RAT ULTRASONIC

VOCALIZATIONS

AND THEIR IMPLICATION

IN LIMITING
ANTHROPOMORPHIZING

IN ANIMAL RESEARCH

UNRAVELING ADAR EXPRESSION

AND RNA EDITING ACTIVITY IN
ADULT AND EMBRYONIC TISSUE IN
THE SQUID
EUPRYMNA BERRYI

FALL 2023 EDITION [Link]

 OSMOSIS Science Magazine

Fall 2023 Edition

Cover designed by Israa Draz + ChatGPT

Writers: Editors: Designers:

Andrew Watts Isabel DiLandro Israa Draz

Isabel DiLandro Paxton Mills Yifei Qi
Aiden Hills Joshua Pandian Bezawit Mulatu
Bezawit Mulatu
Kritim K. Rijal
Paxton Mills
Jack DuPuy
Kayla Friedman
Editor in Chief,
Osmosis Science Magazine

Dear Reader,

Thank you for opening Osmosis Magazine. We are excited to bring you more
accessible, intriguing stories in science and technology spanning the disciplines of
chemistry, environmental science, and mathematics. In addition to this edition’s
science articles, we are excited to introduce faculty interviews, which chronicle
select faculty members’ journeys into science and some of their passions outside of
it. Interactive components such as crossword puzzles and word searches are also
included.

Our goal as a magazine is to share the joy of science with the UR community in an
accessible and entertaining fashion. We hope that you enjoy reading this Fall
edition of Osmosis Magazine.

Happy reading,

Andrew Watts
Editor in Chief, Osmosis Science Magazine

Meet the Team:

Editor In Head of Managerial Head of PR:

Chief: Design: Editor: Isabel
Andrew Israa Draz Alex DiLandro
Watts Robertson
 Table of Contents
1- How Shape Affects Drug Action
By: Andrew Watts

4- Unraveling ADAR expression and RNA editing activity in

adult and embryonic tissue in the squid Euprymna berryi
By: Kayla Friedman

5- How neonicotinoids in pesticides impact bee behavior and

ecological interactions
By: Jack DuPuy

7- Rat ultrasonic vocalizations and their implication in

limiting anthropomorphizing in animal research
By: Isabel DiLandro

10- The Algebraic Background of Error-Correcting Code

By: Aiden Hills

13- Pixels of Our Universe: About SImulation Hypothesis

By: Kritim K. Rijal

17- The Algebraic Background of Error-Correcting Code

by: Aiden Hills

19- Faculty Interview- Dr. Michael Leopold

By: Paxton Mills

20- Osmosis Crossword Puzzle

By: Andrew Watts

21- Osmosis Word Search

By: Andrew Watts
“How Shape
Affects Drug
Action”
Andrew Watts
 I. Drugs have shapes?
malformed urinary gastrointestinal tracts.
There are innumerable factors that influence
Sadly, these children were subject to a 50%
the development and efficacy of
survival rate. Thalidomide was found to be
pharmaceutical agents, but one of the most
sold as a racemic mixture– which means that
crucial considerations is the shape of the
two stereoisomers, or shapes, were present
drug. Yes – the shape. Drugs come in all
in the drug. Further investigation into the
different shapes and sizes. Some are ovular
two shapes of the drug found that only one
capsules, while others are flat, circular
of the shapes was therapeutically active,
tablets. There are even liquid drugs that lack
while the other shape was causing birth
any shape at all. While the shapes and sizes
defects.
of pills is what most of us think when we
hear about drug shapes, a synthetic chemist
is more concerned with the drug’s relative
spatial arrangement of atoms in molecules.
In chemistry, the term that describes this
phenomenon is stereochemistry. To
understand stereochemistry, it is vital to
know that chemical molecules exist as three-
dimensional arrangements of atoms in space. Figure 1: Two “shapes” of Thalidomide. The solid
wedge means that the molecule is protruding
The variability of a drug’s spatial
forward, while the dashes mean the molecule goes
arrangement, or shape, can have profound back into the page. These two molecules are not
effects on its function, leading the same. The “S” isomer causes birth defects.
pharmaceutical companies to isolate a single
“shape” to prevent adverse effects, and In a study conducted in 2010 by Handa and
sometimes even lethal ones. colleagues, researchers identified that
Thalidomide was binding to a protein called
II. Why does shape cereblon (CBRN). Later, it was shown that
the teratogenic, or harmful, form of
matter?: A case study Thalidomide bound to CBRN ten times
In the 1950s a compound called stronger than the other isomer, elucidating
Thalidomide was identified as a treatment how structure dictates chemical function.
for morning sickness for pregnant women.1
After its release into the market, children
born to mothers who had taken Thalidomide
showed severe birth defects including
shortened arms, nonfunctional hands, and

1
Tokunaga, E., Yamamoto, T., Ito, E., & Shibata, N. (2018, November 20). Understanding the thalidomide
chirality in biological processes by the self-disproportionation of enantiomers. Nature News.
[Link]
 Figure 3: Asymmetric hydrogenation methodology
2 developed by Noyori using chiral catalysts. Applications
in pharmaceutical industry, such as synthesizing
Thalidomide is a prime example of the antibacterial levofloxacin.

