Principles of Flight Lift augmentation/modification.

Chapter 8:

LIFT
AUGMENTATION/
MODIFICATION.
The objective of this chapter is to give you knowledge of different
types of lift augmentation or modification devices used on
aircraft, and how they work.
According to the JAA requirements you shall be able to describe:

¤ Different methods for boundary layer control.

¤ Different types of high lift devices and their influence on
camber, area, as well as on lift and drag.
¤ The function and effects of flight spoilers, ground spoilers
and airbrakes.
List of Contents
Page Paragraph
8- 2 8.1 Lift augmentation/modification.
8- 6 8.2 Lift modification devices.
8-15 8.3 Controlled vortices.

Devices that modify the coefficient of lift and/or drag of an airfoil are
often fitted on the wings. This may be in order to reduce the stalling
speed and the length of the runway necessary for take off and
landing, but also to increase drag to get a steeper approach path.

© TFHS and NAR 8 - 1

 © TFHS and NAR

8.1
LIFT AUGMENTATION/MODIFICATION.
In this paragraph we describe how to increase lift for a given aircraft and
we introduce trailing edge devices.

Introduction.
A modern aircraft should be designed to fly fast with the use of a
reasonable amount of power, but it should also be able to fly slowly
enough to use relatively short runways for take-off and landing.
However, the use of large wings for low speed produces high drag at
high speed; this is obviously a conflicting situation for the designer.
A solution can be to use so-called high lift devices.

?
Wings for Wings for
HIGH speed or LOW speed or

Wings for both

HIGH and LOW speeds

Fig. 8.1

Let us start with a short review of lift. As already seen in the lesson
on lift, the total quantity of lift is the result of many factors: the
dynamic pressure, the lift coefficient and the wing surface area.

Lift (L) = Dyn. press. (q) ∞ Coeff. of Lift (CL) ∞ Wing Area (S).

If we consider the density of air as constant, the total lift can be

changed by changing the dynamic pressure with the speed, the lift
coefficient or the wing surface area.

Dynamic
LIFT
pressure
q
Depending on density and speed.

Wing area

Coefficient
of Lift
Pressure difference depending on
CL airfoil section and angle of attack.
Fig. 8.2

Generally, lift can be increased at low speeds by the use of devices

which give one or often a combination of the following: increased
camber of the wing section (CL), improved boundary layer (CL) and
increased wing area (S).

8 - 2
 Principles of Flight Lift augmentation/modification.

Increased Delayed Increased

CL camber boundary wing surface area
layer
separation
C L max
Without S
S
high lift
devices

A.o.A
Stall A.o.A (α)
Fig. 8.3

These high lift devices can be mounted both on the trailing edge and
on the leading edge, and even if they have different aerodynamic
influence, they are able to increase the maximum lift of the wing.

At a given speed, lift depends on the CL and the wing area S.

However, sometimes it is necessary to reduce the lift and increase the

drag. These lift reducing devices are called spoilers. See paragraph 2.

Trailing edge high lift devices.

There are many different types of trailing edge high lift devices. The
most important thing to remember is that they all work in the same
way. The high lift devices of the trailing edge, called flaps, produce the
required increase in lift at a lower angle of attack than with a clean
wing. Flap deflection results in increased lift and drag at a given angle
of attack. The maximum lift also increases but the stalling angle of
attack normally decreases.

CL With trailing edge flaps

Increase
of
C L max
Without
flaps

A.o.A

Decrease of stall A.o.A

Fig. 8.4

The flaps of the trailing edge produce the required increase

in lift at a lower angle of attack than with a clean wing.

Wings with deflected flaps usually stall at a lower A.o.A than wings
without flaps. This is due to the fact that the pressure gradients at the
CL max for both cases are roughly equal.

