SYLLABUS UNIT1 WAVE OPTICS ¥ NEWTON'S RINGS ¥ MICHELSON’S INTERFEROMETER ¥ FRAUNHOFER DIFFRACTION FROM A SINGLE SLIT Y DIFFRACTION GRATING: © CONSTRUCTION, © THEORY AND SPECTRUM ¥ RESOLVING POWER AND RAYLEIGH CRITERION FOR LIMIT OF RESOLUTION ¥ RESOLVING POWER OF DIFFRACTION GRATING v X-RAY DIFFRACTION AND BRAGG’S LAWINTERFERENCE OF LIGHT ‘whan to or mare Ight wave supe'npose to each ote and dew this resultant amplude and intzsiy gets rmodited, this modifeation of htenty blaine by superposition among Pestatemlie ot owe tonremenctes NERS, ce {8 some points here ine is rmaimin, imeterene & eed § Consmucrie fm asian ait hs FHANGES) anda ome points, were interiy iim, inkererece cal DESTRUCTE (OBTANED DARK rrincrs snc we kro Am At Aa Ast ne Tet Ant AE scant lt ESULISOF YOUNG DOUBLE SUTS BERMENT: | trcuRe—a) (reset 2 Tens To RE = Ay Ay 2A AnCORS ) Here Ay =Ampltide of unee Amplitude wave 2 (5 = Pras ference of wave I and 2 2. FRINGEWIOTH:since Here PATH DIFFERENCE a = Dishes offtinge fam cone binge 42 = Distance between so ats D = Distance betenn lis ae sere, FORanIGHT INGE: fea? FRINGE WioTH FORDARK FRINGE: a=qnen FRINGE WOTH, (CONDITION FOR SUSTAINED INTERFERENCE: light wateshould becoherent Shows have samerequency ‘Shou have same wavelenth Sroud heve approximate same arpltide Separation behuee two sit shoul! be very smal ‘Separation between screen and sts shouldbe lage Fane of polerizaton stouls be same NEWTON'S RING: Newtons rng are 2 serles of concent lcular gs (Bight & Darky which appears about the point of contact between a gas plate and 2 plano convex lens wher aDPERIMENTALSET UP, When Plano convar las of lage foal lengths placed on a plane gass plate with as convex surface i in contact with gies plate a film af arylng thickness being Irepared cetween the lower surface of seaman lens and upper surface of glee plate. At ‘he point of contact ai fm thickness wil rem, Wher a bean of ight is made ttl rormally on it, concertre ngs ae cbserved with the hep of microscope tach rng is of reular shape with concinire nature ae called as NEWTON'S DETERMINATION OF THICKNESS OF AIR FILM BY USING NLR EXPERIMENT ‘he path diference produced between the waves nn ‘lice by thers an ’ conanas aetgregrtg +2 ———) a {8 show in figure from the Pythagoras Theorem on L ny wlangeecrn ‘ ano comics RE= (ON)? yt —a fa ° aman Since N= RMD 2h @“Which gives the thickness ofa fm forma (between plano convex lens and plane elas plate tothe ‘erresponding Newton's Ring DIAMETER OF BRIGHT RINGS: ‘Tre path diflerence in rected rays Rand Rs a cacy 8 oor order of betes amosdtt=m autgeosd= Qn=1)2 # BnOw | (ea = ays aap? Weenow that therefore pling the value fn equation 5. Qn} ——# fen ye ———— torrie ve ‘Tre pat dference in reflected rays Rand Re ant cos(0)+ For dak rings ened aut osttt=@nty2 — —10) 2p ty eosf @ 0 then cot ans Hr 0 then cose 8 eel saver we . in « ———ts « ——— on or braiey st ae as DETERMINATION OF WAVELENGTH OF MONOCHROMATIC LIGHT USING NEWTON'S. RING EXPERIMENT: Sreeweknow: Diameter of dark sings foamy Cr and tort 9) sar ine Dugg? = (2C0-+ PAR Now Daig?— 0,2 = Ean + aR] ~ [anal Bais? — Doe = 4a(MICHELSON INTERFEROMETER: ‘An interferometer is a device that can be used to measure length or changes in length with great _zcuracy by mearsof interference fringes. The basic prep ofthis was given by AA MICKELSON, EXPERIMENTAL SETUP: ‘he escent parte of Mcheleon interferometer are set of two dentcl same mirror Mj and Ms (hry poled] plane gas plate thats semi sthwred (as beam ster) one another glass plat (as compensatory at), ammorochromatc ight source, and a elescope The experimental setup is shown in figure in whion oth the mirors Mi and Mz are kept at 90° ance (oerpendicular to each other) anda beam spliter kept between them ae shown. WORKING: When a light wove from 3 rmoncehromat ight soute, Incident at 45° ‘on to beam sites ht wave spi So ar. One wave rfiess to the miror Mi and other trait founds he ior Ma, Wave 2 passes through compensatory pate and incident on mtror M2 then t reflects to thesame path, Wave diractly incident to te miror MM {and reflect to the same path These two waves and2' now reaches tothe point on beam spite a same time. Duet these waves generated trom a single weve and zero path dflerece, wil show the phenomena of INTERFERENCE and wil produce interterence i: ings ROLE (WORKING) OF COMPENSATORY PLATE: “The wm elected at Mi cronies the glans pate (seam splitter) ‘tice while the otver wave doesnot pass throug iteven ance. So an extra ‘optical path 2p i introduced in uve 2 where" a te ticks of the pate andy Srelvactve inden Wes essential to compensate this difeence we have w introduce 2 glass plata wth same thickness and refractive index o the path of wave 2 Soy tha extra path siforencecan null.FORMATION OF FRINGES AND SHAPE OF FRINGES ‘Avirual mage of mira: My formed botween the My 2nd beam spite near by themirror My due thre refection at beamsplitter. Inthis way 2ath difference of wave i and wave 2 becomes zero. A thin fm ofa formed between Mb and Mi. sothe Finges produced dus the tis thin alr fll. These fringes can be sight, ireilaror paraeolc in shape. These shapes depencs onthe path dference and the angle betwoen the mie? Muand Ma. CIRCULAR FRINGES: When mittor Ma and My ae enacly perpendicular to mach other, then cae Finges are formed. Let and ss ae vrtval imag of thasource due to Mi and MY. Let de the distance between My and Mi’ or the icf so thedstance between Sy and Sy wl be 24 ‘The path difference between ght waves coming from Si and So wil be 2a cosd. When one light wave it reflected rom denser medium to rarer meu, aaditonal path ference of V2 wil be produced so the path tierence on 2d cost = (2n—1)2 {Wis equator when plates wil gve a curve wth same cusand the wil belnctailarshape, DETERMINATION OF WAVELENGTH OF MONOCHROMATIC LIGHT USING MICHELSON INTERFEROMETER: ‘To determine the waveleneth of ght, aust Michelson Interferometer in sch away that circu fringes 172 observed. Now move the mivor Mk wit the hep of micrometer sew. The inges rss the fld of view, When M2 is moved 4/2 then an addtional path dfference of willbe Intreduce, foronefringe shi, the miror ‘moves trough a distance equal to half wave length. Therumber of fringes that cross the Fld of view ‘counted. ‘Soca we inow the condition of dark fringe atte centers 2A cos =nSerr fae dng both sides athens d fer Y= Itis clear that when d— d +A/2 thenn + (n+ 1) Inother word, on