importance of stereochemistry in
pharmaceutical design and synthesis. Now,
many drugs are developed and marketed in
Additionally, breakthroughs in biocatalysis
only one of their isomers, or shapes,
and the use of enzymes as chiral catalysts
mitigating any disastrous effects. have expanded the scope of enantioselective
methods. These advancements underscore
III. How to Select Shape the importance of enantioselective strategies
Enantiopure drugs are much more common in the synthesis of complex molecules with
now, thanks to the advanced synthetic and defined stereochemistry, contributing to the
purification methods developed in the last progress of diverse scientific and industrial
50 years. Asymmetric catalysis is a field of applications.4
chemistry that focuses on developing
synthetic methods using catalysts to favor IV. Impact
one enantiomer over another. The ability to selectively manipulate and
control the stereochemistry of drug
Notable advancements in enantioselective
molecules has not only enhanced the
catalysis, particularly asymmetric catalysis,
precision of pharmacological interactions
have been achieved through the
but has also significantly expanded the
development of various catalysts, such as
therapeutic potential of various compounds.
chiral ligands and organocatalysts. The work
For instance, the separation of enantiomers
of researchers like Ryoji Noyori, who was in drugs like omeprazole, a proton pump
awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in inhibitor, has led to more effective
2001 for his contributions to asymmetric
treatments for acid-related disorders with
hydrogenation, and Ei-ichi Negishi, who
reduced side effects. Additionally, the
shared the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2010
synthesis of enantiopure versions of certain
for the development of palladium-catalyzed
antidepressants, such as fluoxetine, has
cross-couplings, have significantly impacted
improved their therapeutic profiles, offering
the field. 3

2 4
Don’t sleep on the hypnotic potential of thalidomide. Asia Research News. (2022, March 9). Noyori, R., et. al. (1987), "Asymmetric hydrogenation of β-keto carboxylic esters. A practical, purely
[Link] chemical access to beta-hydroxy esters in high enantiomeric purity", Journal of the American Chemical
Society, 109 (19): 5856–5858
3
Dub, Pavel A.; Gordon, John C. (2018). "The role of the metal-bound N–H functionality in Noyori-type
molecular catalysts". Nature Reviews Chemistry.
enhanced relief for patients with mood
disorders.5

Enantioselective synthesis has enabled the

production of chiral drugs with improved
efficacy and reduced side effects, leading to
safer and more targeted treatments for a
wide array of medical conditions. This
paradigm shift has not only streamlined the
drug discovery process but has also
catalyzed the development of novel
therapeutic agents that were once deemed
unattainable. As the pharmaceutical
landscape continues to evolve, the profound
impact of enantioselective methods on drug
design and synthesis promises to shape the
future of medicine, offering new
possibilities for personalized and highly
effective therapeutic interventions.

Works Cited:
Tokunaga, E., Yamamoto, T., Ito, E., &
Shibata, N. (2018, November 20).
Understanding the thalidomide chirality in
biological processes by the self-
disproportionation of enantiomers. Nature
News. [Link]
018-35457-6

5
Cârcu-Dobrin, Melania et al. “Enantioselective analysis of fluoxetine in pharmaceutical formulations by
capillary zone electrophoresis.” Saudi pharmaceutical journal : SPJ : the official publication of the Saudi
Pharmaceutical Society vol. 25,3 (2017): 397-403. doi:10.1016/[Link].2016.09.007
Unraveling
ADAR expression
and RNA editing
activity in
adult and
embryonic
tissue in
the squid
Euprymna berryi

