JOHN JAY’S

FINEST
VOLUME 37
April 2022

outstanding undergraduate writing

from across the curriculum

Jeffrey Heiman
Adam Berlin
Editors
ii
A NOTE FROM THE EDITORS
With the pandemic coming and going, and coming and going, and as out-of-balance
as the year has been, we were so pleased to read such focused, innovative
submissions for the 2022 issue of the Finest. Perhaps all this travail helped our
students find a steadying place in their thoughts and on the page.

This volume contains examinations of current politics, of COVID-based stresses, of

pressing social concerns, of court-room processes, and analyses of race, gender, and
the self. Most interesting is how the very personal recurs in these pages, and we
wonder if the disruption and isolation of COVID links to this looking within. The
evidence is in the line-up of fiction, drama, and first-person narrative as well as in
academic investigations growing out of first-hand experience.

While many of us are back in the classroom, the shift to public gathering remains
uncertain. Still, last year’s launch on Zoom was intimate and affable, and we’re
delighted once again to be able to share the work and the accomplishment—even if
in virtual closeness.

As every writer knows, writing is solitary work, and yet what makes it to the
published page is a collaborative process. The interchange in a classroom,
culminating in an assignment, means that student and professor are working
together in productive dialogue, reading, refining, and thinking onward. It’s this
dynamic that makes so much inquiry possible, and the work here highlights the
intellectual life at our college.

The day would not be possible without the support of many at John Jay. We thank
President Mason and Provost Li and all in their offices for supporting the project. This
year the Finest has once again joined forces with Bettina Muenster and the Office for
Student Research & Creativity. We thank Bettina for extending the reach of the
Finest. For their logistical support, we thank Raeanne Davis and Maribel Perez. And
this year again, appreciate Dalyz Aguilar’s fine cover design.

To John Jay College’s professors, who inspire, who challenge, and who demand
careful, responsible, and effective writing, we salute your dedication. And, of course,
our admiration and congratulations go to all the students in this year’s volume. We
are proud to publish your fine work.

Jeffrey Heiman
Adam Berlin
April 2022

iii
iv
CONTENTS
1 Students and Stress: Pressure in School and the
Mental Health Crisis
Jordan Becker  English 101
10 Fetishization of Asian Women in US Culture and Media
Ashley Park  English 101
18 Chipping Art
Wilson Korik  Economics 101
20 Why?
Terrence Pair  English 101
24 A Serpent Named America and the Island of Eden
Isamar Brito  English 101
34 Crime, Class, and Capitalism™
Anton Mendelsohn  Economics 170
38 The Day I Became a Victim: Confronting Racism
at the Food Court
Ti’ara Joseph  Sociology 232
47 Joanna Bielawski v. City of Cleveland, et al
Court Observation
Shristi Thapa  Political Science 235
63 A Critical Summary of Esther Farmer's
Community Development as Improvisational Performance
Andrew Oldfield  Africana Studies 227
68 Century Egg
Amy Zou  English 201
71 Present Day Genocide: Uighur Muslims in Xinjiang
Seema Ramdat  Sociology 275
78 Calling Me Home
Michael Lee  English 212
82 Coming Out
Gema García  Spanish 215
Coming Out
Gema García  Spanish 215
90 This Is What Makes Us Girls
Rae’L Harry  English 216

v
CONTENTS
102 The Silent Oppressor in Oroonoko
Francesca Chery  Literature 373
106 Attitudes & Acceptance Rates: The Covid-19 Vaccine Among
African Americans and Whites in Richmond Hill, Queens
Rashmattie Hiralal  Africana Studies 310
118 Justice for Women in Qing Fiction and Reality
Eleanor Arias  Humanities and Justice Studies 310
128 A Success and a Failure: Gay Marriage and the
Death Penalty Abolition Movement
Madelyn Mullen  Honors 380
136 Ideologies in Helen Maria Williams’
Letters Written in France
Destiny Falls, Sarah Ramsaroop, and Adriana Valdez  Literature 374
149 Swiss-French Ben
Grace Sun  English 320
153 Challenged but not Limited: New York City’s Disabled
Community in the Face of Covid-19
(an excerpt from an ethnography)
Toi Jiles  Anthropology 450
161 A Theory on Partisan Realignments with the
Consideration of Grassroots Organizations
Elisa Mateo-Saja  Honors 401

vi
 John Jay’s Finest 1

 ENGLISH 101
STUDENTS AND STRESS:
PRESSURE IN SCHOOL AND THE
MENTAL HEALTH CRISIS

__________________________
JORDAN BECKER

AS A NEW GENERATION enters the routine of adult life in America, it becomes

easy to wish for the simpler times of adolescence. Rather than paperwork and
taxes, the allure of Saturday morning cartoons call. We all have fond memories
of traipsing through our houses, bundled into thick pajamas bought without a
thought of where the money came from. I often find myself longing for the
innocence of those times, especially when I look to the children of today. In
fact, I know two brothers who live just like this, yet I cannot find it in my heart
to envy them. This is because, despite the tender age of eight, they suffer from
general anxiety, social anxiety, separation anxiety, and anger issues. These are
their official, psychiatrist-given diagnoses. They tend to struggle with tasks
such as emotional regulation as well as speaking to others. Because of these

____________________
The Assignment and the Writer: In English 101, students embark on a sustained inquiry-based research
project for much of the semester, integrating secondary sources into a final culminating essay that
explores a single inquiry question in depth. In her approach to the assignment, Jordan formulated a
truly original inquiry by integrating her observations of young children with her own experiences as a
student who was subjected to stressful primary and secondary school environments. Through a
masterful structure, she used the results of a fascinating educator interview as a frame to guide her
exploration of secondary source research. In its final iteration, her essay offered the story of our
contemporary education system and sounded powerful call to action. - Professor Kim Liao
 John Jay’s Finest 2

struggles, they then became codependent on one another. It is always difficult

to hear when people close to you are struggling, but this hurts more deeply
since these brothers are so young still. How could these two boys who still
hang their paintings on the fridge already be struggling so hard with their
mental health? Has the mental health epidemic truly spread so far? What could
be causing these children to be experiencing some of the same issues that I now
face as a college student?
Looking back, while considering my own journey with mental health,
I see a definite pattern. College is naturally a very stressful environment as the
pressure to succeed in order to secure a job is looming. This pressure, which
trickled down to my high school experience, is what truly acted as an accelerant
for my own anxiety. In comparison, when these twin boys were younger, their
mother elected to place them into a specialized private preschool in order to
“Get a leg up onto other students.” Her ideology was that beginning her
children’s education in a more rigorous environment would allow for success
later in life. However, this is clearly not the case as they now exhibit struggles
that then place them at a disadvantage to their peers. This then violently
reminded me of my own experience in early elementary school within a
program known as TAG, which stood for talented and gifted. To secure my
spot, I was first chosen by a teacher to take an exam. Passing this test, I was
then admitted into the program. I would then be required to remain after school
some days, or even be pulled out of class to learn about advanced topics and
systems. At this point in my life, I was nine years old. As a nine-year-old, I
would cry almost weekly after TAG. I exhibited extremely low self-esteem
about my academic performance, and I constantly shut down in response.
These breakdowns were caused by an increased amount of pressure to remain
afloat in a program that forced you to succeed or fail. This was a feeling that I
was not yet equipped to handle emotionally. Overall, the program put me
through a lot of stress, and I first began to develop anxiety surrounding school,
an issue that only grew as I got older. This then began to affect my social life
and my interactions with others, similarly to the adjustment issues that the
twins have.
However, I did not begin to experience these struggles to such a severe
extent until later in my life. Why is it that mental health struggles are spreading
to younger children and how does school play a role in their development? In
order to answer this question, I conducted an interview with long-term
kindergarten teacher Ms. Silvers. Ms. Silvers has worked with young children
for the last twenty years and is now preparing for her retirement at the end of
the year. She believes that “If you are always challenging children, they tend
to get uncomfortable” (Silvers), and according to her, the education system has
become nothing but challenging in recent years. If the amount of competition
and pressure within the school system has spread to lower grades, this could
 John Jay’s Finest 3

be the reason for the drastic decline in mental health and social interaction that
was observed in the two brothers.
When she (Ms. Silvers) first began teaching, she was proudly one of
the pioneers, and a fierce advocate, of all-day kindergarten in her school,
Shoenley Elementary. The reasoning behind having all-day kindergarten, in
her opinion, was to expose the children to their peers and to foster their
interactions with one another. This was in addition to having free all-day
daycare for parents of course. At first, only simple basic skills were taught such
as the alphabet until she, “Saw changes… but it would be offset by long
playtimes, and nap times. We had a lot of projects and crafts” (Silvers). So,
even though there was some introduction to academics, they still focused more
on stress-free activities. This would leave room for fostering the necessary peer
interactions that are crucial to child development. However, this changed
drastically once the state government became more involved in the elementary
curriculum. They introduced guided reading which then led to a mandate on
where children should be with reading skills by the end of the year. Then,
teachers began to be evaluated based on where their students were in both math
and reading (Silvers). This timeline shows a clear trend in how the expectations
for lower elementary (PreK-5), especially kindergarten, are rising throughout
the years. This increase in expectation leads to more pressure placed on
students to succeed.
One of the biggest instigators of this rigorous curriculum in America
was the introduction of the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) in 2002. This
act put into place a system in which the federal government became more
involved in education. This is also the law that introduced standardized testing
for grades 3-8 within schools. This was to gauge what amount of the students
attending were considered “Proficient.” Following the trend of increased
expectations, proficiency was first defined by each school individually.
However, this soon evolved into Annual Yearly Progress (AYP) goals that
each school was required to meet. According to an article published in
Education Week, “If a school misses its state’s annual achievement targets for
two years or more… it is identified as not “making AYP” and is subject to a
cascade of increasingly serious sanctions” (Klein). These “Sanctions” could
include allowing students to transfer, or even complete state control of the
school. If this occurred, the state would then have the power to shut down or
convert the school to a charter school. This introduced some very serious
consequences and a huge drive to make these students pass. Many involved
placated themselves by claiming that this was all for the student’s benefit.
However, the real purpose of the Act was not even to help students, but
to increase America’s educational standing internationally. The real reasoning
behind the law was revealed to be, “Out of concern that the American
education system was no longer internationally competitive” (Klein). In
 John Jay’s Finest 4

addition to that, it “Sought to advance American competitiveness” (Klein).