moving miror ML by stance unnbethenunbaren atoms taf hon The 2 - = DETERMINATION OF DIFFERENCE IN CLOSE WAVELENGTH RESOLUTION OF TWO. SPECTRAL LINES: 2 source of two closely spaced spectral nas A, and A: is used to determine the aference In thesa wavelengths. Firstiy, we have to ast Michelson Interferometer to produce circular finges. Pater s now adjusted ‘p obtain maximum distinctness. This is possbe when the nth order fringe of longer waveleneth coincides with Ineterder of shorter wavlerath 2d cos ay Forts 2a eos (ut Now miror M, i moved through distance x so that pattern of maximum dstncnessis again ebtained Le. m ‘rngas of, crosses tre nei] Finges of Ar wavelength as 0) and =Ie or nei= (2) a. F Subtracting equation 2 am n4i-ne=(2-2 ene)DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT ‘The bend ng of ght around an obstacle or si and spreading out in the geometrical shadow ical ifration, ‘traction of ght depends on “+ Sue ofobstaci a) + Woveleneth of ight (N traction Is of ewo oes: 1, resne’s piracton 2. Fraunhote’s Difacton 1. FRESNEV'S DIFFRACTION: In this typeof fraction source and screen are ata finite distance fiom ditacing Sener. The incdent wave front ‘may be crear or endri but shoul not be plane In this tesratical analysis much complex. 2. FRAUNNOFFERS DIFFRACTION =f this kind fraction sour and screen kat a infinite and served by using lens. The theoretical analysis simple the pazarnisimage of source FRAUNHOFFER'S DIFFRACTION AT SINGLE ‘QUALITATIVE DESCRIPTION: > we know sits rectangular aperture whore length i|arge compared to it width. As showin igure at SS th width of a. A wave font eriginaes fom the source § which aller rfacion through the les becomes ‘ane. Las ts groduce an image PO on Screen according to geomereal optics ght Is obtalned In ifferent recon on scree. One of thesa images PIs kept in consideration, which sbascalyafracte ight wave and Images are affraction pattern. The path differance between te secondary wavelet focusing at point P and tracted at an angle of 0 iskTherefore A5:5K sin sek 5,588 ae asia’ ‘QUANTITATIVE DESCRIPTION: - z sok asad An aand and 8 Bx Se 2 Ex nds 2a on Sopot the mi ont tre roms 5 ean acne hou ian tava repletion with ny oft swan WAfut trom the dagram rasutant amolude of wavefront wile Stance between sits Le. oprsantad by avracirum ample of wae rot Si; 510 Salromidinge Fromas,00 o Hee l= (Pag)? ond $= ad oR 05, sind 2 88, +205, anf SiS 5,8, = 2 sins oa ssi pie Ina ae (2) INTENSITY DISTRIBUTION IN SINGLE SUT DIFFRACTION PATERN: 4. INTENSITY AND POSTION OF CENTRALMAXIMAA:- ars eo aanThen isan indete inate form OF mtg Teta (Maximum) 2. pOsMONOF mamiMA: (ef We know that intensity willbe minimum wher * From ur @ cannot be er, because of condition of principal marina Sree ino sing =0 ae ine crwecansay a= i, $2m, 23m, 4 dan 2a = a sind Therefore ae aetat o ae arts? INTENSITY AND POSITION OF SECONDARY MAXIMA: me to Sl S(e 4) Saag (9Fr seeondary matin 2) =) =o neo md (Os wa ‘The narsecion point cf these two curves wll bet poston of secondary maxima. The value of aan represent = east gh game INTENSITY OF 25" MAXIMA, aca Sin INTENSITY OF 2" SECONDARY MAXINAA os Migs oes erwecmsny 15 striata ateWIDTH OF PRINCIPLE MAXIMA: ‘Thedstance between irsttwo minima & called widthof prininle maxima. itthelons Ls werynearto sit 5 and Sy or the sere iar amay From the lens sofromdiagram sng-t 0 fut asin and ane ——a ‘romequaton 1 and 2PLANE TRANSMISSION DIFFRACTION GRATING: Aitaction erating isa set of multiple entcl sits senaates by stance comparaéle tothe wavelength of Heb ‘Aifaton gratings an optical device tha irat ight nto its consent wavelength coNsTRUCTION: — Gating 242 made by ruling large cumber of fre, equidstance and paral Tes on an opteal plane ensparent gass with» fire 22 opaque 1 Ight, ie it do not allow light to pas through them tthe te space is betwen them a vanspatent ‘THEORY: Leta parallel ght beam af mannchmmatisUeht nf ‘wavelenghAbe incident normally ‘on N> parallel sits each of wth ‘Ff and soparatd by dssance ", such an arrangement provdng forge numoer of paral Attraction gating. “The [th scaled "THE OFFRACTION GRATING ELEMENT Let the ifaced Fit be focused Ly ens lyon seme 2¥.Theattom cbtalnad on the seraen Is thed fraction zattern deta plane ansmisson difracton grating. ‘As weknow or soglasitresuant ample s = pao ("5") and a~Fasing here @ = Angte of diffraction Whe otal numberof st Nn resutt waves interfere fom thse Nsts ard gives interference pata (2 maxima and minima) 1 SR, SM Spy won Sy-aKi-u Swi 22 e perpendicular. Therefore, the path derence can be ‘abcd as from ASS So ss sinSK) =5, 5; sin Sak = (#6) sin Simiary SK: =(at8) a8 bod Sil = (0-48 snd shee xa 1 o 3 x (os 8) sind = 28 (te “ For Nwaves inthe ection @ havingacommen phasedfference 28 and comman amaltude as (3) From lagram let wavefront (arc $,$,) dvded into equa parts where ‘si S15 = S38 mnvlange cso SytSy=® SM = (C5) sinnp Sie = 25.80. Sie = ACS )sinDNp ——8 FROM 4 CHS snp = Sv 65; ing 5 = 26.0) SiS: = 2065, sn) ——#1 Now fromeuation (6 and (2 Se 20S aN Ss Tessin Susu (485 (28)R= (551)= pae() = 815 = pao (tt) (2282) = pa CG) GF = ay EY € T= (pa)! (8) Se Hae fe= peal and sing and BE x(ate)sin@ Equation (2) gives the resultant intensity due aN parallel sits transmision gating INTENSITY DISTRIBUTION IN DIFFRACTION GRATING: - INTENSITY AND POSITION OF MAXIMA (PRINCIPLE): wrensirv: [pa So intensty willbe maximum When P= knw where = 42.3, sinyp=0 testo (indeterminate form) fesann, tertore smn = tm ar pate SomeOSITION OF PRINGPLE MAKIMA: since inf peane twine E (04H) snd= crwcansy (bps = ind Fosmion oF MINIMA ror detemiirg he postion finns sing #0 NB: patte rertere Flaeepsing nate sa the condition minima (a+ b)sim Where has llth Integral values except m = 0.20, 1 because these value of, (2 1) aind = 4nd which corresponds to then postions of princpal maxima, 9 enditin of minima s Here m =0 ghesagain a Principal Maxima, m = 1,23, u<(N—1) gwes minima and then 1N ges the first order principal maximum. Hence there are (W — 1) equally spaced minima between two adjacent principal maxima INTENSITY OF SECONDARY MAXIMA: - cae) ]=° ~ cap emt aevesmininae thereore only sinf cost ipeonp=0 ong = tana tonne = ton Drawing entangle wage for bs uation fromthe gromety ans ae = NE en Sparing both side suas aes Gna?ps gee ae Tee DETERMINATION OF WAVELENGTH USING PLANE TRANSMISSION GRATING: - ‘The wavelangth of light specrum can be measure using ounces — cOUNAOR TG, if the angle of eifeacion is @ for the spectral ine Of apgee MURR we an wavelength nthe nth order of specrumy then = (@+b)sing, =m 0 seat IPTG have 15000 ines per ch so EXPERIMENT: Before performing the experiment the {ellowing ajustment are made: |. Eyepiece of telescope focus on the crost wire i. The collmatr Is adjusted to produce parallel rays and the telescope to focus the parallel ays. ‘The rating is adusted on prism table normal to the callmator for this purpose the sit of collmator is Huminated by the source of lent Now the postion of telescope is adjusted such a way that 7 the image of the sits Focuttd onthe vertical cross wire of crore 5 the telescope. In ths postion the collimator and the fas telescope aren the same ine (T;Posion).The postion of, noted on cir ular scale. Now itis turne st 90* (postion) and camoed(Gghtened), The given PTE is mounted at the centre of pik tablesuch thatthe PT2 perpendicular tothe table.