Kayla Friedman1,2, Gjendine Voss Ph.D.1, and Joshua Rosenthal, Ph.D1

1
Marine Biological Laboratory, Woods Hole, Massachusetts, 2Department of
Biology, University of Richmond, Virginia
RNA editing by adenosine subsequent Sanger Sequencing to
deamination gives an organism quantify ADAR expression levels
the ability to alter its protein- and to examine editing target
coding sequences, resulting in an sites, respectively. Our results
overall change in protein structure indicate that RNA editing is most
and function. Adenosine prominent in neuronal tissue,
deaminases acting on RNA consistent with previous findings
(ADARs) convert specific on Doryteuthis pealeii. ADAR1
adenosines (A) into inosines (I) was found to be most highly
that are interpreted as guanosines expressed in the adult brain and
(G) by the translational stellate ganglia, accompanied by
machinery. Coleoid cephalopods elevated editing frequencies
(octopus, squid, and cuttlefish), observed at ADAR1-dependent
like vertebrates, possess two editing sites in these tissues.
catalytically active ADAR ADAR2, on the other hand, was
enzymes, sqADAR1 and expressed evenly across both non-
sqADAR2, but unlike any other neuronal and neuronal tissue, and
organism, cephalopods recode sites edited by ADAR2 were
transcripts by A-to-I RNA editing edited at similar levels across
to an extraordinary extent, tissues. We also determined that
particularly in neuronal tissue. ADAR1 is expressed concurrently
Recent advances in genome with neuronal development,
editing make the squid Euprymna agreeing with an observed
berryi an ideal model to study increase in RNA editing activity
intricate A-to-I RNA editing in E. berryi embryos at the same
mechanisms. However, ADAR time. These insights shed new
expression and activity light onto the complex regulatory
throughout E. berryi development mechanisms of RNA editing in
and adult tissue remains largely cephalopods and provide a
unknown. To characterize ADAR foundation for better
activity in E. berryi, our project understanding how these animals
utilized quantitative PCR and can achieve such a remarkably
reverse transcription PCR with high level of recoding.
“How
Neonicotinoids
in pesticides
impact bee
behavior and
ecological
interactions”
Jack DuPuy
 Animal pollination, primarily Unfortunately, the increase in crop
facilitated by bees, represents a crucial yields when using neonicotinoids comes with
ecosystem service, benefiting nearly 90 the cost of negatively impacting important
percent of flowering plants and contributing pollinators like bees. The recent decline in the
to the prosperity of 75 percent of the world's abundance and well-being of bees, especially
most prevalent crops (Klein et al. 2006). the well-known and widely populated honey
Animal pollination forms the backbone of bee (Apis mellifera), has sparked significant
many ecosystems around the world by concern among ecologists, agriculturalists,
facilitating sexual reproduction of plants, and and even the general public, and harmful
the breakdown of successful pollination effects of neonicotinoids have been theorized
would be catastrophic for human and as one of the main perpetuating factors of the
nonhuman animals alike. The delicate decline. It is well-documented that even
balance of this important service and small quantities of neonicotinoids can be
subsequent survival of bees, however, faces fatal for honey bees, which is to be expected
multifaceted challenges including but not given the efficacy of neonicotinoids and the
limited to climate change, habitat loss and intended purpose of insecticides (Iwasa et al.
fragmentation, disease, urbanization, 2004). Even if the bees don’t die, exposure to
invasive species, intense management of sublethal levels of neonicotinoids has been
domesticated bee populations, and increasing shown to negatively affect the lifespan,
escalation of pesticide use on agricultural foraging ability, and social behaviors of
landscapes in the face of growing demand for honey bees (Zhao et al. 2022). One aspect of
food worldwide. Amidst these interconnected this complex, delicate system that has been
threats, the recent emergence of far less studied, however, is the preferences
neonicotinoid insecticides has emerged as a of the bees themselves with respect to
conspicuous factor that demands our different food sources.
attention. Because of their strong social
Since their introduction in the 1990s, network and communication abilities, honey
pesticides containing neonicotinoid bees have been shown to collectively prefer
compounds have become the most widely pollen/water/nectar from some resources
used variety of pesticides due to their over others, including flying longer distances
effectiveness at fighting a wide range of pests for higher quality resources (Abou-Shaara
and increasing crop yield. As of 2011, 2014). One study even showed that honey
neonicotinoids had been documented for over bees prefer sucrose solutions laced with
140 crops in over 120 countries, and their neonicotinoids over regular sucrose solutions
insecticide market share grew from 16% to despite the adverse effects that the chemicals
24% in just three years from 2005 to 2008 have on their behaviors (Kessler et al. 2015).
(Jeschke et al. 2010). Neonicotinoid Honey bees clearly exhibit complex foraging
compounds are so effective at increasing crop preferences, and understanding those
yields in part due to their ability to be taken preferences will allow us to more
up systematically and permeate all plant successfully implement neonicotinoid
tissues, and they can even be translocated alternatives into the environment and enact
into pollen and nectar—the main source of policies that benefit the pollinators. For
food for bees (Lundin et al. 2015). These example, if honey bees are willing to travel
compounds also tend to have long half-lives, farther distances to reach neonicotinoid-laced
persisting in the environment for months or nectar, then large-scale neonicotinoid bans
even years after application. may need to be enacted to ensure that honey
 bees do not encounter the toxic chemicals andGoulson, D. 2003. Effects of introduced bees on native ecosystems.
Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics
risk colony collapse. 34:1–26.
Ultimately, because of the various [Link]
risks they pose to honey bees and other
important pollinators, the agriculturalIwasa, T.,Mechanism N. Motoyama, J. T. Ambrose, & R. M. Roe. 2004.
for the differential toxicity of neonicotinoid
industry will need to implement safer insecticides in the honey bee, Apis mellifera. Crop Protection
alternatives to neonicotinoid pesticides. 23:371–378. [Link]
Jactel, H., F. Verheggen, D. Thiéry, A. J. Escobar-Gutiérrez, E.
These new regulations will have to be carried Gachet, & N. Desneux. 2019. Alternatives to neonicotinoids.
out despite rapidly increasing demands on Environment International 129:423–429.
food production and highly productive crop [Link]
yields. Luckily, alternatives ranging fromJeschke, P., R. Nauen, M. Schindler, & A. Elbert. 2010. Overview of
the status and global strategy for neonicotinoids. Journal of
other chemical solutions to biological Agricultural and Food Chemistry 59:2897–2908.
controls like predators to artificial selection [Link]
Kessler, S. C., E. J. Tiedeken, K. L. Simcock, S. Derveau, J. Mitchell,
for parasite-resilient plants have been S. Softley, A. Radcliffe, J. C. Stout, & G. A. Wright. 2015.
demonstrated to effectively replace Bees prefer foods containing neonicotinoid pesticides.
neonicotinoid pest control in 96% of cases Nature 521:74–76.
[Link]
(Jactel et al. 2019). Despite being banned inKlein, A.-M., B. E. Vaissière, J. H. Cane, I. Steffan-Dewenter, S. A.
Europe since 2018 and being easily Cunningham, C. Kremen, & T. Tscharntke. 2006.
replaceable, the United States has only Importance of pollinators in changing landscapes for world
crops. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological
recently started to take action against these Sciences 274:303–313.
harmful pesticides. Recent bans in states [Link]
including New Jersey, Maine, and NevadaLan, J., G. Ding, W. Ma, Y. Jiang, & J. Huang. 2021. Pollen Source
Affects Development and Behavioral Preferences in Honey
represent positive steps forward, but we must Bees. Insects 12:130.
take stronger action against these damaging [Link]
neonicotinoids and invest in theirLundin O., M. Rundlöf, H. G. Smith, I. Fries, & R. Bommarco. 2015.
Neonicotinoid insecticides and their impacts on bees: a
alternatives. If we don’t, we are putting our systematic review of research approaches and identification
pollinators and by extension our crops and of knowledge gaps. PLoS One 10.
ecosystems in a perilous situation. [Link]
Muth, F., R. L. Gaxiola, & A. S. Leonard. 2020. No evidence for
neonicotinoid preferences in the bumblebee Bombus
impatiens. Royal Society Open Science 7(5).
[Link]
Work Cited: Shi, J., H. Yang, L. Yu, C. Liao, Y. Liu, M. Jin, W. Yan, & X. B. Wu.
Abou-Shaara, H. 2014. The foraging behaviour of honey bees, Apis 2020. Sublethal acetamiprid doses negatively affect the
mellifera: a review. Veterinární medicína, 59: 1-10. lifespans and foraging behaviors of honey bee (apis
[Link] mellifera L.) workers. Science of The Total Environment
[Link]. 738. [Link]
Arce, A. N., A. Ramos Rodrigues, J. Yu, T. J. Colgan, Y. Wurm, & [Link], H., G. Li, X. Cui, H. Wang, Z. Liu, Y. Yang, & B. Xu. 2022.
J. Gill. 2018. Foraging bumblebees acquire a preference for Review on effects of some insecticides on Honey Bee
neonicotinoid-treated food with prolonged exposure. Health. Pesticide Biochemistry and Physiology
Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 285 188. [Link]
(1885). [Link]
Colin, T., W. G. Meikle, X. Wu, &A. B. Barron. 2019. Traces of a
neonicotinoid induce precocious foraging and reduce
foraging performance in honey bees. Environmental Science
and Technology 53(14):8252–8261.
[Link]
Donaldson-Matasci, M. C., & A. Dornhaus. 2014. Dance
communication affects consistency, but not breadth, of
resource use in pollen-foraging honey bees. PLoS ONE,
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[Link]
 RAT ULTRASONIC
VOCALIZATIONS
AND THEIR IMPLICATION IN LIMITING
ANTHROPOMORPHIZING IN ANIMAL
RESEARCH

