AERONEF STRUCTURE :
General composition of an aircraft
The Airplanes
Consider the overall structure of a small passenger aircraft:
We can therefore see that overall, whatever the type of aircraft envisaged and its function, we find
the same large parts in the structure:
- wings
- a fuselage
- an empennage
- one or more engines
Their shape and size vary depending on the use of the aircraft and the performance it is required
to achieve. But their function remains essentially the same:
- wings create lift and allow roll control.
- Tail provides stability and control in pitch and yaw.
- engines: provide the speed required for flight.
- Fuselage: to accommodate the crew and loading of the aircraft.
The helicopters:
For helicopters, the structure is significantly different due to the principle of obtaining lift. Let’s look
at the example of a Gazelle.
The lift of helicopters is provided by the main rotor whose blades play the role of the wings of an
aircraft. The helicopter is rotated in the opposite direction. The tail rotor compensates for this
parasitic movement. Without it the helicopter would not be controllable! On some helicopters, it is
replaced by a lateral gas ejection system from the turbine. This system is located at the end of the
tail.
The different aerodynamic formulas
The different wings
Aircraft wings can take very different forms depending on the performance required of
the aircraft: cruising speed, cruising altitude, aircraft weight, etc.
Their role remains the same: to ensure the lift of the device.
The most common examples of wing shapes are:
Rectangular trapezoidal soaring
Delta Elliptical Biplane
• If an aircraft has a pair of wings on either side of the fuselage, it is a monoplane.
• If it has two pairs of wings, it is called a biplane.
Inverted arrow gothic variable geometry
To be able to adapt to very wide speed ranges of about 200 to more than 2000 km/h, some combat
aircraft are equipped with a variable geometry wing.
The wings can also be wedged differently from the horizontal plane. We are talking about the wing
dihedral. This is the angle between the horizontal plane and the plane of a wing. It is positive if the
plane of the wing is above the horizontal and negative if not.
The wings can also be arranged differently from the fuselage. They can be high, mid or low:
Lengthening
The distance between the two ends of the wings is called the wingspan of the aircraft. It can range
from 5 m to more than 70 m depending on the aircraft. Another characteristic parameter of wings is
the lengthening defined by:
Where b represents wingspan. and S: the wing surface (including the part crossing the fuselage).
Transport aircraft and gliders have a significant elongation to ensure high lift while fighter or
aerobatic aircraft have a low elongation to allow good maneuverability.
Aircraft Forces and Construction Materials Used
During its evolutions in the air an aircraft undergoes forces of aerodynamic origin and supports the
effects of accelerations caused by the changes of trajectory. The different parts of the structure
and especially the wings are subject to various constraints. The diagram below shows the various
Efforts that apply to aircraft structure:
For example, a wing undergoes bending stress due to its lift.
When turning, a torsional stress is added.
If you look at the wings of a glider in a tight turn, you will see that the upper surface is subjected to
compressive stress and the lower surface to traction stress. The various rivets are subjected to
shear stress.
The construction materials and their thickness are chosen according to the stresses they will
undergo in flight. It is therefore possible that different materials will be used for the fusel age and
wing, for example.
Depending on the size and flight speed of the aircraft, the intensity of the stresses varies greatly,
leading to the choice of different materials and geometries.
Historically, the first construction material used in aeronautics was wood. It is both flexible and
resistant, and species such as spruce, mahogany, ash and fir can be used to build solid structures.
COMPOSITION OF AN AIRCRAFT
An aircraft is made up of the following components :
- the wings, which provide lift ;
- the fuselage, which carries the payload and connects the wings to the stabilisation and
manoeuvring components;
- the empennages or stabilisers ;
- the control surfaces or manoeuvring components;
- the landing gear, which supports the aircraft on the ground;
All of the above make up the airframe of the aircraft. On the other hand, the on-board equipment
and the powertrain are not part of the airframe.
The different fuselages:
The fuselage must be able to carry the crew, fuel and payload (if any) and must also be able to hold
the various parts of the aircraft together to ensure the cohesion of the whole.
With the increasing use of composite materials, fuselages with complicated shapes are becoming
more and more common.
Here are a few examples:
8-shaped fuselage. Square fuselage
boat hull fuselage cylindrical fuselage
Please note:
The fuselage in boat hull and in 8 it can be adapted to very specific uses.
The fuselage is a box whose rigidity is ensured by torques and stiffeners, in the same way as for
the wing, its covering can be wood, metal, composite or fabric.
Fuselage structure :
There are three classic solutions for designing a fuselage:
1. Lattice structure
The elements making up the lattice structure are generally made of tubes joined together by
welding. The material used for these tubes is an aluminium alloy, except for certain parts that have
to transmit higher loads (engine mount). The longitudinal elements are called stringers, and the
transverse reinforcements are called crossmembers.
The skin is fabric, which does not contribute to the strength of the airframe but does improve
aerodynamic flow. This type of structure is shown in the photo below.
2. The monocoque fuselage :
The monocoque fuselage is formed, as its name suggests, from a single shell. It is the skin, applied
to a series of frames used to give the shape, which absorbs all the forces. The skin therefore plays
a very important role in the rigidity of the whole and must bear a significant proportion of the stresses
exerted on the fuselage. It is therefore referred to as working. To achieve sufficient strength and
rigidity, thick, heavy sheet metal must be used. Monocoque fuselages are only found on small
aircraft. To lighten this structure, sandwich aluminium sheets are sometimes used. This type of
structure is shown in the photo below.
3. Semi-monocoque fuselage:
For this type of fuselage, the solution is to support spars on the frames. These provide the structure's
rigidity in place of the skin, which is no longer working and can therefore be lighter. However, the
spars make the structure heavier. To save weight, the number of stringers is kept to a minimum and
they are assisted in their role by rails, also known as stiffeners. These are transverse bars that also
connect the frames, but they are smaller than the spars. The semi-monocoque fuselage is very
common.
It is also common for the fuselage of an aircraft to be built in several sections with different structures.
This makes it possible to optimise the weight of the aircraft by choosing the structure according to
the stresses applied to a particular part of the fuselage.