Airfoil at Critical pressure

critical A.o.A. gradients With flaps at
roughly equal. critical A.o.A

α
α

Fig. 8.5

© TFHS and NAR 8 - 3

 ;;
;
© TFHS and NAR
Flaps are designed to increase the wing camber which will increase the
downdwash and in that way increase the circulation around the airfoil,
which increases the pressure difference between the upper and lower
surfaces. It will also move the C.P. rearwards creating a nose-down
moment. Due to the changed form of the wing, all or some of the
components of 0-lift drag will increase, and the induced drad Di will also

;;;;
;;
increase due to the increased downwash.

Deflection of trailing edge flaps increases the circulation, and

consequently it increases the pressure differences. It will also
move the C.P. rearwards and increase both 0-lift and induced
drag.

C.P. moves rearward

CD Trailing edge with deflected
high lift devices trailing edge
extended devices.

Retracted.
A.o.A (α)
Fig. 8.6

Here are a few examples of some main types of flaps and their
approximate increaese in CL .

Split flap
CL increment ~60%
Plain (or camber or simple) flap
Fig. 8.7 CL increment ~50%

To improve the efficiency of the flaps, air can be accelerated through

the slot between the wing and the flaps which makes the boundary
layer above the flap more effective.

Slotted flap
CL increment ~65%
Double-slotted flap
CL increment ~70%
Fig. 8.8

Another type of flap is the double-slotted fowler flap, which is

designed to move backwards to increase the total wing area. When
being moved backwards it also moves downwards to increase the
camber, and finally it is slotted to increase the efficiency of the
boundary layer.

Slotted Fowler flap

partly extended
giving increased Slotted Fowler flap
wing area fully extended
Fig. 8.9 CL increment ~100%

8 - 4
 Principles of Flight Lift augmentation/modification.

Slotted fowler flaps are first extended rearwards then

deflected downwards which increases both
the wing surface and the CL.

The lift/drag ratio can be changed very effectively by means of the

flaps. Small flap deflections increases the margin to stall with only a
moderate increase in drag. This small flap deflections is therefore
often used during take-off and during approaches for landing. In
addition, flap deflection also increases the ground effect. (See chapter
13 Lift/Drag.)

Small flap deflections are often used to increase the

margin to stall with only a minor increment in drag.

By extending the flaps fully, normally approximately 30-45°, the

increment in drag is greater than the increment in lift. This full
deflection of flaps is therefore normally used from final approach
down to landing to allow a rather steep descent while maintaining low
speed.

Lift Lift

g
Dra
Drag

Approach flaps give Landing flaps give much lift and

much lift and increased drag very much increased drag
Fig. 8.10

Full flap deflection is normally used to increase

the drag while maintaining the margin to stall.

With the trailing edge flaps extended, the required nose attitude is
lower at a given airspeed. This permits a steeper descent path for
approach and landing, and makes it easier to see the runway and the
surrounding obstacles.
Without flaps

Fig. 8.11

Same descent angle and distance with full flaps

Fig. 8.12

© TFHS and NAR 8 - 5

 © TFHS and NAR
The maximum certified flap deflection is almost always used to decrease
the approach speed and allow a steeper descent path.

The trailing edge flap decreases the stalling speed, it increases

drag and permits a steeper descent path for landing.

(Test questions after next section.)

8.2
LIFT MODIFICATION DEVICES.
In this paragraph we introduce leading edge devices, spoilers and the
effects of these when applied to a typical wing.

Leading edge devices.

As you already know, the CL increases with increased A.o.A. up to a
maximum value. Increasing the A.o.A. beyond this critical stall value
only reduces the CL.

However, there are some high lift devices which can improve the
boundary layer, energise it, which results in a higher stall A.o.A.

CL Improved Boundary layer

C L max boundary improvement
layer

High
Without
energy
high lift
air flow
devices

A.o.A
(α)
Stall A.o.A
Fig. 8.13

The high lift devices of the leading edge increase the maximum angle
of attack and the maximum CL and consequently they decrease the
stalling speed. This gives considerably better low-speed qualities and
shortens the required runway length for take-off and landing.

The high lift devices of the leading edge

increase the max A.o.A, and max CL.

