SEMINAR

TEAM:
TOPICS: 1.Vishal Suthar (3162)
1.Fuels and 2.Ritesh Kadian (3149)
Combustion 3.Raunak Pandey (3148)
4.Anuj Kumar (3115)
2.Types of Polymers 5.Priyanshu Vashisht
3.Boy’s Calorimeter (3146)
6.Kaushal Vyas (3128)
 1

Fuels and
Combustion
INTRODUCTION 2
▶A fuel is a combustible substance containing carbon as the main constituent
which on proper burning gives large amount of heat that can be used
economically for domestic and industrial purposes. During the process of
combustion of a fuel, the atoms of carbon, hydrogen, etc combine with oxygen
with simultaneous liberation of heat. The calorific value of a fuel depends mainly
on the two elements.

C + O2 CO2 + 94 kcals.
2H2 + O2 2H2O + 68.5 kcals.

▶So, carbon compounds have been used for many centuries as the source of heat
and energy.
▶The main source of fuel is coal and petroleum. These are stored fuels available
in earth's crust and are generally called fossil fuels because they were formed
from the fossilised remains of plants and animals.
 HCV and LCV 4
Higher or gross calorific value:
⚫ Usually, all fuels contain some hydrogen and when the calorific value of hydrogen-
containing fuel is determined experimentally, the hydrogen is converted into steam.
If the products of combustion are condensed to the room temperature (15°C or
60°F), the latent heat of condensation of steam also gets included in the measured
heat, which is then called "higher or gross calorific value". So, gross or higher
calorific value (HCV) is "the total amount of heat produced, when unit mass/volume
of the fuel has been burnt completely and the products of combustion have been
cooled to room temperature"(i.e., 15°C or 60°F ).
 5
Lower or net calorific value (LCV)
⚫ In actual use of any fuel, the water vapour and moisture, etc., are not condensed and
escape as such along-with hot combustion gases. Hence, a lesser amount of heat is
available. So, net or lower calorific value (LCV) is "the net heat produced, when
unit mass /volume of the fuel is burnt completely and the products are permitted to
escape".
⚫ Net calorific value= Gross calorific value - Latent heat of condensation of water
vapour produced = GCV - Mass of hydrogen per unit weight of
the fuel burnt x 9 x Latent heat of condensation of water vapour
 6
▶Dulong's formula for calorific value from the chemical composition of fuel is :

▶HCV = 1/100 [8,080 C + 34,500 (H – O/8)+ 2,240 S] kcal/kg

▶where C, H, O, and S are the percentages of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and sulphur in
the fuel respectively. In this formula, oxygen is assumed to be present in combination
with hydrogen as water, and

▶LCV = [ HCV - 9H/100 x 587] kcal/kg = [HCV - 0.09 H x 587] kcal/kg

▶This isbased on the fact that 1 part of H by mass gives 9 parts of H2O, and latent heat
of steam is 587 kcal/kg.
 7
Solid fuel
COAL
▶Coal is regarded as a fossil fuel produced from large accumulations of vegetable
debris due to partial decay and alteration by the action of heat and pressure over
millions of years. Coal is a highly carbonaceous matter that has been formed as a
result of alteration of vegetable matter (e.g., plants) under certain favourable
conditions. It is chiefly composed of C, H, N, and 0, besides non-combustible
inorganic matter.

Classification of Coal
▶Coals are classified on the basis of their rank. Rank is defined as the degree or extent
of maturation and is therefore a qualitative measure of carbon contents. Peat, lignite
and sub-bituminous coals are referred as low rank coals while bituminous coals and
anthracites are classed as high rank. In European terminology, the lignite and sub-
bituminous coals are called soft coals while bituminous coals and anthracite coals are
termed as hard coals. In North American terminology, the coal series is written as
▶Wood peat lignite bituminous
anthracite.
 Analysis of Coal 8

⚫ In order to assess the quality of coal the following two types of analysis are
made.

⚫ 1. Proximate Analysis It includes the determination of moisture, volatile

matter, ash and fixed carbon. This gives quick and valuable information
regarding commercial classification and determination of suitability for a
particular industrial use.