This led to the current system in which children are treated like statistics and
numbers rather than individuals with unique needs. This lack of care for the
children shows deeply in the obvious negative effects of the act, and
subsequent lack of change. The steamrolling of the curriculum caused by the
act places so much stress on the students that it has driven them to extremes.
Ms. Silvers notes, “I never worried about cheating, but we’re teaching them
that they have to do anything to get this right” (Silvers). The students are
internalizing their stress and believe that following others who are stronger in
academics is their only choice. This stifles their ability to be independent. Their
need to cheat is extremely telling as to the effects of NCLB as they, as Ms.
Silvers emphasized, feel as if it is their only option. Yet, cheating in actuality
only serves as a disadvantage later in life as they never learn how to work on
their own.
No Child Left Behind places stress on students directly and indirectly
through the strain placed on teachers. This pressure comes in the form of
ensuring students pass standardized testing. The consequences for consistently
failing to make AYP goals become increasingly grave for each year of failure.
Since consequences reflect poorly on one’s ability to teach, the educators are
pressured to ensure the student’s success. This results in teachers quitting due
to the strain, resulting in a lowered retention rate. For example, Evergreen
Elementary was a school that had failed to make AYP many consecutive years.
One teacher from Evergreen Elementary School expressed that he felt,
“targeted by his principal,” and “could not implement good teaching practices
in his classroom due to the pressure to teach to the tests and raise students' SOL
scores” (Orange). This was not an isolated opinion as about 75% of the teachers
observed in this study left at the end of the school year. This includes both
leaving through free will as well as being let go by the school due to insufficient
student scores. This then leads to teachers beginning to fear for their jobs, thus
creating a stressful environment for both teachers and students. This then
makes a hostile environment, causing other teachers to leave, ensuring that the
students have no stability or trust in their educators.
Even Ms. Silvers believes that “We are going to see more and more
young teachers leave the field because they will become frustrated.” She is
even planning her own retirement in the winter due to the stress of her career.
Many educators, seeing that a school has a low retention rate, will be
discouraged from applying for a job. The district will have difficulties
acquiring experienced teachers that will improve the success of the school due
to high rates of teacher turnover. Since many seasoned teachers, such as Mr.
Parker, find themselves leaving, this means that the district will have to hire
newer, and thus less experienced staff. The supervisors of the school will not
yet trust this newer staff. For the new teachers to prove their worth, they will
 John Jay’s Finest 5

place more pressure on the students to perform well on standardized tests. By

placing this oppressive influence, they will struggle to gain the student’s trust.
This is already a difficult feat without an established reputation in the school.
This student-teacher bond is integral to a conducive learning environment. If
the student cannot trust a teacher on a personal level, they will not trust them
on an academic level, and it is apparent that these mandates make it even harder
to establish that connection.
Some of this pressure manifests itself into teaching only to the test,
neglecting students’ individual needs, rendering them unable to create the solid
foundation needed for their future as a student. This includes both their
academic needs such as studying and test-taking skills as well as their
emotional needs such as regulation. For example, after many years of failing
the AYP, Evergreen Elementary implemented a very strict core curriculum
schedule that the teachers were expected to stick to. This ensures that even if
the students were struggling with a basic concept, they were expected to move
to more advanced topics. This sets them up for failure as they cannot build the
proper foundation needed to succeed. This leads to breakdowns and low self-
esteem. A first-hand account from a teacher states, “A few of them cried
through the tests; they couldn't read well, yet were expected to complete the
test” (Orange). An emotional response such as this one showcases that there is
something flawed in the system as it is causing extremely high levels of distress
to many students.
The aforementioned emotional health issues are caused by this distress.
Ms. Silvers believes that this leads to children, “Not ever feeling like they can
succeed and do the right thing. Pulling back and not even trying. It is just giving
up sometimes.” This statement is almost eerie in its description. This is because
she is describing the children in an incredibly dejected manner. She notices a
lack of motivation, which is present in children as young as the age of five.
Lack of motivation is in fact one of the most apparent symptoms of depression.
Even sadder, this is not the only symptom that she notices. Another symptom
is a lack of self-esteem. Ms. Silvers also has heartbreaking stories such as “One
little boy who has just a terrible time writing… so he just scribbles, and gets
the paper full… And that’s just the pressure of what he is not capable of”
(Silvers). He exhibits such little belief in himself that he would rather do a poor
job purposefully than try and fail. Last but not least, many children with onset
anxiety or depression tend to socially isolate as an unhealthy coping
mechanism. Aligning with this she had students who, “Get underneath the table
because they didn’t understand what was going on” (Silvers). This student is
ill-equipped to deal with their emotions, and thus will hide in order to cope.
This will develop into an unhealthy coping mechanism in which they fail to
rely on others as well as adults. This will only allow any mental health issues
present to become worsened through the lack of support. There are countless
 John Jay’s Finest 6

stories throughout her years of teaching, all showing the devastating effects of
pressure on children’s mental health. There are breakdowns, avoidance, and
even early onset signs of anxiety and depression. All of these occur as a direct
response to being given work that they are not ready for yet. This damage soon
becomes irreparable, leading to a more severe form of this issue.
Another one of the most obvious, but often-neglected, symptoms of
stress is that it negatively impacts the physical performance of children, thus
hindering their performance in school. According to the American
Psychological Association, “Our bodies are well equipped to handle stress in
small doses, but when that stress becomes long-term or chronic, it can have
serious effects on your body” (APA). These bodily effects can include muscle
tension, headaches, stomach aches, issues with breathing, an impaired immune
system, and many other chronic issues spanning the entire human body. If this
is what most adult bodies are subjected to, how can we expect children to cope
with stress to the same degree? Children’s bodies bodies are weaker and not as
well equipped to cope as adults are. In addition to these symptoms, KidsHealth
reveals in their article “Childhood Stress” that children specifically experience,
“Mood swings, acting out, changes in sleep patterns, or bedwetting… Some
kids have physical effects, including stomachaches and headaches.”
(Kidshealth). Being in pain, especially at a young age, is not conducive to a
working environment such as school. Pain tends to hinder your abilities and
actions, which would then cause students to underperform, leading to more
stress. This cycle will only continue; stress leading to pain leading to stress.
This means, under these conditions, young students’ physical health is severely
compromised. The area where children tend to face the most issues of this
nature is within the education system (KidsHealth). This means that an
environment meant for conductive learning can be hurting them in the long
run.
The physical effects are not the only cause for concern as an increased
amount of pressure placed on success causes them to academically fail as well.
Many people believe that emotional health is a necessary sacrifice needed if
one wants to succeed in life. This is simply not the case as the pressure to
succeed actually harms academics, especially in large doses. Increased
pressure from external factors has been proven to cause a response known as
the Choking Phenomenon. In these cases, it is observed that typically high-
performing students will freeze and panic in stressful situations. In order to
prove this theory, there was a major study conducted in China on elementary-
aged students. Students were given academic questions in environments that
carried different amounts of stress with them. It was found that in most cases,
high-performing students will experience ill effects more than lower-
performing students do. One such condition was a limit on time. It was found
that “For HWM (High Working Memory) children, this increase in speed co-
 John Jay’s Finest 7

occurred with an increase in error rate” (Wang, Zuowei, and Priti Shah). This
scientific study proved that almost all students, not just high-performing ones,
experience a significant drop in capability when faced with external pressure.
However, the more gifted the student, the more apparent these effects were.
Therefore, it is not fair, nor is it helpful to expect improvement from students
when they are working under these conditions.
So, knowing that it is unfair to expect success in this situation, how
then is it fair to judge students, and therefore teacher performance, strictly on
a singular cumulative test given at the end of the year? This standardized test
places children in the exact position that they were in the study. They have to
take a test, for a certain grade, under a time constraint. This, according to the
study, is a prime example of when the Choking Phenomenon is enacted,
ensuring that any scores will be subsequently negatively impacted. Therefore,
not only will their mental and physical health be impacted, but their academic
standing as well. Since there seems to be no benefit to the current system, that
means something has to change.
Despite the worrying effects of stress in schools, there have been efforts
enacted to counteract the devastating effects on the youths of today. For
example, social-emotional learning (SEL) is beneficial in improving both the
emotional health and academic performance of students. SEL is a program that
is being implemented in public elementary schools that instructs students on a
plethora of topics. These topics include, but are not limited to, conflict
resolution, emotional identification, and emotional coping skills. These skills
aim to improve the way that young people interact with one another. An
example that Ms. Silvers found very helpful is using a beloved children’s
figure in order for the children to express their emotions. She asks, “Are you
feeling red, yellow, blue, or green? Red being the bad or angry, and green being
happy and the excited. I used one of the pokemon figures, the chameleon, and
talked about “the chameleon is feeling red”. And we talked about what he could
be feeling, and then we made a whole list of how we could go about and
encourage him to become green. We talked about that too, and they came up
with some great answers. Stay calm. Be kind. Take a deep breath.” This is one
example of many different tactics used to aid in the expression of emotions in
children. Once they learn how coping skills can be used hypothetically, they
can then begin how to use it themselves. This specific example also introduces
emotional identification, allowing them to express themselves more easily in
the future.
It is only when emotional health is nurtured, that academic life can
flourish. An analysis of SEL programs all over the country found that “The
participants demonstrated significantly improved social and emotional skills,
attitudes, and behavior compared with a control group, as well as an 11-point
gain in academic achievement percentiles” (Scelfo). This shows that the
 John Jay’s Finest 8

program is effective in raising academics as a comparison showcases an

increase in scores compared to those schools lacking an SEL program. An
increase in scores means that more students are comprehending the information
that is taught to them. It also means that they are being taught the skills to deal
with their frustration, negating any test-taking anxiety or shutdowns that have
been noticed in high-performing students. SEL shows that we as a society do
not have to sacrifice mental health in order to make way for traditional modes
of success. They can, and will, coexist if given the chance.
Could social-emotional health have been the answer in preventing the
two brothers’ struggles with mental health? At that age, they were not well
equipped to deal with the strong emotional effects of failure. It was expected
that they maintain a certain level of academics that is simply unattainable. Due
to their lack of emotional comprehension, this manifested itself into early-onset
breakdowns. These then inhibit them from performing with a clear and rational
mind. Not only that, but due to a stronger focus on academics, social interaction
and mental health has become neglected, furthering their regression. Since
social-emotional health has been proven to reduce a majority of these issues, it
very well could be an early preventative to the problems that they have
experienced. Knowing my own journey, I could have also benefited immensely
from this program. By enabling me to learn coping skills, I could have handled
the stress of the TAG program with more finesse. Instead of a stressor, it could
have become what it was meant to be, an aid for achievement. While it would
be impossible to negate the presence of stress as I grew older, building those
skills over time would have counteracted the adverse mental health effects
rather than letting them fester. While I would most likely still suffer the effects
of stress in my life at some point, it would not be the near-constant presence
that it is today. However, without rollbacks on the amount of stress placed onto
students early in life, the cycle will only continue.