By Isabel DiLandro
 Emotions in humans are very difficult to While the 22 kHz calls are used to signify negative
measure in a scientifically responsible manner. states and adverse situations, 50 kHz calls are
They are fickle, difficult to define, and even more emitted in appetitive situations and positive
difficult still to attach numerical value to as a states. Another difference between the two lies
subjective, malleable thing. If affective science, within their appearance, which can be observed
also known as the study of emotion, is difficult to when displayed visually using software to
fully grasp with participants that can talk back to supplement human’s lack of auditory
us, effectively providing verbal insight to the inner discrimination. 22 kHz calls are long in duration,
workings of their cognition and self-reporting monotonous, and low peak frequency while 50
their thoughts and feelings for interpretation, then kHz calls have a short duration and a high
what are researchers meant to do when it comes bandwidth for mobility at a high peak frequency.
time to measure the same responses in subjects Further division can be seen within the 50 kHz
that cannot provide them with any of that range, with both flat and modulated frequencies
information? That is only one of the many appearing based on more specific contexts
struggles one must take into consideration when surrounding the appetitive states. Reward and
conducting animal research. There are many positive affect have been seen to be associated
behavioral measures that have been developed in with the modulated calls while flat calls signify
response to these challenges, but each one has efforts to make contact and other functions
their limitations. However, one tool in particular related to social coordination. Interestingly, as
is beginning to gain popularity for its useful rats age, their calls appear to bear a reduced
quantitative advantage when evaluating behavior bandwidth as well as reduced peak frequency and
in animals—specifically in the most common sound intensity, but the actual quality of message
preclinical model: rats. wavers very little and is still quite recognizable by
Ultrasonic vocalizations (USVs) are calls, other rats. Mechanistically, 22 kHz calls are
inaudible to human ears, made by rats to thought to be connected to what is known as the
communicate with each other that can vary in mesolimbic cholinergic system, or a physiological
meaning and utility based on many factors such system responsible for sending certain types of
as age, affect, or even maternal status. Two messages from the brain to the body, thought to
different fundamental types of USVs have be mediated by the neurotransmitter
developed in adult rats which occur typically acetylcholine, a main excitatory neurotransmitter
around 22 kilohertz (kHz) and 50 kilohertz. which is oversees the process of rousing the
body’s physiological response to stimuli. 50 kHz and are typically involved in a rat’s removal from
calls, on the other hand, correspond with the social interaction in its collective community. 50
mesolimbic dopaminergic system – seemingly kHz calls, on the other hand, are found to be
mediated by the neurotransmitter dopamine and involved in a plethora of different functions.
the nucleus accumbens brain region, both of Contrary to 22 kHz calls, they are present during
which are involved in the body’s reward system cooperative proximity to other colony members
and act as mechanisms behind motivation and on activities such as mating or play and are also
positive emotion. affiliated with positive anticipation of the
Delving further the functional quality of these described social contact. They have been
USVs, research has shown that 22 kHz calls are compared to human laughter and may contribute
primarily for inter-colony signaling – warning to the coordination of cohesion among social
fellow rats about incoming dangers. These calls groups. Additionally, they may be able to indicate
are not for predators. Occasionally, these calls incentivization or motivation related to a specific
will also play an important role in dyadic stimuli as a quantifiable measure of positive affect
communication between a simple pair of two rats elicited by rewards.
 All of these matters aside, the real excitement
behind USVs is their ability to change the way
researchers are able to utilize their animal models.
Precedented methods for understanding animal
cognition are incredibly susceptible to
anthropomorphization, or the attribution of
human qualities to nonhuman things. This is
dangerous, because it leaves what ought to be an
objective scientific procedure open for major
biases which could skew results or even create
false ones. This is especially important to consider
when it is taking into account that the lives of
these research animals are real, meaningful lives.
Not only do they deserve, at the bare minimum,
to be treated with respect and dignity while they
live, it is the duty of researchers to be searching
for ways to extract the most meaning out of their harm, suffering, and the number of animals used
sacrifice. USVs are an example of a behavioral when conducting an experimental study. This
observation that actively reduces ambiguity and means that in order to extract a scientific
the possibility of anthropomorphization. Instead measure, the researcher must employ the smallest
of having to guess if an experimental amount of animals possible while still accounting
manipulation is having the adverse effect it is for an adequate sample size that will allow for
meant to replicate, or even potentially have to significant results and devise a method that will
perform more extreme, harmful tests, the USVs identify the goal of the research question while
will speak for the animals. Of course, no method causing the least mental and physical distress to
is perfect, and this is very much a continuously the subjects. It is easy to quickly become
developing field. But, it is a step in the right desensitized and detached from empathy when
direction towards reducing the hardships that working with animals, and it is even easier still to
animal models face. fall into the trap of knowing exactly what the
Ultimately, by making studies more efficient animals ‘must’ be feeling based on previous
and, most importantly, accurate, science can conclusions made by very partial, very one-sided,
begin to reduce the number of animal lives it human-centric thinking. It remains up to humans
takes to make its discoveries. The most important to stay diligent and vigilant to check these biases
rule to follow in animal research is to minimize and place emphasis on avoiding complacency in
research and what we think we know.
Work Cited:
Brudzynski, S. M. (2013). Ethotransmission: Communication of emotional
states through ultrasonic vocalization in rats. Current Opinion in Neurobiology,
23(3), 310–317. [Link]
“The
Algebraic
Background
of Error-
Correcting
Code”
