feed proteins and the
microorganisms from the rumen are passed on to the lower gastrointestinal tract, where these
are then enzymatically digested and absorbed as amino acids. Thus, microbial protein
becomes an excellent source of amino acids for ruminants. It is therefore clear that protein
requirement of the ruminant is influenced by the requirement of the rumen microorganisms.
This suggests that feed proteins must contain rumen-soluble protein for use by the
microorganisms and rumen insoluble protein as source of amino acids by the host animal.

4. Minerals. The mineral nutrition of ruminants is largely influenced by the mineral status of the
soil where the animals are grazed. In the country, phosphorus is the single most limiting
mineral since the soil and therefore the grasses are deficient in this element. Deficiency in P
results in low feed intake, low production levels and severe cases of osteoporosis. Salt
likewise deficient in the normal diet of ruminant and is best provided ad libitum in the form of
blocks or loose form.

Calcium, magnesium and potassium are normally sufficient in grasses to satisfy the requirements of
the animals. Feeding large amounts of concentrates and grains may lead to deficiencies in these
minerals and should be supplemented. The trace elements cobalt, iron, copper, manganese, zinc,
and selenium are best provided for ruminants in small amounts in areas where soil deficiency for
these elements are known.

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5. Vitamins. The rumen microorganisms synthesize the water-soluble vitamins including Vitamin
C. The fat-soluble Vitamin K is likewise synthesized in the rumen by the bacteria. Vitamin E is
found in most feeds, while Vitamin D is synthesized in the skin when the animals are exposed
to sunlight. Vitamin A is synthesized from carotene, which is abundant in young, fresh grass,
but devoid in mature grasses, most crop residues and some grains. Animals may tolerate low
dietary intake of Vitamin A for as long as sufficient Vitamin A has been stored in the liver.

COMMON FEEDS FOR RUMINANT

Forages

Forage is the natural and cheapest feed for ruminants and includes not only grasses but also
legumes. A number of grass species are available in the country consisting of native and introduced
species. Leguminous vines and also trees also abound. Grasses at pre-flowing stage average 8% CP
whole legumes average about 20%. In grasses, CP level drastically goes down to 4% at maturity,
which is way below the requirement of the animals. Hence, a grass-legume pasture is an ideal ration
for ruminants. Season of the year, amount of rainfall, fertilization, grazing management are other
factors affecting the nutritive value of grasses.

By-product roughages

As an agricultural country, farm by-product roughages constitute a potential source of feed for
ruminants. Most of these are highly fibrous (rice straw, corn stover, corn cobs, sugarcane tops), low in
CP and TDN and have poor digestibility. The amounts of these feeds voluntarily consumed by the
animals are limited. As such, concentrate supplementation is a must for more efficient utilization of
by-product roughages.

A few agro-industrial by-products have high nutritive value close to that of concentrates, such as
spent brewer grains and pineapple pulps.

Figure 23. Hay and Bread Crump Figure 24. Pretzel and Other Products

Concentrate

Unlike in developed countries, little amount of grain is fed to ruminants, locally. Instead, agro-
industrial by-product concentrates constitute the bulk of supplement roughages. Copra meal, rice
bran, wheat pollard are commonly used by-product concentrates, contain on the average 75% TDN
and vary widely in their CP contents from 0% as in the case of molasses to 21% in copra meal.

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Figure 25. Copra Meal Figure 26. Cottonseed Meal

Use of urea in ruminant ration

Urea has long been used as partial protein source for ruminants in other countries. The
capacity of microorganisms to utilize nitrogen into microbial protein makes it possible to incorporate
small amount urea in the ration of ruminants. Urea is instantaneously degraded by microbial urease
into ammonia, which is utilized by microorganisms, and the excess is absorbed across the rumen wall
and circulated in the blood. High concentration of ammonia in the blood is toxic and fatal to
ruminants. Hence, urea as supplement for ruminants must be used with caution.

The following guidelines are recommended for safe use of urea:

1. Add fertilizer grade urea at not more than

a) 1% of the ration (DM basis)
b) 2 to 3% of the concentrate mixture, (air-dry basis)
c) 25 to 30% of the total dietary protein

2. Adequate source of energy (molasses, corn, etc) must be fed with urea

3. Sufficient amounts of minerals, particularly S in case molasses is used, must be available.

4. If possible, daily allowance of urea should be consumed in small amounts throughout the day
rather than just one feeding

5. Urea whether fed in granules or dissolved in water should be well-mixed

HERD MANAGEMENT

The goal of herd management is to produce a crop of high quality, heavyweight calves. The
factors that contribute to the accomplishment of this goal are:

1. Early sexual maturity of females

2. High conception rate

3. High calf crop

4. Early rebreeding after calving

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5. Excellent milk production of the cows

6. Availability of a year-round feed supply

7. Others

Quality of management, plane of nutrition, and farm structures are important determinants of
profit or loss.

Herd Division

Herd division ensures the appropriate nutrition of various age groups of the herd, prevent
premature breeding which seriously affect the growth of young bulls and heifers and prevent high rate
of abortion resulting from butting and fighting of animals.

Animals may be divided in to the following herds:

1. Pregnant herd. This composed of pregnant females. Cows are grouped with the breeding
herd during the breeding season.

2. Breeding herd. This consists of dry cows and heifers ready for breeding. After the
breeding season, pregnant animals are transferred to the pregnant herd.

3. Heifer herd. This composed of heifers not yet ready for breeding. Heifer calves are
included in this herd after weaning.

4. Steers, feeders, or fattening herd. This consists of growing cattle and those to be
fattened for the market.

5. Bull herd. This consists of mature males kept mainly for servicing the breeder cows.

Management of Breeding Female

1. Lactating and pregnant cows

Once the cows are determined pregnant, they should be separated from the herd to prevent injury
and possible abortion due to riding, butting and fighting with other animals. The signs of pregnancy
are cessation of estrus, and the enlargement of the abdomen and udder. However, a more reliable
pregnancy test is through palpation 60 to 90 days after breeding. Palpation is the manual examination
of the reproductive tract by way of the rectum and colon to verify pregnancy in cattle. This method
needs training and experience.

2. Open cows and replacement heifers

Open or non-pregnant cows and replacement heifers should be given the right amount of feed daily to
ensure that they are in the right physiological status. Animals with reproductive problems and those,
which fail to settle after the clean-up breeding period, should be culled.

Management of calves, growers and fatteners

1. Calves. Calves should suckle colostrums milk from their mother within three hours after
calving

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2. Growers. Growers are usually maintained in the pasture with very little attention. They are
given salt and mineral supplement.
3. Fatteners. Fatteners require a shorter period to reach slaughter weight. They are generally
bigger, mature, or nearing maturity. However, one and a half to two year-old animals weighing
200 to 300 kg are preferred. They may be fattened either in feedlot, on pasture, or both areas.

Management of Breeding Bulls

Breeding bulls should be selected purebred because it contributes 50% of the genetic makeup
of the offspring. They should be in good condition at the start of the breeding season. Selected bulls
should be allowed to breed when they are at least two years of age. They should be given
supplemental feeding of grains or concentrates 60 to 90 days before and after the breeding period
depending on their condition. A breeding bull should be kept out of the herd after two and a half to
three years when the offspring reach the breeding age.

GENERAL MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

Cattle Identification

This practice is necessary for the management purposes and to denote ownership. Branding
with hot iron is the most common method of identifying cattle. The animals should be legally branded.
The brand must be properly registered by the owner with the livestock identification office of the
municipality concerned. The owner’s brand is place on the animal’s left foreleg.

Putting ear tags or ear notches are other effective methods of identifying cattle.

Dehorning

Dehorning has the following advantage:

1. Dehorning cattle requires less spaces in feedlots

2. They occupy less space in transit or shipment
3. They are more uniform in appearance
4. Avoid injuries during animal fights

Methods of dehorning:

1. Very young calves whose horn bottons grow a little can be dehorned by applying caustic
soda or a commercial dehorning paste on the horn botton.

2. Calves with horn bottons or horns not over 1.5 to 2.0 cm long can be easily dehorned with
dehorning irons.

3. Older animals are dehorned with either a metal spoon, Bames dehorner, a dehorning
clipper, or hand or electric saw.

Castration

Bull calves could be castrated any time, but preferably when they are a few weeks to seven
months of age. The slit and the cap methods are both effective ways of surgically removing testicles.
Bloodless castration can also be done with Bordizzo pincher or emasculator. Castration tends to
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decrease the rate of liveweight gain by 15 to 20%, it should be resorted only when there is difficulty in
separating males from females, e.g. inadequate fencing or limited availability of pasture paddocks.

Record Keeping

Records list genetically superior cattle that may be used for breeding. Moreover, slow-gaining
heifers, and bulls that produce undesirable hereditary traits, and those that do not perform
satisfactory despite good feeding and management can be identified, too. These animals are culled
or removed to improve the herd quality and to increase profit in beef production.

Selection and Culling

Breeding stock with poor performance should be culled for slaughter. These are as follows:

1. A cow that calves every one and a half to two years

2. A cow that produces a little amount of milk and raises a small calf despite good feeding and
management
3. Small, weak and unhealthy animals which are susceptible to diseases and may become the
source of infection of the herd if not removed on time
4. Heifers that do not come in heat in spite of proper age, good size, healthy condition, vigor
and strength
5. Heifers that fail to meet the standard set for the breeding herd
6. Bulls and cows which have undesirable hereditary defects such as inverted teats, hernia,
dwarfism, bull dog, cryptorchidism and the like.

ANIMAL HEALTH PROGRAM

Herd Health Management

Herd health management must integrate livestock medicine with modern production
technology. The responsibility of a programmed health and care and disease control is equally
divided between the veterinarian and the livestock raiser. The veterinarian device such a program
with due consideration to the local conditions and resources while the livestock raisers implement it
with optimal supervision. Their complementary activities have the objective of attaining healthy and
productive animals. Even with such efforts, diseases or abnormalities may still occur and those must
be reported promptly for early suppression and treatment.

The slow growth of the cattle industry in the country in spite of the efforts to increase the
number of the species may be partly attributed to low conception rate (<50%), a high pre-weaning
and post-weaning mortality rates (>10%) and annual death losses in mature cattle (>2%).

These death losses affecting young and mature stocks are expectedly high inasmuch as these
animals do not get the benefit of an effective disease control program. The readily identifiable causes
of deaths among cattle herd fall under the broad categories of infectious, nutritional, and parasitic
diseases. Although variations in their degree of incidence and severity of illness occur between herds
and age groups, the ultimate effect is the poor production either due to death or setbacks in growth
and reproductive efficiency of the animal.

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Some Suggested Disease Preventive Measures

1. Start with healthy stocks. Purchased animals must be rigidly examined for abnormalities,
defects or signs of illness; must come from reliable sources of known sturdy parental stocks
and must be under isolation for a minimum of 30 days after purchase.