‘he prem table & now rtatad so thatthe image of te cit reflected fom the grating surtace lis atte intersection ofthe rom ire In this postion the grating i at 65" to the incident ght. The prism tables sultabiy otated rough 4° n such 2 ‘way that gating s exaty normal 10 the Icdert lent. The prism table lama inthe postion srepgereren When te sree eis ight of diferent wavelength the bears xz (21 sporsad by tre grating and In sac order a spectrum of fh avert robin The eke sow tre Yo LS fe F ode sacrum. Te vaing of he vr 8 G— aN weorses The rnings of te sme vere she tar the ange ot ETE wget {acini heir pong evden crows omen ake re ‘TO DETERMINE THE ABSENT SPECTRA: Ifthe angle of eiffracton @ is sch that inima de othe difracon component in the inert dssbuton fal atthe samepasiton uhereprnsa maxima due io intarference components sivated then hat order of, ‘incpal maxima le absontin te spectrum such sera recalled absant spectra ‘The contion of minima in itfraction patterns even by asin = tm, oy ihe oder prinip macnn thi econ then (o4bsine= dnd —w From [t}an 2} fy oe ‘Soorder of Abeant spectraSncem = 123. then m= 2456. oa 2a then asam Since m= 123, then = 609... [MAXIMUM NUMBER OF ORDER OF SPECTRUM OBSERVED: Principal animain gating spectrums hen by! (e+) sino = and a (order of Principal maxims ase wee! ‘8s maximum posse ange of difraon + 90 HGH C1 terme <1 Onyzmmcrde mm robs ¥ (e462 thermaae = E62 thon pe mal cosered heseand and gb erdes wi eabertasoon, {OTH OF PRINCIPAL MAXIMA ‘econo otf der Prine manna be avn in heaton ange ge by +h sna = ae eeceral Now letne nearest minima on bot side ct prlnpal maxima aein the direction of (9 ~ d8) and (8 + 8} then 20-wilbe angularwidlof Princip main for treesiton of minima Nat ysin(@ £40) =p ——a Where pisapostweintege except 0,2 « u. Where Nistotal amber ofits For order maxima wl be Ma b)sin = aw A = 21 il gt potion Princpal Max Sofor the minima then! order Piel Ma. ponwtt L esoin@san ston tndG+ sinoananse® tomeniint an sie (sct) sab Snced@ tesmaljso asd@ = 1 andsind® = 40 keto dot Ore Therefore, angular with 2deRESOLVING POWER:- When two objects or image are very dose together they may appears 2s one» and it may not be possible for eyes to see them as separate. The method of separating out sich cose objects. or images scaled RESOLUTION, ‘The ability of an optical instrument or eyes to form separate images of such two objects (very close) s called ite rcowing ower RESOLVING POWER = os oe eso'ving powarof eyes is sbout "or wecan say x 10° rad. AYLEIGH'S CRITERION FOR RESOLUTION = ccording to Rayleigh, two close pont sources or Images of nearly eaual intensity are sald to be ust resolved by ‘opie instrument, when the cantral maxima of the difracton pattem of one source coincides wth the ist rinimam of the dffcection pattern of the other In case of just resolution the distance or angular separation between te two sourcesiscaledreslution imiQUANTUM MECHANICS * Compton Effect and quantum nature of light * Derivation of time dependent and time independent Schrédinger’s Wave Equation. Physical interpretation of wave function and _ its properties, Boundary Conditions, Particle in one dimensional box.QUANTUM MECHANICS: INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM MECHANICS uanturn mecranes 2 physical scence dealing with the behavior of matter and energy an the scale of stom and subatoree partes / waves 1 alae Forres the Lint fr the aontmporaryuidaratning ofa vary ang obits sich a str ad tans, and cosmological everts suchas the Big Sang. can ke analyzed ard explained Quantum iasanies is Ue foundation of sever relate supine lua hanolecnoloyy, wondered ‘matter physies, quantum chemistry, structural logy patie phys, ae elecrrons. nother ways we can say tha the xchange of erwigy betwen the radiation and the matter takes place In discrete set of values In view ofthe application of quantum theory, iis necessary to be aware of the photon. PHOTON : MASS, ENERGY AND MOMENTUM Photon san elementary particle, that is masless and has no charge. Iisa bundle of energy or nacket of energy emitted by a zourceofraaton. moves with velocity af ight. ean cary energy and momentum, \We know thereition between velocity of ight and mass of particle | ree Where mis the relativistic mas of the particle and! meisits rest mas. Since the photon is moving with the velocty ofthe light, we substtute vin such equation, mass of photon becomes m=, i. rot possible. Sut we takamn0= zero and ve then this lls m= 0 tis Indeterminate quant. means wa take restmassof the photon to bezeo,thisvalue should not partially dlsturb us due thefact at ephotors ‘re never at rest and aways keep moving with the veloc of light Thergy of photons given below a Fe Bod B= mc? wi aaa ome Since the energy relation pict + mgt ct SIncems = 0 and £ = pe andthe momentum ofthe shoton ven by ac Ths, fa photon of faquency vst be Weatadl 36a particle, thn the charaeterists of the photon are drenas:AS and p= y= 0. = hv. WAVE PARTICLE DUALITY: “The phenomens of Interference, difracton and polarization can be exluined onthe bass of wave theory fight. However, the wave natu ofligt fais to explan the phenomena of Compton effec, photoelectric ‘fet, the continsous Yay spectrum and the blackbody radiation. Inte het ofthese faces can sys the particle rature of elecromagnetic radiation These elie phenomena can be explained an the basis of quantum hypothesis, ccrding to which electromagnetic radiation is prozagated in small