When extending the leading edge high lift devices, there will be an
increase in lift and an increase in drag. Zero lift drag increases due to
the changed airfoil section and induced drag increases due to
increased pressure differences. It will also give a small pitch-up
moment.

High lift devices C.P. moves forward

on leading edge with deflected
CD extended leading edge
devices.

Retracted.

A.o.A (α)

Fig. 8.14

8 - 6
 Principles of Flight Lift augmentation/modification.

The use of high lift devices at the leading edge also

may cause a small increase in drag and trim change.

There are many types of leading edge high lift devices. It is also
possible to design a wing equipped with different types simultaneou-
sly. The most common ones are: slots, slats, movable slats and leading
edge flaps.

Slots and fixed slats.

Slots and fixed slats are fixed openings in the leading edge of the wing
designed in such a way that the high pressure flow from the lower
surface of the wing is accelerated through the convergent slot to the
fast airflow at the upper surface of the wing.

Wing with slot Wing with slat

Fig. 8.15

The attached flow is thus maintained for a longer distance, allowing

higher angles of attack before flow separation.

Flow separation without slat

Delayed flow separation

with slat

Fig. 8.16

Slots and slats allow air from the high pressure area from
under the wing to be accelerated through the slot to
the faster airflow at the upper surface.

Movable slats.
Slots or fixed slats create undesirable drag at high speeds. On modern
aircraft designed for high speeds, the slats are designed to be used
only above a certain A.o.A. by making them movable.

Movable slats open automatically or manually only when flying above

a certain A.o.A. to ensure a sufficient stall margin.

At low A.o.A (high speed). At high A.o.A (low speed).

Fig. 8.17

© TFHS and NAR 8 - 7

 © TFHS and NAR

Leading edge flaps.

Another way to produce more efficient airflow at a high A.o.A. is to give the
wing section a dropped nose, which helps the airflow to remain streamlined
over the wing for a greater distance. Leading edge flaps give the wing section
a dropped nose, resulting in a higher CL at high A.o.A.

Of the two kinds of leading edge flaps: the most simple design is called
the Krüger flap (to the left).

Krüger flap Leading edge flap

(no gap) (no gap)

Fig. 8.18

The leading edge flaps give increased camber at the

leading edge allowing a greater angle of attack.

Combined leading edge flaps and slats.

Many modern aircraft use a combination of leading edge flaps and
slats. At moderate speeds and A.o.A, the slat is lowered a bit without
any open slot.

When flying at very low speeds and high A.o.A, the slat is deflected
further and the slot between the slat and wing is opened allowing fresh
air to energise the boundary layer.

Partly deflected slat: Fully deployed slat

only as a flap (open gap)
(no gap)

Fig. 8.19

All these high lift devices increase the stalling A.o.A. and the maxi-
mum lift, making it possible to fly at a higher A.o.A.

It is very important to bear this in mind because, on most modern jets,

the leading edge devices are the first to be extended during the
approach and the last to be rised after take-off. This allows the same
speed can be maintained at a higher angle of attack and at a higher
power setting than with a clean wing.

These high lift devices may lower the stalling speed by 30%
compared to the stalling speed with clean wings. This means that the
required length of the runway during take-off and landing is consid-
erably shorter.

8 - 8
 Principles of Flight Lift augmentation/modification.

Take-off Landing
Slats and flaps up. Slats and flaps down.
Slats
Flaps
Slats Slats and flaps
Flaps fully down

Fig. 8.20

High lift devices allow lower flying speed, requiring

a shorter runway for take-off and landing.

Automatic operation of leading edge slats.

Some aircraft are equipped with automatic slats. These are hinged
in such a way that the pressure distribution at high A.o.A. pushes
the slat forwards/downwards at high A.o.A.

This kind of automatic slat has to be very well balanced and glide
easily to have the desired effect. A slightly damaged automatic slat
may open at a higher A.o.A than the normal operating one. This will
cause asymmetrical lift and unacceptable roll disturbances at high
A.o.A.

Stagnation
point

The high pressure below

opens the slat.
Fig. 8.21

When carrying out the walk-around check on an

aircraft with automatic slats, make sure they
glide easily out and in on both wings.