2. Work-ups for parasite and disease control such as deworming, deticking, and
immunizations must be done during the isolation period.

3. For the unconfined stocks or pasture herds, maintain a similar program with emphasis on
their proper application on a continuing basis. In areas where there is a high incidence of
liverfluke, deworming with effective flukecides every 3 to 4 months will help control parasite.

4. Provide adequate quality ration since well-nourished cattle do not only perform better but
are more resistant to infectious and parasitic agents.

5. Give optimum protection from environmental stress by providing proper housing and clean
water supply.

6. When individually confined or herd quartered, practice sanitation in the pens. Prompt waste
disposal should be done to rid of house and pens pest and insects, which thrive on manure
and other wastes.

7. Graze in pasture relatively safe from infective stages of internal parasites particularly
liverfluke. For the latter, snail control and pasture management should compliment regular
deworming with effective flukecide

8. Deworm regularly for other internal or gastrointestinal parasites. Mature stocks may serve
as carriers of parasites. Where parasitism with nematodes is high, deworm 3 to 4 times a
year or as recommended.

9. Detick with effective chemicals with due consideration on proper concentration and
frequency as recommended by the manufacturers.

10. Unproductive breeding stocks must be culled out of the herd and replaced with tested or
potentially good breeders.

11. Conduct regular checks for the presence of parasitic diseases. Random fecal examination
conducted at regular intervals may help check the increase in the incidence and severity of
parasitism.

12. During disease outbreaks or when the animal is visibly ill, segregate it immediately and
seek immediate veterinary assistance. Intensify efforts of environmental control through
sanitation and disinfection on contaminated quarters and utensils.

13. Immunize regularly against diseases prevalent in the area; community vaccination may be
arranged with proper authorities way ahead of expected disease outbreaks.

14. Segregate the cattle from other animals like carabaos, goats, and sheep to avoid inter-
transmission of the disease among these species.

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Health Program for Cattle

Before Breeding

1. If there is a group of animals from which breeders are to be selected, pick out those which
are potentially good ones based on physical characteristics, temperament or previous
reproductive performance and pedigree if known.

2. Blood test the animals for diseases such as brucellosis and leptospirosis especially in
areas where the diseases are known to occur or when reproductive failures suggest their
presence in the area. Consult the provincial veterinarian or any other veterinary authority
for guidance.

3. Deworm animals with broad-spectrum anthelmintics. Where liveflukes is widespread or is

confirm to be present in the animal or herd, treat it simultaneously with any flukecides.

4. Inject with Vitamins ADE to improve the reproductive performance.

5. Vaccinate against diseases prevalent in the area, i.e. hemorrhagic septicemia, blackleg,
brucellosis, anthrax. All vaccination must be spaced out and accomplished preferably
before breeding or pregnancy.

Pregnancy Period

1. Maintain animal on a high plane of nutrition. Provide nutritional supplements such as

minerals and vitamins, if necessary. Deficiencies of energy, protein, vitamins and minerals
during gestation have been linked to increased mortality and poor livability of calves. Inject
Vitamin ADE in the second or third trimester of pregnancy.
2. Where immunization of bacterial diseases is indicated (Salmonella, Pasturella, Leptospira)
bacterins may be given at 7 to 8 months of preganacy. The protection conferred is not only
for the dam but also for the calf by way of passive immunity through the colostrums
3. At about the last 2 to 3 weeks of pregnancy, deworm against common intestinal roundworm
using wide spectrum dewormer.

Calving and Post Weaning

1. Segregate expectant cows from the herd at least one week before calving. Provide adequate
and comfortable quarters. Avoid unnecessary stresses caused by excitement, transport,
unsanitary environment, adverse climatic conditions, etc.
2. Prepare calving area. An ideal calving pen should be a small, clean and dry area preferably
free from build-up of filth and manure. Clean straw as bedding in the maternity area is a
practical material to reduce gross contamination and subsequent infection of the calf. Before
calving, the genital area and the udder should be washed thoroughly to reduce gross
contamination and infection of the calf during suckling time.
3. For day-old calf, cut the umbilical cord and paint the remaining stump with strong tincture of
iodine. It must suckle after parturition to receive the colostrums. If the calf is unable to suckle,
assist or train it to nurse on the dam.
4. To prevent uterine infection in the dam, antibiotic boluses may be inserted high up into the
vagina. Retained placenta (unexpelled beyond 24 hours) must be removed by gentle traction

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and when unsuccessful, inject pitocin or oxytocin as indicated. Flush genetalia with mild
antiseptics like diluted Lysol or potassium permanganate solution.
Calves up to Weaning

1. In area where internal parasitism is common especially ascaris infection, deworm calves as
early 4 to 5 weeks, repeat after 30 days. Dose with piperazine compounds or any equivalent
dewormer in their proper dosages.

2. When necessary, as when calves appear weak, unthrifty looking or runty, supplement nursing
calves with multi-mineral/vitamin preparations preferably Vitamin B-complex. Water-soluble
nutritional supplements may be made available at all times to the calves.

3. Since calves are easily infected with ticks and other external parasites, spray with appropriate
insecticides. These chemicals are potentially poisonous if applied improperly. Seek technical
advice as to the proper dosages, formulations, and interval of application. For cattle ticks, the
general advice is to apply the chemical solution at interval of 3 weeks for 5 consecutive times.

4. Vaccinate against disease prevalent in the area when the calf is 6 months or more, preferably
before weaning.

5. Repeat deworming against gastrointestinal parasites at 2 to 3 months and again immediately

before weaning.

6. To reduce the stressful effect of weaning the calf from the dam, allow it to creep feed a few
weeks in advance of their weaning. Leave the calf in the pasture or corral where creep is
located until final weaning is dome.

Yearling – Growing Period

1. When immunity due to previous vaccination has lapsed, repeat the procedure.

2. Repeat tick control.

3. Treat against liveflukes. Repeat flukecide treatment every 3 months especially in areas where
this parasite is very common. Where such treatment has considerably reduced the infection,
dosing may be repeated twice a year thereafter.

4. For sporadic incidence of specific diseases, consult a veterinarian for proper treatment and
control.

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

Acaricide. It is a substance or preparation used in killing ticks and mites.

Anthelmintics. It is a drug administered as drench, bolus, injectible, or mixed in feed to get rid
of gastrointestinal parasite.

Breed. It is a group of animals possessing certain well-defined distinguished characteristics

and having the ability to reproduce these characteristics in their offspring with reasonable degree of
surety.

Breeder stock. It refers to an animal intended for breeding purposes.

Breeding herd. These are dry cows and heifers ready for breeding.
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Bull. It is a male breeding cattle of breeding age.

Bull herd. It refers to breeding males used for breeding the cows and heifers.

Bulling. When a cow tries to ride other cows or when she stands if other try to ride her. A
bulling cow is in heat.

Calf. It refers to the young cattle of any age.

Calf crop. The number of calves born.

Calving. It is the act of giving birth in cows.

Calving interval. It is the average length of time in days between successive calving.

Castration. It is the removal of the testis from the scrotum or any method that would render
the testis functionless.

Cattle. It is a general term for any class of animals of bovine family, genus Bos.

Cercaria. It is the infective larval stage of fluke in the snail host.

Colostrum. It refers to the milk produced during the first 3 to 5 days after parturition, which
contains high protein, vitamins, minerals and antibiotics that supply essential immune bodies to the
newly born animals.

Concentrate. These are feeds which contains less than 18% CP with high digestible nutrients.

Conception. It refers to pregnancy.

Cow. It refers to the cattle that have given birth.

Crossbreeding. It is the mating of two different breeds.

Dressing percentage. It is the percent, which the weight of the chilled carcass is of the
liveweignt.

Enzootic. It refers to a disease already known to prevail in an area, either indigenous or

exogenous.

Estrous. It is the interval from one estrus to next estrus.

Estrus. It refers to the sexual period in females when they are receptive to males.

Extraction rate. It is the relative proportion of the number of cattle slaughtered to the total
cattle population.

Fattener. It refers to feeder or steer herd that consist of those ready for market and the
growing cattle.

Feeders. These are animals of sufficient age, weight and condition that they are immediately
placed in the fattening lot.

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Feeder stock. A cattle which is, fattened prior to slaughtering.

Feedlot. An area with its physical facilities used for cattle fattening.

Fertilization. It is the union of egg and sperm cells.

Finishing/Fattneing. It is the deposition of unused energy as fat within the body tissues.

Flukecide. A drug used as drench, bolus, injectible, or mixed in feed to get rid of flukes.

Flushing. It is the process of feeding livestock with plenty of feeds to make them gain weight
just before or during breeding season.

Grassland. A land or an area, which the natural dominant plant forms, is grass.

Gestation. It refers to pregnancy or the period from fertilization to birth.

Grade. An animal produced by mating a purebred sire with a female of less than purebred.

Hand feeding. It is a system of feeing wherein feed is brought to the animals.

Hay. A cut and dried forage for livestock feed.

Heifer. It is the young female cattle usually under three years old that has not yet given birth.

Heifer herd. These are group heifers not yet ready for breeding.

Herbage. These are grass and other herbaceous vegetation for animal feeding.

Herd. Any number of cattle under one management, maintained in one premise, which are
allowed to associate or come in contact with one another.

Heterosis. It is referred to as hybrid vigor of F1 crosses over the average of the parent breeds.

Inbreeding. It is the mating of closely related animals such as brothers and sisters.

Marbling. It is the deposition of intra-muscular fat.

Parturition. It is a general term for giving birth.

Post-partum. It is the period after birth.

Pregnant herd. These are pregnant females that are normally grouped with the breeding herd
during the breeding season.

Proven sire. It is a bull, which has sufficient data to show its good genetic potential and
excellent breeding performance.

Purebred. It is an animal of pure breeding eligible for registration in its receptive breed
association.

Ration. It is the feed allowance for one animal for 24 hours (1 day).

Replacement stock. A yearling heifer or bull raised primarily for breeding purposes.
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Roughage. Feed, which contains at least 18% crude fiber and low digestible nutrients.

Shrink. It is the loss in weight from feedlot to market. It is also the difference in feedlot or off-
range weight and selling weight or slaughter weight (usually expressed in percent).

Silage. Any fermented feed material stored in a silo for feeding.

Silent heat. It is a condition wherein animals are physiologically in heat but have not shown
any visible signs.

Silo. A structure usually sealed when full to exclude air and use for storing silage.

Soilage. Forage cut and fed fresh to the animals; also called as green chop, soiling or cut and
carry.

Stag. Castrated male cattle operated after the secondary sex characters haven developed.

Steer. Castrated male cattle operated before the secondary sex character has been
developed.

Stocker. Cattle purchased for utilization of considerable roughage from growth prior to
fattening.

Tethering. It is the process of restraining an animal with a rope or chain so as to allow limited
movement.

