Journal of Earth Science & Climatic Erbo and Rabo, J Earth Sci Clim Change 2023, 14:9

Change
Research Article Open Access

Smallholder Farmers’ Adaptation to Climate Change and Determinants of their

Adaptation Decisions in Shashemene District, South Eastern Rift Valley of
Ethiopia
Kedir Erbo* and Abdisa Rabo
Department of Agricultural Research, Ethiopia Biodiversity Institute, Shashemene, Ethiopia

Abstract

Current climate variability is already imposing significant challenges to Ethiopia by preventing the struggle to
reduce poverty and sustainable efforts. The study was conducted in Shashemene districts south eastern rift valley of
Ethiopia to recognize the effects of climate change on smallholder farmer and their adaptation strategies. The study
engaged simple random sampling method and follows multistage sampling techniques to select the sampled
household. The study used both qualitative and quantitative data collected from 144 house-hold through household
surveys. Also, FGD (Focused Group Discussion) and KIs (Key Informants) were applied to triangulate and
substantiate the finding from household survey. The data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and multinomial
logistic model were employed to test a degree of significance between the farmer household to the effects of climate
change. The results show that 87% of farmers have already perceived climate variability and 78% made attempts to
adapt using practices like crop diversification, planting date adjustment, soil and water conservation practice,
increasing the concentration of agricultural input use, agro-pastoral system and silvicultural practice. The result
indicated that the significant increment of temperature and seasonal rainfall variability have caused effects on their
agricultural practices of peoples wellbeing. Moreover, farmers’ capacity to select real adaptation options was
influenced by household demography, as well as definitely by farm size, income generation and access to markets,
access to climate information and extension. This indicates that we need to advocate the indigenous adaptation
strategies of the smallholder farmers with a wide range of institutional, policy and technology support specifically on;
smaller, poorer or female-headed households. Furthermore, creating opportunities for non-farm income sources is
essential which helps farmers to engage in those activities. Finally, providing climate change information, extension
services and creating access to markets are crucial.

Keywords: Adaptation strategies; Smallholder farmers; Determinant of climate change; Household survey

Introduction Ethiopia country is specifically vulnerable to climate variability and

change because large segments of the population are poor and depend
In the last decade climate change has become increasingly obvious on agricultural income, which are highly sensitive to rainfall
that it is already happening and will continue to happen, bringing with variability. Shashamene is one of the districts found in South Eastern
its local impacts on people’s livelihoods. Climate change rift valley of Ethiopia with 15% semi-arid agro-climatic zone and its
could have harmful effect on different biophysical and main income based on agriculture which is mainly dependant on rain-
economic activities like agriculture, water resources, forestry, fed, hence the impact of climate change on small scale farmers in
human health, biodiversity and wildlife. The consequences of district. A better understanding of how farmer’s-perceive climate
climate change are severe in third World smallholding farmer change, ongoing adaptation measures and the factors influencing the
rain-fed agriculture due to rely on the mercy of nature. Climate decision to adapt farming practices is needed to craft policies and
change will affect the agricultural sectors of different countries in a programmes aimed at promoting successful adaptation of the
different way. However, it is clear that climate change will bring agricultural sector.
about substantial welfare losses especially for smallholders
whose main source of livelihood derives from agriculture. A farmer of Shashemane district, like farmers in any other part of
Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), where smallholder farmers dominate Ethiopia, is suffering from climate variability which has become
agriculture, is one of the global hotspots for climate change-induced common natural disasters in the region. In the district’s temperature
impacts. *Corresponding author: Kedir Erbo, Department of Agricultural Research,
Ethiopia Biodiversity Institute, Shashemene, Ethiopia; E-mail:
In SSA, agriculture directly employs about 175 million [email protected]
people who cultivate degraded lands where there is no reliable supply Received: 05-May-2023, Manuscript No. JESCC-23-97859; Editor assigned: 10-
of water for irrigation. These smallholder farmers in SSA are May-2023, PreQC No. JESCC-23-97859 (PQ); Reviewed: 24-May-2023, QC No.
JESCC-23-97859; Revised: 13-September-2023, Manuscript No.
among the most vulnerable groups to climate change and
JESCC-23-97859 (R); Published: 11-October-2023, DOI:
variability-induced impacts due to dependency on RF, 10.4172/2157-7617.1000725
limited use of irrigation and weak adaptive capacity. Citation: Erbo K, Rabo A (2023) Smallholder Farmers’ Adaptation to
Furthermore, limited human and material capacity, poor Climate Change and Determinants of their Adaptation Decisions in Shashemene
infrastructure, fragile environments, political instability and District, South Eastern Rift Valley of Ethiopia. J Earth Sci Clim Change 14: 725.
marginalization contributed to the vulnerability in this Copyright: © 2023 Erbo K, et al. This is an open-access article distributed
under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits
region. Farming practices such as crop, soil, land and water unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the
management technologies are important adaptation strategies but original author and source are credited.
implementation remains weak, especially in SSA [1].