Aiden Hills
 Imagine a scenario where mission
control on Earth must communicate with 2. The Necessity of Redundancy:
a satellite as it orbits Mars, nearly 240 To combat errors in transmission, extra
million miles away. This communication bits known as 'redundant bits' are
relies on binary commands, where a inserted into messages. Instead of
simple digit, '0' or '1', can dictate critical sending a '0', mission control would send
actions. For instance, '0' might instruct '00000'. This redundancy is crucial for
the satellite to capture vital images of the maintaining the integrity of
surface of Mars, while '1' could communication with satellites. A single
command it to maintain its trajectory. bit error could skew critical information,
Yet, this seemingly simple exchange is resulting in costly misinterpretations or
fraught with challenges. The vast operational failures. These redundant bits
emptiness of space is not silent; it is are therefore not merely a precaution;
filled with noise that can corrupt these they are indispensable in ensuring that
binary whispers. Electromagnetic every piece of data received from space
interference, cosmic radiation, or even is as accurate as possible.
fluctuations in the satellite’s own
electronics can transform a '0' into a '1' 3. Decoding the Complexity: ECCs
and vice versa. This alteration may seem Simplified
minor, but its consequences can be 3.1 Basic Concepts:
monumental, potentially leading to a In the field of error-correcting codes
missed opportunity to capture crucial (ECCs), two foundational concepts
data or, in the worst case, a emerge: 'linear codes' and 'Hamming
malfunctioning satellite. In such a high- distance.' A 'linear code' represents a
stakes exchange, how can we ensure that systematic way of encoding messages
every command sent reaches the satellite where the original data is expanded into
accurately? The key lies in a blend of longer sequences that include built-in
communication theory and algebra, redundancy. This process ensures that
manifested in error-correcting codes even if parts of the message are distorted
(ECCs). As we delve into the algebra in transmission, the original information
behind ECCs, we uncover not just can be reconstructed. Think of linear
equations and theories, but a critical codes as a form of packaging designed to
layer of assurance that enables reliable protect the core content—the message—
communication across the cosmos, from the potential damages of an
impacting everything from space unpredictable journey through a
exploration to global communication communication channel. 'Hamming
networks. distance', on the other hand, is the metric
used to measure the minimum number of compare the received message against
substitutions required to change one the expected pattern and discern that the
sequence into another. In the context of fourth bit is out of place. Using
ECCs, it quantifies the error between the predefined rules, the system can then
sent message and the received one. It's infer the original message, correcting the
similar to examining two strings of error without the need for retransmission.
Christmas lights to determine the This capability is not merely a
minimum number of bulbs that need to mathematical exercise; it has tangible
be changed to make both strings implications. In satellite
identical. This concept, although communications, a single bit error in a
abstract, is critical for ensuring that command sequence can misdirect a
communication is not just secure but also satellite's path or corrupt critical data.
robust enough to withstand and correct Linear codes like the Hamming code
errors. serves as an essential safeguard, enabling
us to trust the commands and data
3.2 Hamming Code: transmitted over vast distances.
Delving into a classic example, we have
the Hamming (7,4) code, named after 4. Behind the Scenes: The Encoding
Richard Hamming, who introduced this Process
famous linear code. It takes a simple 4- 4.1 Generator Matrix:
bit message, which could represent The encoding magic happens through
anything from a command to a satellite, something called a 'generator matrix.'
like 'take a picture' (0000) or 'adjust This matrix takes our original message
orbit' (1001), and encodes it into a 7-bit and, following specific mathematical
sequence. This encoding involves the rules, adds the redundant bits. Although
addition of three specially calculated it works through advanced algebra, you
redundant bits. Together, these bits form can think of it like a recipe, turning our
a detectable pattern that, when disturbed, basic ingredients (the original message)
indicates that an error has occurred into a robust dish (the error-protected
during transmission. The beauty of this code) that can withstand the heat (errors
code lies in its ability to not only detect during transmission).
but also correct a single-bit error within
the 7-bit sequence. For example, 4.2 Parity Check Matrix:
consider a scenario where '0000000' is Once we've received a message, how do
transmitted, but due to some we ensure it's error-free? Enter the 'parity
interference, it is received as '0001000'. check matrix.' This matrix interacts with
The Hamming code allows us to the received sequence of bits, checking if
the redundancy pattern is disrupted. If digital lives, quietly ensuring reliability
the pattern doesn't match expectations, it and accuracy in the face of potential
indicates an error that needs correction. digital disruption.
Essentially, this matrix acts as our
quality control, confirming the 'dish'
(message) is just as intended.
Works Cited:
ECCs might seem like an intricate ballet Gallian, Joseph A., and Joseph A.
of numbers, yet their core purpose is Gallian. “Introduction to Algebraic
refreshingly clear: they act as our digital Coding
guardians, shielding communications Theory.” Contemporary Abstract
from the chaos and unpredictability of Algebra, CRC, Taylor & Francis Group,
data transmission errors. This protection Boca Raton, FL, 2021, pp. 526–555.
extends far beyond the realms of satellite
signals.
ECCs not only rescue scratched CDs,
allowing uninterrupted music and data
access, but they also ensure clarity in
calls and accuracy in QR code scanning,
safeguarding information despite
physical or signal damage. These silent
guardians are essential in preserving the
integrity of our digital data, from error-
free phone communications to protecting
the documents and photos stored on our
personal devices. They're even
embedded in the algorithms that keep our
financial transactions secure, constantly
working behind the scenes to ensure that
every digit of our account numbers and
every byte of our personal information is
transmitted accurately and securely. As
we continue into an era where data is
king, the role of ECCs becomes ever
more critical. They are not just a
mathematical curiosity but a fundamental
component in the infrastructure of our
 PIXELS OF OUR
UNIVERSE
By Kritim K. Rijal