Upgrading. It is a breeding system with the intention of improving the genetic potential of an
animal using purebred sire on native animal

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Breeds of Dairy Cattle

Dairy Cattle. The conventional dairy breeds of cattle were developed mainly from the taurine
species. Table 10.1 shows the characteristics of the six major dairy cattle breeds. Among the Bos
indicus breed, Sahiwal and Red Sindhi are considered as milk cattle.

In choosing cattle for milk production, some factors used are breed popular in the community
and high salvage value of the animal. For these reasons, Holstein Friesians are preferred. The
crossbreds of Holstein Friesian and the Bos indicus breed Sahiwal, known as Australian Friesian
Sahiwal (AFS) developed in Australia, are being promoted by the government. In the selection of
dairy cows, dairy operators look for properly attached udder and strong feet. These characteristics
are best indicators that a cow will remain a high producer for a long time.

Water buffaloes. Water buffaloes contribute abouth one-fifth of the domestic milk production
of the Philippines in 2000. Table 10.2 shows the river swamp types of water buffaloes. Exotic breeds
are imported by the Philippine Carabao Center (PCC) to improve the local carabao population in
terms of milk, meat and draft characteristics.

Goats. One percent of the national milk production in 2000 is from goat. Table 10.3
enumerates some of the popular breeds and strains of goat in the Philippines.

Table 10.1 Characteristics of the six major dairy cattle breeds.

Yearly Milk
Weight Percent Fat
Breed Origin Color Yield Udders Ancestor
(kg) (%)
(kg)
Male Female
Holstein Holland 1000 681 Black and White Very High 3.70 Very Bos
Friesian 6,850 Very low Large primigenius

Ayshire Scotland 839 545 Red and White Intermediate 4.20 Large, Bos longifrons
with red varying 5,400 Intermediate Strong Bos
from light or primigenius
brownish shade
to very dark
mahogany
Brown Swiss Switzerland 908 636 Brown, the Intermediate 4.20 Large, Bos longifrons
shade varying 5,650 Intermediate Strong
from light to dark
Guernsey Guernsey 773 500 Fawn, with small Low 4.90 Small, Bos longifrons
Island amount of white 4,950 High Strong
Jersey Jersey Island 682 500 Blackish hair Low 5.40 Small, Bos longifrons
have white tips 4,650 Very high Strong
to give gray
color, or red tips
to give fawn
color, also can
be solid black or
white spotted

Milking England 908 636 Red, roan, or Low 3.90 Large, Bos longifrons
Shorthorn white, or red or 4,750 Low to strong
white or roan intermediate
and white

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Table 10. 2 Breeds of Water Buffaloes

I. River Type –Dairy Type

Indian Buffalo Breed

Breed Characteristics
Murrah Color: Jet black
Horn: Spirally-curled
Udder: Well-developed
Surti Color: Black to brown
Horn: Coiled down and up
Udder: Wedged-shaped
Jaffarabadi Color: Black
Horn: Broad flat
Udder: Good Udder

Pakistan Buffalo Breed

Nili-Ravi Color: Black

Horn: Small
Udder: Good

II. Swamp Type – Draft and Meat Type

Philippine Carabao
Thai Buffalo Color: Black; Strong body; broad body

Table 10.3 Some breeds and strains of goats in the Philippines and their characteristics

Mature Milk Production Lactation

Breed/Strain Characteristics and Color weight Period
(kg/day) (% fat)
(kg) (days)
Anglo-Nubian Long drooping ears
Roman nose, prominent forehead
Black, tan and white, or head and 75 1.5 5.60 165
white, or any of these colors
without markings
Toggenburg Hornless with dished nose and
erect ears
Chocolate brown with two white
60 1.5 3.81 200
stripes on the face and white legs
below the knees

Saanen Some are poled, although horned

but disbudded ones are preferred
60 2.0 4.3 200
Straight nose and erect ears
Color: Cream white to white
French Alpine Horned or hornless
Erect ears and straight face
60 1.5 4.0 200
Multi-colored coat with no
standard markings
Native Small but hardy
Color red, white or a combination 20 0.4 4.6 185
of these colors
Dadiangas Mixture of native, Nubian, Jamnapari,
Alpine and Saanen goats 30 1.0 4.8 190
Varies in color
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DAIRY CATTLE REPRODUCTION

Profitable milk production and genetic improvement of dairy cattle are dependent on a high
degree of reproductive efficiency. The production of milk is a secondary characteristic; hence milk
production is dependent on reproduction.

Genetic improvement is dependent on an adequate supply of high-genetic potential heifers to

replace cows culled for low production or other reasons. This supply of heifers is again dependent on
a high rate of reproductive efficiency, as well as a good calf and heifer rearing program.

Most dairymen agree that a 12-mont calving interval is ideal to maximize production and profit.
Failure to maintain this high degree of reproductive efficiency is a major economic loss to the dairy
industry. These losses occur from decreased milk production, decreased efficiency, decreased
number of calves, decreased value of valuable animals, and increased treatment costs.

Sterility, which is the complete absence of reproductive ability, describes animals that cannot
reproduce. Such animals are usually easy to identify and should be culled from the herd. These
include freemartin heifers, bulls that do not produce live sperm cells, and other animals that, through
inherent abnormalities, injury, or disease are sterile.

Infertility or lowered fertility, which is abnormal breeding efficiency, describes animals that are
not sterile but are not normally fertile. These animals are not easily detected and a more serious and
costly protein for most dairymen than are sterile animals.

A normal cow can be described as one that becomes pregnant on the first or second service
and produces a live healthy calf every 12 to 15 months.

Sterility and fertility are not a single problem, but rather a very complex one and may be the
result of any one or more of a broad spectrum of factors. These include management, genetic,
physiological, and disease factors.

PHYSIOLOGY OF REPRODUCTION

Successful reproduction involves a complex series of physiological functions by both male and
female. The male functions are to:

1. Produce large numbers of viable male germ cells (spermatozoa)

2. Ejaculate these spermatozoa into the vagina of the cow or, in the case of AI, into an artificial
vagina

The function of the female in successful reproduction is more complex than that of the male
because her role continues after fertilization. The female’s functions are the following:
1. Produce productive viable female germ cells (ova)
2. Deliver the ova to the site of fertilization (the oviduct)
3. Provide optimum environment for fertilization, embryo-development, implantation, and
development of fetus to term
4. Deliver a live, healthy calf at the end of the gestation period
5. Deliver the after birth and involute the reproductive tract back to normal size and condition so
the process may be repeated.

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BULL’S REPRODUCTIVE PHYSIOLOGY

Spermatozoa are produced in the seminiferous tubules of the testis, stored in the epididymis,
and at the time of ejaculation pass through the vas deferens, ampulla, urethra and penis. During
ejaculation fluids are added to the spermatozoa from the accessory sex gland, the ampullae (a small
amount), the spermatozoa, seminal vesicles, prostrate, and Cowper’s gland. This fluid, seminal fluid
or plasma, serves as a medium for sperm transport, sperm activation (sperm are relatively immotile
until ejaculation), and a supply of nutrients for the sperm.

 Volume of semen per ejaculate varies from 2 to 15 ml, with average = 5 to 6 ml

 Sperm concentration ranges from 1 to 3 billion sperms per ml, with an average of about 2
billion per ml.
 Percent motile cells ranges from 0 to 85% with an average of 70%
1. Based on these figures, an average ejaculate contains about 7 billion motile cells (5 ml
semen X 2 billion/ml X 70%)
2. In natural service, maximum fertility rate should be obtained by bulls whose semen
characteristics meet or exceed these average values and contain not more than 15%
abnormal sperm (head or tail abnormalities)
3. In natural service a bull may service 50 to 100 cows per year. In AI it is not unusual for
a bull to service 10,000 to 20,000 cows per year.
In artificial insemination, semen is normally collected by the use of an artificial vagina. Volume
I recorded and the ejaculate is evaluated for concentration (spermatozoa per ml) motility, and
morphology. Inferior quality of semen is discarded and its use is likely to result in lowered conception
rates. The semen is diluted with an egg yolk-citrate extender or milk-base extender, and if the semen
is to be frozen, glycerol. Dilution rates are calculated to yield final motile spermatozoa per
insemination of 10 to 12 million. An average ejaculate of 5 ml of semen that contains 1.25 billion live
cells per ml after freezing contains enough spermatozoa for 500 to 600 inseminations. The semen is
packaged in ampoules or straws, frozen and stored (usually in liquid nitrogen storage tanks) at a
temperature of -300 to -3200F (-184 to -1960C). As long as the semen is maintained at this
temperature, it remains viable for 10 to 15 years or more.

COW’S REPRODUCTIVE PHYSIOLOGY

Ova are produced in the follicle of the ovary, released from the follicle (ovulation), pick-up by
the infundibulum of the oviduct, moved to the oviduct, fertilized in the oviduct, moved into the uterine
horn 4 to 6 days after fertilization, and implanted in the uterus 30 to 33 days after fertilization. The
embryo is carried in the uterus while developing into a full term calf, and the calf is discharged
through the cervix, vagina and vulva. The process of the ova production and release begins at
puberty (usually 6 to 10 months of age) and continues on a 21-day cyclic basis until pregnancy. The
cycle is normally reestablished within 40 to 50 days after calving and continues until pregnancy
occurs again.

The development and function of the female reproductive process in the female is also under
the control of the pituitary gland. The anterior pituitary hormones FHS and LH stimulate the
development and maturation of the follicle that contains the ova. The maturing follicle secretes
estrogen, which causes the animal to exhibit the symptoms of estrus (heat). LH causes the rupture of
the follicle. It also causes luteinization of the follicular cells and the formation and function of the

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corpus luteum. The CL secretes progesterone, which prepares the uterus to receive the fertilized ova
and is essential in maintaining pregnancy.

Thus successful reproduction involves the presence of viable male and female cells in the right
place at the right time, in combination with a normal, healthy female to sustain environment for the
growth, development, and delivery of a healthy calf. Synchronization – proper timing – of this series of
physiological functions is as critical to successful reproduction as are viable germ cells and normal
healthy reproductive tracts.
Time of breeding to obtain optimum conception rates. The time of optimum fertility of the
ova is very short – 2-4 hours. Ovulation time varies from 5-6 hours after the end of standing heat, with
an average of 10-11 hours. Fertile life of sperm is limited to about 28 hours in the female reproductive
tract. This indicates that timing of breeding is critical to optimum fertilization rates.

Optimum concentration rates have been reported by breeding during the last one-half of the
standing heat period. . Breeding earlier or later than this reduces conception because of reduced
viability of either the sperm or ova. Based on this facts and conception rate data, the following
recommendations have been followed for some years: if standing heat is first observed in the
morning, breed in the afternoon or evening; if standing heat is first observed in the afternoon or
evening, breed the next morning. These recommendations are based on the average length of heat
period of 18 hours, average ovulation time of 10 to 11 hours after the end of heat, and the assumption
that the first observed standing heat was near the beginning of the standing heat period.

