SOUTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY-

PHINMA
COLLEGE OF VETERINARY MEDICINE
Urgello, Cebu City, 6000

VEM-021- FUNDAMENTALS OF IMMUNOLOGY

Name: Thiha Tun Sint

1. Define the following: (20 pts) a. M cells b. Paneth Cells c. IELs d. y/ T cell

a. M cells, or microfold cells, are specialized epithelial cells found in the gut-associated
lymphoid tissue, notably Peyer's patches in the small intestine. These cells lack microvilli and
serve as antigen-sampling gateways. M cells capture antigens, like bacteria and particles, from
the gut lumen and deliver them to immune cells, facilitating immune responses and aiding in
defense against pathogens.

b. Paneth cells are secretory epithelial cells mainly located in the small intestine's crypts.
They produce antimicrobial peptides, such as defensins and lysozyme, which help control gut
microbiota and protect against invading pathogens. Additionally, they secrete growth factors
supporting intestinal tissue regeneration.

c. IELs, or intraepithelial lymphocytes, are immune cells residing within mucosal epithelial
layers, notably in the gut. Comprising T-cell subsets, including γ/δ T cells and CD8+ T cells,
they contribute to immune surveillance, tissue repair, and mucosal tolerance.

d. γ/δ T cells, or gamma-delta T cells, possess a unique T-cell receptor (TCR) made of
gamma and delta chains, distinct from the more common alpha and beta chains. These cells,
often found in mucosal tissues, play diverse roles in immune surveillance, including
unconventional pathogen recognition, tissue repair, and maintaining tolerance. Their functions
bridge both innate and adaptive immune responses, making them vital components of overall
immune defense.

2. Explain the immune defenses of the skin and mammary gland (10 pts)

The skin serves as the body's primary defense against microbial invaders, creating a
robust barrier that hinders pathogen penetration. It combines physical defenses such as
continuous desquamation, desiccation, and low pH, along with the protective role of the resident
microbiota. Various skin layers contribute to defense mechanisms; for instance, keratinocytes
recognize microbial-associated patterns through pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), leading
to the production of cytokines, antimicrobial proteins, and growth factors. Dendritic cells present
antigens to T cells, while resident T cells, both α/β and γ/δ subsets, contribute to immune
SOUTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY-
PHINMA
COLLEGE OF VETERINARY MEDICINE
Urgello, Cebu City, 6000

surveillance. Microbiota regulates immunity in the skin, influencing the development of specific
immune responses.

In contrast, the mammary gland's primary defense relies on factors like milk's innate
antimicrobial components, including complement, lactoferrin, and immune cells like phagocytes.
The local immune response may involve phagocytic cells, antibodies, and immune cell
recruitment during inflammation. However, the local immune response in the udder is less
effective in preventing infections, although vaccination strategies have shown some promise.
Colostrum, rich in macrophages and lymphocytes, transfers cell-mediated immunity to
newborns, enhancing their immune defenses.

3. Describe why the intestine is the largest immune organ in the body (10 pts)

The intestine is considered the largest immune organ in the body due to its critical role in
defending against potential microbial threats. The gastrointestinal tract, spanning from the
mouth to the anus, represents the largest interface between the internal body and the external
environment. It is continually exposed to various microorganisms, including pathogens and the
commensal microbiota. To safeguard against invasion, the intestine relies on multiple immune
defense mechanisms. These include the production of protective antibodies, such as IgA, in the
saliva, as well as the presence of antimicrobial peptides, like defensins and lysozyme, in the
gastric mucosa and intestinal fluid. Moreover, the intestinal epithelium forms a physical barrier
with tight junctions, a coating of mucin glycoproteins, and the secretion of antimicrobial
peptides, which together limit microbial exposure. The presence of various immune cells and
cytokines in the intestine helps maintain a balance between anti-inflammatory and
proinflammatory responses. This extensive immune network, which spans the entire length of
the gastrointestinal tract, makes the intestine the body's largest immune organ, essential for
protecting against microbial threats and maintaining overall health.

