LAGUNA UNIVERSITY

College of Education
Laguna Sports Complex, Santa Cruz, Laguna

CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

Local Literature and Studies

This chapter presents the different review of related literature and review of related
studies undertaken by the researchers by their various library works, internet surfing and
different reading materials.

Content and Pedagogy

As cited by the study published by the NAS Publisher, application of well-
coordinated and intermingled approach to knowledge to contently re-visits the
instructions as they plan implementation. The instructors/teachers consider a broad and
integrated set of knowledge and techniques, which in planning; to revise these aspects
of the competence of a teacher what is expected of a teacher is her understanding about
using technical advancement. This should be answered in the context of the different
sets of knowledge and skills that effective teachers possess.
In addition to that, the research in teacher’s knowledge, skills and standards
suggests that teacher change with the passage of time and develop skills like planning,
designing, assessment techniques, helping student through reflective teaching,
professional commitment, assessment techniques, effective feedback and application of
knowledge, what they have gained to improve instructions; To understand a competent
teacher, we have to see, at to what extent can they apply an integrated knowledge that
they have in planning and implementing their teaching and revise the contents of their
lesson. The other aspect of teaching competency is ability in technological aids, which
suggests that the teacher must possess knowledge and skill about proficiency in
teaching aids.
Kohll, 1992 also stated that a teacher must know academic matters. Command
on subject and develop overall personality of the student, accept the learning needs of
the scientific world. Understand the psychological basis of education and the factors,
which influence education.
 LAGUNA UNIVERSITY
College of Education
Laguna Sports Complex, Santa Cruz, Laguna

In the study entitled “Effective Teachers Literacy”, it was mentioned that teaching
methodology is the process of teaching and the resultant learning by developing a link
between the students and the knowledge and skill contents embodied in the curriculum
schools, through effective teaching methods, provide the required environment to the
students in learning a particular skill or an area of knowledge. Methodology, as defined
by many definitions is a way of doing something in a systematic, orderly and regular
manner. Competence on the other hand refers to possessing sufficient skill and
knowledge in a particular area. Methodological competencies are thus procedures to
undertake a particular work with adequate knowledge and skill.
Banegas, 2012 studied the pedagogical knowledge in teacher education .The
study revealed that pedagogical knowledge empowers prospective teachers with self-
awareness of the educational system as a whole, together with an understanding of
learners. In addition, this type of knowledge paves the way to build in pedagogical
expertise as well as an understanding of curriculum and materials which do not
necessarily come from the realm of ELT.
Ball et al., 2008 conducted a study on content knowledge for teaching: While
content knowledge is crucially important to the improvement of teaching and learning,
attention to its development and study has been uneven. Historically, researchers have
focused on many aspects of teaching, but more often than not scant attention has been
given to how teachers need to understand the subjects they teach. Further, when
Review of Related Literature 82 researchers, educators and policy makers have turned
attention to teacher subject matter knowledge the assumption has often been that
advanced study in the subject is what matters.
Nunan, 2009 gave an overview of the classroom practices in teaching. He said
that “classrooms informed by current views on language pedagogy will involve a change
in teaching approach away from a high-structure orientation towards a more low-
structure orientation”. Practice teaching is a terminal stage for every teacher education
programs in the Philippines. It is on this stage that student-teachers are trained, and
exposed to the real classroom teaching for them to become prepared and qualified
teachers in the country. A number of studies emphasized the nature and importance of
practice teaching.
 LAGUNA UNIVERSITY
College of Education
Laguna Sports Complex, Santa Cruz, Laguna

Stillman, 2012 conducted a study on student teachings contribution to promote

teacher development. This study revealed how student teaching experiences contribute
to pre-service teacher’s development as future teachers.