REFERENCES
“Childhood Stress (for Parents) - Nemours Kidshealth.” Edited by KidsHealth Behavioral
Health Experts, KidsHealth, The Nemours Foundation,
[Link]
Klein, Alyson. “No Child Left behind: An Overview.” Education Week, Editorial Projects in
Education, Inc., 7 Dec. 2020, [Link]
behind-an-overview/2015/04.
 John Jay’s Finest 9

Orange, Amy. "What they left behind: a case study of teachers' experiences with school
improvement at Evergreen Elementary School." The Qualitative Report, 15 Sept.
2014. Gale Academic OneFile,
[Link]/apps/doc/A384338427/AONE?u=cuny_johnjay&sid=bookmark-
AONE&xid=13686bee. Accessed 19 Oct. 2021.
Scelfo, Julie. “Teaching Peace in Elementary School.” The New York Times, A. G. Sulzberger,
14 Nov. 2015, [Link]
[Link]?searchResultPosition=8.
“Stress Effects on the Body.” [Link], American Psychological Association, 1 Nov. 2018,
[Link]
Wang, Zuowei, and Priti Shah. “The effect of pressure on high- and low-working-memory
students: an elaboration of the choking under pressure hypothesis.” The British
journal of educational psychology vol. 84, Pt 2 (2014): 226-38.
 John Jay’s Finest  10

 ENGLISH 101
FETISHIZATION OF ASIAN WOMEN
IN US CULTURE AND MEDIA
__________________________
ASHLEY PARK

THE FETISHIZATION, SEXUALIZATION, AND INFANTILIZATION of Asian

women is no stranger to internet culture, Hollywood, and history. In America,
we see the trend of anime and kpop, where Asian women are depicted with
huge chests, high pitched voices, and often act like children. In particular, film
tropes such as the Lotus Flower or Dragon Lady are a vehicle for cultural and
racial misinterpretation, both being depicted as threats to Western society.
Consequently, “yellow peril” and anti-Chinese sentiment is catalyzed by and
perpetuates such depictions. I will discuss how the fetishization, along with
other forms of oppression, of Asian women are especially pertinent in US
media and culture. Not only that, but to show how these misogynistic attributes
and violent racism is applicable to current power structures, thus affecting all
women. With this paper, I will address how these forms of gendered and
racialized oppressions contribute to the ongoing cycle of subjugation against
Asian women. I hope to raise awareness on these issues because violence,
ideological or physical, is often overlooked due to people's perceived Asian
proximity to whiteness.

____________________________
The Assignment and the Writer: In English 101 FY24, students explored their writing voice(s) by re-
imagining the writing classroom through the practice of language liberation. For the final research paper
students were asked to choose a topic they planned to investigate in conversation with injustice,
oppression, and/or liberation. Ashley chose to focus her essay on a topic that had piqued her curiosity
since the start of the semester. She tactfully uses language liberation as a tool to raise awareness on
the fetishization of Asian women in western media and explores the intersecting power structures that
have led to their oppression. Ashley evokes a unique perspective, care, and consideration of the topic
and the art of writing to craft a transformative experience. – Professor Dasharah Green
 John Jay’s Finest  11

To understand the depths in which infantilization, hyper sexualization,

and fetishization of Asian women permeate in US culture and media, it
necessitates a historical analysis of their physical and psychological
subjugation. US intervention in Asia, more prominently during the Korean and
Vietnam War and in the Philippines, catalysed the perception that Asian
women are prostitutes or that their “moral duplicity” should taint westerners
(Hwang and Parrenas, 2021, p. 4). Camp towns that were established around
US military bases gave US soliders easy access to Asian sex workers, that
subsequently led to the idea that they only existed for pleasure, devoid of any
human value. With this, the influx of Asian immigrants in the late 19th century
and “alien spouses'' erected the belief that Asian women would spread diseases
in the West. This strike on Asian existence, combined with “yellow peril”
following the World War, enabled such marred depictions of Asian women to
flourish. The racialization of such identities does not escape its historical
precedent.
Historically, laws which villainized Asian immigrants and laborers set
the precedent for current hyper-sexualization of Asian women in America. The
Page Act of 1875 was one of many laws enacted, particularly against Chinese
Women, restricting them from entering the US. Yeun (2021) writes “...they
were successful in enacting it against women because they perceived that or
they constructed that they carried venereal diseases and, actually, that they
were temptations for white men” (p. 4). Thus, all Asian women were perceived
as prostitutes. In addition, due to the quota system which limited immigration,
US soldiers garnered support to be able to bring back their overseas wives.
Consequently, the War Bride Act of 1945 was enacted. This legislation
allowed wives and children of US soldiers to enter the country as a “non quota”
immigrant after World War II. Perpetuating the notion that Asian women were
essentially seen as souvenirs or objects to the American GIs, it is only when
the Asian women are “saved” that they are not seen as disease ridden objects.
Touching on another facet of American culture complicit in this
objectification, Hollywood and Western media at large manifest and reflect
these ideologies of Asian women, generally through its historical context.
Chang (2006) quotes:

“In addition, as media had previously reflected political activities

repeatedly, Vietnamese women became the new performance subject
during the 70s and 80s with the Vietnam War. Evidence of this can be
found in the highly acclaimed films Deer Hunter (1978) and Good
Morning, Vietnam (1987). The popular, modern musical, Miss Saigon
(1989) is yet another appropriation of Madame Butterfly by merely
changing the historical context into the circumstances of the Vietnam
 John Jay’s Finest  12

War softening the explicitness of the Orientalist theme” (Uchida, 1998,

p. 168)” (p. 15).

Western imperialism and dominance of Asian nations encouraged a culture

which dehumanized Asians, a trend which would soon be reflected in Western
media and the aura of exoticism and sexualization which surrounded its
depiction of Asian women. By depicting Eastern cultures as “backwards”, the
subjugation of its peoples was justified, thus, the creation of a subservient,
seductive, and even evil identity. Moreover, the anti-Chinese sentiment and
“yellow peril” in the early 20th century, in tandem with laws, further shaped
this identity of sexaul deviance and moral corruption. Asian women continue
to be characterized as impressionistic and sexually pleasing to the white man.
Hollywood has been a major player in disseminating old yellow peril
rhetoric, utilizing this fear to create harmful tropes. The most famous being the
Lotus Blossom and Dragon Lady. The Lotus Blossom trope is characterized as
servile, docile, and is often infantilized. Miss Saigon, a famous Broadway
show, depicts a romance between an Asian sex worker and an American GI.
Here, the woman is so dependent on their love that she kills herself in a rush
of despair. Woan perfectly encapsulates this by stating “She not only
exemplifies hyper-sexuality, but hyper-heterosexuality, male-centered and
male-dominated” (Woan, 2008, p. 279). There exists an archetype in which
Asian women must fulfill, a role of self sacrifice. Not for themselves but for
others. Thus, we must analyze how such patriarchal standards affect the way
that Asian women are dominated.
One example of Hollywood’s complicity is shown in Austin Powers in
Goldmember (2002). At the sides of Austin Powers are two Japanese women
in schoolgirl costumes, Fook Mi and Fook Yu. The schoolgirl costumes,
usually worn by children, are used to sexualize and infantilize grown women,
 John Jay’s Finest  13

catering to the many pedophilic ideals that exist, especially when associated
with Asian women. Powers standing in the middle and front of the two women,
depict the social and sexual power dynamics that replicate reality. The names
simultaneously trivialize Asian Culture while reducing Asian women down to
mere sex toys. To add to the aforementioned trivialization, on his bucket list
was to have a threesome with these twins, through a “top secret massage”.
Another trope is the Dragon Lady; in Hollywood cinema, they are
represented as dangerous killers, coupled with an equally dangerous sex drive.
An example of this is Lucy Liu in Kill Bill (2003). Lius character, O-Ren Ishii,
performs copious amounts of violence alongside the other assassins; however,
she is the only one decorated in traditional Japanese clothing and fights with
swords. Here, we see themes of orientalism, as Asian culture is used as an
aesthetic, alongside the Dragon Lady trope. With two very disparate views,
Asian women are under the constant struggle of victimization or villainization,
sometimes both.
“Temptresses” is more often described of Asian women than the
aforementioned tropes. Fitting the concept of danger, it is an amalgam of all
the things I have addressed : “yellow peril”, hyper-sexualization, and the
morally duplicitous being. The title of temptress often implies that a sort of
corruption occurs. The corruption of who, though? The answer could possibly
be white men or Western society as a whole. Being seen as dangerous not only
villainizes Asian women but fuels racism, xenophobia, and sexism. All of
which have negative effects not only on Asian women, but all women of color.
Remoquillo describes the villainous, yet sexually tempting depiction of an
Asian woman as “Her undeniable sex-appeal and the male protagonists’
struggle to defeat her throughout the series works to affirm the perceived
deviant sexuality of Asian women with the U.S. during the mid-1900’s while
also upholding white female sexuality” (Remoquillo, 2016, p. 61). Kill Bills
(2003) O-Ren Ishii not only maintains the Bride's white female sexuality but
also her white fragility. Placing O-Ren Ishii, at the side of the Bride, absolves
her from the same violent acts that are committed. The only boundary existing
between them are the racial tropes assigned to Asian women and her white
fragility. History heavily influences the media that is created.
Although Asian tropes are seen in mainstream media, they are also seen
in Asian fetish porn. Asian fetish is defined as the intense attraction to Asian
women, creating the inability to form relationships with their own race (Chang,
2006). Permeating into the sexual dynamics in relationships through
fetishization, Asian women are seen as commodities of pleasure to white men.
Here, the common argument arises: how is it racist or fetishizing if we like
what we like? Many fail to realize that their preconceived beliefs of what they
see as “I like what I like” is deeply rooted in racism and racialized misogyny.
Asian women will be depicted as school girls or virginal figures, as they are
 John Jay’s Finest  14

brutalized. These stereotypes and perceptions are constructed through “Rape

and War” of Asian countries and subsequently, their women (Woan, 2008).
Sexual stereotypes exist, and often obstruct the way that we see Asian
women within relationships. This frequently leads to abuse and violence. For
instance, the Atlanta Spa shooting was perpetrated by a man who needed to
satiate his sex addiction; the addiction being Asian women. Fetishization is
harmful in that it enables its perpetrators to view violence as a justified vent of
their frustration. People will act on their colorblindness and conclude that
attacks like this are not racially motivated, however, it is exactly that. “Why
treat whatever fetish he has, you know, with Asian women - why treat the
women as the problem?” (Yuen, 2021, p. 3) It is absolutely dehumanizing.
Further, many people believe that the Atlanta shooting was not racially
motivated, rather, it victimizes the man who wanted to tame his “temptations”
(Chang, 2021).
Asian women are seen as expendable objects that do not bring
detriment or distress to society when harm is inflicted upon them. Apathy to
such notions creates a space for ignorance but also great harm to Asian
experiences and identities. Here, I completely agree with the authors' take on
such events. The perceived dispensability of these women allowed the assailant
to justify his desire to contain them. The hypersexualization of Asian women
allows us to coexist with our white counterparts while we are kept under the
reins of inferiority, maintaining a very deliberate race and power structure.
Hwang and Parrenas (2021) states “...Gendered racialization of Asian women
as hypersexual can result in their perception as disposable bodies for white
male rage” (p. 1). We need to come to the conclusion that fetishization, does
in fact, equal violence. Whether violence in words, ideologies, or physical
violence, it will always manifest dangerously within people, institutions, and
laws.
An experience of dehumanization through objectification and
hypersexualization is one of the many examples that not only me, but the many
women who have faced this. As an Asian woman, I feel like I am always under
scrutiny in the way that I speak or present myself. Many men see my existence
as inherently sexual. I can imagine these stereotypes are ones that many
individuals hold. To further illustrate this frustration, I had my friend Amanda
speak about her encounters with, in particular, white men. While discussing
the topic of Asian women, her peer said that he wanted to be with Asian women
because they “always maintain their youthfulness.” Yuen, when she stated that
her anatomy had been questioned as different, as I've also been asked the same
thing (Yuen, 2021). In reality, this comment alludes to the infantilized view
and pedophilia. My earliest experience of this included the time when I was on
my way to a bar mitzvah in a bus full of kids. Randomly, a kid sitting behind
me asked “do Asians have tight pussy?” We were 12 years old. I did not think
 John Jay’s Finest  15