Spoilers.
In some flight conditions it is necessary to reduce lift for control or
to increase drag. This is especially important for high-speed jet
aircraft. An effective way to reduce lift is to create a disturbance in the
airflow on the upper surface of the wing causing turbulence and
eddies. Of course, this will also increase the drag.

Flight spoiler
(speedbrake)
activated on
both wings
creating flow
separation.

CL CL
Clean wing

Spoiler deflected

CD
Fig. 8.22 α

© TFHS and NAR 8 - 9

 © TFHS and NAR
On many aircraft, spoilers have three functions. The first is to increase the
drag in order to manage a steeper gradient of descent. In this case the
spoilers are also called speedbrakes.
The second function is to reduce lift after landing. This is usually done
through full extension of the spoilers or speedbrakes and additional
surfaces, which in this position are called liftdumpers.

Ground spoilers
or
Liftdumpers

Fig. 8.23

The third function is to help the ailerons in roll control. They will
extend on the descending wing only, decreasing the lift, while the
spoiler on the rising wing is not used.

On many modern jets, the ailerons are locked during high cruising
speed to avoid control reverse due to wing aeroelasticity, and the
lateral control is performed by using inner aileron and spoilers. A
mix of the different spoiler functions can be used, e.g. simultaneously
as speed brake and roll spoiler.

Roll spoiler
(lateral control)
activated only on
the down-going wing.

Fig. 8.24

At low speeds the ailerons work normally and the spoilers will extend
to increase the roll rate only if a certain stick or control wheel angle
is exceeded. You will find more information in the chapter 6 on Flight
Controls.

Spoilers may be used in different ways, but they

always decrease lift and increases drag.

Total effect of a typical wing.

The big jet wing is designed to give the best performance at cruising
speed, which may be four times faster than the normally accepted
speed for take-off and landing. For this reason lift modification
devices have become very important on most transport aircraft;
consequently, knowledge of their aerodynamic behaviour is important
for you as a pilot.

8 - 10
 Principles of Flight Lift augmentation/modification.
The figure below shows a typical modern aircraft wing with all the devices
for lift augmentation extended.

With all devices for high lift

Plain wing

Double slotted
Krüger flaps fowler flaps

Movable slats

Fig. 8.25

The devices for lift augmentation located on both the leading and the
trailing edge are able to reduce the stalling speed by approximately
60%. Obviously the take-off and landing rolls are considerably
shortened by the use of lift augmentation devices.

The devices for lift augmentation located on both the leading

and the trailing edge are able to reduce the stalling speed
by approximately 60%.

Basically, from an aerodynamic point of view, the lift-off speed

decreases when the angle of flaps for take-off increases, but the drag
increases as well, causing the climb gradient to be lower than with a
small angle of flap setting. It is obvious that choice of flap angle has
to be a compromise between the requirements for take-off roll length
and climb.

Without or small flap deflection

With large flap deflection

Fig. 8.26

If the angle of the flaps for take-off is increased, the

lift-off speed decreases but the climb gradient becomes
lower than with a low flap angle.

In many cases, aircraft are certified to take off and land with a certain
flap angle. The very high drag caused by the flaps in landing position
can usually become a negative factor in the case of a go-around with
an engine failure. The drag may be so high that a go-around will not
be possible without reducing the flap setting.

Approach. Go-around. Climb with engine failure.

With flaps fully down.
A small flap deflection.
Flaps partly
down.
Flaps fully down.
?

Fig. 8.27

© TFHS and NAR 8 - 11

 © TFHS and NAR

The position of the flaps for take-off and landing on

a marginal runway and with high terrain in the
climb direction must be carefully determined.

It is important for a pilot to realise that the use of high lift devices
increases drag. However, near stalling speed, the drag of an aircraft
with extended high lift devices may be less than the drag of a clean
aircraft, and definitely less than that of a stalled clean aircraft.