Planning, Assessing and Reporting

According to Bhatia, 1993 following five steps are necessary for teaching a
lesson. Presentation, motivation, association, generalization and application are
necessary steps for teaching a lesson. In the classroom, the teacher has greater
discretion as to the time devoted to a given lesson. In most high school subjects, the
bulk of instruction centers on lecture and discussion.
Airasian, 1994 added that in planning instruction, the teacher must be aware of
the fact that his behavior and interaction with students vary according to the nature of
the activity used during instructions.
Moreover, Eby, 1992 added that starting with a general idea of what will be done
during an instructional unit, teachers move through a series of successive elaborations
and specifications. Important to this process and indicative of the way assessments are
made, is the fact that teachers typically try to visualize their teaching activities unfolding
in their own classroom. In a very real sense, teachers mentally rehearse the learning
activities they contemplate using in the classroom. There are many different instructional
models that teachers can and do follow when teaching. These models describe steps or
activities that should take place when a lesson is taught.
Objectives describe the expected outcome of lesson. The materials which are
going to be used in teaching must also be specified. Nothing in advance what the lesson
will require like a video player, copies of the daily newspaper, construction paper and
crayons, or marbles and an inclined plane helps the teacher prepare the needed
materials. Planning also requires a description of the teaching and learning strategies
being planned to use in the classroom. The heart of teaching process is based on the
strategies or activities teachers use with their pupils.
Finally, a lesson plan should include some way to assess the success of the
lesson. Plans string together a series of instructional activities each of which
encompasses a relatively short period of time, usually ten to twenty minutes, during
which pupils are arranged in a particular way or focused on a particular process.
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College of Education
Laguna Sports Complex, Santa Cruz, Laguna

10

Common classroom activities have been catalogued and include seatwork, reading
circle, recitation, discussion, lecture, demonstration, checking work, independent study,
audio-visual presentation, tests, giving instructions, student report, games and silent
reading. Clearly, some of these activities are more common in certain subject areas and
grade levels.
Airasian, 1994 stated that in planning day-to-day lesson and activities, one
important consideration is the nature of the pupil needs vis-à-vis the content of the
lesson. If few pupil have had difficulty in understanding concepts or processes presented
in a prior lesson, the teacher might select a supervised seatwork activity to provide a
chance to work more closely with those pupil. When reinforcement and pupil
engagement are needed, recitation might be a useful lesson activity.

Diversity of Learners
Gilchrist el al., 1985 stated that teaching is one of the most challenging
professions. Working with young people as they develop their personality is a rewarding
experience. Teachers help to develop the minds of young people to the end that they
can cope with problems affecting our country's future.
Darling-Hammond, 1999 added that in order to make a teacher perfect or better,
it is essential that course for teachers be re-oriented, re-shaped, and re-drafted to
improve the overall status of a teacher. An adequately trained teacher will be able to
deliver quality education, which will be reflected in providing better education to the
future generation of the country. In their study showed a substantial linkage between
good results and qualified teachers. The study also showed a substantially negative
linkage between results obtained by untrained teachers, who were comparatively new on
their jobs.
Fetler in 1999, stated that it was of the view that teachers with short training did
not perform well, when compared with those who were fully trained and had longer
experience.
Wubbels, et al., 2006 in his study stated that since a longitudinal study on the
entire teaching career is a complex project, some kind of reduction is needed. As
motivated above, we will focus on teacher competence from an interpersonal
perspective. Using an interpersonal perspective means studying teacher competence
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College of Education
Laguna Sports Complex, Santa Cruz, Laguna

11

from the perspective of the relationship teachers establish with their students. This
perspective can be distinguished from other perspectives, such as a learning-activities or
content perspective. Re-search has shown that students’ perceptions of the relationship
are related to student outcomes in different subject areas (Wubbels et al, 2006), and that
healthy teacher-student interpersonal relationships are a prerequisite for engaging
students in learning activities (Brekelmans, Sleegers, & Fraser, 2000). Moreover, healthy
teacher-student interpersonal relationships are positively related to teachers’ satisfaction
with their profession and the prevention of burnout (e.g. Ben-Chaim & Zoller, 2001;
Wubbels & Levy, 1993).
Westera, 2001 stated that when thinking about competences, concepts such as
performance and effectiveness are involved because competence is directly linked with
effective performance in complex situations as it is thought to serve as a causal factor
for success because “competent performance presumes competence”. Thus, three
conceptual dimensions of teacher quality that are commonly used in making judgments
about teacher’s work, include teacher competence, teacher performance and teacher
effectiveness. The first two dimensions have been discussed but teacher effectiveness
refers to the results a teacher gets or to the amount of progress the pupils make toward
some specified goal of education is defined in terms of what the pupils do (Medley,
1982,).
Anderson, 1991 opines that there is a relationship between teacher competence
and teacher effectiveness which determines teacher influence in pupil progress towards
defined educational goals. Effective teachers are those who achieve the goals they set
for themselves or the goals set for them by others such as school principals, education
administrators and parents.
Medley, 1982 explains that the “structure of teacher effectiveness is a very
comprehensive framework, which can integrate the teacher trait perspective, the teacher
behaviors perspective and the process-product of teaching perspective to explain the
relationships between teacher competence, student learning experience and educational
outcomes” (1982,).
Medley, 1982, added that the External teaching context is the set of
characteristics of the school in which the teachers works. The external context interacts
with the competencies the teacher possesses to determine how well that teacher
 LAGUNA UNIVERSITY
College of Education
Laguna Sports Complex, Santa Cruz, Laguna