much of it, assuming there was no malice; however, it just shows how harmful
stereotypes are engrained at such a young age, unable to realize the effect of
such comments. When indicating our race, it would imply a comment that is
sexual in nature. We are not seen as human beings but rather instruments of
pleasure and sexual gratification. They will allude to our unattainability but
approach us with malice, whether conscious or not.
White domination makes its way into the scrutinization and mockery
of Asian bodies beyond fetishization. Brady and et al, explore the way in which
Asian women experience body satisfaction or dissatisfaction as a result of this.
By examining the intersectionality of race, gender, and overall identity, these
factors are crucial to exploring these themes. Eurocentrism is known to be the
biggest influence to maintaining or achieving certain beauty traits. However,
ethnic identity may also deter conformity to these standards; though, the
literature on this is very limited. “Collectively, women were exposed to various
cultural beauty norms that influenced their likes and dislikes about their bodies
yet often these expectations of attractiveness prized Eurocentric features and
devalued Asian features’’ (Brady, 2017, p. 484). A very particular case for
Asian women, the racialization, hypersexualization, and exoticization of them
are a precursor to body dissatisfaction. With this, intersectionality allows one
to understand that these issues are very much interconnected to the patriarchal
and racist systems that exist today. To add, other experiences and parental and
peer influences, also fuel certain perceptions of body image. Being able to
navigate beauty norms can be extremely difficult while Eurocentric standards
are pitted against Asian women's physical existence. The struggle of young
Asian girls exploring these differences, which are often forced into their faces,
have to battle white attributes, lifestyles, and family structures. Growing up in
a society that prioritizes and values western features, BIPOC experience and
configure their bodies and faces to that standard. Our features undergo the
process of othering, creating a much more difficult journey towards acceptance
of self. These very issues surround women of color, fully encompassing our
understanding of beauty and worth; while we navigate ourselves around the
unattainable norm, our white counterparts grow alongside and within it. The
socio-cultural implications of these pressures contribute to the larger
examination of body image, perception and identity. These perceptions
translate into the way in which non-Asian counterparts view Asians as people
to subjugate and pressure into Anglo conformity.
Our ability to navigate these issues is often hindered by existing
oppressive structures that are pervasive through our everyday lives, from
education to law. White centric curriculums, racially tone-deaf laws, and the
perpetuation of stereotypes deeply stagnates us from moving away from
sexism and racism. Chang (2006) perfectly encapsulates this sentiment by
stating:
 John Jay’s Finest  16

“However, the consequences of the stereotypes continue to have

serious implications for the life experiences of Asian-American
women, and thus inherently seriously affect all groups of women:
Caucasian women, women of color, other minority women, and Asian
women themselves. As long as women are being dominated and
defined by those other than themselves, women of different groups will
be pitted against each other when they should be collaborating” (p. 25).

Representation in the media is also equally important to create unbiased views

on people outside of their race and ethnic groups. When rarely correctly
emulated on television, viewers see all Asian people and cultures as a monolith,
including their experiences. Diversity in storytelling is necessary, as TV tropes
are not the only experiences that exist. To further our knowledge on the
oppression of women, we should study black feminist thought, listen to our
BIPOC peers, and use the tools already given to us by other social movements
and expand on it. And thus, the liberation of all women can only occur by
defeating the patriarchal society we live in, marginalizing us into the confines
of such images.
To further alleviate these injustices, I must spark imaginations that will
incite emotions of hope, fear, and need. My research heavily emphasizes a
systemic issue within a country that benefits from racialized and complacent
systems, contributing to the oppression of women. These issues similarly affect
all women and do not serve to liberate us from such systems. This not only
contributes to the marred, infantilized view of women but it perpetuates
pedophilia as well. It is necessary to threaten the status quo and further invite
others to think in a radicalized and open view about such systems. A huge facet
of liberation is the permeation of societally deviating ideas and conversations
that have not yet reached the wandering and soon to be catalyzed mind. By
doing this research, I hope that all women can resonate with this paper and with
rage. I hope for that rage to be transformed into visions of a just and liberated
future.

REFERENCES
Brady, J. L., Kaya, A., Iwamoto, D., Park, A., Fox, L., & Moorhead, M. (2017). Asian
American Women’s Body Image Experiences. Psychology of Women Quarterly,
 John Jay’s Finest  17

41(4), 479–496. [Link]

Chang, A. (2021).For Asian American Women, Misogyny And Racism Are Inseparable,
Sociologist Says. [Link]. [Link]
american-women-misogyny-and-racism-are-inseparable-sociologist-says
Chang, A., Yuen, N. W., (2021). A Sociologist’s View On The Hyper-Sexualization Of
Asian Women In American Society. . [Link].
[Link]
sexualization-of-asian-women-in-american-societ
Chang, M. (2006). "Made in the USA: Rewriting Images of the Asian Fetish" .
Undergraduate Humanities Forum 2005-6: Word & Image.
Hwang, M. C., & Parreñas, R. S. (2021). The Gendered Racialization of Asian Women as
Villainous Temptresses. Gender & Society, 35(4), 567–576.
[Link]
Remoquillo, A. (2016). “If you’re not that as an Asian woman, you’re not shit as an Asian
woman.”: (re)negotiating racial and gender identities (pp. 1–40).
[Link]
Woan, S. (2008). Issue 2 Article 5 3-1-2008 White Sexual Imperialism: A Theory of Asian
Feminist Jurisprudence, 14 Wash. Journal of Civil Rights and Social Justice, 14,
275.
[Link]
crsj
 John Jay’s Finest  18

 ECONOMICS 101
CHIPPING ART

WILSON KORIK

AFTER READING A FEW DIFFERENT PERSPECTIVES on the subject, and finding

the points of view of Jemima Kelly (Kelly, 2021) and Clive Thompson
(Thompson 2021) to be the most interesting, I decided to focus my study on
the topic of NFTs. NFTs, or non-fungible tokens, are a crypto-currency hosted
system intended to provide some equivalent of ownership receipts to pieces of
digital art, introducing an element of scarcity to what is currently a system with
no factors of scarcity. This scarcity, in theory, provides an artist, or an art-
collector, with some form of recognized value for his or her labor, and by
extension, for the products of his or her labor. Described in layman's terms, if
a piece of digital art is equally owned by all who can access a computer, then
the art has no real monetary value: no one has to pay for it, except the artist
with his or her time, so the act of creating digital art is currently a loss of value.
NFTs fiscally incentivize the act of creating digital art, and values the time and
effort of digital creators.

___________________________
The Assignment and the Writer: In Economics 101, students are presented with a general introduction
to the field. Students are expected to engage with a variety of approaches to economic theory, history,
and debate. As a final assessment of their ability to synthesize some key concepts and vocabulary from
the course, students have to find and interpret two newspaper articles that are about the same or a
very similar economic topic. Then, students must relate these news articles to their own lives and write
about how they interact with this economic phenomena on a personal level. Wilson Korik not only
chooses an incredibly prescient topic in NFTs, but successfully applies insights from our own course to
investigate the role of NFTs in measuring the value of a digital artist's work. On top of this, as a digital
artist themself, Wilson is able to show how the burgeoning world of NTFs impacts them.
– Professor William Machi
 John Jay’s Finest  19

If the draw of crypto currency is its untraceability and ambiguous tax

status, who is to say that the corporatization of cryptocurrency won’t defeat the
whole purpose? Won’t Silicon Valley’s dodgier players just find a new
unregulated form of currency? If the entire purpose of NFTs is the
decentralization of digital currency, which requires the metadata of several
devices, how will the technology become energy-sustainable in the long-run?
Is illicit cryptocurrency mining going to see an increase, considering that much
more of it will be necessary to sustain the bubble forming around NFTs? As
the modern world approaches some form of “post-currency,” switching from
an unbacked dollar, to credit, to a string of accidental code, to pictures bought
with said strings of accidental code, what really defines the value of currency?
Now that there are industries (for lack of a better term) that require
cryptocurrency to run, and that are largely purchased with cryptocurrency, will
bitcoin become more liquid? How quickly will it inflate, until it devalues to a
mode of currency comparable to the dollar? What will be developed next when
this “post-currency” devalues?
Personally, as a digital artist, NFTs have me torn. I understand the value
of owning the receipt and original copy (or, rather, a ticket certifying the
original copy) of a piece of art: in the digital art community, theft is a massive
problem. When another person online steals an artist’s work, they are, in
essence, stealing money from an artist: when a commodity completely lacks
scarcity, and everyone can own it, the value of the commodity depreciates
significantly. So the development of a tracing system for a picture, and a
system denoting ownership, is huge. However, I personally believe that the
detriments of NFTs much outweigh the benefits: for one, the technology is far
from sustainable. The amount of energy used to store NFTs, as is, is huge: as
with any form of decentral metadata, energy efficiency is difficult, when the
very technology needs several devices to work properly. In addition, it's clear
who this craze is for: Silicon Valley players enjoy the exclusivity of the
technology, as the scarcity inflates the worth of what is basically just a receipt
to own a tiny bit more of a picture that anyone can look at. As much as I want
this technology to have its uses as a watermarking system, the fact of the matter
is that that's not what the system is intended for. The system is, instead,
intended to trade amounts of money so large they no longer feel like real dollar
amounts, with ambiguous tax status.