Drag Landing flaps

Max thrust
Take-off flaps
20

Zero flap
15
V stall
zero flap Airspeed
Fig. 8.28

This means that flap retraction too early may lead to stall or to a semi-
stalled high drag condition.

Too early flap retraction Reduced altitude

over ground
and a high
drag situation.

Fig. 8.29

Near stalling speed, the drag of an aircraft with extended high

lift devices may be less than the drag of a clean aircraft and
definitely less than that of a stalled clean aircraft.

Flap or slat asymmetry.

The effect of asymmetrical deflection of flaps or slats is highly
dangerous. Roll control can be reduced to such a degree that you are
unable to maintain wings level. If an asymmetrical condition occurs,
use the aircraft emergency checklist to take appropriate actions.

If roll control cannot be maintained with ailerons only, do not forget

your rudder. The yaw/roll coupling helps you, for example, to raise
the left wing by using right rudder input, especially on an aircraft with
swept wings.

Asymmetrical flap deflection

Right rudder raises the left wing

Fig. 8.30

8 - 12
Principles of Flight Lift augmentation/modification.

The yaw/roll coupling helps you to, e.g. raise

the left wing by using right rudder input,
especially on an aircraft with swept wings.

Different kinds of trailing edge high lift devices.

The design of high lift devices can differ a lot and so can their effect.
In next figures you see tables with different types of high lift devices.

Note: since the effects of the devices depend upon the shape of the basic
airfoil, and the exact design of the devices themselves, the values given can
only be considered as approximations. To simplify the diagram the airfoils
and the flaps have only small angles, and not the angles giving maximum lift.
The given nose-up or nose-down moment is only valid for the isolated wing,
not for the whole aircraft which depends on the aircraft configuration.

Incr. of
High-lift devices max. lift α crit Remarks
Basic airfoil - o
15 Effects of all high-lift
devices depend on the
shape of basic airfoil.

Plain or camber flap 50% 12o Increased camber.

Much drag when fully
lowered. Nose-down
pitching moment.

Split flap 60% 14o Increased camber.

Even more drag than
plain flap. Nose-down
pitching moment.
o
Zap flap 90% 13 Increased camber and
wing area. Much drag.
Nose-down pitching
moment.

Slotted flap 65% 16o Control of boundary

layer. Increased camber.
Stalling delayed.
Not so much drag.

Double slotted flap 70 18o Same as single-slotted

flap, only to a greater
degree. Triple slots
sometimes used.
o
Fowler flap 90% 15 Increased camber and
wing area. Best flaps
for lift. Complicated
mechanism. Nose-
down pitching moment.
o
Double-slotted Fowler flap 100% 20 Same as for Fowler
flap, only to a greater
degree. Triple slots
sometimes used.

Douglas flap - - Increased camber and

wing area. Rather sim-
ple mechanism.
Nose-down pitching
moment.

Blown flap 80% 16 o Effects depend very

much on details of
arrangement.

Fig. 8.31

© TFHS and NAR 8 - 13

;; © TFHS and NAR

;
Different kinds of leading edge high lift devices.
Incr. of
High-lift devices max. lift α crit Remarks
o
Krüger flap 50% 25 Nose-flap attached to
leading edge.
Greater A.o.A. Reduces
lift at small deflections.
Nose up pitching moment.

Leading edge flap o

40% 20 Nose-flap. Increased camber.
Greater A.o.A.
Nose-up pitching moment.
Slight extra drag at high speed

Slotted wing 40% 20 o Control of boundary

layer. Greater A.o.A.
Slight extra drag at high speed.

o
Fixed slat 50% 20 Control of boundary
layer. Greater A.o.A.
Extra drag at high speed.
Nose up pitching moment.
o
Movable slat 60% 22 Control of boundary
layer. Increased camber
and area. Greater A.o.A.
Nose up pitching moment.

Fig. 8.32

Common combinations of high lift devices

on leading and trailing edge.