packets or thuncles These packes are called otons. Kt means that light or electromagnetic radiation exhibits wave and parle properties both. Hence, light oF electromagnetic rad ation has dual nature, Le itbenaves lke 3 partie aswell as a wave This dual character property of adatcn i called dual ature of ligntor wave partie duay COMPTON SCATTERING: ‘When ign requeney monochromatl(X-RAY| beam struck on net nour than there curing of waves of two types out of CMON Oran a” materi whic, one has less frequency than the Incident i radiation and other has same frequency ofthe iaddent radiation. ‘Tl phenomanon is now 25 COMPTON SCATTERING COMPTON EFFECT BY QUANTUM THEORY: According to this theory the radiation ic quantized Le, Ie ‘eviied inthe form of bundles or packets of energy caled rote. tn Compton Effect due to an elastic clson between roxan and electron, photon transfer some enerey to electron te itlnses energy. The catered photon wl hve smaller eneray hu” and consequent 3 lower frequency than thatof incident photon, THEORY: Letaphoton of enerey Av colds with are electron iin ret After elite It gains some kinetic energy and sats moving in or at an angle of and the sattred photon start moving at an angle of @ wath crear nd monet a a a mace ™ a a = so E = pay was ‘aad a = : TaATER COULEION ane pecording w conse vation of energy TOTAL ENERGY BEFORE COlLSION=TOTAL ENERGY AFTER COLLISION. ho + mac’ wht me? ——1) ‘ecording to consewvation of memartum along the direction of indent photon (X at) my ced @ ‘According to conse vation of momentum perpendicular tothe direction of incident photon (Yai) oto= ee aw th Rewriting the equation (2 and(3) fa ba cos @ = moe cos ——« sin = moe sing 8) squarng and adeing equaton(3} and (S| Poe (cost + sin?) (hw o'cos 03? + (tn sine)? P02 Wy Fear? — 2untcoad + Rv! Pain? PvE Hv? (cas?@ + siv?0) = 2K’ eas Pott = uty Ky? —2htuv'cos mvt = (ew? 2un'cos8) —9 row from equation 2) fo + mgc® = fn! + mc? w= 0) + get = mc 0 squaring his equation (7) vw) + mete = (me? Bev + nde #2 ho =v) mac mich WR AUF 2uU)E mich 2A 0") mat mt Pu ERY Devel + met 42M =v) mye? — —f8)Now subtractngequation (5) and 8) mich mat = FEN ta ous wet ZN —W) meet Po? Hu? + 2 eae) 9) & mgt = 2h we? con 8) + mde + DALY — 0 me? 0 = 28 vo! (e088) + 2M — ve DAF we CL cas) 2ACH— WD mye ‘This ference of wevalangths called 2s Compton wavelength shift COMPTON WAVELENGTH: Since rom comgton shift an azo fe Le ere 26625 10 Js Planek’scorstant) my = 941 x 107 Kg, em 3x 108 m/soe therefore ap = 0.02424 and = 0.0242 (1 - eos)cso =0 Therefore = A= A= A, cose Therefore AA = 2 Ae = 0.0484DIRECTION OF RECOILED ELECTRON: Snce the conservation of momenturmin X-ax'sand Y-axis fv hv cosd = moe cose —— iv sind = moe sine ——a from equation 1) and 2} ——) nose) - Seay aD Thesfore = 1+ a (1 cos) ance sin20 = 2sind cos KINETIC ENERGY OF RECOILED ELECTRON: ecorcng to energy conservation: enargyloz: by photo = hv! = KINETIC ENERGY (onxaxs (onan Mattnving with vKES iv) Kea m(-% fromemuson n= 14 ett e088) nea b(t artop neta ee sve ~ inl ~ sic 0/2 Trethore Bn hwa Se ee (When ef Bn Be (al when 80 Km (sana FREQUENCY AND ENERGY OF THE SCATTERED PHOTON: The frequency of scatternd shoton i given byv’.sincewe know + a(t 0086) and To 0, THE ENERGY OF SCATTERED PHOTON: () whee 2 = 4 photon scattered baseward then i = te (when x/2 When photon lsscatered perpendicularly Wee (i) when “Tere sno scattering than fol = hwWAVE FUNCTION: Wives n general are associated with quant ties that vary periodiali Incase of mater waves, the quantity that varies period aly scaled wave funtion, ‘The wave function i attoc'ated with a raving particle at partcuar point [x y,2) n spacetime ¥ gives the complete descripton of motion and behavior of partici under the potential sepia. is denoted by W (Sct) Wiave function has no physica signification bu It gives the probablltycf fing the particle at any polnt or anywherein the space at time POSTULATES OF QUANTUM MECHANICS: 3. wave function W (x, % 1] Isa quantum mechanical state whicn deterbes a physica sytem completely 2. ‘Teintnsityof2 wave maton spropartnalto the square of amplitude, Le. wecansayis WO y.2.0F 3. The wave function can beexressed by 2 complet function ss conugate il + Then Ite y.2.0l 1 Ca. Kaa then yt VOX ¥e0 ¥ A. Theprobabttyof finding a partie In an interval cx of atte tis P= Wyn 0l dx Simlary, probably of finding a partie na volume element dv = dx dy ds about at any point Fat @ ‘ime Beven by Pandy = Wey2.0P av Pode =v (y.20.Y yz Ody Here Pa) is define asthe probabllty density or srobabity per unitvolume. Sototal probability = [SIP (xy. 0Pav © [Lm veute = 0 thenpartcledoesnotexistte y20F de 1 Particle exist somewhere in space at al tme NORMALIZATION CONDITION: Since the probabityisequalto one hen H [Swwarayde =f waedy= 4 This sknown as normalization condition. ORTHOGONAL WAVE FUNCTION: When Two diferent wavefunction are multiplied anc integrate with rezpect to all space results zero then thisconditionisknownasorthagonal condition and ths nd of functions ar called MUTUSL ORTHOGONAL, Tan space 9} 7 San spaces ¥iaV = 0 Here tet AVERAGE VALUE: co tere 8 Awavetuncton W must satisty the condition that the wave function W and its ist derivatives ia. Yard 3, 26,2 must be frite,entinuous se valu al ewergahere and zero a are distances SCHRODINGER’S EQUATIO! ‘chrocinger’s Equation gles the dasction af dymamls of quantum Wechanis. mn clasieal mechanles tha state of mation of 2 parle Is specified by ging the partials positon and veloc. rn Quantum Mechanics the stateof maton of apart sspasted by gvng te wave function. The clase equation of motion Is fe ma In Quantum Mecranis the equation of motions SCRODINGER'S TIME DEPENDENT EQUATION. Which determine the wave funcson at anytime’ TIME DEPENDENT SCHRODINGER’S EQUATION:- Leta partcleis moving alone X- Acs so there must be» wave with moving pertce. The weve furtion Wis ven by: vee aeteen 4)Here k= n/a (Wave Nurmbes) © Anguier frequency = 2m a —_— oh he —) any Boho sey rn —— ‘ed momentum aa puting value of ham equation 4 SAMA since med Peak of kap/h in pret wei and puting thee values oft and kin equation (1) Wlat) = Aetere ven sack) Va =adkery iy ‘This equation sealed as wave equation fo ENERGY OPERATOR: free partie. rosacea seion Bt po eon » EMD Bye.0 =i B= tn2 —stinomnantreyopea Simtarty, we can derivate momentum operator by ifereniatng equation (6 with respect to"?ee netosee Ere veo peao= hae a path. ‘Thisis known as Momentum Operator. Sncewelnow wialenergy = KEP. seekectme=E tees eo Bay orumcansy Eye ELayy or ne GBs ne -5 ee cr we can rewrite tn MEE PH yyge) —0) Tis equation is own as SCHRODINGER'S TIME DEPENDENT ONE DIMENSIONAL WAVE EQUATION. For 3D form, ig AF FYE yy.) 2 Gt B+ 8) wor veo vo 8 2 etyo vee i # “ + Gatas ‘9 reuring the aquation (338 sn 00 [Ee +000] 96.0 n= nye) 101“Eu sve (WAMITONIAN OPERATOR) — 11) ‘TIME INDEPENDENT SCHRODINGER’S EQUATION: Sce we know wave fnaion’s peuyaactioneo Seporatine variable we can wite wha = Ae ACD WED BE) oH err Partiaiy iferentiating with respect to ves dent) = ve. ( — Partial iferentiating with respec toys hemo = Lv@ek ‘Aaain partial diferentatng with respect to yids Sve pie tO ——1) ‘Snce we know time dependant SCHRODINGER'S EQUATION Is: yan 8 aya OS ee Replacing the values from equaton (1) (2}and (3) and also reclacing (x, f) to V(x) Faw Ve HED, ME 14 EID HE erro) -Cnewe = -£ 5G) + HG). 