⚫ 2. Ultimate Analysis It includes the determination of carbon, hydrogen,

nitrogen, sulphur and oxygen in coal. Since it is used
⚫ For the determination of elements present in the coal, it is also called
elemental analysis. This analysis gives exact results and are useful in
calculating the calorific value of coal using Dulong's formula.
Proximate analysis
9
⚫ (1) Moisture: About 1 g of finely powered air-dried coal sample is weighed in a
crucible. The crucible is placed inside an electric hot air-oven, maintained at 105° -
110°C. The crucible is allowed to remain in oven for 1 hour and then taken out, cooled
in a desiccator and weighed. Loss in weight is reported as moisture (on percentage-
basis).

Percentage of moisture = Loss in weight x 100

Wt. of coal taken
⚫ (2) Volatile matter: The dried sample of coal left in the crucible in (1) is then covered
with a lid and placed in an electric furnace (muffle furnace), maintained at 925°± 20°C.
The crucible is taken out of the oven after 7 minutes of heating. The crucible is cooled
first in air, then inside a desiccator and weighed again. Loss in weight is reported as
volatile matter on percentage-basis.
Percentage of volatile matter=
Loss in weight due to removal of volatile matter x 100 Wt.
of coal sample taken
 10
⚫ (3) Ash: The residual coal in the crucible in (2) is then heated without lid in a
muffle furnace at 700 ± 50° C for 1/2 hour. The crucible is then taken out,
cooled first in air, then in desiccator and weighed.

⚫ Heating, cooling and weighing is repeated, till a constant weight is obtained.

The residue is reported as ash on percentage-basis.

Percentage of ash = Wt. of ash left x 100

Wt. of coal taken

(4) Fixed carbon: Percentage of fixed carbon = 100 - % of (moisture + volatile

matter + ash)
⚫ high percentage of fixed carbon is desirable.
Importance of proximate analysis
11
⚫ Proximate analysis provides following valuable information in assessing the quality
of coal:

⚫ (1) Moisture: Moisture lowers the effective calorific value of coal. Moreover, it
quenches the fire in the furnace. Hence, lesser the moisture content, better the
quality of coal as a fuel. However, presence of moisture, up to 10%, produces a
more uniform fuel-bed and less of "fly-ash".

⚫ (2) Volatile matter: A high volatile matter containing coal burns with a long flame,
high smoke and has low calorific value. Hence, lesser the volatile matter, better the
rank of the coal. Higher volatile content in coal is undesirable.
 12
⚫ A high volatile matter content means that high-proportion of fuel will
be distilled and burned as a gas or vapour. The volatile matter present in
the coal may be combustible gases (such as methane, hydrogen, carbon
monoxide and other hydrocarbons) or non-combustible gases (like CO2
and N2).
⚫ (3) Ash is a useless, non-combustible matter, which reduces the
calorific value of coal. Moreover, ash causes the hindrance to the flow
of air and heat, thereby lowering the temperature. Also, it often causes.
trouble during firing by forming clinker), which block the inters paces
of the grate. This in-turn causes obstruction to air supply; thereby the
burning of coal becomes irregular..

⚫ (4) Fixed carbon: Higher the percentage of fixed carbon, greater is its
calorific and better the quality coal. Greater the percentage of fixed
carbon, smaller is the percentage of volatile matter. This also represents
the quantity of carbon (in coal) that can be burnt by a primary current
of air drawn through the hot bed of a fuel.
Significance of ultimate analysis
13

▶ (1) Carbon and hydrogen: Greater the percentage of carbon and hydrogen better is
the coal in quality and calorific value. However, hydrogen is mostly associated with
the volatile matter and hence, it affects the use to which the coal is put. Also higher
percentage of carbon in coal reduces the size of combustion chamber required. The
amount of carbon, the major combustible constituent of coal, depends on the type of
coal and its percentage increases with rank from lignite to anthracite. Thus,
percentage of carbon forms the basis of classification of coal.