12

performs in that particular situation. The physical and support facilities in the school, the
media and materials available to the teacher, and the relationship between the school
and community are variables that belong in this cell. The Internal teaching context is the
set of characteristics of the class taught by the teachers as a group. The internal context
interacts with teacher performance in determining the learning experience pupils have in
that classroom. Such variable as the class size, the average ability, heterogeneity, the
ethnic composition and socio-metric properties (profiles) belong in this cell (Medley,
1982,). Individual pupil characteristics are the characteristics of individual pupils that
determine what learning outcomes result from any particular learning experience that a
pupil might have. Two pupils will be affected differently by identical learning experiences
because they differ in ability, interests, values, background and so on (Medley, 1982).
The pupil’s learning experience is influenced by the teacher’s performance and the
internal teaching context. Finally, pupil learning outcomes are a result of pupil learning
experiences and individual pupil characteristics. Therefore, when discussing pupil
outcomes it is necessary to take into consideration all of the components that affect pupil
performance.

Foreign Literature and Studies

Content and Pedagogy

Cheng, 2013 also support the finding that indeed practicum is important in
teacher education. In his study, he reports that teaching practicum is a tool that helps
teacher educators become competent in teaching.
Layne, L., 2012 opines that teaching effectiveness is dependent upon the
interaction between the instructor’s subject-matter knowledge and teaching
(pedagogical) ability. The following scenarios illustrate the nature of the complex
interaction between these two critical variables: An individual may possess a substantial
amount of subject-matter knowledge, yet be unable to design and implement
instructional methods to enhance student learning due to a lack of pedagogical ability.
Conversely, an individual may possess some generic pedagogical skills, yet have
limited subject-matter knowledge and again be predisposed to ineffective teaching.
These scenarios indicate that it is impossible to be an effective teacher without being
 LAGUNA UNIVERSITY
College of Education
Laguna Sports Complex, Santa Cruz, Laguna

13

competent in both subject-matter knowledge and pedagogical ability. Consequently,

subject-matter knowledge remains a necessary prerequisite for effective teaching, not
the sole determinant.
Teachers, instructors and professors are required to fulfill many roles and
perform many duties that may be considered ancillary. At the core of the roles and duties
is the actual practice of teaching. The primary purpose of this teaching practice is to
facilitate student teaching. Learning may be defined as a change in behaviors, attitudes,
or capabilities.
Fenstermacher & Richardson, 2005 argue that approaches to identifying quality
teaching are problematic because quality teaching in one cultural context may differ from
or even be contradictory to that in other contexts. Effective teachers promote student
learning, and related instructional methods have been extensively documented in the
educational research literature.
In addition,
Moreover, Cohen, 2010 argued that quality teaching consists of atleast two
dimensions: good and successful, in which good refers to teaching practices that uphold
some standards in the profession and is normative, whereas successful, the definition of
quality teaching is even more complicated.
Keeton and Tate (1978) offered this definition, “Learning in which the learner
is directly in touch with realities being studied. It is contrasted with the learner who
only reads about, hears about, talks about, or writes about these realities but never
comes into contact with them as part of the learning process.” The term “experiential
learning” defines as a particular form of learning from life experience; often contrasted
it with the lecture and classroom learning.
Lewis & Williams, 1994, specified the first theories of experiential learning
arose in the mid-nineteenth century as attempts to move away from traditional formal
education, where teachers simply presented students with abstract concepts, and
toward an immersive method of instruction. Students would “learn by doing,” applying
knowledge to experience in order to develop skills or new ways of thinking.
Moon, 2004, p. 163 stated that experiential learners are aware of the “rules”
governing their discipline or mode of operation, but are also open-minded, and able to
work with people with different views. Finally, experiential learners are in control of
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College of Education
Laguna Sports Complex, Santa Cruz, Laguna