DAIRY CATTLE MANAGEMENT

Cattle are kept for two main reasons: beef production and milk production. Another type is draft
cattle, which are still present in many third world countries. The management of a dairy farm is more
challenging and complex because it involves not only feeding and management but also milk
production which is a daily process, and reproduction (breeding) which essentially is a continuous
process with its attendant complexities. Each field makes its own unique contribution, but they
integrate into the one broad field of general management.

BREEDING MANAGEMENT
The cow comes into estrus the whole year, but chiefly in the summer, heat season or estrus
lasts for about 18 hours and recurs every 3 weeks. The period of gestation is about 9 months. These
frequent periods of estrus make it possible to arrange that every cow in the herd does not calve at the
same time, and that the supply of milk is more or less distributed throughout the year. To achieve this,
the cows-in-milk should be about 45% of dairy herd. When in heat, a dairy cow may show
restlessness, enlarge vulvas, tendency to ride other cows and a decline in milk production; other
cows tend to ride her too. The most reliable sign is standing still when mounted on, which is called
standing heat. It is easier to detect dairy cows that are in heat than beef cows because they are
milked each day and therefore are closely observed. The cow can be bred.

Table 12.1. An ideal dairy herd should have the following animal composition

Optimum Make-Up (%)

Cows-in-milk 45.0
Dry cows 9.50
Bulls 0.50
Total Mature Stocks 55.00
Heifers (above 10 months) 24.00
Young stocks (1.5-10 Months) 13.00

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Calves (<1.5 months) 8.00

Total Growing Stocks 45.00
Total Livestock Inventory 100.00
Source: Surge (Dairy Equipment Manufacturer, Illinois, USA)

Dairy cows are generally hand mated, i.e. the cow is taken to the bull for breeding, or
inseminated artificially. There are technician available from SCU’s and government livestock breeding
centers to artificially inseminate cattle, but individual operators can also do it after taking and
mastering the procedure by participating in artificial insemination training short courses regularly
offered by various organizations as an extension service. It is desirable to use semen from
outstanding or proven sires which usually are the ones used in AI services. Whatever mating system
is used it is well to heed a byword among good cattlemen: A good bull is cheap at any price, an
inferior bull is expensive at any price.
Heifers of dairy breeds are sometimes served at 15 months, but they grow better if not served
until at least 18 months old, so that they calved at 2.5 years old. The duration of lactation depends on
age, breed and feeding but in the case of a first calver usually lasts from 5 to 7 months, while some
adult heavy-milking cows may continue in milk for a year. The average cow is kept in the herd until
she is 5 or 6 years old.
Dairy cows should be allowed a period of at least 2 months between lactation to enable their
bodies to replenish fat and protein that previous lactation may have depleted. It is advisable to dry the
cow two months before her next calf is due. Also, during this dry period, globulins accumulate in the
mammary gland. Globulins serve as carriers of antibodies in the colostrums. Cows that are milked
outright to parturition have a very low proportion of these proteins in their milk. One way of dying off a
cow is to reduce the number of milkings to one daily and her rations curtailed; later she is milked
every other day and not completely stripped. If milk is not withdrawn from the mammae at frequent
intervals, the glands gradually cease functioning, i.e., the cow stops producing milk.
Table 12.2 Breeding characteristics of cattle, carabao and goat

Breeding Cattle
Philippine Carabao Goat
Characteristics (Bos Taurus)
Age of puberty 8 months 3.5 years 5-6 months
(1-6 years)
Age at 1st breeding 15 months 4 years 8-1 months
Estrus duration 18 hours 21 hours 1-2 days
(1-4 days)
Signs of heat
Estrous cycle 21 days 21 days 21 days
(18-24 days) (13-28 days) (18-24 days)
Ovulation 10-11 hours after 15 hours after end 33 hours after
end of heat of heat beginning of heat
Gestation 283 320 150
(278-288 days) (295-339 days) (147-155 days)
Breeding 40-60 days 60 days 60 days
Freshening (after)
Dry period 2 months 2 months 6-8 weeks
Freshening interval 12.5 18 months 12 months

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VI. LEARNING ACTIVITIES

Name: _______________________________
Section: ______________________________

ACTIVITY I: Housing and Production Facilities

1. Search on YouTube about cattle housing and facilities. And then;

a. Identify the different types and functions of housing and production facilities seen.
b. Take note of the measurements, dimensions and stocking rate, production facilities and
equipment.
c. Identification and computation of inputs needed for housing and production facilities.

ACTIVITY II: Improved Reproduction Technologies

Student will:

1. Identify the best age/weight of calf at weaning;

a. What is the relationship between the loss of weight in dam and gain in weight of calf?
b. What are the advantage(s) of early weaning?
c. What are the steps in feeding dairy calves?
d. What are the factors to consider in the management of calf up to weaning?

2. Identify the best age to breed a heifer;

What are the effects of weight/age on the occurrence of puberty in heifers?

3. Describe the basic management practices for different classes of ruminants.

VII. ASSIGNMENT: Read the next topic

VIII. REFERENCES

BATH, D.L., DICKINSON, F.N., TUCKE, H.A. and R.D. APPLEMAN. 1978. Dairy Cattle: Principles,
Practices, Problems, Profits. Second Edition. Lea & Febiger. Philadelphia.

HUMPHREYES, L.R. 1980. Tropical Pastures And Fodder Crops. 1980. Reprinted Edition. Longman
Group Limited. London

PHILIPPINE COUNCIL FOR AGRICLUTURE FORESTRY AND NATURAL RESOURCES RESEARCH

AND DEVELOPMENT. 2001. The Philippines Recommends for Forage and Pasture Crops.
Department of Science and Technology. Los Baños, Laguna.

PHILIPPINE COUNCIL FOR AGRICLUTURE FORESTRY AND NATURAL RESOURCES RESEARCH

AND DEVELOPMENT. 2001. The Philippines Recommends for Beef. Department of Science
and Technology. Los Baños, Laguna.

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MACKENZIE D. 1993. Goat Husbandry. Revised Ed. Faber and Faber. London.

PCARRD. 1999. The Philippines Recommends for Forage Corn Production and Utilization.
Philippine Recommends Series No.86, Los Baños, Laguna.

PCARRD. 2000. The Philippines Recommends for Sheep Raising. Los Baños, Laguna.

PCARRD. 2000. The Philippines Recommends for Beef Cattle Production. Los Baños, Laguna.

PCARRD. 2002. The Philippines Recommends for Dairy Cattle Production. Los Baños,
Laguna.

PCARRD. 2002. The Philippines Recommends for Livestock Feed Formulation. Los Baños,
Laguna.

PCARRD. 2002. The Philippines Recommends for Carabao Production. Philippine

Recommends Series No.37-A, Los Baños, Laguna.

PCARRD. 2004. The Philippines Recommends for Goat Farming. Philippine Recommends
Series No.24-D, Los Baños, Laguna.

PHILIPINE STATISTICS AUTHORITY. 2020. Livestock and Poultry Division.

Google search

Yahoo search

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College: ___AGRICULTURE______
Campus :___Bayombong________

DEGREE PROGRAM CAS COURSE NO. AS2

SPECIALIZATION N/A COURSE TITLE Introduction to Livestock and Poultry

Production
YEAR LEVEL 2 TIME FRAME 20 hrs WK NO. 15-18 IM NO. 4

I. UNIT TITLE/CHAPTER TITLE: Introduction to Goat and Sheep Production

II. LESSON TITLE:

Goat and Sheep Production

a) Inventory of goat and sheep
b) Performance of goat and sheep under the Philippine condition
c) Breeds of goat and sheep and their characteristics
d) Systems of goat and sheep production
e) Housing environment for goat and sheep
f) Feeding management for goat and sheep
g) Feeding guides for goat and sheep
h) Care and management of goats
i) Health and programs for goat and sheep
j) Common diseases and parasites of goats
k) Farm record management
l) Technical parameters
m) Cost and return analysis

III. LESSON OVERVIEW:

The content of this lesson helps the students on Goat and Sheep Production by developing the skills in
Feeding Management for Goat and Sheep thus Applying Farm Record Management by conducting Cost and
Return Analysis.

IV. DESIRED LEARNING OUTCOMES

 Learn updates in goat and sheep

 List and characterize breeds of goats and sheep including production system
 Identify and discuss the management practices in goat and sheep production
 List and identify common diseases and parasites of small ruminants including their symptoms,
prevention and control
 Evaluate production performance of goat and sheep; conduction cost and return analysis

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V. LESSON CONTENT

SMALL RUMINANT PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT

Over view of the Sheep and Goat Industry

Goat and sheep represent valuable resources in developing countries including the
Philippines. The raising of goat and sheep offers good opportunities particularly for small and medium
scale farmers with limited farmland areas integrated into the traditional farming system. Goat and
sheep raising can contribute to family nutrition and income. Inclusion of small ruminants in crop
farming will provide employment for family members and encourage the use of by-products as feed.

These resources, however, are not being fully exploited due to lack of knowledge about their
potentials and due to sheer neglect. Available information on the characteristics of goats and sheep,
and their value in meat and milk production, is herein presented. The goat population is presented in
Table 1.

Table 1. Goat Population (1990-2001).

Total Backyard Commercial

Year Philippines Cagayan Philippines Cagayan Philippines Cagayan
Valley Valley Valley
1990 2,203,670 43,650 2,189,570 43,330 14,100 320
1991 2,140,978 42,596 2,128,320 42,381 12,658 215
1992 2,306,380 42,766 2,293,624 42,354 12,756 412
1993 2,562,362 58,930 2,552,069 58,514 10,293 416
1994 2,632,956 77,662 2,662,319 76,502 10,637 1,160
1995 2, 832,089 73,691 2,815,493 72,738 12,596 953
1996 2,981,900 70,827 2,969,518 70,195 12,312 632
1997 3,024,980 82,623 3,012,730 81,806 12,250 817
1998 3,083,262 86,530 3,071,925 85,797 11,337 733
1999 3,050,957 95,058 3,035,053 94,358 15,904 700
2000 3,151,472 107,921 3,138,239 107,463 13,233 458
2001* 3,223,115 117,710 3,222,768 117,363 11,837 347
*Projected

As of 01 July 2020, the total goat inventory in the country was estimated at 3.99 million heads.
This was 4.2 percent higher than the 3.83 million population in the same period of 2019. Among all
ages, does comprised 40.8 percent to the total inventory, kids shared 28.4 percent, while the
remaining 3 0.8 percent were
combined stocks of bucks and
goats of other ages (Figure 2).

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The total goat production from July to September 2020 was estimated at 19.27 thousand
metric tons, liveweight. This was 0.4 percent higher compared with the previous year’s same quarter
output of 19.19 thousand metric tons, liveweight.
Among the regions, Ilocos Region was the top producer of goat during the quarter with a
production of 2.67 thousand metric tons, liveweight. This was followed by Central Luzon with 2.43
thousand metric tons, liveweight, and BARMM with 2.20 thousand metric tons, liveweight. These
three regions accounted for 37.9 percent of the country’s total goat production.
Compared with their levels in the same period of 2019, six regions showed increases in
production during the quarter. Central Visayas reported the highest annual growth of 8.2
percent, from 2.02 thousand metric tons, liveweight in the same quarter of previous year to 2.18
thousand metric tons, liveweight this quarter (Figure 1).