J Earth Sci Clim Change, an open access journal Volume 14 • Issue 9 • 1000725
Citation: Erbo K, Rabo A (2023) Smallholder Farmers’ Adaptation to Climate Change and Determinants of their Adaptation Decisions in
Shashemene District, South Eastern Rift Valley of Ethiopia. J Earth Sci Clim Change 14: 725.

Page 2 of 7

hotness is increasing from time to time. Drought and floods are the district has more severe extreme events such as recurrent drought.
two major climate related hazards. Population growth, expansion of This study was conducted in three agro-ecological zones in the district
settlements and increases of farming land, thus changing the that range between 1400 m.a.s.l and 2500 m.a.s.l. The high altitude
environment into hot and dry conditions, deforestation resulting from agro-ecological zone occupies the largest area followed by mid and
charcoal burning and other uses, cultivation of steep slopes and low altitude agro-ecological zones, respectively (Figure 1) [4].
hilltops without appropriate soil and water conservation measures and
increasing livestock pressure on small grazing lands and the traditional
grazing land management system i.e. free grazing are the
characteristics of the district [2].
However, farmers in the study area have been responding to climate
change through various adaptation strategies. But, there was been
deficient in empirical data that supports the existing adaptation
strategies practiced in the area. Furthermore, the literature on climate
change has paid attention only on climate change impacts in general
while, little attention was given to site specific climate variability and
adaptation strategies chosen by smallholder farmers at local level to
adapt to climate change. Thus, these are the gaps of knowledge that
this study intends to bridge. In general, in the study area research with
regard to smallholder farmer’s adaptation to climate change and
determinant of their adaptation is not well known in the of way policy Figure 1: Map of study area.
makers and practitioners can use them. Therefore, an assessment of
smallholder farmer’s adaptation to climate change and determinants of Sampling techniques and sample size
their adaptation decisions was helped moderate potential overcome
consequences of long-term climate change stresses [3]. A multistage sampling technique was employed to collect data for
this study. In the first stage Shashemane district were based on
purposive sampling technique. In the second stage, two kebeles from
Materials and Methods
the low altitude; two kebeles from the middle and two kebeles from
high altitude were selected out of 36 kebeles of the woreda
Description of the study area purposively so as to represent the effect of climate variability on the
The study was done in Shashemene district of West Arsi zone, livelihood of smallholder farmers. In the third stage, households were
Oromia regional state of Ethiopia. The district is located at 252 km drawn from the six kebeles based on probability/random proportional
south of the national capital, Addis Ababa. Geographically, it is to household’s size [5].
located between 7°17′N and 7°66′N and between 38°43′E and The total households residing in the study area are 2608. Out of
38°81′E. The temperature ranges between 10°C and 25°C, while this, 144 samples were selected, in order to make representative
annual rainfall varies between 500 mm and 1200 mm. The area has samples by using the following simple formula of Yamane as cited in
four distinct seasons including the dry season (December to February), Israel.
the short rainy season (March to May), the main rainy season (June to
August) and the autumn season (September to November).
Topographically, the district is slightly undulating especially in the
highlands and almost flat in the lowlands. Some parts of the highlands
in the district are still covered by natural forest, bush and shrub. The
district to be found between two inland Lakes Shalla and Hawassa Where n is the sample size, N is the population size (total number
which have been source of water outlet for both. The district has of households) and at 91.9% confidence level and e=0.081% precision
relatively fair agricultural potential, which is reflected in the diversity level. Therefore, based on the formula total sample size were 144
of crop and livestock production for food and income generation. In respondents (Table 1).
comparison with other districts of the West Arsi Zone, Arsi Negele