Incr. of
High-lift devices max. lift α crit Remarks
o
Slat and slotted flap 75% 25 More control of boun-
dary layer. Increased
camber and area.
Greater A.o.A. Pitching
moment can be
neutralized.
Movable slat and o Complicated mechanism.
120% 28
double-slotted Fowler flap The best combination
for lift; treble slots may
be used. Greater A.o.A.
Pitching moment can be
neutralized.

Fig. 8.33

8 - 14
Principles of Flight Lift augmentation/modification.

CAN YOU ANSWER THESE?

What factors can you normally change to increase

lift at low speeds at a certain aircraft?

In what way do trailing edge devices produce increased

lift, and how will the C.P. affect the pitching moment?

What increase in CL may a split

flap or a plain flap produce?

What increase in CL may a slotted flap, a double slotted flap, a

slotted fowler flap, or a double slotted fowler flap produce?

In what way do slotted fowler type flaps

affect the lift producing factors?

What will happen with lift and

drag with increased flap angle?

When is the full flap position selected and why?

In what way can the stall A.o.A be increased?

In what ways do the different leading

edge devices increase the α crit?

Do high lift devices on the leading edge have any influence

on drag and how will they affect the pitching moment?

In what way are different types of spoiler used?

By how much may the stalling speed be reduced with modern

high lift devices on both leading- and trailing edge?

Why should a large flap angle be avoided during take-off?

Why should you not retract the take-off flap too early?

8.3
CONTROLLED VORTICES.
In this paragraph we will explain another kind of high lift device; the
controlled vortices, which are used on some aircraft to improve the
airflow over the wings at very high angles of attack.

Airflow at very high angles of attack.

As you know, the airflow around a wing consists of a very short
laminar boundary layer near the leading edge of the wing and a long
turbulent boundary layer covering the remaining part of the airfoil
chord.

When a wing has too great an A.o.A the pressure distribution around
the wing will hinder the airflow over the wing, leading to a turbulent
boundary layer with very low energy. When the A.o.A is too high, the
turbulent boundary layer starts to separate from the upper wing
surface producing a lift reducing reversed flow over the rear part of the
wing chord.
© TFHS and NAR 8 - 15
 © TFHS and NAR

Flow separation

Fig. 8.34

A highly swept wing can reach a higher A.o.A without stalling than a
straight wing. This high A.o.A can be reached due to the fact that
vortices are generated by the leading edge because of the longitudal
pressure distribution.

Straight wing
Low energy flow separation
α

Air
flow
path
Swept wing
α High energy vortex

Air
flow
path

Fig. 8.35

At high A.o.A, the air in the vortices circulate around a core with very
high internal velocity, causing a low pressure in its core due to its
radial motion. The surrounding air outside the vortices will also be
energised allowing a total flow pattern rearwards without lift reducing
separation.

Wing tip

aircra
ft cen
tre
Vo
rtex
cor
Wing tip e

Fig. 8.36

Controlled vortices supply energy to the airflow on the upper

side of the wing, allowing higher A.o.A. before flow separation.

In a CL versus A.o.A diagram you see that the critical A.o.A may be very
high, but also that a higher A.o.A is required to get a certain CL
attained by a highly sweeped wing or delta wing.

8 - 16
 Principles of Flight Lift augmentation/modification.

CL
Straight wing
Swept wing
Higher A.o.A
for a certain C L

A.o.A
o o
Higher α crit 16 20

Fig. 8.37

These high intensity vortices require a lot of energy which cause a lot
of drag. In the drag versus speed diagram below you can see the
difference in drag produced in the low speed region for a straight
winged aircraft and a swept winged aircraft respectively (conditions
otherwise equal ).

Total Drag
D tot

Dtot
sweeped
wing
e
v
ur
0 c

Increased D i
D

Di Dtot straight wing

Slow Fast V

Fig. 8.38

As seen in the diagram, it is the induced drag that makes the

difference.

Any vortex, controlled vortices included,

causes an increase in drag!

Consequently, a wing with its leading edge swept back, will allow a
high A.o.A before stalling, but at the cost of very high induced drag at
these high A.o.A.