The average farmgate price of goat for slaughter during the quarter was PhP 154.79
per kilogram, liveweight. This was 2.6 percent higher than the average price of PhP
150.82 per kilogram, liveweight, in the same quarter of 2019.
The highest farmgate price of goat for slaughter this quarter was recorded in August
at PhP 156.98 per kilogram, liveweight, while the lowest was in July at PhP 152.81 per
kilogram, liveweight (Figure 3).

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II. System of Management

Sheep and goat production can be carried out in different systems of management.

Extensive. The most extensive way of keeping sheep and goat is a system in which the animals
are kept on free-range both during day and night. Animals raised under this system are provided with
little or no shed. They make use of mountain caves and trees for protection at night and during rain.
The stocks are difficult to access and have turned feral in this pastoral system of production.

Semi-extensive. In this system of management, sheep and goats are kept in shed at night and
allowed to graze during late morning hours until late in the afternoon. Sometimes a herdsman takes
them back to the shed but very often they returned on their own. The construction of shed is rather
poor without provision for separating young from mature animals.

Intensive. This system in which goats are stall-fed in confinement with little or no access to
grazing. Intensive stall-feeding involves a “cut-and-carry” feeding practice. Usually, the shed is
subdivided into group pens where the animals are separated by age and sex.

Tethering. By tethering, an animal is tied with a rope and staked to the ground to graze. Only
adults are tethered while young animals until weaned are kept loose. Shifting the peg or choosing a
different tree or post to secure the tether provides free access to a fresh grazing area. Animals
tethered in sparse grasslands have to be transferred to different sites. When they are brought home
to the shed for the night, the tethering rope may be removed or shortened to avoid strangling the
animal.

Integration with Crops. This system includes either intensive management in which crop by-
products can be stall-fed, or grazing under plantation crops in which the animals browse or graze on
the under growth of rubber, coconut, or fruit trees.

III. Technical Terms

Abortion. It is the giving birth to young at premature age.

Afterbirth. It refers to the placenta and the other membranes expelled or sent out after the
delivery of the fetus or young.

All-wool. It is a fabric of any description in which yarns are 100% wool from the sheep.

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Anemia. It refers to a condition in which the red blood corpuscles are reduced in number or are
deficient in hemoglobin.

Antibiotic. t is a chemical compounds generally produced by molds that have the ability to inhibit
growth of certain bacteria

Bagging a ewe. It means looking at or feeling the udder of a pregnant ewe to estimate how close
to lambing she is (also observing the vulva)

Band. It is a a loose term; a range term, generally a group of ewes numbering 70 to 120

Bedford cord. It is a sturdy, durable cloth with lengthwise rob or cord produced by two successive
warp threads woven in plain weave order

Bladder. It is a membranous sac in animals that serves as a receptacle for some fluid, as the
urinary bladder, gall bladder etc.
Bluestone. It refers to copper sulfate

Boils. It is a cachous lymphadenitis-lymph glands infected with corynebacterium ovis.

Braid. It is the seventh and coarsest of the US grades of wool under the old system of naming the
grades

Brand. In sheep, this refers to the marking made on wool with special branding fluids for
identification process

Break. It is a weak place in a fleece or staple of wool caused by malnutrition, overfeeding, or fever

Breed. This refers to a group of animals possessing well-defined, distinguishing characteristics

and which are able to reproduce these characteristics in their offspring with a reasonable degree
of certainty

Britch wool. It is a wool from the lower parts of the thighs; often coarse and hairy.

Broadcloth . It is a compactly woven, elegant cloth with smooth nap, velvet-like hand and high
luster.

Broken mouth. It is a sheep that have lost some, but not all, of their teeth.

Buck. It is a mature male goat usually from the age of five months.

Buck. Refers to a male goat; generally refers to those of breeding age.

Bummer lamb. It is an orphaned for one of a variety of reasons being raised by hand or
bumming milk from other ewes.

Carding. It is a manufacturing process that converts loose, scoured wool into a continuous strand
suitable for subsequent operations.

Castrate. It is the process of removing the goat’s testicles or make them non-functional.

Cauterize. It means to burn with a hot iron.

Character. It is the crimp, handling qualities and general appearance of wool.

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Chenille. It is a fabric that has a pile protruding all around at right angles

Chevon. It is the meat of goats

Claiming pen – It is the same as jail.

Clip. It is the aggregate of all fleeces from a flock

Colostrum. It refers to the first milk of the dam from the first to seventh day after she has given
birth to her young; it is the thick, vicious milk produced by the ewe during the first week or so after
lambing

Concentrates. These refers to feed which are high in total digestible nutrients but low in crude
fiber.

Conception. It refers to pregnancy.

Conformation. It refers to the shape and design.

Creep fed. It refers to the animals that are given extra feed by means of small openings in panels
that permit the smaller animals to enter.

Crimp. It is the natural waviness of the wool fiber.

Crossbred. It is the offspring resulting from mating two pure breeds

Culling-cull. An animal taken out of the flock because it is below herd standards.

Density. It refers to the number of wool fibers per square inch of surface area of skin.

Diaphragm. It is a partition made up of muscles and sinews and separating the chest cavity from
that of the abdomen
Disease. It refers to any condition other than normal health. It is also considered by farmers as illness
caused by pathogenic microorganisms.

Docile. It refers to a condition where animals are easily managed or handled; obedient.

Dock. It is the removal of tail of sheep.

Dodge. It refers to the act of separating various kinds of sheep by means of some mechanical separating
device such as dodge gate

Doe. It is an adult female goat.

Doeling. It refers to a young female that has not yet given to any young

Drab. It is a dull gray, dull-brownish or yellowish gray.

Drench. It means to give liquid medicine to animals by pouring down into the throat.

Dress out. It is the removing the opal from sheep so that the carcass becomes an edible product.

Drop hand. It refers to the ewes that are expected to lamb soon, also called heavies.

Dry ewe. It refers to ewe that did not produce a lamb during current breeding season.
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Dummy. It is a lamb that is slow to react, sluggish, often won’t or can’t nurse its mother also called as
crazy lamb or daft lamb.

Early lambs. These are lambs born early enough to go to the market as spring lambs.

Earmark. It refers to a slits or perforations made in animal’s ears for identification process.

Elastrator. It is a mechanical device used to apply elastic bands to the tail testicles of sheep so that these
tissues will atrophy and disappear.

Enteritis. It is the inflammation of the intestines.

Estrus. This is the period of sexual excitement at which the time the female will accept mating with the
male.

Ewe. It is a female sheep of breeding age.

Excreta. It refers to the waste matter, such as urine, feces, and sweat sent out by the body of an animal.

Exotic. It is a term used to describe animals foreign to a region.

Facing. It is the trimming the wool around the face so that ewe will sense cold, seeks shelter, and thus
protects the lamb from cold.

Fat lamb. It is a lamb ready for slaughter market.

Fawn. It is a light- yellowish brown color.

Feces. It refers to waste matter eliminated from the body of an animal

Fell . It is a thin membrane found between the skin and carcass. Upon exposure to air, it hardens and
protects the meat from drying out unduly.

Fetus. It is called as unborn young; refers to the young of an animal while it is still carried in the mother’s
uterus.

Fill. It is the amount of feed and water in an animal.

Finish. It refers to fatness; highly finished means very fat.

Fleece. It refers to the entire coat of wool as it comes from the sheep or while still on the live animal

Flock. It refers to the total number of sheep under one management. Flock is often used in connection
with small numbers on the farm, whereas band is used to designate large numbers on the range.

Flushing. It is the practice of feeding thin ewes more during the period two or three weeks immediately
prior to breeding. Rations are generally high in protein content.

Fly strike. It refers to maggots developing in damps, soiled areas of the body- may enter skin.

Footbath. It is a narrow trough through which sheep are forced in order to apply medication to their feet.
Forelegs. It is the front legs of the quadrupeds or animals with four legs

Fox head. It is device used to hold in an expelled uterus after it has been cleaned and replaced in the ewe.

Fuzzy lamb. It is a hairy lamb that possesses the hair instead of wool these are undesirable and usually
die or are poor doers.

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Gestation. It is a term used to designate the pregnancy of goats.

Gimp or gimpy. It is a lame animal.

Grade. It is an animal whose parents are purebred and an unknown or mixed breeding.

Grafting. It is the process of inducing a newly lactating ewe without a lamb to accept a lamb not her own.

Grease wool. It refers to wool as it comes from the sheep as this contains large amounts of grease or
lanolin

Gregarious. It is the flocking instinct; tendency of sheep to bunch together.

Gummer. It is a sheep with all the incisor teeth missing.

Half-blood, 3/8 blood etc. These are terms to designate official grades of wool.

Hank. It is a unit of measurement of yarn in the wool textile industry, in worsted yarns on which the
spinning counts are made and hence the names of grades; a hank is 560 yards of worsted yarn.

Heat period. It is the period when the female animal is sexually receptive to the male.

Heavy ewes. It refers to female sheep indicating approaching parturition by there full sides and bellies and
looseness around genital parts.

Hothouse lambs. These are lambs born in fall or early winter and marketed when from 9 to 16 weeks of
age or from Christmas to May to a special trade incisors eruption of permanent teeth are 1,2,3, and 4
years.

Jail. It is a small pen only large enough to hold one ewe and her offspring. It is also called a jug.

Kemp. It is a white opaque, weak, and brittle fiber found in some fleeces of wool and mohair. It does not
take dyes as wool does and has little value in manufacturing.

Kid. It is a young goat, either male or female.

Kidding. It is the process of giving birth to kids by a goat.

Lactating period - the number of days an animal produces milk after kidding.

Lamb. It is a sheep under one year of age. If a lamb has lost of its temporary teeth, it would not be classed
as a lamb.

Lambing. It is the giving birth to lambs.

Lambing time. It is the season of the year when ewes normally being their young.

Lanolin. It refers to purified wool grease. It is used as base for salves, ointments, in cosmetics, and for
many other purposes.

Late lambs. These are lambs born after the normal lambing time for a particular area has passed.

Legumes. It refers to the fruit or seed of plants like pea, bean, mungo, soybean, etc. These are
leguminous plant, especially grown as forage or green manure crop like ipil-ipil, madre de cacao or
cacawate, flemingia, and desmodium.
Let-down. It is the voluntary release of milk from the udder by the lactating female goat.
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Long tail. It refers to any sheep whose tail has not been docked.

Lounger. It is used in reference to a sheep with a chronic respiratory disease which produces difficult
breathing.

Marking. It is a term applied to docking and castrating lambs; also branding or marking for identification;
also called as cutting.

Milk fat lamb. This is a slaughter lamb at weaning.