No. Name peasant Agro-ecology Number of Sample size Percent of sample size
association household head

1 Chabi Dida Nyata Lowland 362 20 14%

2 Burra Lowland 272 15 10%

3 Bute Filicha Mid-highland 272 15 10%

4 Awasho Dhanku Mid-highland 435 24 17%

5 Sole Highland 435 24 17%

J Earth Sci Clim Change, an open access journal Volume 14 • Issue 9 • 1000725
Citation: Erbo K, Rabo A (2023) Smallholder Farmers’ Adaptation to Climate Change and Determinants of their Adaptation Decisions in
Shashemene District, South Eastern Rift Valley of Ethiopia. J Earth Sci Clim Change 14: 725.

Page 3 of 7

6 Hursa Highland 832 46 32%

Total 2608 144

Table 1: Sample size of household heads.

Data sources and data collection methods Field observations

Both primary and secondary data was used to undertake this Observation was made as supportive or supplementary technique to
research. The primary data was obtained from primary sources collect data that can complement or set in perspective the data
including field observation, household survey, key informant obtained by other means. During study period, I would try to observe
interviews and focus group discussions. The secondary data was various environmental changes including changes in agro-ecology,
collected from available sources of information such as published and vegetation covers, land-use change and development interventions
unpublished documents. This includes data from CSA agency, such as soil and water conservation measures that exist in the area.
meteorological agency and regional bureaus reports and survey [6].
Data analysis methods
Household survey After the data collected from the sample respondents, it was
analysed by using descriptive statistics. The descriptive data was
The household survey was carried out using sample households analysed by means of SPSS V. 20.0 statistical software and
drawn from the population in six kebeles. To carry out the household Multinomial Logistic Model (MLM). The relationship between
survey, close ended and open ended format questions was prepared different parameters was tested by using ANOVA and descriptive
and distributed to the sample households. The major issue which was statistical methods such as mean and standard deviation. Multinomial
addressed in the household survey include socio-economic Logistic Model (MLM) model was used in order to identified and
characteristics, information about people’s perception on climate understanding the degree explanatory variable influence adaptation
variability, its impact on their livelihood and adaptation practices etc. strategies [9].
First the questionnaire was prepared in English and translated in to the
local language (Afan Oromo) and then distributed to respondents. A Multinomial Logistic Model (MLM): Undertake a rational farmer
very important part of the data collection process is the pre-test i.e. in who pursues to increase agricultural productions over a specific time
order to check the validity and appropriateness of the semi-structured and must choose among a set of ‘j’ adaptation options. Hence, the
questionnaire, five households from kebeles that are outside the farmer ‘i’ chooses to use ‘j’ adaptation options if the perceived benefit
research sample was identified and interviewed for a pre-test prior to from option ‘j’ is greater than the utility from other options (say, k)
the actual interview of the 144 total sample households. Therefore, specified as:
based on the feedback from the pre-tests, some ambiguities were
modified depend on the response of interviewers [7].