4. Explain the defenses of respiratory and genitourinary system (10 pts)

The defenses of the respiratory system are multifaceted and aim to balance the need for
air exchange with protection against potential pathogens. Inhaled air passes through a filtration
system that capitalizes on turbulence, caused by the conformation of turbinate bones, the
trachea, and bronchi, to direct airborne particles onto mucus-covered surfaces where they
adhere and can be removed. Mucus in the upper respiratory tract contains host defense
molecules, including lysozyme, lactoferrin, surfactant proteins, and cationic peptides, which act
as antimicrobial agents. The mucus layer is in constant motion, carried by cilia to be eventually
swallowed and digested in the gastrointestinal tract. Alveolar macrophages serve as the first line
of defense within the alveoli, phagocytosing any particles that evade the mucus escalator.
Additionally, bronchial lymphoid nodules and immunologically active cells in the larynx produce
secretory IgA, which enhances the clearance of adherent bacteria. The lungs also contain a
microbiota, and innate immune pathways are critical for the initial defense, limiting inflammation.
In the urogenital system, urine's flushing action and low pH provide protection, but the female
reproductive tract has various immunological components to safeguard it. Mucus and
antimicrobial peptides, along with IgA and IgG, offer protection in different parts of the
reproductive tract, and type I interferon plays a role in defending against infections. The male
SOUTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY-
PHINMA
COLLEGE OF VETERINARY MEDICINE
Urgello, Cebu City, 6000

urogenital system also has its immune defenses, with epithelial cells, macrophages, dendritic
cells, immunoglobulins, T cells, and antimicrobial peptides contributing to protection.

5. Differentiate inductive site and effector site (10 pts)

Inductive sites and effector sites are two distinct components of the immune system with
specialized functions. Inductive sites are locations within the body where adaptive immune
responses are initiated. They possess the necessary cellular components, such as T cells, B
cells, and dendritic cells, to activate and generate immune responses. These sites include
Mucosa-Associated Lymphoid Tissues (MALTs) like Peyer's patches, tonsils, and lymphoid
tissues in various mucosal surfaces. Peyer's patches, for instance, are important in antigen
sampling and initiating immune responses in the intestinal walls. Inductive sites primarily serve
as the locations for the generation of immune responses.

Effector sites, on the other hand, are the locations where the immune responses take action.
These sites are responsible for executing the immune defense mechanisms against pathogens
or antigens. Effector sites can be found throughout the body, such as the intestinal walls,
bronchi, and various mucosal surfaces. In the intestinal walls, B cells and T cells generated in
inductive sites like Peyer's patches move to effector sites to produce antibodies, such as IgA,
and other immune responses that defend against pathogens and maintain immune protection.
Effector sites are involved in the actual combat against infections and maintaining immune
surveillance at the body's surfaces.

6. Differentiate immune exclusion and immune elimination (10 pts)

Immune exclusion, primarily involving IgA and possibly IgM, is a defense mechanism that
prevents pathogens from attaching to epithelial surfaces. IgA is produced in mucosal tissues
and secretions and binds to antigens, blocking their attachment. It acts within the submucosa,
enterocytes, and the intestinal lumen, preventing microbial invasion.

Immune elimination, mainly mediated by IgE, is activated when pathogens breach the
mucosal barrier. IgE, found in mast cells beneath epithelial surfaces, responds to pathogen
antigens by rapidly degranulating and releasing inflammatory mediators. This causes
inflammation, increased vascular permeability, and the expulsion of invaders, as seen with
parasitic worm infections. IgA serves as the initial defense, and IgE acts as a backup
mechanism for eliminating pathogens that bypass the primary line of defense. Both mechanisms
are essential for protecting mucosal and epithelial surfaces.
SOUTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY-
PHINMA
COLLEGE OF VETERINARY MEDICINE
Urgello, Cebu City, 6000

7. Explain oral tolerance (5 pts).

Oral tolerance is the body's way of ensuring that it remains unresponsive to food antigens,
preventing food allergies. When we eat, specialized immune cells in the gut sample these food
antigens and present them to immune cells in a manner that promotes the development of
regulatory T cells (Tregs), specifically IL-10-producing Tregs. These Tregs act to suppress
immune responses against the food antigens, maintaining tolerance and preventing allergic
reactions. Factors like retinoic acid, IDO, and TGFβ further contribute to this process. However,
when oral tolerance breaks down, it can lead to a Th2 immune response, including the
production of IgE antibodies, resulting in the development of food allergies with various clinical
consequences, both in the digestive tract and on the skin.