Mother up. It is commonly used in two senses. Observation in newly lambed ewe in a jag to make sure
that she accepts her lamb, that she is lactating, and that the lamb is on his feet and nursing. It is the
process of allowing a period of time for ewes and young lamb to find each other after such procedures as
marking, docking and vaccinating.

Mouthing. It refers to ageing sheep by examination of their incisors, from central to lateral.

Mutton. It refers to the meat of mature sheep. It is usually older than 12 months.

Old crop lamb or old cropper. It is a feeder lamb which did not reach market weight and finish during his
first season and must be held on feed into the winter or early spring.

Open-faced. It is a sheep with little or no wool on the face, especially around the eyes.

Orphan. It is a lamb that has lost his mother.

Palpation. It is the process of manipulating the testicles of a ram to feel for abnormalities within the
scrotum.

Parrot mouth. It is a peculiar condition in the shape of the mouth resulting from one jaw crossing over the
other.

Parturition. It is the act of giving birth to the young.

Pelt. This is the hide removed from dead sheep.

Pinning. It is the collection of dang around the vent of every young lambs that has dried to the point of
interfering with normal vowel movement.

Pizzle rot. It is also called as sheath rot or inflammation of the prepuce in males.

Polled. It is term to designate a naturally hornless animal.

Progeny. It refers to an offspring or a young.

Pulled wool. It is wool removed from the pelts of slaughtered lambs and sheep.

Purebred. This refers to an animal belonging to one of the recognized breeds of livestock.

Purity. It refers to the absence of fibers other than wool.

Rack. It is the area of the body, or especially the carcass, containing the ribs but excluding shoulder,
breast and loin.

Ram. It refers to an intact male sheep of any age.

Roughage. This is a feed which is high in fiber content but low in digestible nutrients.

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Ruminant. It is a cud-chewing animal with a stomach that contains four compartments through which the
food passes in digestion.

Scour. It is a diarrhea condition of an animal.

Second cuts. This is a short bits of wool resulting from passing shears twice over the same area in an
effort to get close to the skin.

Set-up. It is the act of turning a sheep on its side or into a sitting position as method of restraining.

Shear. It refers to the soft, natural short wool pile backed with sheepskin.

Shearing. It is the process of removing the fleece from the body of the sheep.

Shell or shelly. It refers to poor, debilitated animal, frequently from chronic disease.

Shorn. It refers to the sheep after the fleece has been removed.

Shrinkage. It is the percentage of the weight of grease wool lost in scouring.

Slink. It means to abort, or an aborted fetus.

Sterile. It is a condition when an animal is not able to produce normal living young.

Stud ram. It is a ram used as a sire in purebred registered flock.

Tagging. It is the shearing the wool from around the tail and the udder of an ewe prior to lambing, or
around the tail of the lamb.

Tags. It refers to heavy, dungy wool.

Tail docking. It is the process of cutting off the tails of lamb-usual instruments: knife, hot chisel or iron,
elastrator, burdizzo, emasculator.

Tail ender. It is a lamb in the poorest portion of a group of lambs.

Teat. It is the nipple or protuberance of an udder through which the milk passes out.

Tether. It means to tie an animal with a rope or chain to prevent straying but allowing the animal to graze.

Trimming. It is the act of removing parts of the wool from a sheep in order to improve its appearance or
facilitate normal functioning of the body.

Tweed. It is a durable fabric with a rough surface appearance, soft and pliable, yet firm in weave.

Twill. It refers to the second basic weave. It shows a distinct diagonal line due to warp yarns passing over,
then under, one or more filling yarns.

Twin band. During lambing, those ewes with twins that are often placed in a separate group because they
need extra feed and care.

Udder. It is the organ in the female that secretes milk.

Vaccination. It is the introduction of vaccines into animals so as to produce an immunity or tolerance to a

disease.

Viscera. It is the soft interior organs in the body cavities. It includes the brain, intestines, heart, lungs, etc.

Vulva. It is the outer genital organ of the female; the opening into the vagina.
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Warp. It is a set of yarns running lengthwise in woven cloth.

Wattle. It refers to the fleshy lobe or appendage hanging down from the skin of the throat or chin in goats.

Weft. It is the yarn that runs crosswise in a woven fabric or at right angles to the warp threads.

Wet ewe. This is a ewe with sucking lamb - lactating ewe.

Wither. It is a castrated male goats before the secondary sex characteristics appear.

Wheezier - see ‘lunger’ and ‘roaring buck’.

Wobble. It means to move unsteadily from side to side.

Wool clip. This refers to the total wool sheared from owner’s sheep subdivisions-ewe clip, lamb clip, ram
clip.

Woolen. This refers to the fabrics or yarns made up of uncombed wool.

Worsted. This are fabrics or yarns made up of combed wool.

Yearlings. These are young sheep that are approximately one to two years of age. They are identified by
the fact that they have cut their first pair of permanent teeth but not the second pair.

Yield Carcass. It refers to the percentage of the live carcass left after removing entrails.

Wool. It is the percentage of the weight of grease wool left after scouring.

Yolk. It is the natural grease and suint covering of the wool fibers of the unscoured fleece, and excreted
from the glands in the skin.

IV. Breeds

Selecting the Foundation Stocks

General Characteristics

1. Start with indigenous stocks and grades since they are usually more adapted to local
environmental conditions than purebreds. Imported or purebred stocks require a high level
of management and can be very extensive when available.
2. The backyard farmer should start with a minimum of two animals, especially goats because
no animal suffers more from loneliness than goat.
3. Goats and sheep to be used as foundation stocks should have good size, strength and
health. A healthy goat is sleek and bright in coat, is well covered with flesh, has prominent
eyes, is active, and always ready to eat.

Desirable Characteristics of the Buck

1. The buck should be the heaviest goat in the herd with a wide chest and a well-developed
barrel. A straight body and strong legs are necessary.
2. There should be a complete absence of any physical defects.
3. It should have a twin brother or sister
4. It should be aggressive
5. It should posses a rugged mane on the neck and shoulders as this reflects breeding ability.
6. It should have a good semen characteristic, especially the absence of abnormal sperms.

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Desirable Characteristics of the Doe or Ewe

1. The doe or ewe should possess a large and well-developed body.

2. For meat goats, the rectangular conformation of the blocky meat animal should be
apparent. The dairy goat should display the wedge-shaped conformation typical of a good
dairy animal.
3. The mammary gland should be well formed, pendulous, and without supernumerary teats.
4. It should have a twin sister
5. It should be docile, particularly for dairy goats.

Breeds of Sheep. There are four different breeds or strains of sheep found in the Philippines.
Table 2 shows these breeds and their characteristics

Table 2. Common breed of sheep in the Philippines

Approx.
Breed Distinguishing Traits Mature
Wt. (kg)
Roman nose, large ears, having a resemblance
like a goat and appears to have less curly hairs
Katahdin 50-60
on its body, the only breed of sheep having long
tail, color varies from brown to white.
Roman nose, slightly drooping ears, wool covers
Barbados
the entire body; color is brown with black under 40
Blackbelly
belly, lower jaw, chest, legs and inside ears.
Either straight or Roman-nosed, erect ears, wool
Philippine
covers the entire body, white is predominant 30
Sheep
color although brown-white are common
Phil. Nose is either flat or Roman, wool is thin and
Sheep x found in different parts of the body, and color 33
Barbados varies from white to brown.
Blackbelly

Goat Breeds. Some breeds and strains of goats raised under local condition are presented
below:

Breed: Anglo-Nubian
Distinguishing Traits:
Convex roman nose; long pendulous
ears, color varies from black, gray,
cream, brown to red
Approx. Mature Wt, Kg: 75
NVSU-FR-ICD-05-00
Ave. Milk(081220)
Yield, Kg per day: 1.5 Page 102 of 117

Ave. Lactation Days: 165

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Breed: Toggenburg

Distinguishing Traits:

Erect ears; color varies from brown,

chocolate or fawn with white markings
on each side of face, ears, rump, tail,
and legs

Approx. Mature Wt, Kg: 60

Ave. Milk Yield, Kg per day: 1.5

Ave. Lactation Days: 200

Breed: French-Alpine

Distinguishing Traits:

Erect ears, long hair, color varied from

black to white.

Approx. Mature Wt, Kg: 60

Ave. Milk Yield, Kg per day: 1.5

Ave. Lactation Days: 201

Breed: Saanen
Distinguishing Traits:
Erect ears, short hair, color is cream to
white with black spots on the nose, ears,
and udder.
Approx. Mature Wt, Kg: 60

Ave. Milk Yield, Kg per day: 2.0

Ave. Lactation Days: 20

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Breed:
Breed: Native
Boer
Distinguishing
Distinguishing Traits:
Traits:
Erect
Convexears, small
roman in body
nose; longsize, color
pendulous
varies from black, white or red,
ears, dominant white in color withor a
combination
reddish-brownof to
these colors
black shade on their
head down to their neck.20
Approx. Mature Wt, Kg:

Ave. MilkMature
Approx. Yield, Kg
Wt,per
Kg:day: 0.4
70-100
Ave. Lactation Days: 187

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Housing and Fencing

Housing and Fencing Goats

Goats need protection from the rain, which is often heavy and prolonged. Excessive wetting
can cause pneumonia and increase parasitic infestation. The construction of a house or bam does
not require elaborate design and materials. The essential features are as follows:

1) The house should be light, well ventilated, well drained and easily cleaned.
2) It should be constructed of local material such as bamboo, lumber slabs, cogon, nipa and
other available materials.

3) Goat shed for the backyard consists of a structure that is 2m wide, 3m long and 1.75 – 2m
high. This can accommodate 2 mature goats but additional space for the kids should be
provided. The flooring should be elevated and slatted to facilitate easy cleaning and for
good ventilation. With ground-level housing, provide elevated fixtures such as benches or
platform since goats like dry and high places.

4) Large goats herds require a bar n about 3 – 4m high. The flooring should be elevated 1.0 –
1.5m above ground with wooden slats measuring 2.5 cm thick and 5 cm wide. Just the
same, platforms should be provided for goats with ground-level housing.

5) Partitions are recommended for kids, pregnant does and bucks. Hayracks, mineral boxes
and water troughs should be provided.

6) Provide a goat fence about 1.5 – 2.0m high in order to maintain a good neighborly relation.
The fence should be able to confine goats and keep them from damaging plants. Use hog
wire for this purpose but the inter-link were best for fencing goats. Hard wood and
concretes may be used as posts. Ipil-ipil, Madre de cacao, dap dap, kapok, malunggay and
kamachile trees make good fence. During the dry season, coating the trunks with carabao
or cattle slurry will discourage goats from nibbling the bark trees.

Housing and Handling Facilities for Sheep

Wooled sheep do not need shelter from cold and if housing is provided; it should be able to
provide shade, protection from rain, and a dry place to sleep. Provide several partitions to facilitate
division of the flock, facilities for operation such as weighing, disease treatment, shearing, castrating
and lambing. Water and feed trough, a crush and dipping vats are needed.