Key informant interviews Where, Uij and Uik are the perceived value by farmer i of adaptation
Key Informant interview (KI) was conducted from local options j and k; Xi is a vector of explanatory variables that influence
people who have a good knowledge about the biophysical the choice of the adaptation option; Βj and βk are parameters to be
and a socioeconomic condition of the area includes; local elders estimated and ɛj and ɛk are the error terms.
(men and women), youth groups and model farmers were To express the MNL model, let y denote a random variable taking
taken as key informants. A totally 30 KI was selected for on the values (0, 1, 2...J) for J, a positive integer and let x represent a
interviews. The important issues included in this interviews set of conditioning variables. In this case, y denotes adaptation options
which focused on cause and consequence of climate variability like soil-water conservation, crop variety, irrigation etc. and x contains
in the study, effects of climate change on smallholder farmers household attributes like age, education, income levels and others. The
and the adaptation strategies practiced by the farmers. question is how cetirus paribus changes in the elements of x affect the
response probabilities P (y=j/x), j=1, 2 ...J. Since the probabilities
Focus group discussion must sum to unity, P (y=j/x) is determined once we know the
probabilities for j=2...J.
Focused group discussion helps to generate data at community
level and involves a small group of respondents to discuss on
issues forwarded by the facilitator who is a skilled moderator
focusing on key issues of the research topic. In this study, focus
group discussions were collected from the community including
elders, women and youth groups. The participants for the FGD
was selected based on experience and having a better knowledge Results and Discussion
on the present and past environmental, social and economic The extent of climate variability as perceived by households
status of the study area. At six kebeles, one separate focus group
discussion was carried with elders, women and youth groups. The household survey results in Table 2 show that about 87% of the
Each group will be comprised of 10 participants in order to get respondents perceived a long-term variability in weather and change
the perception of the people about climate variability, its cause, in the climate in the study area over the last two decades, whereas the
major hazards and their impact and adaptation strategies [8]. response from the remaining 13% of the respondents indicate that they

J Earth Sci Clim Change, an open access journal Volume 14 • Issue 9 • 1000725
Citation: Erbo K, Rabo A (2023) Smallholder Farmers’ Adaptation to Climate Change and Determinants of their Adaptation Decisions in
Shashemene District, South Eastern Rift Valley of Ethiopia. J Earth Sci Clim Change 14: 725.

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did not perceive any change in climate in the same period. The results 12.5% of the households had not observed any change. Similarly,
hold true across the six kebeles. With respect to temperature nearly 79.2% of households perceived that the rainfall amounts were
variability and change, the respondents reported a change in declining and 7.6% of the households perceived the temperature has
temperature and rainfall. The majority of the respondents 84% been increased. The same result has been reported in various studies
perceived that the temperature had been increasing while 3.5% of the conducted in different parts Ethiopia (Table 2) [10].
households perceived the temperature had been decreasing. However,

Climatic variable Category Frequency % SD SE t (sign)

Temperature (n=144) Increased 121 84.02 0.47106 0.04282 27.790 (***)

No change 18 12.5

Decreased 5 3.48

Total 144 100

Precipitation (n=144) Increased 11 7.6 0.59474 0.05407 -50.289 (***)

No change 19 13.2

Decreased 114 79.2

Total 144 100

Table 2: Climate variability perception in terms of temperature and precipitation.

In generally, increase in temperature and decrease in precipitation respondents were not concerned about climate change-related risks.
were found to be the predominant climate-related changes perceived According analyzed result shows, 36% of the respondents clearly
by smallholder farmers in the study area. According to the respondent indicated that climate change and variability bring about yield
report show that over the last two decades, either early or late on set of reduction and others which emphasize to several natural disastrous
rainy seasons, unexpected rainfall, declining rainfall and extreme day such as; seasonal flooding (23.5%), extended drought (11%), shortage
and night temperature were common across the agro-ecological zones of water (12.5%) and occurrence of pest and disease (17%) in Figure
in the district. This result is in line with previous studies in central rift 3. The same result has been reported in various studies conducted in
valley by Belay et al. that underlined frequency of drought and different parts Ethiopia. Changes in the distribution and amount of
intensity of floods. rainfall have affected the agricultural system in the area such that it
receives lower rainfall and faces more frequent low yield as wells
Indicators of climate variability and its impacts on livestock water shortage (Figure 3).
and crop income
According to analyzed resulted showed that the climatic variability
impacts was decrease crop yield (34%), change of sowing date (18%),
decrease forage capacity (17%), increase in pest incidence (6.5%) and
decrease livestock production (28.8%) were the major indicators of
climate variability that negatively affected livestock and crop
production income (Figure 2).