The notion of humans living in a simulation gets tossed

around quite often in general conversations. From sci-fi
movies to advanced video games, we experience the gist of
a simulated world in various forms. From there
questioning the “reality” of our own worldly experience is
but a mere step away. The perpetual advancement in the
field of AI, which has continued to predict, imitate, and
almost create experiences that seem previously intrinsic to
humans alone, has not helped the case for conspiracy
theorists. However, all of this is observational. Its basis is
on human intuition alone. To engage with the idea is one
thing but to whole-heartedly convince the entire species of
their fake existence might require more than the
enunciation of a gut feeling. So, what does that potential
logical reasoning look like? Allow me to share.

THE SIMULATION HYPOTHESIS

To reason the argument, we first need to understand
the simulation hypothesis. Superficially, it means our
world is the creation of a simulated reality in a far
more advanced computer than any of our own. But
fundamentally, what exactly does it entail for us to live
in an artificially created environment where humans
are but mere constructs that may cease to exist with
the push of a button? I mostly say that for dramatic
effect, because the fact of the matter is even if we were
living in a simulation, we don’t know what our
simulated version in the “real” world would be like.
Having said that, a parallelism can be created. For
instance, as you play your favorite video games, it is hard to unsee the
potential for one of the characters (made more and more lifelike with
advancing technology) in the game could be another human just like you.
If that is the case, and that is the kind of simulation we are predicting
ourselves to be in, then there are a few relative attributes we can look for
in our world as evidence of the simulation hypothesis.