14

their voice—they can identify the role of emotion in their learning, as well as reflect on
how they have come to their new knowledge.
An increasing group of educators—faculty, administrators, and interested
outsiders—perceive experiential education as a way to revitalize the institutional
curriculum and to contend with much of the changes fronting higher education today.
There are numerous educational institutions which offer experiential education
programs such as internships, field projects, and classroom experiential learning
exercises to add a direct practice component to their traditional academic studies.
These education programs empowering experience that allows to capitalize the
practical strengths while testing the application of ideas discussed in the classroom.
Ruggs & Hebl opine, as cited in the study of 2008 entitled, “Diversity, Inclusion
and Cultural Awareness for Classroom” although the education system is becoming
more diverse, students who come from stigmatized groups still perceive barriers to
education. These perceptions may be the results both actual differences in the treatment
of the students in the class room and the inability of educators to understand students
and be sensitive to and inclusive in teaching styles and contents. In other words,
integration is a necessary but insufficient condition for achieving fairness and equality for
all students’ reasonable academic achievement.
Keri Stewart, 2016 in her study as “Examining Student and Teacher Perceptions
of the Classroom Social Environmental cross School Context: Effects of Individual
Factors" stated that although teachers and students are the primary actors in the
classroom environment, they often have different perceptions of the instructional and
relational aspects of the classroom. Despite these differences, research indicates
perceptions of the quality of the classroom social environment have implications for both
student and teacher outcomes.
Findings from the current study may guide researchers in developing effective
instructional practices for specific teacher and student populations and may provide
unique contributions to the literature regarding factors that may enhance early
adolescences’ and teachers’ experiences in the classroom.
Levin, Nolan, Kerr, & Elliot, 2005 describe three main theories of classroom
management as student- directed, collaborative, and teacher directed. The student –
directed theory believes that students have the primary responsibility for controlling their
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College of Education
Laguna Sports Complex, Santa Cruz, Laguna

15

behavior. Collaborative management is based on the belief that the control of student
behavior is the joint responsibility of student and teacher. In the teacher – directed
method, the teacher assumes primary responsibility of managing student behavior.
Students become effective decision – makers by internalizing rules and guidelines for
behavior.
Levin et al., 2005 describe the models as three points on a continuum that move
from student – directed toward teacher- directed practices. The points may be thought of
as the beliefs that teachers hold to subscribe to a particular method, or a combination of
methods.
According to Gootman, 2008 rules give students concrete direction to ensure that
our expectation becomes a reality. They also try to be consistent in enforcing these rules
and procedures. Many would also argue for positive consequences when rules are
followed and negative consequences when rules are broken. There are newer
perspectives on classroom management that attempt to be holistic. One example is
affirmation teaching, which attempts to guide students toward success by helping them
see how their effort pays off in the classroom.

Diversity of Learners
Another decisive factor in effectiveness is a teacher’s ability to recognize the
diversity of students, to choose the best method possible for each student, and to create
incentives for students.
Starkey and Rawlins, 2012 emphasize that understanding the teaching
environment in which the student-teachers would be exposed is a significant factor
towards learning during practice teaching. In this way, student teachers already know
what they are supposed to do and why they are supposed to do it. The concepts and
theories that are in their minds are not put to waste as they get to practice them in a real
classroom setting.
This idea is supported by Tuli and File, 2009 who argue that practicum teaching
experience among student-teachers provides students the necessary experience
towards understanding the responsibilities of a teacher.
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College of Education
Laguna Sports Complex, Santa Cruz, Laguna

16

Planning, Assessing, and Reporting

Off- campus pre- service teaching activities are being carried on affiliated or
cooperating schools that are not in the campus of an institution engaged in preparing
teachers.
McBer, Jasman, Anderson 2008 affirmed that as part of planning, assessing and
reporting, the pre-service and in-service teachers should be fully prepared by setting
realistic objectives. They need to give incentives to students for learning, apply various
teaching methods, select participative forms of teaching, test and create didactic
material, present information in a clear manner, combine words with pictures, use
various teaching aids, maximize teaching time through systematic measures and
monitor and evaluate the progress of students, set evaluation criteria for students and
inform the students about them, and provide feedback to the students.
Stewart 2014 in her study “Research on Classroom Socio-emotional Context”
indicates that when students believe that their teachers create a sense of community,
respond to students’ needs, and foster meaningful relationships in the classroom,
positive student academic and behavioral adjustment ensues.
Black, 2011 stated that assessment is considered one of the most essential
aspects of education. Its importance stems from its potential generally influence
educational success and better education quality.
Zhang and Burrow-Stock, 2003, p.324 described the concept of classroom
assessment as one that “embraces a broad spectrum of activities from constructing
paper-pencil tests and performance measures, to grading, interpreting standardized
scores, communicating test results, and using test results in decision-making.”
According to Chatterji, 2013 assessment is employed for numerous purposes in
different levels of education system. For instance, at the systematic level, assessment is
used for accountability purposes.
Popham, 2009 added that it is utilized to ascertain the effectiveness of
educational endeavors.
Stiggings’, 1999a; 2012 stated that assertion concerning classroom assessment
calls for teachers to be developed and be competent in this area. As he also stressed,
teachers are directly involved in the development and execution of assessments in the
classroom. In fact, it has been estimated that they use 30% to 50 % of their professional
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College of Education
Laguna Sports Complex, Santa Cruz, Laguna