Figure 3: Impact of climate change on small holder farmers in

Shashemene district.

Farmers’ adaptation to the Climate Variability (CV)

Relative contribution of crop and livestock Income to cope up
CV: Incomes from both livestock and crop products have been
significantly contributed for farmers’ adaptation to climate variability.
However, there were substantial differences between the relative
Figure 2: indicators of climate variability effect on farming contribution of crop and livestock income in the farmer’s adaptation to
System. climate variability at 5% significant level. The contributions of crop
income (80.43%) in climate variability’s adaptation were four times of
In generally, 87% of households indicated that they were extremely
that contributed by livestock income (Table 3).
worried about climate change and its impact and only 13% of the

J Earth Sci Clim Change, an open access journal Volume 14 • Issue 9 • 1000725
Citation: Erbo K, Rabo A (2023) Smallholder Farmers’ Adaptation to Climate Change and Determinants of their Adaptation Decisions in
Shashemene District, South Eastern Rift Valley of Ethiopia. J Earth Sci Clim Change 14: 725.

Page 5 of 7

Sources of income Income per HHs (birr) Relative role in CVA (%) Standard deviation Sign

Crop income 29,522 80.43 14920.72 0.0001

Livestock income 7,181.70 19.57 5891.38 0.0019

Total income 36,703.70 100

Table 3: Composition of household income in ETB (N=144).

Crop and livestock based farmers’ adaptation to climate adaptation strategies in the face of climate change and variability from
variability: Farm households were asked about their primary the three agro-ecological zones of the district in Table 4.

Adaptation strategies Mean SD SE Sign

Improve sowing date 1 0.00000 0 0

SWC and Tree planting 1.6364 0.48305 0.04391 0

Rearing tolerant cattle 1.1653 0.37299 0.03391 0

Crop and livestock integration 1.0248 0.15614 0.01419 0

Climate shock tolerant variety 1.1983 0.40041 0.0364 0

Intensive use of agricultural 1 0.00000 0 0

inputs

Others adaptation strategy 1 0.00000 0 0

used

Table 4: Primary adaptation strategies in the face of climate variability.