Generally, a space allowance of 1m2 per animal is recommended. A bigger space would be
more convenient for the animal. A shed, 2 x 2m in size would be sufficient to accommodate two
mature ewes and their lambs. Construct the shed with elevated floors about 1.0 – 1.5m from the
ground for ease in waste disposal.

A fence line about 1m high is enough to enclose the sheep. Fencing materials may be hog
wire, chicken wire, nylon net and bamboo. Selected species as mentioned above may be used as live
posts.

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Feeding Sheep and Goats

Feeding behavior

1) Feeding Habits of Goats. Goats have feeding habits, which differs from those of other ruminants
and thus, lead to the destructiveness of goat when uncontrolled;

a) Goats are natural browsers and not grazers.

b) By means of their mobile lips and very prehensile tongue, goats are able to graze on very short
grass. They tend to nibble at the shoots and leaves of growing plants, but reject the stem.

c) They are able to feed on a variety of stuffs from herbage and tree bark to paper and clothes.

d) They prefer to select from many varieties of feeds such as a combination of grasses and
shrubs or tree leaves.

e) Goats have a high tolerance for better taste.

f) Contrary to popular opinion, goats are also fastidious in their feeding habits. Feeds that are
acceptable to one goat are sometimes not acceptable to another. Even the same may be
consumed at one time and then rejected at other times. Goats do not thrive well on a single
feed for any length of time.

g) Goats hesitate to eat wet feeds specially grasses

h) They would not eat soiled feeds

i) They shun dusty and fine ground feed.

j) Goats are inquisitive animals and they can walk long distances in search for food.

2) Feeding Habits of Sheep.

a) Sheep are essentially grazers rather than browsers.

b) They are less selective of the feed they consume than goats.

c) Because of narrow and cleft upper lip, sheep are able to select the nutritious parts of the plants
better than cattle.

d) Sheep are less efficient than goats and water buffaloes in utilizing highly fibrous roughage.

e) Sheep cannot walk long distances in search for food since they are less adaptable to heat
stress than goats.

Based on their respective feeding habits, it is preferable to mix sheep and goats than sheep
and cattle since the former combination complement each other and this is an excellent measure for
clearing lands from undesirable vegetation.

Feedstuffs for Goats and Sheep

A combination of any of the following may be used:

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1) Browse. Fodder obtained from eating leaves and twigs of bushes is referred to as browse.
Usually, the preferred feed of goats is browse. Goats may take 80% of total intake as browse.

2) Grasses. Where browse is not available, goats are quite capable of utilizing grasses. In
general, goats tend to prefer the less coarse grasses like Guinea grass (Panicum maximum)
than the coarser types such as Napier or Elephant grass (Pennisetum purpureum).

3) Legumes. Where pastures are grown, legumes should also be included to increase the
nutritive value of the forage. Legumes provide variety in the diet of goats and also, they
improve soil fertility. Centrosema (Centrosema pubescence), Siratro (Macroptilium
atropurpureum), Dolichas (Dolichas axillaries) and Townville stylo (Stylosanthes humilis) are
some examples of legumes that can be used for this purpose.

Ipil-ipil (Leucaena leucocephala) and Pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan) are two tropical legumes,
which are used for goat feeding.

4) Tree Leaves. Goats commonly feed on tree leaves. The practice of providing tree leaves, in
addition to cut grass grazing, add variety to goat’s diet and help to meet the nutrient
requirements for maintenance and production. Leaves from acacia, banana, cassava, gliricidia,
hibiscus, ipil-ipil, jackfruit and mulberry are used for feeding goats.

5) Crop Residues. These feed resources are mainly fibrous materials that are by-products of crop
cultivation. Examples of residues from crops after harvesting are rice straw, bagasse and
haulms.

6) Agro-industrial By-products (AIBP). These feedstuff refer to the less fibrous by-products
derived in the industry due to processing of the main products. Good examples are molasses,
rice bran, pineapple waste and soiled seed cakes and meals.

Table 4. Feeding Guide for Goats and Sheep

AGE FEED AMOUNT PER DAY

Birth to 3 days old Colostrum, ad libitum
4 days old to 2 wks old Whole milk 0.5 – 1.0 per kid 3 x a day
Vitamin-mineral mix ad libitum
Water
2 wks to 16 wks old Whole milk or milk replacer 0.5 – 1.0 per kid 2 x a day
Grass or legume ad libitum
Vitamin-mineral mix ad libitum
Water ad libitum
Starter ration (22% CP) Increasing amount
4 months to kidding Forages ad libitum
Vitamin-mineral mix ad libitum
Water ad libitum
Dry and Pregnant Does, Concentrates1 (18-20% CP) Up to 0.5 kg/head
Bucks Forages ad libitum
Vitamin-mineral mix ad libitum
Water ad libitum
Concentrates2 (16-18% CP) 0.2 to 0.7 kg/head
Lactating Does Forages ad libitum
Vitamin-mineral mix ad libitum
Water ad libitum
Concentrates3 0.3 to 0.5 kg/liter milk prod.

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1 2
Formula 1: Kg Formula 2: Kg
Ground corn 12 Copra Meal 50
Rice bran 24 Wheat pollard 32
Copra Meal 40 Molasses 15
Soybean oil meal 8 Bone meal 2
Meat & bone meal 10
Molasses 6
Salt 1
3
Formula 3:
Copra meal 40 Molasses 8
Corn 25 Bone meal 1
Soybean oil meal 15 Salt 1
Rice bran 10

2. Breeding Sheep and Goats

Reproductive Behavior. The physiology of reproduction in goats and sheep is summarized in

Table 5.

Table 5. Reproduction of Goats and Sheep.

REPRODUCTIVE PHENOMENA SHEEP GOATS

Age at puberty, months 5-10 5-6
Recommended age of first breeding, months 8-12 8-12
Estrous cycle, days 15-19 18-24
Estrus period, hours 18-24 24-36
Time of ovulation, hours after onset of heat 25-30 21-36
Post-partum estrus, weeks after parturition 2-3
Gestation period, days 150 +/- 5 144-155
Source: Devendra and Mcleroy (1982)

The following signs of estrus common to ewes and does are as follows:

1) The female submits to be mounted by the male or may mount pen mates regardless of sex.

2) The vulva is pinkish, swollen and inflame.

3) A clear mucous is discharged from the vulva.

4) There is wagging or shaking if the tail.

5) The female urinates frequently.

6) There is general restlessness.

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Breeding Practices

Breeding Practices for Does

1. A doe may be bred for the first time at 8 months if she is well grown, but usually, does should
be 10 months old before she is bred.

2. Two services are obtained for maiden does. If mating is restricted, the does should be bred at
least 12 hours after the heat is first observed. For example, does coming into heat in the
morning should be bred in the afternoon and those that come in heat in the afternoon should
be bred early in the morning of the next day. Does bred twice during the estrus period for best
results.

3. If the does return to estrus in about 21 days, she should be bred again. Failure to conceive
after breeding with a proven reason for culling.

4. Some causes of reproductive failure are:

 Reproductive diseases (Brucellosis and Vibriosis)

 Infection of the genital tract

 Malnutrition

 Over fat condition and Hormonal malfunction

 Very hot weather may also contribute to the problem

5. Keep accurate record of the date of breeding to determine the approximate date of kidding.
This will enable the caretaker to make preparations for safe parturition.

Breeding Practices for Ewes

1. It is recommended to breed the ewe for the first time at the age of 8-12 months. By this
time, the female sheep is physically and sexually mature.

2. The best time to breed the ewe in estrus is late in the estrus. To ensure the best chance of
conception. Both the ovum and the spermatozoa are relatively short lived.

3. Ewes will come on heat 2 to 3 weeks after lambing and can be bred if desired.

Breeding Practices for Bucks

1. A Buck is capable of light service at the age of 8 months. However, it should be allowed to
serve more than 20 does before it is one year old.

2. In controlled or hand mating, a mature buck should not be used for more than 4 services per
week.

3. In unrestricted or pasture mating, the ratio of buck to doe should be 1 is to 25 depending on

the size and productivity of pastures.

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4. The buck may be kept for as long as it is productive, provided it is not allowed to breed his own
offspring.
Breeding Practices for Rams

1. Use the Ram for light breeding when it is twelve months old or weighs about 25 kg.

2. A mature ram should be able to service 30-60 ewes but it is recommended to maintain one
ram each for 25 ewes of breeding age.

3. Under hand mating, a mature ram should not be used for more than 4 times weekly.

4. It is necessary to change the ram in the herd yearly to avoid in-breeding. A ram exchange can
be arranged with other flock owners for this purpose.

3. Herd/Flock Management

a) Management of Breeding Does

The management of the breeding doe is related to 3 physiological stages:

The Dry Period. This period starts from weaning until mating, approximately 3 months in
duration. After weaning the does, they can be group-fed according to their body condition. All
does, however, should be subjected to a raising plain of nutrition, a process referred to a
freshening/flushing, in preparation for the next pregnancy. Flushing stimulated the number of
ova to be shed-off, thus increasing the potential of higher kidding percentages.

The Pregnancy Period. This period, lasting for approximately 5 months, begins from
conception to kidding. Good feeding during pregnancy produced greater development of udder
and ensures high milk yield potential. A higher level of feed offered for the last 2 months of
pregnancy is advantageous. During this period, there should be no drastic changes of feed.
Water and mineral licks should be provided at all times.

Pregnant does are housed in large pens. Toward the end of pregnancy, individual does can be
confined to pens where the kids are to be born.

Breeding dates should be recorded to be able to expect the time of kidding. A good guide is
the gestation table for goats in Table 6, based on average gestation period of 150 days.

Kidding. The sign of kidding are as follows:

The first sign of kidding is uneasiness, including restlessness, sitting down and getting up and
smelling the ground. When this happens, kidding can be expected to occur within 1-2 hours.

The Lactation Period. The feed requirement of the lactating doe is much greater than it is
during pregnancy, since feeding during lactation is the main influence of milk yield. During the
first 2 weeks after kidding, feed from 0.2 to 0.4 kg of concentrates per day. After 2 weeks, the
concentrates can be increased in accordance with milk yield.

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Table 6. Gestation table for Goats

WHEN BRED IN EXPECTED KIDDING DAY - BREEDING

January June 1
February July 0
March September 3
April October 3
May November 3
June December 3
July January 3
August February 3
September March 3
October April 1.5
November May 1.5
December June 1.5

Impt: To determine the day of kidding, take breeding day and subtract the indicated number in the Table above. For example, if a doe
is bred on January 22, expected day of kidding is June 21.

b) Management of Kids

1) Tickle the tongue of the kid to stimulate coughing and respiration

2) Allow the dam to lick the newborn kid.
3) Check the teats of the dam if there is milk. If the milk supply is low, the kids may need to be
artificially fed with alternative milk, or placed with a foster mother.