REFERENCES
Kelly, J. (2021, March 17). NFTs are the latest get-rich-quick scheme for the ‘cryptosphere.’
Financial Times. Retrieved November 23, 2021, from
[Link]
Thompson, C. (2021, May 12). The Untold Story of the Nft Boom. The New York Times.
Retrieved November 23, 2021, from
[Link]
 John Jay’s Finest  20

 ENGLISH 101
WHY?
__________________________
TERRENCE PAIR

ONE OF THE MOST DIFFICULT THINGS for a child to do is to explain his or her
self—why he or she did what he or she did. For a child to explain what’s
troubling him or her, or explain the troubles he or she is facing is nearly an
impossible feat. As a person who was once a child myself, a troubled child at
that, I speak from experience.
For at the tender age of ten, my innocence was destroyed, and I was
unable to explain it to anyone because I was unable to identify the problem.
How does one seek help when they have no idea what they need help with?
My innocence was destroyed when I became aware of the severity of
what was going on around me: that my mother was a drug addict, addicted to
crack cocaine. In discovering this, I discovered that I had to give up my
childhood, become a man, and take care of myself and my younger sister,
Ebony. I believed that if I didn’t do it no one else would. This belief came
from not seeing anyone trying to stop or discourage my mother from doing
drugs—so why would I think someone cared to help me and my sister eat?

___________________________
The Assignment and the Writer: In English 101, students learn about the conventions and expectations
of academic research and composition. Early in the semester, students write a short piece of creative
nonfiction describing a formative life experience; these works often provide a springboard for
subsequent inquiry-based projects. In our class, the students read an excerpt from Malcolm
X's Autobiography and Langston Hughes's "Salvation," then write about an important change in their
own lives. Terrence’s piece “Why?” impressed me with its unflinching honesty, its empathy for his
younger self, and its highly engaging authorial voice. It was clear within the first weeks of the course
that Terrence’s writing deserved to be experienced by a wider audience. – Professor Ashley Minihan
 John Jay’s Finest  21

One would think that a child forced into such a sad situation was a
rarity. But as sad as it is to admit, growing up in Brooklyn in the 1980s, my
situation was common. A lot of children lacked parental guidance at home.
And those without parental guidance at home grew up to become the violent,
drug dealing criminals that inundate New York State’s prisons during the
1990s. But I’m digressing.
My mother fell deep into the drug world and I fell even deeper into the
streets. Her days and nights were spent finding ways to feed her drug
addiction, while my days and nights were spent finding ways to feed me and
my sister’s stomachs.
I was not bereft of a father; he just happened to be inactive most of the
time. I want to believe he loved his children, but he was just too busy cheating
on his them girlfriend and mother of his youngest child, and keeping track of
the many women he was bedding (a trait I sadly inherited, but a tale for another
time).
In just the fifth grade I was a stranger to school, at least the inside of
school. Each morning I would drop my little sister off at school, and then my
friend Stevie and I would hop on the J train at Koskiosko train station and head
to Chambers street in Manhattan. There we would head into any store that
would allow us in, search for things of value, then steal them. We took
everything from toys to clothes and sold them back in Brooklyn, to neighbors.
This was our day job.
At night, just blocks away from my home, I.S. 57 (a junior high school
my parents attended) would open it’s gym doors to the local kids in the
neighborhood. A lot of kids came to the school to hang around and meet up
with friends, others came to play basketball. The school was opened three days
a week—Monday, Wednesday, and Friday. And while most kids were there
to socialize, my friend Stevie and I were there to steal peoples’ coats (Triple
fat goosedowns were in fashion then). Lots of people walked home cold during
the winter of 1985.
On the nights I.S. 57 was closed, Stevie and I would station ourselves
outside of grocery stores, waiting to rob groceries and money from children
our age or older whose parents sent them to the store.
Numb, heart steeled, and inured to the screams of victims, I felt no
regret nor held a minim of guild for committing such flagitious, depraved acts.
The streets were filled with snakes so I had to become a mongoose. I had to
eat. My sister had to eat. It someone else had to “not” eat in order for my
sister and I “to” eat… I think you know the rest!
I come from a very large family. My great-grandmother had thirteen
children and my grandmother had eleven of her own. Between them all I had
well over a hundred relatives: fourteen aunts and uncles, and the rest first and
second cousins. But the problem was: most of them were on drugs, too, and
 John Jay’s Finest  22

had problems of their own. Those who weren’t on drugs weren’t visible when
I needed them. And because of their absence, I had to become the child that
need no one. Independent.
Fortunately, because of my outstanding absences, my school contacted
B.C.W. (The Bureau of Child Welfare), which is now A.C.S. (Administrative
Child Services). After an investigation of my home situation, B.C.W. found
my mother to be an unfit parent, which resulted in my sister and I being
removed from our home in Brooklyn, placed under the supervision of my
maternal grandmother who lived in Laurelton, Queens.
The change of environment should have been considered a blessing, for
Laurelton is a good neighborhood, filled with private houses. However, for
me, a child now used to taking care of myself, the change was an unbearable
nightmare.
Reason being: people were now trying to be parents to me—my
grandmother, aunts, and uncles—telling me what I could and couldn’t do,
forcing me to go to school, and imposing on me a curfew. I was also introduced
to disciplinary actions (punishment) for not following house rules. One of the
hardest things I had trouble accepting, was having the guardianship role I held
over my little sister stripped away from me.
It was a lot for my young self to take in. These people had no idea who
I was nor the things I’d gone through, yet they thought they could tell me what
to do. In my mind I was an adult in need of no one. In their minds I was but a
rebellious child. I cared for my relatives; I just didn’t think they had the right
to tell me what to do.
Their solution to my every wrong was punishment. Not once did
someone ask me why I was so recalcitrant. Though even if they had, at the
time, I would have been unable to explain the whys or what I went through to
become who I was. Regardless how grown I thought I was, I wasn’t aware of
why I did anything. Needless to say my dysfunctional childhood grew to a
dysfunctional adulthood.
Truthfully, though, as I see it now, the trip to adulthood wasn’t that
rough a ride. Of course the transition wasn’t easy, but at some point I began
to mellow out. I’m not sure exactly when. Maybe it started when I began to
take notice of girls—or when girls began to take notice of me! (Funny how a
few smiles and you’re cute from young Ladies can make a bad boy want to be
a good guy.)
Another possibility that may have had an impact on my decision to
change, was the threat I received from my grandmother: She threatened to
send me away if I didn’t straighten up. I don’t know where she planned to send
me—my guess was foster care—but I didn’t want to find out. Besides that, I
knew I had to change; if not for myself than for my sister, my heart. So
 John Jay’s Finest  23

gradually I conformed—abdicating my rule of self—and converted back to a

child.
Before, structure in my life was non-existing and chores were alien,
especially washing dishing—that was a girl’s job, so I believed. But eventually
I came around and learned to complete my chores without complaint. I also
learned how to come home at an appropriate time—and stop taking things that
didn’t belong to me, which, admittedly, took a little longer to abandon.
What took the longest, though, was un-learning distrust and violence,
and re-learning how to trust and depend on others, those now responsible for
me, to take care of me. That was hard. Harder was asking others for money.
At the simple age of eleven, twelve, asking for what most children my age
asked for—money—felt humiliating, degrading to this prideful child. But I
swallowed it; and with time, that seditious trait imbued in my heart subsided.
But, still, it wasn’t until I was old enough and wise enough to
understand my childhood pains, that I was able to work towards healing—
breaking the chains of anger that held me bound.
 John Jay’s Finest  24

 ENGLISH 101
A SERPENT NAMED AMERICA AND
THE ISLAND OF EDEN

__________________________
ISAMAR BRITO

IN PUERTO RICO, you can always smell rain. When it has rained, when it will
rain, if it is raining. It’s the first thing I notice every time I land there. It's an
addicting smell; one of trees and dirt, waves and sand. A smell that tells me
I’m home.
On a day in September of 2017, the smell was not as it usually was.
The smell fell flat, the air was humid and eerie. My mother and I had just
traveled to Puerto Rico in a hurry. Hurricane Maria had recently struck the
island with full force leaving us fearful of what could have happened to our
family.
Upon arriving at an unusually empty airport, I was taken aback by the
scene before me. Hurricane Maria had hit the island with extreme and brute
force. I saw this in the drive to my grandmother's house. Every aspect of the
island felt different, it changed.

__________________________
The Assignment and the Writer: In English 101, students embark on a sustained inquiry-based research
project for much of the semester, integrating secondary sources into a final culminating essay that
explores a single inquiry question in depth. Isamar took this mission to heart, exploring the colonial
origins of Puerto Rico and interviewing a number of subjects to portray a vivid portrait of an island
exploited by its parent country—the U.S. In her masterful prose that weaves together personal
experience, historical research, and academic research, Isamar launches a scathing analysis of the
economic and political forces that continue America’s exploitative relationship with Puerto Rico,
offering a powerful argument for change. – Professor Kim Liao
 John Jay’s Finest  25

The drive up there had always been beautiful. We would drive through
a highway that gave us peaks of little towns hidden by trees and leaves. Here
everything is hidden. All one can see is the road ahead and its curves. It was
something I knew well, something I had seen since I was a little girl. Yet, now,
I did not get to see my familiar scene. When it came time to go up the mountain
to my grandma’s house, I noticed something new, a river. My mother, who had
lived in Puerto Rico her entire life, was taken aback. She had never seen that
river in her life. The hurricane, it seems, had torn every plant from its roots.
We could now see down the mountain as we rode up. We could see the houses,
the dirt, the destruction.
Hurricane Maria did not care about dignity or privacy or people’s lives.
And it seemed that neither did the United States. My mother and I stayed as
long as we could, but ultimately we had to go home. As the states gawked and
sent out “thoughts and prayers,” Puerto Rico suffered.
When states had the privilege of receiving aid, Puerto Rico received a
President who threw paper towels at his citizens like they were not human.
Emergency aid never came. This was the year I began truly considering the
immense threat American colonialism posed on my island.
Before getting into the complicated history of United States
colonialism, what actually is colonialism? Well according to the Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy the history of the term is complicated. This is due
to the fact that the terms Imperialism and colonialism have widely been used
as interchangeable terms. Thus, Margaret Kohn goes into specifics about the
definitions they work off of. To Kohn, “Colonialism is a practice of
domination…. [or] the subjugation of one people to another” (Kohn,
Margaret). In simpler terms, colonialism refers to a people using economic or
political control over another group of people. Countries like the United States
have unbridled power and influence. They use this to control other nations that
perhaps do not have the same power that they have.
Historically the act of colonialism had been justified through what is
called a “civilizing mission.” It was believed that it was necessary for
“‘uncivilized’ societies to advance” into self-government (Kohn, Margaret).
This justification is even seen throughout Spanish colonialism where,
“colonists explicitly justified their activities in the Americas in terms of a
religious mission to bring Christianity to native peoples” (Kohn, Margaret).
Colonialism has been used to subjugate people of color to white nations. These
countries attempt to spread values they deem to be morally superior over other
societies. Much like the case with Puerto Rico and the U.S., who took
ownership of the island after “saving” them from Spanish rule.
Often, when we talk about the term, it's related to the actions of
Europeans. It is rare to see American Imperialism be brought up in these
 John Jay’s Finest  26