The results in Table 4 show that the most important practice significant level as indicated in the following Table 5. Land size,
farmers used to reduce the impacts of climate change education, total crop yield, marital status farm experience, water
particularly in the lowland, was to change crop planting dates and scarcity, land scarcity, lack of credit, lack of climate information and
crop varieties. In case of extreme drought, the farmers migrated to agro ecology have significantly positive contribution to livestock
the highland areas for some time. Currently, storage of crop income whereas that of family size contribution was significantly
residues as an emergency feed in dry periods is a common practice. negative. Land size, water scarcity and land scarcity were positively
In addition, maintenance of grain reserves, crop diversification and influencing livestock induced income of the farmers at 1% significant
using early maturing crop varieties were some of the adaptation level. Education, total crop yield (which is the animal feed) and lack
mechanisms. Similarly, in the highlands, smallholder farmers used of credit were affecting the income of the farmers obtained from
various adaptation strategies to climate change. Here, crops like livestock sell at 5% significant level. The marital (married), farm
barley, peas and beans were performing poorly and some experience, family size, lack of climate information and agro ecology
farmers had already reduced the portion of land allocated for were also influencing the contribution of livestock in farmers’ income
such crops. In some cases, farmers had already stopped their at 10% significant level [11].
production. On the other hand, majority of the farmers opted to
Marital (married), education, total crop yield, land size, farm
grow other crops like teff and maize, which used to be typical
experience, water scarcity, land scarcity, lack of climate information,
midland agro-ecology crops. Other adaptation strategies include
agro ecology and lack of credit were significantly and positively
intensification of agricultural production by using more inputs
contributing to the income of the farmers obtained from crop whereas
especially fertilizer per unit area, fruit and fodder tree
the contribution of family size to livestock income was significantly
planting, soil and water conservation practices and using crop
negative. These contributions of total crop yield, land size, family size,
residues as livestock feed. This result is in line with previous studies
water scarcity and land scarcity to the crop income of the farmers were
by Melka et al.
significantly high at 1% significant level. Farm experience, lack of
climate information and agro ecology were significantly affecting the
The determinants of farmer’s adaptation to the climate crop income of the farmers at 5% significant level. The influences of
variability marital status (married), education and lack of credit were statistically
From the total list majority of farmer’s characteristics were significant at 10% significant level as well. These findings are similar
affecting their incomes from livestock and crop products at different to the findings from various studies (Tables 5 and 6) [12].

J Earth Sci Clim Change, an open access journal Volume 14 • Issue 9 • 1000725
Citation: Erbo K, Rabo A (2023) Smallholder Farmers’ Adaptation to Climate Change and Determinants of their Adaptation Decisions in
Shashemene District, South Eastern Rift Valley of Ethiopia. J Earth Sci Clim Change 14: 725.

Page 6 of 7

Explanatory variables Challenges to crop income Challenges to livestock

income
Coeff Sign Coeff Sign

Marital (married) 719.913 0.089 260.444 0.095

Education 157.735 0.047 750.071 0.099

Total crop yield 137.738 0.049 825.399 0.001

Land size 182.462 0.007 438.636 0.002

Farm experience 1081 0.066 1179 0.051

Family size -731.62 0.081 -104.29 0.048

Lack of credit 1.8678 0.101 1.26 0.053

Lack of information 1.5868 0.047 1.853 0.094

Water scarcity 1.9421 0.009 1.112 0.002

Land scarcity 1.562 0.008 1.432 0.01

Agro-ecology 1.686 0.051 1.003 0.076

Base category No adaptation

Number of observations 144

LR Chi2 167.14

Log likelihood -174.575

Prob>Chi2 0

Pseudo R2 0.3237

Keys: *, **, ***= significant at 1%, 5% and 10% probability level, respectively

Table 6: Various parameters.

Conclusion infrastructure development and initiate enabling policy environment is

required.
Local communitie’s perception has been confirmed with climate
data analysis in the study area that recognized a fluctuation in the
onset of rainfall season and variability in its amount and distribution Conflict of Interest
with an increase in temperature. About 80% sampled households have The authors have not declared any conflict of interest.
perceived decreased in the rainfall in the past two decades from
confirmed HHs survey data analysis.
Acknowledgment
The results show that the majority of the farmers have perceived
changes in rainfall and experienced the effects of a changing climate We would like to thank all those individuals and organizations who
over a period of two decades. That is, extended dry periods and provided us with valuable information. In addition, we extend our
declining precipitation are more frequent across the agro-ecologies in gratitude for the enumerators of Shashemene district who were
the district. As a result, both livestock and crop production by involved in generating all the required data at the field level.
smallholder farmers have before now been adversely affected. The
farmers are trying to adapt through the use of improved agricultural References
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J Earth Sci Clim Change, an open access journal Volume 14 • Issue 9 • 1000725
Citation: Erbo K, Rabo A (2023) Smallholder Farmers’ Adaptation to Climate Change and Determinants of their Adaptation Decisions in
Shashemene District, South Eastern Rift Valley of Ethiopia. J Earth Sci Clim Change 14: 725.

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