4) If it is necessary that the newborn kid will receive the first milk or colostrums. If necessary,
lead the kid to the dam and direct the kid mouth towards the teats.

5) If the lactating doe is intended for milking, allow the kid with the dam for 3 days and
thereafter, keep the kids in individual stalls to be hand-fed with milk in bottles or in a pan.
Usually, lukewarm milk at about 36 0C is given at a rate of 0.9 to 1.0 liter 3x a day up to 3
weeks of age.

c) Weaning

Weaning can be at nay time up to 6 months of age. The time of weaning depends on the type
of does. For meat production, weaning is delayed and the kids usually should be weaned later
than 3 moths of age. For dairy does, early weaning is the usual practice in which the kids are
separated from the does, either soon after birth and then hand-fed with colostrum for 3 days,
or about 3 days old.

4. Goat Herd Health Management

Goats are hardy animals when well but bad patients when sick. They need more attention and
have to be nursed carefully. For this reason, an early visit by an experienced veterinarian is
important. However, knowledgeable management combined with the use of available remedies
can prevent most conditions.

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1. General Guide to Goat Ailments

A. First Symptoms for Poor Health

a) Loss of weight
b) Poor hair coat
c) Loss of appetite
d) Dullness
e) Alteration in the character of the dropping
f) Failure to chew the cud
g) Lameness
h) Cough
i) Drop in milk yield

B. Check Temperature, Pulse and Respiration

a. Normal temperature (39 – 39.5 0C) – Use an anal thermometer and insert the
thermometer inside the anus for 30 seconds.

b. Normal pulse rate (70-80 per minute) – Pulse can be taken in the inner thigh of the
animal.

c. Normal respiration (22-26 per minute) – Respiration rate can be observed by looking on
the final region of the animal.

2. Suggested Disease Prevention Measures

a) Select and start with healthy stocks. Animals must be rigidly examined for abnormalities,
defects or signs of illness. They must come from reliable sources by known sturdy parent
stocks and must be isolated for a minimum of 30 days after purchase.

b) To pre and control parasites and diseases, deworm, delouse and immunize during the
isolation period.

c) For the unconfined stock or pastured herds, maintain a similar program on a continuing
basis. In areas where there is a high incidence of internal parasites, deworm with
anthelmintics every 2 to 3 months.

d) Provide adequate quality ration since well-nourished goats not only perform better but are
more resistant to infections and parasites.
e) To protect from environmental stresses, provide proper housing and a comfortable
environment.

f) Practice sanitation in the pens of animals whether individually confined or herd quartered.
Dispose waste to rid houses and pens of pests and insects that thrive on manure and other
wastes.

g) Graze and pastures relatively safe from infective stages of internal parasites particularly
liver fluke. Snail control and pasture management should complement regular deworming
with an effective flukecide.
h) Delouse using effective chemicals of proper concentration following prescribed application.
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i) Cull unproductive breeding stocks out of the herd and replace with tested or potentially
good breeder.

j) Conduct regular checks for the presence of parasitic diseases. Conduct random fecal
examination at regular intervals to help check the incidence and severity of internal
parasitism.

k) Segregate animals that are visibly ill during disease outbreak and seek veterinary
assistance immediately. Intensify environmental control through sanitation and disinfection
of contaminated quarters and utensils.

l) Immunize against disease prevalent in the area regularly.

m) Segregate goats from other animals to avoid inter-transmission of the disease and
parasites among these species.

n) Add vitamin/mineral supplements to the concentrates for all goats especially those raised in
confinement.

3. Suggested Health Program for Goats

A. Before Breeding

1) From a group of breeder animals pick out those that are potentially best.

2) Blood test the animals for diseases such as brucellosis and leptospirosis.

3) Deworm animals with broad spectrum anthelmintics

4) Inject Vitamins ADE to improve reproductive performance.

5) Vaccinate against disease prevalent in the area.

6) Include vitamin/mineral premix in concentrate feeds to check deficiencies and improve

reproductive performance.

B. Pregnancy Period

1) Maintain animal on a high plane of nutrition.

2) Where immunizations of bacterial diseases are indicated, vaccines may be given every
6 months to all goats.

3) At about the last 1 to 2 weeks of pregnancy deworm against common intestinal

roundworms.

C. Parturition and Post-Parturition

1) Segregate expectant goats from the herd at least 1 week before parturition.

2) Prepare the kidding area.

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3) For day old kids, cut the umbilical cord and dip the remaining stump in strong tincture of
iodine.

4) To prevent uterine infections in the dam, antibiotics boluses may be inserted into the
vagina.

5) To prevent hypomagnesemia and hypocalcaemia especially in dairy goats, routine

injection of Dextrose-calcium-magnesium solution after kidding.

D. Kids Up to Weaning

1) In areas where intestinal parasitism is common, especially threadworm infection,

deworm kids as early as 4 to 5 weeks. Repeat after 30 days.

2) If kids appear weak, unthrifty looking or runty, supplement nursing with

multi-vitamin/mineral preparations preferably vitamin B-complex.
3) Since kids are easily infected with external parasites, apply in dust form insecticides.

4) Vaccine against disease prevalent in the area preferably before weaning.

5) Repeat deworming against gastrointestinal parasites, as needed.

6) Add multi-vitamin/mineral premix to feed concentrate to increase growth rate and

prevent deficiencies.

7) To reduce the stressful effect of weaning the kid from his/her dam, allow is to a creep at
3 weeks of age.

E. Weanling-Growing Period

1) When immunity had lapsed due to previous vaccination, repeat the procedure as in A-5.

2) Repeat external parasite control as in D-3.

3) Treat against liver fluke/tapeworm as in A-3.

4) For sporadic incidence of specific disease, consult a veterinarian.

5. Other Management Practices

a. Disbudding/Dehorning. Horns are dangerous on mature animals, but they are painful to
remove from mature goats. Hence, the best time to disbud is when the kid is about 3 to 5
weeks old.

Different Methods of Dehorning:

1) Hot-iron cautery

2) Dehorner/sawing

3) Chemical method

b. Castration. All buck kids not intended for breeding should be castrated. Castration is best
done when the kids are about 2 to 4 weeks old.
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c. Weaning. For dairy purpose, kids maybe weaned totally from the doe immediately or about 3
to 5 days after kidding and then raised by hand feeding. If milk is a secondary factor, the kids
are weaned at the age of 3 to 4 months. At weaning, separate the buck kids from the kid herd.
This prevents some of the doe kids from being bred too young. Breeding too young stunts kids’
growth.

d. Hoof Trimming. This practice prevents malformation of the toes and to prevent foot rot, a
result where manure gets inside untrimmed hoof. A sharp knife, pruning shears or a broad
sharp chisel can be used in trimming hoof.
e. Bathing. This eliminated foul odor of the buck. This is usually done during breeding season.

f. Dipping/Delousing. This prevents the infestation of external parasites. This is usually done
when the environmental condition is favorable. Drugs such as Asuntol, Neguvon, among
others may be used.

g. Record keeping. This management practice is very important, since most decisions in the
farm are based on records. Record keeping usually accounts for the success or failure of the
enterprise. Records should be simple, complete and accurate to easily evaluate the
performance of the herd.

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VI. LEARNING ACTIVITIES

Name: _______________________________
Section: ______________________________

General Instruction: This activity does not require you to go outside or go to your actual farm. All you
need to do is to stay at home.

ACTIVITY I: Housing and Production Facilities

Search on YouTube about sheep housing and facilities. And then;

a. Identify the different types and functions of housing and production facilities seen.
b. Take note of the measurements, dimensions and stocking rate, production facilities and equipment.
c. Identification and computation of inputs needed for housing and production facilities.

ACTIVITY II: Breeding and Improvement of Ruminant Animals

Research work and then answer the following:

1. What are the important heritable traits of the goat and sheep intended for breeding?
2. Determine the different mating systems.
3. What are the factors to consider in a breeding program for sheep and goats?
4. Design breeding programs for goat and sheep.

VII. ASSIGNMENT: Review

VIII. REFERENCES

AURORA, P.S. 1983. Microbial Digestion in Ruminants. First Edition. Indian Council of Agricultural Research.
New Delhi, India.

CRUZ, E.M., PORCIUNCULA, F.L. and N.R. CARBONEL. 1997. Small Ruminant Research and Development
Highlights. Central Luzon State University, Muños, Nueva Ecija.

DAVENDRA C. and P.F. FAYLON. 1989. Sheep Production in Asia: Proceeding of the Workshop on Sheep
Production in Asia. Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Resources and Research
Development. Department of Science and Technology. Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines.

INSTITUTE OF ANIMAL SCIENCE. 1995. Manual on Ruminant Production. Institute of Animal Science.
College of Agriculture, Los Banos Laguna.

MACKENZIE D. 1993. Goat Husbandry. Revised Ed. Faber and Faber. London

MINDANAO BAPTIST RURAL LIFE CENTER. 1997. How to Raise Goats for Food and Profit. 3 rd Ed.
Mindanao Baptist Rural Life Center, Kinuskusan, Bangkalan, Davao del Sur.

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PHILIPPINE COUNCIL FOR AGRICULTURE, FORESTRY AND NATURAL RESOURCES RESEARCH AND
DEVELOPMENT. 1994. The Philippines Recommends for Sustainable Small Ruminant – Coconut
Production System. Philippine Recommends Series No. 77. PCARRD Foundation, Los Banos, Laguna.

PHILIPPINE-AUSTRALIA AGRICULTURAL TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION PROJECT AND UNIVERSITY OF

THE PHILIPPINES-COLLEGE OF AGRICLUTURE. 1995. Manual on Ruminant Production. IAS,
College of Agriculture, UP Los Baños, Laguna.

PHILIPPINE COUNCIL FOR AGRICULTURE, FORESTRY AND NATURAL RESOURCES RESEARCH AND
DEVELOPMENT. 1985. The Philippines Recommends for Pork Production. Philippine Recommends
Series No. 24 A. PCARRD Foundation, Los Banos, Laguna.

PCARRD. 1999. The Philippines Recommends for Forage Corn Production and Utilization. Philippine
Recommends Series No.86, Los Baños, Laguna.

PCARRD. 2000. The Philippines Recommends for Sheep Raising. Los Baños, Laguna.

PCARRD. 2000. The Philippines Recommends for Beef Cattle Production. Los Baños, Laguna.

PCARRD. 2002. The Philippines Recommends for Dairy Cattle Production. Los Baños, Laguna.

PCARRD. 2002. The Philippines Recommends for Livestock Feed Formulation. Los Baños, Laguna.

PCARRD. 2002. The Philippines Recommends for Carabao Production. Philippine Recommends
Series No.37-A, Los Baños, Laguna.

PCARRD. 2004. The Philippines Recommends for Goat Farming. Philippine Recommends Series
No.24-D, Los Baños, Laguna.

PHILIPINE STATISTICS AUTHORITY. 2020. Livestock and Poultry Division.

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Common questions