That’s where my interpretation of Planck’s constant comes in. Have

you ever tried zooming in on a picture? Of course, you have. Stupid
question. But have you tried really zooming in? That’s where the
magic happens. No matter the quality of the picture, after a certain
point you’ll start to see the nice and smooth curves of your pictures
break into clunky squares of a single color. Those squares are called
pixels. They are what your picture is made of. A finer detail for your
image doesn’t exist. And these pixels, or a version of them, would also
be present in any kind of simulated environment that our
computers create. They can be thought of as the limit of the
reality for these simulations. And the leap of my argument here
is that if our world is a simulation, Planck’s constant would be
that pixel of our world. Planck’s constant is a physics concept
that describes a very small conceptual length that is
impenetrable. A shorter distance conceptually doesn’t exist.
Attempting to go past this length and account for any activity
changes that happen there (movement of objects, distance
covered, speed) would break the law of physics. A finer
detail that goes beyond the minute subatomic particles and
can only be accounted for as a unit that comprises But the problem with imprints or any
all of our universe like a pixel of your image. Thus, evidence we look for in our world is that
the existence of this constant replicates the they are subject to interrogation. These
behavior of pixelated simulation, thereby making attributes of our world that we argue to be
an argument for the simulation hypothesis. proof of a simulated environment perhaps
in fact are a part of the simulation itself.
I believe another imprint that resembles human These imprints might be intentionally
simulation is waves. Similar to the light that passes created with the purpose of us to
through the circuit in computers and gives life to experience it. We wouldn’t be able to tell it
the simulation, waves (in their various forms) have apart. This demonstrates a need for an
directed energy and given life to objects all around argument that surpasses any observation
the universe. Sound, light, electromagnetic, and biases. Following probabilistic
now even matter can be represented by waves with methodology of approaching the problem
the help of quantum physics. Ever since the big provides us with a feel for how that
bang, waves have traveled far and wide lighting up argument may look. If we assume that we
the universe, just as one can imagine the are part of a simulation then given the
motherboard of a computer with all its circuits development in video games and other
lighting up with electricity as it gives life to sections of computing progress we can tell
simulation. And if I dare to extrapolate the that we have created simulations of our
metaphor, evidenced by the observation through own. Now, who is to say that the
telescopes, our universe is still expanding. This characters of these simulations have not
means the simulation that was meant to be created created a simulation of their own? Thus, a
is not completed in its entirety. In other words, the recursive domino-like chain is created
reason for our creation has yet to happen. We where the “real” world is only one and the
have it to look forward to. rest (which can be in a number of millions)
are all simulations. This makes the odds
for us not to be in a simulation 1 in a
million. Pretty slim chance.
 As an unproven hypothesis, this debate
of our possible existence as a simulation
is an everlasting one. Any intuitive
analogy is as compelling an argument as
any mathematical proof. However, more
interesting is to contemplate the
implication of the case if we are in a
simulation. What does that mean for
humans as a collective species? The big
questions of why we are here and what is
our objective will find a slight nudge of
direction for answers. Like any
simulation, our objective would be to And on the off chance that we happened to be
replicate the behavior of whatever unintentional byproducts in the process of creating
hypothetical scenario we have been something huge which seems equally likely (given
created for. In essence, our purpose the immensity of the Brobdingaian universe) and
would be an unintentional contribution unlikely (given the odds that had to happen for the
to knowledge. Perhaps one can find creation of life on Earth), we would not have a
solace in the fact that by just being their purpose. And there is a peculiar comfort in that
truest self they have become part of unbounding freedom too where your life is in all
something huge. In fact, their truest self sense your life and your choices for it are solely
is what they have been created to be. yours to make.
 The Algebraic Background of Error-Correcting Code
Aiden Hills