Therefore swept wings are normally not used to improve low-speed

characteristics but, as you will find in the chapter Aerodynamics of
High-Speed Aircraft, to improve high-speed capabilities. The
requirement of powerful engines on high-speed aircraft makes it
possible, however, to take advantage of the high critical A.o.A of swept
wings, despite the increase in drag.

Applications of controlled vortex flow.

Many modern jet fighters and the supersonic transport aircraft,
Concorde, take advantage of controlled vortices when flying at low
speeds or sharp turns. This allows an aircraft like the Concorde to
have a sufficiently low speed for take-off and landing on most
international airports despite its Mach 2 cruising speed and its lack
of other types of high lift devices.

© TFHS and NAR 8 - 17

 © TFHS and NAR

Controlled vortices

Co
nco
rde

Fig. 8.39

The curved double delta wing planform of this aircraft is a combination

of both good supersonic and low-speed characteristics. When flying
at normal and high speed the airflow behaves much like that of
a normal wing, but at low speeds there are several controlled
vortices over the wing (shown in the previous picture) which allows
very high A.o.A without flow separation.

Today´s jetfighters often have a strake in front of the wing root to make
the same controlled vortices improve lift at high A.o.A required for
high turning rates as well as for good low-speed characteristics.

29
ig
M

Fig. 8.40

Controlled vortices may be used to improve low-speed

characteristics and on jet fighters also to improve
turning performance.

The following picture shows controlled vortices on the

wing leading edge extension as well as on the wings.

Fig. 8.41 Photo: FLIGHT International July -97

8 - 18
 Principles of Flight Lift augmentation/modification.

Vortex generators.
When the aircraft designers have failed to reach the design goal (for
example the effect of a control surface) they may use so-called vortex
generators to improve the aerodynamic characteristics of that sur-
face. As said before, any vortex generates an increase in drag,
increasing the the CD0, therefore we start with a clean surface.
However, the improvement achieved by using vortex generators may
be so great that the increase in drag is excused.
Vortex generators may be used to improve the performance
of an aerodynamic surface at high A.o.A .

Vortex generators are very small, often only ~2 cm high metal pieces
located in front of the area that needs improved flow characteristics.

They are angled towards the airflow in such way that they induce
undisturbed air from above into the low energy turbulent boundary
layer in front of the flow separation; they energise it, and consequently
a higher A.o.A is allowed before flow separation occurs.

Boundary layer without Vortex generator

Thick turbulent boundary layer

Undisturbed air Separation

Turbulent b.l.

Boundary layer with Vortex generator

Thin turbulent boundary layer

Undisturbed air
Turbulent b.l.

Fig. 8.42

Vortex generators take undisturbed air from above the

boundary layer into the low energy turbulent boundary
layer; they energise it, allowing a higher A.o.A

A quite common application of vortex generators on the upper surface

of the wing in front of the ailerons, is shown on the picture below.

The generators allow greater aileron deflections at low speed without

aileron stall.

Flow separation without

vortex generators.

Vortex generators Delayed flow separation

Fig. 8.43

© TFHS and NAR 8 - 19

 © TFHS and NAR
Vortex generators may be used for other purposes as well, e.g. to improve
high-speed characteristics and reduce drag. This will be further explained
in the chapter Aerodynamics for high-speed aircraft.

Reduced compression wave

Vortex-generators due to vortex generators
means less high-speed disturbances.

Aileron

Supersonic airflow
Fig. 8.44

A very sophisticated method to extend the laminary boundary layer

in order to decrease drag and increase stall A.o.A. is to suck the
turbulent boundary layer into wing through tiny holes on the wing
upper surface. However, the difficulty in keeping the holes free from
contamination has prevented this kind of boundary layer control
system being used on mass produced aircraft, it has seen only limited
use.

CAN YOU ANSWER THESE?

Why do controlled vortices delay flow

separation over a wing surface?

What is the disadvantage with controlled vortices?

Why are some aircraft designed to create controlled vortices?

In what range of speeds are controlled vortices created?

How do vortex generators work?

What is the advantage of vortex generators?

What is the disadvantage of vortex generators?

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