6G) le-vewe)=-EZ v0 ES vot t-veiww= 0 oe ° 6G) +23 E- Vow) = 0 ne) This equation is known as TME INDEPEN DENT 1-0 SCHRODINGER'S CQLATION, SSmlarly wean ure TME INDEPENDENT 3-DSCHRODINGER'S WAVE EQUATION,FREE PARTICLE IN A ONE DIMENSTIONAL BOX: lt us suppose that a partie of m mass is maving lang: Ars in ne dimensional box. The parce ire romovebetucenx = 0 andx = a betuaen the wals of box). sincate pomntial atthe walks infinice s0 particle cannot juma or penetrate the walls So, particle doesnot exist outside of wal of box. So the ‘ave function outside the bos. we) =0 x80 ad xba So,the potenti of parce canbe defined 25 af 0= crea YOD= fg AE coms ba ‘Snce TIME INDEPENDENT ONE-DIVENSIONAL SCARODINGERS SQUATION 1 Se@m+Ze-velva= 0 wethin the box V(x) Sew+2 eye Bvt! y= 0 The genera solution for enuation (2) 8 YO) = Asin + Beosiex o “81 Here A and & are constants and can bedetermineby using boundary condition so using boundary canton cnequaton 3) yoo at xno PUTTING muEQuAON 3 o=o+8 azo WEE) = Asin * — ‘gain, from zoundarycondtion #e) = Asinka o or kam al hasun o———61 Nowsnoowe ke 122 22 6 and — oe Fa 2E#| ——_ststnownacevenerenensuNeTON se Ee com teds9s tes "Now to calculate the value of constant A: ule (OF de = 1 {NORMALIZATION CONDITION) sintgn! cose) "its EQUATION 5 KNOWN AS EIGEN WAVE FUNCTION.SYLLABUS UNIT 3 COHERENCE AND OPTICAL FIBRE Spatial and temporal coherence, coherence length, coherence time and Q factor for light, Visibility as a measure of coherence, Spatial coherence and size of source, Temporal coherence and spectral purity. Optical fiber as optical wave guide, Numerical aperture, Maximum angle of acceptance and Application of Optical fiber.‘COHERENCE: wher two or more ight waves reaches to 2 point in space with a phase differences about 0 270 and ‘ninimum path ltference from source and having same wavelength frequency and amplitude then these ights wave wil be coherent foreach other and ths nature of ight waves know #8 COHERNCE, ‘he sources which emits coherent ight wave to each other known as COHERNCE SOURCES. ‘PES OF COHERENCE: 4, TEMPORALCOHERENCE 2. SPATIALCOHERENCE TEMPORAL COHERENCE: In TEMPORAL COHERENCE there is » definite relatorship between the phase of waves at 2 ven instant of ime, However, thre Ie no real source of light which foduces an ideal sinusoidal wave for longer time, An excited electron enits photon accurately sinusodal wave fer 10° sec. after this time Interval wave charges Its phase aeruatly (COHERNCE LENGTH AND COHERENCE TIME: The average time interval for wich definite phase ‘alatorship ests known as COHERENCE TIME (7) and the distance waveled by wave {s called a& (CONERNCE LENGTH Whee —_¢= Thespeadof ight = Coherence tine = Coherence length SSrce we know PURITY OF SPECTRAL LINESQiscmonie inv A oink Spatial Coherence ta definite phase alatorahip between two or more waves at two or more mointat centaindstarce fememurce Let us consider ight wave emitted from a point ys seurceand two point and Ps ae two ints are ‘quidistarce from the source $f the waves reach at points in same phase then thase two ints wil have perfect spatial coherence 6 y ‘SPATIAL COHERENCE AND SIZE OF SOURCE fe shown in igure there ae two site Si and S2 which ae at z equiitace trom source S. The dtance between Si and 52. ‘1 Themadinum atieof yor source Stand $2 rena coherent s Sneewelnowtordttrcton sing =n Mangeisveysmalthen ea w wd aunt wa aut ——w one ss, ——2 Now for sits Si and Sy be COHERENT azo Ose rom equation |2) and (2) ysixr Ya GRE b= ExeVISIBILITY ASA MEASURE OF COHERENCE: ‘Thevisbilty of coherent sources canbe defined asthe ratio of ilference between maximim intensity a iinet tothe sum of ean nde ies ‘srl sameasire of te degree of xherence of light wav at produce te interference Fringes. iftwo waves ofequalintensties superimpose inher entire length, they would rest in zero minimum intensity so we can say ver ‘Suen waves are said to bein gertet coherence with eath other and resultin maxima and minima ofthe highest degree of contrast, Ittwo waves donot vertapatal then Int = bin ten V=0 ‘Ten no tings are sean and the waves do not have any coherance. Now let us consid two waves each of intensity psuperingpose to eachother. Each af them consis of ‘coharentgartfe and incoherent part fg 2" kaCly and Ine = (=) Here Degree of coherence ‘Wher waves superimpose the coherent part should interfere adding hereby their amplitude Sncewe know For coherent part resultant amplitudes A-4A = 24 andt= (2A or Ina 4A or Imac 40h, Smery for incoherent part Jase Ine + Une Iain = Ze Inn = 20 Ola Trio “V= Teqiaa-okOPTICAL FIBER INTRODUCTION: Foer optics dees with lit propagation through thin glass fibers Fiber optic is an important and revolutionary communication system ta transmit voice and digital data sia from one place to another. The transmission of Ighnt along the thin glas Aber by unsing phenomena TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION (TI). BASIC PRINCIPLE OF OPTICAL FIBER: The basic principle of optic! fiber communication i transnision of optical signal using totl internal reflection TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION: iver the ent ay travels from denser mes to rare medium the refracted ry bends away from the rorma, When the angle of incidence Is gasterthan the critical angle, tre refracted ray recs into the same madium, Ths phresomann of reflection of ight ray fom a reractve surface i called 25 TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION, a © 4 cc) CONDITION