conversations. And that is why it is my hope that throughout this paper I remind
Americans that they are not exempt from the horrors of colonialism. That this
country is in fact complicit in what we condemn other countries for.
Puerto Rico is a colony of the United States. While its official title is
“United States territory,” Puerto Rico has never reaped a single benefit from
the United States in its history. The United States became involved with Puerto
Rico while helping defeat Spanish rule over the island in 1898. In December
of that year, Puerto Rico was signed over to the United States. Puerto Rico’s
rapid change in leadership quickly caused difficulties for native Puerto Ricans.
They had lost key export markets in Europe and the Caribbean while also being
subjected to “punitive U.S. tariffs” (“Puerto Rico, Colonialism In”, Pedro
Caban).
In 1901, Congress passed the Foraker Act which essentially stripped
Puerto Ricans of any role in their own government. In Washington, Puerto Rico
had no representatives and all those who made any decisions for the island
were appointed by the United States. While the United States would describe
their goal for the island to guide the Puerto Rican people into self-government,
their actions showed otherwise. Puerto Rico from the very beginning was not
awarded the right to choose. The intention behind this was clear: feign
democracy, practice control. The act told Puerto Ricans that, “Puerto Rico
belongs to the United States, but it is not the United States, nor a part of the
United States” (Fernandez et al., p. 143). In 1917, the Jones Act was passed.
The act gave Puerto Ricans citizenship, and yet still treated them as second
class. It was clear that “[the] rights of citizens of Puerto Rico were not
comparable to the rights of citizens in the states” (Caban, 517). Under the guise
of citizenship, Puerto Rico was subjected to an undemocratic ruling. Puerto
Rico was nothing more than a pawn in the American game of domination. In
this game, America does not see the Puerto Rican people as deserving of
representation, respect, or basic rights. Instead, what they are is cheap labor.
The United States did not only rule over Puerto Rico through laws and
regulations, they controlled Puerto Rico economically as well. Through their
“unlimited constitutional powers” (Caban, 517) the United States shifted the
Puerto Rican economy to become reliant on raw sugar. In the 1930s, Caban
states that over 60% of Puerto Rico’s “export” earnings were sugar exports.
Even then, the United States had an unbridled control over Puerto Ricans as,
“[four] U.S. firms controlled over 23 percent of raw sugarcane lands and
accounted for 51 percent of raw sugar production” (Caban, 517). The U.S.
morphed the island's economy into one that benefits the mainland. As the
United States saw the profits of sugar exports, Puerto Ricans saw hardships.
The island soon saw themselves fall into poverty. This poverty is one that has
rolled over into Puerto Rico’s present. Luis Muñoz Marín, a former governor
of Puerto Rico, blamed United States occupation for this, “The American flag
 John Jay’s Finest  27

found Puerto Rico penniless and content” (Wagenheim and Wagenheim, p.

154). To put this into perspective Muñoz Marín was a governor famously
against the pro-independence movement, yet is quoted to have said this. The
U.S. reaped the benefits of their own makeshift sweatshop while Puerto Ricans
suffered.
It’s easy to look back at these events and forget that they happened.
Forget that Puerto Ricans have suffered at the hands of Americans. Many are
not even aware of the situation in Puerto Rico. But the people who stood up to
American colonialism in the 20th century are still alive and they remember it
exceptionally well. People like Heriberto Marín, interviewed by Jon Anderson
in 2017 for The New Yorker, still live to tell the story of Puerto Rican efforts
for independence. Marín was part of the group of brave Puerto Ricans who
stood up to the United States government at a time where a growing
independence sentiment was spreading across the island. In his interview,
Marín tells Anderson that the uprising represented, “the era of decolonization...
It was David against Goliath” (Marín).
An exceptionally beautiful part of this interview is his very clear sense
of pride in being part of the movement, even as he details the horrible treatment
he faced subsequently. Marín was a Cadeta de la Republica under Albizu
Campos, an important figure in the Puerto Rican independence movement.
Born in Jayuya to poor farmers, Marín had grown up under a government who
in 1937 killed twenty people and wounded hundreds in Ponce which was
eventually, “concluded [to be]... constituted [as] a massacre” (Caban, 518).
Less than two decades later, on October 27th of 1950, Albizu Campos called
the nacionalistas to action. In Jayuya, the nacionalistas had ended up seizing
police stations. The Jayuya uprising had famously led Blanca Canalas to raise
the Puerto Rican flag declaring freedom within the towns. Herberto Marín,
who had grown up on the Canaleses land, had the honor of helping Blanca
Canales raise the flag. Marín does not regret his decision despite being
sentenced to a hundred and fifty-four years in prison. He goes on to explain a
particular detail of the current state of one of the prisons he was thrown into.
In his interview, Marín says that the ironically named La Princesa, “[prison
was turned into the] Puerto Rican tourism office… There is no historical
consciousness here” (Marín). Tourism was another economic venture the
United States had taken on behalf of Puerto Ricans. In a way, La Princesa still
stands. The economic control tourism has over the island is quite literally a
prison.
In Puerto Rico throughout the 20th century, revolts were not the only
action that could get you thrown into prison. In 1948, the United States made
it punishable by 10 years in prison to fly the Puerto Rican flag. This was done
as an effort to keep the pro-independence movement at bay. It’s quite ironic
that the same country whose very Bill of Rights protects a citizen's freedom of
 John Jay’s Finest  28

speech was responsible for a law such as this one. Those who posed a threat to
the American mission in Puerto Rico were, “[not] only the Nationalists but also
the Independence Party and Socialist Party… [who] were subjected to arrest
and intimidation” (Caban, 520). Despite promoting free speech on the
mainland, Puerto Rico was not part of those laws. To the U.S. Puerto Ricans
were disposable. Their voices and their lives did not matter. They were objects
and numbers, not people.
This reigns especially true through the topic of population. The United
States long battled with Puerto Rico’s overpopulation. American officials
blamed the poor economic health of the island for the excess amount of people.
In order to combat this, the United States commenced a new form of population
control: sterilization. The program was, “endorsed by the U.S. government
[who] began sending health department officials to rural parts of the island…
By 1946, postpartum sterilizations happened frequently in… Puerto Rican
hospitals” (Andrews, Katherine). In “The Dark History of Forced Sterilization
of Latina Women,” Katherine Andrews portrays the dangerous effects of such
efforts. Many of the Puerto Rican women who had fallen victim to the
sterilizations had no clue what they were getting into. A USAID grant provided
free sterilization of Puerto Ricans. The program also took the opportunity to
use, “Puerto Rican women [as]... guinea pigs for U.S. pharmaceutical
companies who were developing the modern birth control pill” (Falicov).
Again, Puerto Ricans were not seen as human beings. They were seen as
objects for American development. American white women would, perhaps,
be the first with access to working birth control yet Puerto Rican women
suffered for that privilege.
According to a study done by Catherine Chase Boring, “of the
sterilizations that took place between 1954-1982, 21% of women felt some
regret for having the operations and 11% felt definite regret for having been
sterilized” (Andrews, Katherine). The women involved were not given a
warning and were not told the full story. The United States used its power over
them for their own benefit leaving women violated and regretful for years to
come. But how does this translate into today's Puerto Rico?
As you may have guessed, these problems did not begin and end in the
20th century. Puerto Rico is still under American control, and thus, are still
being subjected to unfair and harmful practices. I spoke with two Puerto Rican
teenagers in order to see their current perspectives on modern-day colonialism
practices. Each gave me personal insights and views on the ways in which their
island has suffered.
First I spoke to Angeles (she/they), an 18-year-old from Aguadilla.
They have a deep love for their island. They seem to have always known that
colonialism was present within the island but didn’t fully comprehend its
impact until studying Puerto Rican politics. She explained that “studying
 John Jay’s Finest  29

[Puerto Rico’s]... evolution as a colony when we were at the hand of our native
peoples, to the hands of the Spanish, and now in the hands of the U.S..” had
led her to clearly see what was going on around her. They told me that,
“Maturing meant[understanding]... what was happening to not only our island
but to our people as well because of the United States,” (Angeles). Angeles
expressed disdain for American control over the island. They told me that the
United States had posed a threat to Puerto Rican culture, “the second we
became their colony,” (Angeles).
When I asked what the Puerto Rican colonial status meant for their
personal Puerto Rican identity, Angeles shared this: “My experience growing
up in colonialism meant that I would be raised with little to no connection or
understanding of my native culture. I was put into English-focused schools
from kindergarten all the way to my high school graduation. I, alongside my
community, had to experience a series of disasters from 2 hurricanes back-to-
back, to earthquakes, to a global pandemic and see how- despite being an
American colony- the US never truly helped us. Areas of our island never fully
recovered from Hurricane Maria and we had to stand by while the president of
the time mocked us and threw rolls of toilet paper at us when we were begging
for help,” (Angeles).
The situation Angeles is seen referring to above happened in 2017.
Hurricane Maria was a Category 5 hurricane that devastated the Caribbean in
that very year. In Puerto Rico, fatalities were reported to reach over 3,000.
Following the deathly blow, Former President Donald Trump had arrived in
Puerto Rico after nine days of radio silence from the United States. During his
time in Puerto Rico, he threw paper at Puerto Ricans, had compared Hurricane
Maria to Hurricane Katrina in attempts to belittle the Puerto Rican people, and
even told Puerto Ricans, “you’ve thrown our budget a little out of whack” in
reference to the United States spending. According to BBC News, the former
president had visited only 7% of the island, exclusively the places that had
power. In the face of the crisis, Puerto Rico was viewed as a burden to
America’s wallet. They were dehumanized; the image of an American
president throwing paper towels at people struggling to survive etched into
their minds for years to come. And it's clear that even in 2021, young people
like Angeles still have not forgotten.
Much like Angeles, Matthew (he/they) an 18-year-old from Caguas,
believes that the United States poses a major threat to Puerto Rico. When I
asked him if he had thought American culture was dangerous to that of their
own, there was no doubt that they agreed with Angeles.
“Yes”, they told me. “We almost didn’t have the right to waive our own flag
until 1952 where it was finally accepted as our national flag [even though]...
the flag was created in 1895 during El Grito de Lares,” (Matthew).
For Matt, Puerto Rican colonialism also affects his relationship with
 John Jay’s Finest  30