17

time to carry assessment-related activities (Stiggings&Conklin,1992). Thus, they need

relevant competence for them to be able to do high-quality classroom assessment and
to effectively carry out instruction and maximize student learning. This requires teachers
to be assessment literate (Stiggins, 1991a; 1999a; 1999b; 2012; Schafer, 1993;
Popham, 2009)
Earl, 2003 stated that classroom assessment can further be classified into many
types corresponding to the different purposes of assessment in the classroom. One
classification includes assessment of learning, assessment for learning, and assessment
as learning. The assessment of learning encompasses the concept of summative
assessment and evaluation or the use of mostly examinations to assess learning at the
end of instruction. The general purpose of using this type of assessment is to gather and
interpret learning evidence and to grade and report learning (Dunn & Mulvenon, 2009;
Spencer, 200; Stiggins, 2002). As this type of assessment has been used with traditional
methods and tools such as tests of different types (e.g. multiple choice, true-false,
matching, completion), it has sometimes been labeled as traditional or conventional
assessment (Kennedy, et al., 2008).

Synthesis

The level of teaching competency in coordination with the following local

literature and studies put a great emphasis on the pre-service training of the teachers. A
couple of authors cited that teacher competence and effectiveness merely rely on how a
teacher was trained during his/her practice teaching days. In addition to this, the
abovementioned authors gave a strong stand in the fact that a powerful classroom
environment starts with the responsible and creative way of preparing and organizing a
lesson. Collaborative instructional materials as well as instructional activities must be
created by the innovative teachers in order to develop their pupils’ critical thinking and
judgment. Therefore, a well-trained teacher with the skills and talents is needed in
ensuring a student’s cognitive development.
The aforementioned foreign literature and studies focused on the following: pre-
service teaching, teacher’s ability to cater student’s needs and know their differences,
and a strong type of assessment. According to the authors mentioned above, a skilled
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College of Education
Laguna Sports Complex, Santa Cruz, Laguna

18

teacher must still be trained before he/she enters the real world of teaching, and this is
greatly provided by the practicum that the pre-service teachers experience before
graduating from the program. Also, the authors gave emphasis on the type of instruction
a teacher must provide for his/her diverse students. A different approach for students
comes with an authentic and flexible type of assessment for the students. A teacher
must not focus primarily with one type of approach and assessment for he/she caters
diverse students in a classroom setting.

Theoretical Framework

This study took into account the Experiential Theory by the American
educational theorist, David A. Kolb, states that “learning is the process whereby
knowledge is created through the transformation of experience" (1984, p. 38).
Learning that is considered "experiential" contains all the following elements:
reflection, critical analysis and synthesis, opportunities for students to take initiative,
make decisions and be accountable for the results. It provides opportunities for
students to engage intellectually, creatively, emotionally, socially, or physically.
Kolb states that learning involves the acquisition of abstract concepts that can
be applied flexibly in a range of situations. The impetus for the development of new
concepts is provided by new experiences.

Conceptual Framework

The conceptual framework of the study is depicted in the paradigm below:

Independent Variables Dependent Variable

Student Teachers’ Profile:

1.1. Program of Study

Level of Teaching
1.2. Civil Status Competency
1.3. Training and Seminars
attended related to
teaching
Figure [Link] Paradigm of the Study
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College of Education
Laguna Sports Complex, Santa Cruz, Laguna
19

Frame 1 - Consists of the independent variables which contain the profile of

the respondents in terms of their area of specialization, civil status, and training and
seminars attended related to teaching.
Frame 2 - Consists of dependent variable which contains the level of
competency affected by the specified variables.