OF TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION: (0) Ught should raul fom denser to rarer med wm @) Angeof incidence shoud be grater then critical angle (0 > 82)OPTICAL FIBER (Optical eri technolagy that uses glass, plasti threads or lores to transmit data. bre opticcable ‘mrss ofa bundle of eas threads which are protected byte outer covering of sera jackets, (pial bres use ight to carry gal signals ad is based an the cancept of otal nternal reaction. The ‘it signal that is carted by the leh is rellcted insde the optical cable and hence transfers the information For 8 patcilar case of an optical fibre whose core is made of glass which bounded by 2 plastic Cladding the ctical ange s 82. Therefore the ight when hits the plastic cadding at an angle more than 82 would be reflected bockin the same medium, ie, back othe ass core. CONSTRUCTION: The optical Fibreconsss of tree basic pats 4. CORE 2, ADDING 3, JACKETS CORE CLADING OUTER JACKET SILICON COATING STRENGTH MEMBER GACKET) gurreRJACKET CORE: care isthe lnnermost part of optial fare basally made of glass of plastic and of daneter of 8Qsm— 100m Signal ranvnisson's performed in ore CLADDING: 1 is coada eylndrcal tube of damete of 125,m- 150}m. mase of mateial having lower refracivendex than core. JACKET: “The outer cylindrical coalal tube made of laste or polymer provided for frotecton from envornmental changes such as tencerature, hurd, electrical and magnetic ft or tnete WORKING PRINCIPLE: When a ight ray I Incident a one and of te core of the fre, becuse of the ser radius of fibre ent cay going into the core makes anangtegreater than the ritcal ange and total internal election take place and ligt wil be refected back nto the core. Bnd so let ray repeated‘muliple refectons and propagtes along thefibre fram one end to the other end, ever if ight is putin carved rg-ag shape of be, Que to vey high reflectivity atthe core wo cladding boundary, light can be ‘ranemitted without any appreciable oss. in sleaglac bree more than 95% of the light Ie trancm tad ‘ove adistance.of1 km. and due ta this ghtte be transmitted over distances of nearly 250 Km without signifeant loss. Totransimision of signal though optical fibre Ui! The core materia should have higher refractive index (acre) than af the cadsing materia (Waas)-ie. ears > Hated (i) The angleotincdenceshould be graater than te cites angie. 2. > 8, CLASSIFICATION OF OPTIAL FIBRE: ‘Tere are several types cf antic fle avallie, onthe basi of thie usec we can classy optical fibre In following types BASED ON REFRACTIVE INDEX OF CORE MEDIUM 1. STEP INDEX OPTICALAIBAE 2, GRADDED INDEX OPTICAL FIBRE BASED ON MODE OF TRANSMISSION 1. MONO (SINGLE) MODE OPTICAL FIBRE 2, MULTIMODE OPTICAL FIBRE STEP INDEX OPTICAL FIBRE: In Step Index fibers the refractive inden ofthe core mediums urvform and undergoer an abrupt change atthe interface of core and cling. ‘Te transmitted optical signal will cross the fiber ans during every reflection at the core cladding ‘terface (Baundary|. A light wave, which travel along the core and mests the cladding at an angle ‘geater then the critical angle (2) mil be gone through the phenomena total internal reflection. This reflected ray will then meet the opposite surface of tre adding, again at the same angle Le, greater than erteal angle and so is again ttalInterrally reflected. So, the light wave stransmittd along the ‘ore corein a2g736 path. STEP INDEX MONOMODE OPTICAL FIBRE: When a single ight wave propagete through 25 known as Step Index Monomede Optical Step index optics forein a single time then this kind off re, wT ‘omer ‘STEPINDEX MONO MODE OPTICAL FIER ‘STEP INDEX MULTIMODE OPTICAL FIBRE: When mui ‘frequency and energy propagate along the step index optical fibre then this kind of optical fre is known as Multimede Optical Fibre. The various ight waves, traveling along the core, ull have propagation paths of differant length, so ‘they wil take cifferent tine to reach at another end (receiver) Then a distortion is produced which is. Called transt- tine dspersion. Due to this distorion, the variations of successive pulse of light may ‘overlap into each other casing distortion ofthe information being carriedGRADED INDEX OPTICAL FIBRE: The grated index optical fbre hat retractve index ot core decreases ina parabolic manner from a maximum value at te cenreol the core to aconstant value atthe cove-laiog interface ‘To understand the propagation of signals through sgaded index opticfibre (GRIN, consider indwidual light wave is being gradually retracted in the gaded index core instead of being TR by the cladding. $0 the waves traveling at aliferenct hheidence ange will travel a aitferent distances from the horizntal central aisbefore being TR pr {rom any layer of graded core medium. Veuas = CONSTANT cone eons = VARYING Weis clear from diagrams that signals with larger hclderce angles travel more path than those ‘signal wth emallerangies. ut as we know that the decrence of rafractve index allows 2 higner velecityot propagaton. So, all the waves wil reach agen point long the fire at virtually same time.ACCEPTANCE ANGLE AND NUMERICAL APERTURE: From fgure -eolvinglaws of refraction at point A sl too Singn= 00) ~ “he Hs SIN = Hare GO 8.) Ma S065 = Hare 08% ——~f8} fy 8g = Hare = BPD. °) ‘oping las of refraction a zone 3 Bian Here: f= 02 rmgoe a = OF eos Site = Hotes sing = Heat a Hens ts Hoare 8) 4)Putting this value n mation (2) Ha sin, = poor (1- Gy’) sine, = Hae [Tae a} tome Paes) ino, = fected veneer wae sinte= [oan aad NA= [lH ore Petae) NA VGicore + Hetaa) CHoore — Hetoa) A= VP ire Ccore = Hetnd) MORE are + Htae ~ Phere sere Hd) and = fractional dif ference of indexSYLLABUS UNIT4 LASER ¥ INTRODUCTION TO LASER v PROCESSES REQUIRED IN LASER ACTION ABSORPTION SPONTANEOUS EMISSION STIMULATED EMISSION ¥ RELATION BETWEEN EINSTIEN’S COEFFICIENTS ¥ PRINCIPLE OF LASER ¥ He-Ne LASER CONSTRUCTION WORKING ¥ SEMICONDUCTOR LASER CONSTRUCTION WORKING ¥ Q- SWITCHING AND MODE LOCKING v CHARACTERISTICS AND APPLICATION OF LASERLASER name stand for Laur Arupurication By Smmuareo Ennssion oF Raoiation. ‘he base principle imoWed in LASER ACTION isthe phenomenon of smiled enison which was predic by Eostcin in 197. Te phenomena ube pained atin ths chapter. (CHARACTERISTICS OF LASER ‘The folowing characteristic which dstinguishes alas beam rom an ordinary light ret 1. Wighiveoherence 2. Mabiyintense 3 Highiydractional 4, Henly