his very own culture. They told me that, “colonial status opens doors of
xenophobia towards us and we are seen as lesser-of both by Americans and by
our fellow latines… Our experiences are often isolated or ignored since we’re
too “gringofied” for others to really care and help. More often than not we get
made fun of for our colloquial Spanish which became Spanglish over the
years.” The Puerto Rican experience is thus unique under colonialism. Having
a latine identity under American rule is difficult due to the ways in which
American culture is imposed on Puerto Ricans whether it be through
economics, politics, education, or language. Puerto Ricans are not given the
option to preserve their culture in ways other Latinx countries have. Every time
the island has been forced under new rule, Puerto Ricans saw a new distortion
of themselves. To the Americans, Puerto Rico is too Latinx, but to other Latinx
people they are too, as Matt puts it, “gringofied”.
Making Puerto Rico appeal more to Americans is not something new.
Much like in the 1930s, the American government has played a crucial role in
the ways in which the current Puerto Rican economy has shifted into what it is
today. As described by the two interviewees, Puerto Rico currently has an
economy that heavily relies on the tourism industry. With Puerto Ricans still
recovering from Hurricane Maria as well as Covid-19, the economic situation
in the island is increasingly more complex. And once again the complexity of
this stems directly from the United States’ neglect of their colony in the
Caribbean. America has quite infamously had a difficult time controlling
the spread of the virus which in turn had caused many countries to close their
borders to U.S. citizens. But trust American entitlement to overpower the
strength of closed borders. Led by the American need to conquer all, many
mainland Americans fled to Puerto Rico as their island getaway from the
pandemic. Here, they went to forget the struggles many of them had
surrounding the virus. There was only one problem with this little taste of
tropical freedom. America had once again forgotten that real people had lived
there.
On the island, a multitude of events ensued showing extreme disregard
of the island and its inhabitants. Ones where tourists acted violently against
Puerto Ricans who had asked for them to follow simple regulations, and ones
where the visitors acted without remorse. A situation like this was outlined in
an NBC article in March of 2021. After watching the ways in which Americans
had invaded the island, Puerto Rican native Israel Meléndez Ayala told NBC
that, “[The tourists] were behaving as if no one else existed in Old San Juan…
We're still living in the middle of a pandemic, and people can't come here and
act as if the virus doesn't exist. ... They have a sense of entitlement and apathy
I don't understand," (“Chaotic Situation”, Nicole Acevedo). NBC reported that
a multitude of viral videos showcased tourists ignoring, “the island’s midnight
curfew, mask mandate and physical distancing guidelines… [as well as]
 John Jay’s Finest  31

getting into fights, dancing on top of vehicles, and destroying private property”
(“Chaotic Situation”, Acevedo).
Here the issue becomes complex. While closing the airport and, by
default, its borders to mainland Americans would solve the problem of
disorderly conduct by tourists, it would also cause other problems within the
cash flow that comes to the island due to tourism. The United States has created
a situation that makes it impossible for Puerto Rico to win. Close the airport
and lose money, or keep it open and face violence and destruction.
Economically, the problems do not just stop at tourism. Thanks to the
island’s long history of mismanagement and “Wall Street vulture funds”
(“Beyond the Tax Breaks”, Solá-Santiago), the island was thrown into
unpayable debt. In 2016, American Congress passed the PROMESA bill. This
law established a financial oversight board and a plan for reconstructing debt
on the island. Since then, the board has used this law to- you guessed it- create
reconstruction plans that directly benefit the United States.
Act 60, or the Tax Incentive Code, creates a tax sanctuary of sorts for
businessmen. The act says that those who relocate to the island for 183 days
qualify for tax exemptions. On its surface, once again, it seems like a harmless
attempt to benefit the nation’s economic status yet Puerto Ricans are seeing
otherwise. Journalist Ana Teresa Toro tells [Link] that the Act
perpetuates the “savior narrative” that Americans had attempted to infuse in all
coverage of Puerto Ricans after the Hurricane. While America had done
virtually nothing to help Puerto Rico recover, media coverage told the story of
an island that could only be saved by the grace of America. Teresa Toro
explains moving to the island as follows:

“Of course, it’s easy to move to Puerto Rico right now. You will find a
depressed economy, a lot of cheap properties because people have been
forced to migrate to the United States… It’s a prime moment for final
pillage.” (“Beyond the Tax Breaks”, Toro).

Colonialism on the island once more produced a situation where only

outsiders could benefit from the state the island seems to perpetually be in.
When rich businessmen and investors relocate to Puerto Rico to flee taxation
they directly raise the cost of living and take away land from native Puerto
Ricans. Toro makes the claim that the incentives being introduced are all just
a “new iteration of colonialism that sets a vision of Puerto Rico without actual
Puerto Ricans” (“Beyond the Tax Beaks’, Solá-Santiago). And Toro’s
perspective is one shared by many Puerto Ricans.
A direct reflection of the danger the act will pose to the island is the
recent move social media influence Logan Paul took to Puerto Rico. During
his time on the island, he has disrespected sacred land, refused to follow basic
 John Jay’s Finest  32

instructions, and caused damage to public property. He exemplifies the fear

Toro had concerning the goal of the incentives, “[they will come to] exploit
our resources…[and] do the minimum… it’s an unbalanced pact” (“Beyond
the Tax Breaks”, Solá-Santiago). The reality is Paul is just one of the many
rich Americans coming to the island to exploit its resources. It’s easy for them
to do it because that was the exact purpose of these incentives. It was never to
help Puerto Ricans, and it never will be.
The United States is not good for Puerto Rico. Every single aspect of
Puerto Rican livelihood has been altered so heavily by American colonialism
that it makes it impossible for the island to flourish. Every single benefit is
reaped by America. And in knowing this it is no surprise that there are many
Puerto Ricans who deeply desire independence.
When I spoke to Angeles and Matt, I had asked them about
independence and what that would mean for them. Their responses were far
from one-dimensional and reiterates the idea that the issue is multifaceted.
Independence to them feels almost impossible. And that is exactly how
America structured Puerto Rico to be.
Angeles tells me that to them, “Independence for the island would mean
healing… But… [it] would also mean lack of stability… We are so deeply
reliant on the U.S. that independence would lead to [the destruction of our
economy], and would [be]... impossible for us to jump back,” (Angeles). The
United States has created a situation that seems impossible to get out of. And
that is scary.
For a country that prides itself on its own independence, its own focus
on freedom, the United States does not live any of it. It’s a facade for something
more insidious. While America pretends to fight for everyone’s freedom, they
oppress and exploit ethnic minorities under our very noses. It needs to stop and
Puerto Rican voices need to be heard.
It is time for Americans to hold their own government accountable for
their actions. For America to change its control and hold over people who just
want freedom. In doing so, perhaps this will never happen to a group of people
in this country again. Perhaps we can end suffering before it begins. Perhaps
Puerto Rico will see its own independence. Whatever comes from it, Puerto
Ricans must be heard for the rest to follow. America needs to know what is
happening under their noses, they need to know what they are doing to people
who are supposed to be fellow citizens.
Hoping for independence knowing the circumstances may feel
premature, but believing there can be change is among the most important steps
in fighting for that change. And Puerto Rico is an island of strong people who
deserve lives free of colonialism. Marín powerfully puts it as follows:
 John Jay’s Finest  33

“We Puerto Ricans are also a heroic people because we resisted Spain
for five hundred years, and now we have resisted the United States for
a hundred and nineteen years. We are like trees that not even a
hurricane has been able to uproot because our roots grow so deeply.
Our leaves may be torn off, but they will grow again. These are the
fruits of what we have sown.” (Herberto Marín).

Puerto Rico deserves an island free of American intervention.

REFERENCES
Anderson, Jon Lee. “The Dream of Puerto Rican Independence, and the Story of Heriberto
Marín.” The New Yorker, 27 Dec. 2017.
Caban, Pedro, "Puerto Rico, Colonialism In" (2005). Latin American, Caribbean, and U.S.
Latino Studies Faculty Scholarship. 19.
Kohn, Margaret, and Kavita Reddy. “Colonialism.” Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy,
Stanford University, 29 Aug. 2017, [Link]
“'Chaotic Situation': Puerto Ricans Indignant at Tourists Breaking Covid Mandates.”
[Link], NBCUniversal News Group, 20 Mar. 2021,
[Link]
tourists-breaking-covid-mandates-n1261588.
Andrews, Katherine. “The Dark History of Forced Sterilization of Latina Women.”
Panoramas, 31 Oct. 2017, [Link]
history-forced-sterilization-latina-women.
Solá-Santiago, Frances. “Beyond the Tax Breaks.” What Logan Paul's Move To Puerto Rico
Means, [Link]
puerto-rico-millionaires-tax-break.
 John Jay’s Finest  34

 ECONOMICS 170
CRIME, CLASS, AND
CAPITALISM™
__________________________
ANTON MENDELSOHN

THOUGH MARX ADDRESSED CRIME AND CRIMINALITY to a limited degree, as

Greenberg mentions in his book, “Crime and Capitalism: Readings in Marxist
Criminology”, the nature of Marx’s discipline allows for an expansion of his
approach into many other fields. In a preface he wrote for his book “A
Contribution to Critique of Political Economy”, Marx argues for the concept
of fundamental relations that form a base “on which rises a legal and political
superstructure”(Marx, 4). That is, the social relations involved with production
— relationships that tend to be fraught with conflict — are projected into a
“superstructure” in which laws and politics are formed. These relationships of

___________________________
The Assignment and the Writer: This essay assignment in Economics 170, Crime, Class, and Capitalism:
the Economics of Justice asked students to analyze the class dimensions of mass incarceration in the
U.S. In his essay, Anton skillfully applies Marxian social theory to argue that criminal law, policing, and
incarceration cannot be fully understood if removed from the context of capitalist class conflict. His
analysis ranges from the class content of the selective criminalization of behaviors across the class
structure to the protection from criminal justice systems that wealth can afford, and he posits
original frameworks for typologizing different forms of theft according to their class content. It is a
brilliant contribution to the tradition of Marxian criminology. – Professor Eric Seligman
 John Jay’s Finest  35

production exist between two general social groups defined by their ownership:
the working-class proletariat, who owns only his labour, and the bourgeois
class of owners, who command the means of production — the tools, land, and
resources necessary for the creation of goods. Marx argues that, in order for
profit to exist, one input in the production process must be undervalued — the
labour. Thus, inevitably the two groups stand in opposition of each other. I
wish to posit in this essay that the U.S. Justice System exists within the context
of class conflict which inform laws and shapes how and for whom policing
works.
Law is often treated as amoral, rational structures on which a civil
society exists, and while that is true to the extent that they identify and punish
major social harms, there is plenty of room for the influence of class bias. To
return to the Marxist method of social analysis, we can look at many modern
laws in the terms of class conflict. laws further class interest by allowing for
certain social harms committed predominantly by the upper class to go
relatively unpunished. As Greenberg mentions, the definition of social harm is
“based on the conceptions… held by those who have the power to make the
law, and consequently tend to exclude from scrutiny harms caused by the
actions of the upper class.” (Greenberg, 5). Though it is difficult to evaluate
the social harm of a crime, the fact remains that, while the vast majority of
incarcerations are for violent crimes committed by low-income earners, crimes
committed by the upper class incur great, and often unreciprocated, social harm
(Usmani; Sawyer and Wagner). One of the greatest examples of the wealthy
leveraging their political power was during the financial crisis in 2007-8.
Bailouts protected many major institutions from financial repercussions, while
most executives avoided any sentencing. Though, what these people did was
legal, the fact remains that the consequences of their actions destroyed the lives
of millions of people. In light of this reality, it begs the question whether “crime
prevention [is] a socially neutral function and that questions of policy [are] no
more than issues of technical, administrative expertise. Thus Smith and Fried
(1974:140) observe, ‘Nevertheless, their incarceration is political since it is
the end-product of decisions to treat some social harms as deserving of penal
sanctions and others as not-with little regard to the actual extent of social
damage.’” (Greenberg, 8).
Even within the most basic structures of the law there are certain
designs that allow for the wealthy to shrug off punishment. A fine for a traffic
violation levied against a person living paycheck to paycheck could be life
altering. It could mean missing rent, being evicted, not taking your child to the
doctor — not so for a rich person. On minimum wage, a ticket could amount
to over two days of labour time. For someone with more means, it could be the
sum of a few minutes of labour time. While fines and tickets are generally
distributed evenly across crimes committed throughout the spectrum of wealth,
 John Jay’s Finest  36