I
magine a scenario where mission This alteration may seem minor, but its
control on Earth must communicate consequences can be monumental,
with a satellite as it orbits Mars, potentially leading to a missed opportunity
nearly 240 million miles away. This to capture crucial data or, in the worst case,
communication relies on binary a malfunctioning satellite. In such a high-
commands, where a simple digit, '0' stakes exchange, how can we ensure that
or '1', can dictate critical actions. For every command sent reaches the satellite
instance, '0' might instruct the satellite to accurately? The key lies in a blend of commu
capture vital images of the surface of Mars, -nication theory and algebra, manifested in
while '1' could command it to maintain its error-correcting codes (ECCs).
trajectory. Yet, this seemingly simple
exchange is fraught with challenges. The vast As we delve into the algebra behind ECCs,
emptiness of space is not silent; it is filled with we uncover not just equations and theories,
noise that can corrupt these binary whispers. but a critical layer of assurance that enables
Electromagnetic interference, cosmic radiat reliable communication across the cosmos,
-ion, or even fluctuations in the satellite’s own impacting everything from space exploration
electronics can transform a '0' into a '1' and to global communication networks.
vice versa.
The Necessity of Redundancy
To combat errors in transmission, extra bits known as 'redundant bits' are inserted into
messages. Instead of sending a '0', mission control would send '00000'. This redundancy is
crucial for maintaining the integrity of communication with satellites. A single bit error could
skew critical information, resulting in costly misinterpretations or operational failures. These
redundant bits are therefore not merely a precaution; they are indispensable in ensuring that
every piece of data received from space is as accurate as possible.
Decoding the Complexity: ECCs Simplified
Basic Concepts:
In the field of error-correcting codes two 'Hamming distance', on the other hand,
foundational concepts emerge: ‘linear 'is the metric used to measure the mi
'codes' and 'Hamming distance’. -nimum number of substitutions
A 'linear code' represents a syste required to change one sequence
-matic way of encoding into another. In the context of
messages where the original ECCs, it quantifies the error bet
data is expanded into longer -ween the sent message and the
sequences that include built-in received one. It's similar to examin-
redundancy. This process ensures -ining two strings of Christmas lights
that even if parts of the message are to determine the minimum number of
distorted in transmission, the original
information can be reconstructed. Think of bulbs that need to be changed to make both
strings identical. This concept, although
linear codes as a form of packaging designed
abstract, is critical for ensuring that
to protect the core content—message—from
communication is not just secure but also
the potential damages of an unpredictable
robust enough to withstand and correct
journey through a communication channel.
errors.
 Hamming Code Parity Check Matrix:
Delving into a classic example, we have the Once we've received a message, how do we
Hamming (7,4) code, named after Richard ensure it's error-free? Enter the 'parity check
Hamming, who introduced this famous linear matrix.' This matrix interacts with the
code. It takes a simple 4-bit message, which received sequence of bits, checking if the
could represent anything from a command to redundancy pattern is disrupted. If the
a satellite, like 'take a picture' (0000) or 'adjust pattern doesn't match expectations, it
orbit' (1001), and encodes it into a 7-bit indicates an error that needs correction.
sequence. This encoding involves the addition Essentially, this matrix acts as our quality
of three specially calculated redundant bits. control, confirming the 'dish' (message) is
Together, these bits form a detectable pattern just as intended.
that, when disturbed, indicates that an error ECCs might seem like an intricate ballet of
has occurred during transmission. The beauty numbers, yet their core purpose is
of this code lies in its ability to not only detect refreshingly clear: they act as our digital
but also correct a single-bit error within the 7- guardians, shielding communications from
bit sequence. the chaos and unpredictability of data trans
For example, consider a scenario where -mission errors. This protection extends far
'0000000' is transmitted, but due to some beyond the realms of satellite signals.
interference, it is received as '0001000'. The
Hamming code allows us to compare the ECCs not only rescue scratched CDs, allow
received message against the expected pattern -ing uninterrupted music and data access,
and discern that the fourth bit is out of place. but they also ensure clarity in calls and
Using predefined rules, the system can then accuracy in QR code scanning, safeguarding
infer the original message, correcting the error informat -ion despite physical or signal
without the need for retransmission. This damage. These silent guardians are essential
capability is not merely a mathematical in preserving the integrity of our digital
exercise; it has tangible implications. In data, from error-free phone communications
satellite communications, a single bit error in a to protecting the documents and photos
command sequence can misdirect a satellite's stored on our personal devices. They're even
path or corrupt critical data. Linear codes like embedded in the algorithms that keep our
the Hamming code serves as an essential financial transac -tions secure, constantly
safeguard, enabling us to trust the commands working behind the scenes to ensure that
and data transmitted over vast distances. every digit of our account numbers and
every byte of our personal information is
transmitted accurately and securely. As we
Behind the Scenes: The Encoding Process continue into an era where data is king, the
Generator Matrix: role of ECCs becomes ever more critical.
They are not just a mathematical curiosity
The encoding magic happens through but a fundamental component in the
something called a 'generator matrix.' This infrastructure of our digital lives, quietly
matrix takes our original message and, ensuring reliability and accuracy in the face
following specific mathematical rules, adds the of potential digital disruption.
redundant bits. Although it works through
advanced algebra, you can think of it like a Works Cited
recipe, turning our basic ingredients (the
original message) into a robust dish (the error- Gallian, Joseph A., and Joseph A. Gallian.
protected code) that can withstand the heat “Introduction to Algebraic Coding Theory.”
(errors during transmission). Contemporary Abstract Algebra, CRC, Taylor &
Francis Group, Boca Raton, FL, 2021, pp. 526–
555.
“Faculty
Interview:
Dr. Leo”
- Paxton Mills
 Originally from Yorktown, Virginia, Dr. Exploring where the textbooks end. They
Michael Leopold, Floyd D. and Elisabeth love it and it makes them dream.”
S. Gottwald Professor of Chemistry,
came to the University of Richmond with Outside of the halls of Gottwald, Leo
a mission: to show the world that spends what little free time he has with
undergraduates are capable of doing R1 his veterinarian wife and two awesome
research. He was drawn to the University kids: Mick and Kelsey. If he had the
for its vision of “combining scholarship opportunity to teach a non-STEM
with excellent teaching” and the centered class at Richmond, Leo says he
Chemistry Department’s mentorship of would design a course on the meaning
undergraduates in non-traditional behind Bruce Springsteen lyrics, while
classrooms (i.e., research laboratories). the chemistry course of his dreams
would involve the surface analysis of
“The University recognizes the value of materials. “I’m planning it in my mind
those experiences and has provided a lot already!” Leo exclaimed.
of resources including stipends for
students, salaries for faculty, support Anyone who knows Dr. Leopold knows
personnel, equipment, and materials. that he never strays too far from the
When I tell colleagues at other primarily Science Center; “I have my biological
undergraduate institutions (PUIs) what kids and then I have the students here,”
our institution provides to promote Leo says. As for what keeps him
research, they are blown away,” Leopold engaged and connected to his UR
says. students, he says “I love showing
students that they are capable of doing h
At UR, Dr. Leopold and his team of ard things. My job is to get you where
student researchers study bioanalytical you are going and to be happy doing it.”
nanomaterials and biosensors, work Dr. Leo also emphasizes the importance
which has involved topics ranging from for all of us that we effectively train a
explosive detection, medical device new generation of scientists and doctors
development, and forensic field tests for with societal drive and a passion for
fentanyl. He oversees a bustling and making a difference.
productive research lab, with an
abundance of student presentations and Dr. Leo is hopeful for the future of
publications over its long history. His Gottwald in preparing students for
science has taken him across the country, whatever comes next after their
from coast to coast and even back home graduation. “We, the faculty, should
to his own kitchen table, where he shares continue to work hard to ensure the
with his own children “the idea of reality matches the promise. Therefore, it
discovery and exploration – seeing, is critical for professors to facilitate and
doing, and achieving things, even small inspire successful examples of this
things, that have never been done. mentorship.”

19
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