monochromatic ‘THEORY OF LASER: ‘Adlon of LASER is based on quantum theory of light Production of LASER lgnt is @ particular ‘consequence of interaction of edition witr mater. As we know the traniion of energy ina sytem (ator) can cecurin tao stages. n one, the atom can absore eve'zy and goto higher energy lever. And in another one the atom or particle come back to the lower energy level by radiating energy. So a1 txternal radiation is incident onthe medium under norma state conditions thee are three processes take lace hich are 1. Absorpton 2 Spontaneous emission 3 Stimulates induced emsion 2. ABSORPTIONPROCESS: let usr, ke corstlr two aregy levals in an atom. The lower energy leva I denoted by Bind higher enesy lave is denoted by B,.2s the atom or partite f& —_@ Inieally in B, and can be raised to B, by absorbing ete some anargy Inidant on It Inthe form of ght {@hotons) 2 shown nt stsORE are‘The pratt ofthis rasilon depends ante two energy levels under conseratio, ft alsa depends cn thenumbe’ of photons incdenton iste. 2 =u) Pam Bau) So the ate of absorption willbe Rat MBawo) ——0) Here 1, = Number of some Pane in Ey 2 “Rateol tune of atom going rom 1 energy lee to energy level 2a = Eston co-ficant of absorption. 2. SPONTANEOUS ne % EMISSION: Now wher atom (particle sexcited to higher enerey Piss lave} has + small lle time p, a (10°"Sec.) 50 can jump fom Higher energy level 10 is ground ‘cron ‘AFTER iat jie. ,) by emitinga photon of frequency v). This scaled as spontaneous emission. The rate of this process depends on the number of parle in exited state only as te probability is 100% (=). Therefore Pas A Rae | 2) Here 1M, = Number of atoms [Parte in, yy Ratz of Number of atom going from 24 energy evel to1* energy level 4,1 = Einstein contfictent of spontaneous eminion 3. STIMULATED EMISSION: a nn) 1A per Einar when energy incident on system it a nok esata that 1 may ahs be aborted by weve | Ori mama sound sae som (Parcs, can oyu hae tho intra wih an aom arica inp a ‘excited state ard induce that atom |) ——————— a (particle! to emit « new photon. Ths berore TR roc of eminion it known a‘rdoced or simulated emission, To understand this process, when a parte sin exited state after mean life tine @ new photon of iredant anergy intoract with tis exited particle electron excited to ancther energy lve arnold at 3 metastable energy lee! (equa to incident energy] for avery short duration of 10°®sac..ump back ‘ts ground state by radiating coherent ration with other particle in that energy lve (ar metastable state. The rate of induced emission willbe proportional tothe incident energy and numberof particle prasentin ented energy level, ae « xo) dem Ba) (ai = MaBemto) —+# Here 1M, *Mumbor of tom (Partce ind, (Rx) “ete of Number of tom going rom 2" energy level to 2" ergy leva ‘n= Gaston co-fent of spontaneous emission. RELATION BETWEEN EINSTEIN'S COEFFICIENT (THRESHOLD CONDITIONS FOR LASER ACTION): As welnow Age Nau) —tt) = Mid Bad = BeyRO) —L) ‘din thermaleqlleriam fate of sorption = total ate ofemssion fate of eration = Ref spontaneous emission 4+ Rate of stimulated enisson By Bat as MBi2 WO) = Madan + aH) We) = 5 Dluding numerator and denominator by NBay=e Cr Now since we know Maxwells Bottamam dletibition aur Nwok ‘The shove squaton san expression of spectral energy densiycan be compared with Planck's rasiaton law according to which re] BaeBa So results in thatin the presence of an incident photon absorption and induced emission are equal probable, Now comparing he probabllty of spontaneous emission and stimulsted emson. ads = ts no Gn ey = 4) aa Nowapplving two conditions:Lav DAT, (Fade > Fash by ths eonion spontaneous emission wil be much more probable than induced ension This isnot sell fr LASER production 2 ava tren (01) RY /RT in tis case (Peed < (Pedi zo te ‘induced (imate Jemison ination xo such situation mabe it to achieve LASER ation. BASIC PRINCIPLE OF LASER swe ow Manell-ltzmann nu, theratiocof rate emission ad ate of absorption given by adeion Sas (tet Ba) ‘vey weeren = ge a> Gain) = so wecan say for asin action (54 +1) 0) |. thmeans Probability of spontaneous emission should be very less than Probability of stimulated emison ae ‘he emission ate sould be larger than the asorston rate, ‘Thase enditions can be achieved by using folly steps: 1 Thenumoer of stoms in nigher energy state shou be higher than numberof ators in lower ‘everey sates, This conditions known 28 pulation iverson Due to population iverson stimulated ‘enisson canbe achieved 1" coon oF LASER ACTION 2 Thesfstemof methos by whicr we can athlave w population Invsion 's krown as PUMPING METHOD. For population inversion pumping & cntnuoualyrequted. There ae several maods of pumpingsuch as 2 OptlalPumeing ——_(Aubylase) beta discharge (He-Ne ser &—ashatscnarge ——_(Rubylasey 4. crema pumping. Gasdynamicpumping f, _Atomatomcnlsion ete. 3 Due tothestort if iw of an nomi higher state, atoms cannot ean in the higher exited state so long and rapidly decay o lower state. As the elon drop back, some of them are being ‘ranpedin the intermediate state that scald as METASTABLE STATE due to a nonradiative transition and excess energy Is absorbed by the lie The life tine ofan atom in metasablastate is oftheorder ‘of10-4s0cwhicr © vey larger than the fe time ofthe tom inthe excited state, H the eumgingrmetnod isintense enough we may obtain a population iverson, i: more atoms in metastable state ‘han inte ground state contin of ASER ACTON, MAIN COMPONENT OF LASER IAL active wepiana 1B) uMPIGsoURCE wMeTH0D} Ic] OPTica esonaroR (&) ACTIVE MEDIUM: The active mum cn be iu or gus which LASER action performed shou be capable of apltying eatin (ht waves) On smal action of parte Imedum responsible to stimulate emission, These roctons are known a active cenveand remaining tof medium marly sue pon ate canto (B)PUMPIG SOURCE (METHOD) : —Pumoingsource or metiod Is tiemachanism of xcting atoms rom te lower energy stale ahighe energy tate by supptng emmy from an external energy "burce. Mos commeny t's known a8 ampiation proces ‘There ae several punplng methods such as 1M Opti (iscrarge) Pumping i) Electra Discharge (1) Chemial Pumping Im) Mechanic! Pumping M1 ndastic tom: Atomcallsion II GasynamicPumpine Vilas Dynamic Pumping (C) OPTICALRESONATOR: a LASE, tre active mau anclosed in an optical cay ‘hat is mace up of to parallel surface, one of which x parley rfletng andthe ather surface partially