▶ (2) Nitrogen has no calorific value and hence, its presence in coal is undesirable;
thus, a good quality coal should have very little nitrogen content.
Nitrogen: 14
About 1 g of accurately weighed powdered 'coal is heated with concentrated H2SO4 along-
with K2S04(catalyst) in a long-necked flask(called Kjeldahl's flask). After the solution
becomes clear, it is treated with excess of KOH and the liberated ammonia is distilled
over and absorbed in a known volume of standard acid solution. The unused acid is then
determined by back titration with standard NaOH solution. From the volume of acid
used by ammonia liberated, the percentage of N in coal is calculated as follows:

Volume of acid used x Normality x 1.4

Percentage of N = Weight of coal taken
 15
▶ (3) Sulphur, although contributes to the heating value of coal, yet on combustion
produces acids (S02 and S03), which have harmful effects of corroding the
equipments and also cause atmospheric pollution. Sulphur is, usually, present to the
extent of 0.5 to 3.0% and derived from ores like iron pyrites, gypsum, etc., mines
along-with the coal.
▶ Presence of sulphur is highly undesirable in coal to be, used for making coke for
iron industry, since it is transferred to the iron metal and badly affects the quality and
properties of steel. Moreover, oxides of sulphur (formed as combustion products)
pollute the atmosphere and leads to corrosion.

▶ (4) Oxygen content decreases the calorific value of coal. High oxygen-content coals
are characterized by high inherent moisture, low calorific value, and low coking
power. Moreover, oxygen is in combined form with hydrogen in coal and thus,
hydrogen available for combustion is lesser than actual one. An increase in 1%
oxygen content decreases the calorific value by about 1. 7% and hence, oxygen is
undesirable. Thus, a good quality coal should have low percentage of oxygen
Ultimate analysis
16
Carbon and hydrogen: About 1-2 g of accurately weighed coal sample is burnt in a
current of oxygen in a combustion apparatus. C and H of the coal are converted
into CO2 and H2O respectively. The gaseous products of combustion are
absorbed respectively in KOH and CaCl2 tubes of known weights. The increase
in weights of these are then determined.

▶ Increase in weight of KOH tube x 12 x 100

Percentage of C = Weight of coal sample taken x 44

▶ Increase in weight of CaCl2 tube x 2 x 100

Percentage of H = Weight of coal sample taken x 18
 17
Sulphur is determined from the washings obtained from the known mass of coal, used in a
bomb calorimeter for determination of a calorific value. During this determination, S is
converted into sulphate. The washings are treated with barium chloride solution, when
barium sulphate is precipitated. This precipitate is filtered, washed and heated to
constant weight.

Weight of BaSO4 obtained x 32 x 100

Percentage of S = Weight of coal sample taken in bomb x233

Ash determination is carried out as in proximate analysis.

Oxygen: It is obtained by difference.

Percentage of O = 100 - Percentage of (C + H + S + N + ash)

▶ Problem For the calculation of Calorific value 24
▶ Calculate the gross and net calorific values of a coal sample having the following
composition C = 80%; H = 7%;O = 3%; S = 3.5%; N = 2.5% and ash 4.4%
▶ Problem For the calculation of Calorific value 25
▶ Calculate the gross and net calorific values of a coal sample having the following
composition C = 80%; H = 7%;O = 3%; S = 3.5%; N = 2.5% and ash 4.4%

Solution
(I) G.C.V = 1/100[8080*%C+34500(%H - %O/8)+2240*%S] kcal/kg
= 1/100[8080*80+34500(7 - 3/8)+2240*3.5] kcal/kg
= 8828.0 kcal/kg
,,
(II) N.C.V = G.C.V – [0.09H*587] kcal/kg
= 8828 – [0.09*7*587] kcal/kg
= 8458.2 k cal/kg
Natural Polymers

Homopolymer

Copolymer

Thermoplastics

Thermosets

Long chain Polymers

TYPES OF
POLYMER
CLASSIFICATION
OF POLYMER

9
 NATURAL POLYMERS
Definition : Natural polymer isa polymer that results
from only raw materials that are found in nature .

Some of these natural polymers include DNA and

RNA

Cotton , DNA , Wool , Wood are some of

the naturally occurring polymers .