reflcting. nhs resonant cavity the ntnsty of photons srs hough stimulated emision IMPORTANT FEATURESIN LASER ACTION: METASTABLE STATE: ‘Thora wu certinarargy stator howe rar much ger tan ‘rele tne of wsua short He! excl tts Suh lately ng ed tates ae cal tate sates whose average etme ed about 10 se, Due to ongr fe Ome te he metastaie atte, the fhatein eeficnt of spontaneous emision yy 2 comparatively sal, Thatspontaneous emsion from metastale state i forbidden to some degree. Sa there are praatiltes of stimulated emission increased, POPULATION INVERSION: Since in thermal eqlbrum the number of atoms in higher energy states [sconeiderably emaller than the numberof atoms in lower energy states, hence there Is vary lee stimslatad emission compared with the spontaneous emission. But by using metastable state the umber of atoms in higher energy slate can be enhanced. Ths situaton plays vey important roe in [Beneration of LASER, So the siustlon In which the numberof atoms in than higher energy state excende than thatin the lower energy stateis known as population inversion, PRODUCTION OF LASER Now a days ciflerenthinds of LASERS are available, the most commen being nadia eorenunications. ‘tually avery house now has at last on In ther CD/DND players and recrders. Some LASERS can change colar since they are tunable LASERS. The lasers now operate from the infrared to theitraviolt regions. Moreover Xray lasers are being developed using eleciron accelerators, The lasers now are _avalableinthe wide range such 2¢ soli state azar, ga acars, semiconductor azers et. “The mast common LASERS are fe) He-Nelaser (©) Semiconductor laser HEUUM- NEON LASER: QONSTRUCTION: The He-Ne laser consists ofa long and narrow quart tube of 82-100 on. and siameter of about 1 m,n ths laser system, quart tute i filed with a mixture of helium and neon {2825in the ration 201 respectively ta pressure of about 0.1mm of mercury. Thisminturect gases 2c {active medium. This systems enclosed between a par of plane mirrors ora pair of eorcavesmirr0°3 5 He Ne Gas MATURE 2 “te z user acam 6 , 2 Z [PARTIALLY SILVERD MIRROR ‘ithe vottace CATHODE ‘0 that an optical resonator system's formed. One ofthese mirrors highly reflective ad ancther one is partial reflective. The spacing between the two mirors is equal to an integral mutile of haf ‘wavelengtss of LASER light ‘electrical discharge (park pug) used as » pumping source. The electric discharge is produced in ‘the gas mixture by means of electrode outside the tube connected toa source cf high Frequency AC.WORKING: When an olactric discharge takes place through the gas mintura, chargas of this discharge cllde wth tehe atoms in ground state and excite them to higher energy evale(E, nc Es) ‘of He, By anc of He atom are metastabe sates and du to lor life time belore getting de ected the number of excited state atoms of He increases. Now these excltad electrons of He colces ity ‘eectron inground state of Ne. These He electrons deexciteto ground state by transferring their enerey ‘with adconal Kinetic energy to ground state electrons of Ne. This ruts the exctation of Ne tome t2 the level E, and By. This process is high probable duc to longer lifetime of fa and By of He atom, fate mie sarees seco : bs 5 gaze ' mans 1 EMISSION | ¥ AMAR 1004 | I | «, Lenore 6) Sette HELIUM ENERGY LEVEL NEON ENERGY LEVELS This resuits population Irerease in By and Es. of Neon: Thus te purpose of He ators Is 10 hela to ‘achieve a condition ofpopulaton invasion inthe Ne atom, "wan the state of population inversion 's achieved then saontaneous'y emited photon trigger laser ‘dion in any of the three transaction ie. the transaction froma to Es, Esto Ex and Bs to Ba by ‘emission of radiation of wavelets 32960 A, £35008 and 6228 A respoctvely. The first two ‘wavelengths are not in the visible ragin while the lat transaction of 5328 A gives the red ight cf the Heeler, ‘These hotors of wavelength 6328 A travdirg parallel to he ans bounces back ard forth between the mirrors (resonator) and will stmulste another excted neon stom to emt another photon of same ‘frequency and shase and the radiation gets amplified and emerge red laser ght. ther eacited atoms {getback othe ground state through colsion wrth the walls of narow quartz ube Troicaly power output of He-Ne laser le between 1-30 mW of enntinuous wave forinput about SOW.SEMICONDUCTOR LASER: Semonductorlacr ls conventional ase. Lace atlon resus through waneltons assorted wth the propertesof energy bands of the mates CONSTRUCTION: — There aretivee basic requirements to ace laser anion: 3. bectaton of ‘lectons oF pumaing from valence band to tmndcton band 2. Large concentration of eecrons in conduction band and lage concerraton of ois in valence band 2 that the inverted charge carers gine safiiant stimulated femsion to overcome theless, 3.8 resonant coy to proud postive amplification. The base ructure of a pon junction lasers shawn in gure. Both P and N sides of the Jnction are heavily doped so that tha frm vals are within the conduction and valence band adgeerespeaivaly (iyplal Gans laser are fabricated by duson of scepter atoms 3s Zn forming the Papin into an N type a8 Gas doped with Te wih a carer concentration of abovt 1044 cm? A pat paral! planes perpendicular 1 the plane of the junction are cleaved or polished to prepare RESOMATOR. The two reining sides are roughened to eliminate larg directions othe than the main ane Thestrtureis called Fabry Perot vy. The top and bottom faces aremmade a matalontac. WORKING: The enarey band dagram of pn junction laser is shown ini. The eaulorum state with 2210 bias and forward bas state wit population inversion states show ‘ALeaullorwm nthe ze bis sate, due high doping the Feri levellies inthe valence band onthe P= side and in te conduction band on the N-sde. The stale fil with elctrone are shown by shaded regions Wren asmal forward bia apple electrons sta flowing trom conduction bandon Wsida ta the vocant sides on the Pside and holes sat flawing mth Wide Thus charg carries are purged by the de voltage source into the junction region and a eval forward curent is produced. At ths stage tlecton hole recombination causes srontaneovs emision of photons andthe device acts as 9 IED. As ve apllad voltage is creased the forward current tv ough the union increases. Whan ths voltage s high enough he currant reaches 2 thrashold value and populations Inverts on juncon actve rego.