2
 SYNTHETIC POYMER
Polymers that are man - made

Example – Polystyrene, Bakelite, Polyester, etc.

 HOMOPOLYMER

HOMOPOLYMERSARE HOMOPOLYMERSARE THIS USUALLY IMPLIESTHAT

SYNTHESIZED FROM A SINGLE CONSISTS OF CHAINS WITH THE POLYMERIS MADE FROM
TYPE OF MONOMER . IDENTICAL BONDING LINKAGES ALL IDENTICAL MONOMER
TO EACH MONOMER UNIT . MOLECULES .

4
 COPOL
⚫ When two or YMER
more different monomers together to
polymerize their result is called as copolymer .

⚫ This process is called as copolymerization .

⚫ Types of Copolymer :

1) Statistical copolymer

2) Alternating copolymer

3) Block copolymer

4) Graft copolymer
5
 THERMOPLASTIC

A type of plastic that can be Thermoplastic are not cross– Examples :

softened by heat , hardened linked polymer .
Polyethylene , Nylon
by cooling , and then , Polyvinyl chloride .
softened by heat over and
over again

6
 THERMO
SETS
Thermoset having the property of becoming
permanently hard and rigid when heated .

Thermosets are hard and rigid at room

temperature and do not soften on heating .

Examples: Epoxy resins, Phenolic resins,

Unsaturated polyester resins
7
 A very long strand of
repeating molecules linked
together by primary bond .

LONG
CHAIN Polymer chains are
POLYME orient themselves
in lines
RS as they
enter a mold
but may be annealed so
they can recoil .

8
 BASED ON ORIGIN
OF SOURCE

Synthetic Polymer :- Semisynthetic Polymers

Natural Polymer :- Polymers which are
Polymers which are synthesized from low :- These polymers are
isolated from natural mostly derived from
molecular weight naturally occurring
materials are called as compounds are called as polymers by chemical
Natural Polymers . E.g. : Synthetic Polymers . E.g. modification . E.g. :
Cotton , silk , wool , : Polyethylene , nylon ,
rubber . terylene. Rayon

10
 BASED ON
⚫ Linear Polymer : STRUCTURE
Molecules
form long chains without
branches.
⚫ Branched Polymer : Molecules
having branch points that
connect 3 or more segments .
⚫ Cross-Linked Polymer : It
includes interconnections
between chains .
⚫ Network Polymer : A cross
linked polymer that includes
numerous interconnections
between chains .

11
 BASED ON MODE OF
POLYMERISATION
⚫ Additional Polymerization :
➹Samekind of monomers are straight forwardly added .
➹It is rapid chain reaction having chemically activated mers
.
➹Each reaction sets up the condition for another to proceed
.
➹It Icnonitsisattsiofn3 stages : Propagation Termination
(Birth) (Growth) (Death)

12
BIODEGRADABLE POLYMERS

Synthetic polymers has resulted in

producing solid waste
The discarded plastic solid waste has bad
effect on environment
Biodegradation: “It is the process of
converting polymer material into harmless
simple gaseous products, by the action of
enzymes of micro-organisms and water”
Biodegradable polymers if used, they will
reduce the solid waste disposal problem and
pollution being ecofriendly
Boy’sCalorimeter
 What’s Boys calorimeter?

● These are used to find

the calorific values of
volatile liquids and
gaseous fuels.
 Why Boy’s over Bomb Calorimeter.

▶ Itisdueto thefact that thefuels usedaregaseous which vary according

to pressure.

▶ Theshapeof thecalorimeter isdesignedin such a way that the heat

ejectedisusedup by the water surroundingits caseinpipe.

▶ The net c hange in the in the temperature in wa ter ,and the amount of
water condensedisnotedandthen isusedto calculatethe Calorificvalue
of fuel.
Calculations for calorific values.

1. HCV (L) =W *(T2-T1)/V kcal/m3

2. NCV =HCV - (M/V)*587 kcal/m3

W =mass of water cooled

V =volume of gas cooled

M =mass of water condensed

Calculations for calorific values.
Calculations for calorific values.