their nature as a set tax on socially harmful behavior disproportionally affects

the life of the lowest strata.
Modern taxation acts as another avenue for the wealthy to avoid the
criminal justice system — even more obviously and impactful than traffic
violations. Tax loopholes, minimal taxes on capital gains, and off shore
accounts, among others, allow the wealthy and corporations to avoid enormous
sums they should owe to society. To dismiss the billions lost to the public in
taxes due, is to dismiss social harm that, while not necessarily equal to, say,
the social harm of murder, does impact the lives of many. Under new legal
definitions, I find it very believable that tax loopholes could be viewed as theft
of public property, and even more severe crimes considering that that money
could be used for healthcare or social services, and the loss of it could cost
lives.
The trap of the Justice System’s socially reproductive nature, another
aspect which disproportionately affects the poorest people, not only impedes
the lives of those who have already been incarcerated, but their families on the
outside as well. Multiple aspects of one’s incarceration could lead to further
expansion of the Justice System, starting with the incarceration itself. Since the
majority of incarcerated are men, many families lose their bread winner
(Usmani). Once inside, while it doesn’t represent a huge portion of the
economy, costs are imposed for daily necessities. The commissary system
imposes costs for food, hygiene products, and even the bare minimum of
entertainment (Raher). Prisoners are charged for phone calls, emails, and high
costs are set for money transfers from their families. Once outside,
employment prospects for ex-cons are very thin — many and up homeless. The
Justice System excludes the poorest people from improving in their socio-
economic situation, leaving them and their families desperate, and more likely
to continue with criminal behavior (Usmani).
To attempt to extract or isolate the Justice System from the greater
economic factors that surround it would be in error. The influence of the owner
class on what is criminal behavior and how it should be policed, the
equilibrium perpetuating the creation of situations that push people into
criminal lifestyles, created by economic burdens put on people even
tangentially involved with the Justice System, proves to be of great importance.
Marx’s theory of the base-superstructure relationship seems, considering what
I have discussed earlier in this essay, to prove true. As the power balance in
the relations of production is skewed in favor of the bourgeoisie, the
superstructure, the laws and regulations reflect their interests, allowing
leniency for acts that cause, potentially, extraordinary social harm. I am under
no illusion that dismantling an institution so entrenched within both politics
and society will be possible, however, in order to begin to make real change,
we need to zoom out. We need to begin to analyze it, see it as a product, and
 John Jay’s Finest  37

reproducer, of the larger social structures at work. The next step in this process
would be making laws more sensitive to nuance. To figure out how to apply
law more equally as well as more egalitarian. That means, regulating the social
harms incurred by the wealthy, as well as focusing on rehabilitation and mercy
as opposed to excessive punishment and increased burden.

REFERENCES
Usmani, Adaner, director. The Origins of Mass Incarceration. YouTube, YouTube, 12 Oct.
2020, [Link] Accessed 7
Oct. 2021.
Greenberg, David F., editor. Crime And Capitalism: Readings in Marxist Crimonology.
Temple University Press, 1993, [Link]
Marx, Karl. A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy. Moscow: Progress
Publishers, 1970. Print.
Sawyer, Wendy, and Peter Wagner. “Mass Incarceration: The Whole Pie 2020.” Mass
Incarceration: The Whole Pie 2020 | Prison Policy Initiative,
[Link]
Raher, Stephen. “The Company Store.” The Company Store | Prison Policy Initiative, Prison
Policy Initiative, May 2018, [Link]/reports/[Link].
 John Jay’s Finest  38

 SOCIOLOGY 232
THE DAY I BECAME A VICTIM:
CONFRONTING RACISM
AT THE FOOD COURT

____________ _______ _
TI’ARA JOSEPH

I
EVERYONE KNOWS ABOUT THE FAMOUS LIES that America loves to tell itself:
‘This is the land of the free where freedom and equality for all exists! We are
a colorblind society where all are welcome!’ But it’s just like they say, ‘If you
tell yourself a lie enough, you may start believing it is true.’ This is the only
possible reason that I can think of why America continues to brag and boast
that it is not a racist country when such is very much alive and well. The
resistance seems to have gotten a boost in recent times with the BLM
movement protests and riots against systemic racism and white supremacy.
This paper will examine a personal encounter with acts of racism through using
a combination of theoretical perspectives put forth by Michael Omi and
Howard Winant in the text, ‘Racial Formation in the United States,’ as well as
Douglas Massey in the text ‘Categorically Unequal,’ in an attempt to explain
why such a reality continues to exist in America.

___________________________
The Assignment and the Writer: In Sociology 232, Social Stratification, students analyze a personal
experience with social inequality in light of theories learned in class. Ti'ara's essay is exemplary for her
thoughtful theoretical exegesis and her vivid depiction of the confusion, anguish and frustration of
enduring a racially based provocation. Please note that this represents a small sample of Ti'ara's
outstanding contribution to this course. Her weekly Discussion Board posts evinced the work of an
engaged scholar immersed in the readings and how they might be amplified or critiqued in light of her
personal journey. Her pride in her work is one we can now, fittingly, share. – Professor Robert Garot
 John Jay’s Finest  39

II
According to Omi and Winant, race is a concept that signifies and
symbolizes social conflicts and interests by referring to different types of
human bodies. Although this concept invokes biologically based human
characteristics, selection of these particular human features for purposes of
racial signification is always and necessarily a social and historical process.
The categories employed to differentiate among human groups along racial
lines reveal themselves, among serious examination, to be at best imprecise,
and at worst completely arbitrary. They raise the question, ‘If the concept of
race is so nebulous, can we not dispense with it, or do without it at least in the
‘enlightened’ present?’ However, they then state that an affirmative action to
such would present obvious practical difficulties as it is rather difficult to
jettison widely held beliefs which are central to everyone’s identity and
understanding of the social world. Further, a deeper difficulty is inherent in the
very formation of this schema, in its way of posing race as a problem, a
misconception left over from the past, and suitable now only for the dustbin of
history.
When one first reads this it may seem a bit confusing; however upon
closer attention one comes to the realization that what Omi and Winant are
explaining is factual. Although America is convincing itself that it is
colorblind, many people simply cannot ignore race as this can be described as
the ‘central axis’ of the US as everything truly revolves around one’s race: it
determines access to various institutions or avenues for success, how one is
treated in society and so forth. Further, race is seen as a problem due to various
historical occurrences or processes like slavery, Jim Crow, the existence of the
Klu Klux Klan, and white supremacy, among other things, all which were
based on race and created the idea that white people are God sent and superior,
whereas blacks come from the devil. They are seen as inferior and deserve to
be treated as such, which many still abide by today.
Omi and Winant go on to assert that at the micro level, racial projects,
which do the ideological ‘work’ of making the link between structure and
representation, also link signification and structure, not so much as efforts to
shape policy or define large scale meaning, but as the applications of ‘common
sense.’ In order to see such projects operating at the level of everyday life, we
have only to examine the many ways in which we, often unconsciously, notice
race. It is without a doubt true that one of the first things that we notice about
people when we meet them is their race, and we use such to provide clues about
who that person is, due to preconceived notions which we may have about that
particular race. This fact is made painfully obvious when we encounter
someone whom we cannot conveniently racially categorize as they may be
‘mixed,’ which becomes uncomfortable and a crisis of racial meaning for a
moment. Our ability to interpret racial meanings are based on preconceived
 John Jay’s Finest  40

notions of a racialized social structure, such can be seen as for example, during
the pandemic, when Asians were discriminated against since former President
Trump would have often called the virus a ‘Chinese virus.’ His followers took
his words as gospel and decided to act on such belief. They saw Asians as a
threat due to the preconceived notions about such persons which would have
been drilled into their heads. As Omi and Winant state, comments like ‘funny
you don’t look black’ tend to betray the underlying image of what black should
be: loud, ‘ghetto’, violent/aggressive, since we expect people to act out their
apparent racial identities and become disoriented when they do not (this can
perhaps help to explain why there have been so many acts of police brutality
against black men as the cops expect such men to be very violent and when
they are the opposite such officers get ‘disoriented’ and thus act out what they
believe is actually the case). Race therefore becomes ‘common sense,’ or a way
of comprehending, explaining and acting in the social world.
Such, Massey would argue, comes about due to the psychology of
social classification. He argues that people use social schemas or conceptual
categories to examine themselves and the social roles, groups, and individuals
that they encounter through a process known as social cognition. Through this
process, individuals divide the world into categories, and are reliant on such
categorical judgements under (perceived) conditions of threat or uncertainty.
The human brain has two parallel processors which function independently,
although they are interconnected: the emotional brain rooted the limbic system,
and the rational brain centered in the prefrontal cortex and areas of the
neocortex. As the number and speed of connections running from the limbic
system to the neocortex are greater than the reverse, emotional memories
(typically unconscious), tend to greatly affect how humans make use of the
categories which exist in the rational (conscious) part of the brain. Such
emotional memories, when associated with specific social classes, can
contribute to prejudice. Thus, although some people may be principled racists
who consciously believe that African Americans are inferior and thus
rationally seek to subordinate them, others may sincerely believe in equal
opportunity and racial justice and yet have some unconscious anti-black
sentiments and associations that were created through conditioning processes,
even though this prejudice may not be consistent with that person’s beliefs.

III
I now consider myself to be a walking testimony of both theories. It
feels as if this just happened yesterday, because the memory of it constantly
replays in my mind as if it is on some never-ending loop. I still get goosebumps
and shivers at the very thought of this occurrence, because never in my sixteen
(at the time) years of life did I imagine that something like that could have
happened to me.
 John Jay’s Finest  41

About two summers ago when I had finished high school, my parents
thought that it would be best for me to travel to the United States. It was for
me to get accustomed to a new life, seeing that I would have been moving there
from the Caribbean to live and go to school. The adjustment was not bad
initially since I was not a stranger to the 'American way of life’ as I visited
there at least once every year. Additionally, since I was going to be staying in
Brooklyn, the place I am most accustomed to, the shift from the Caribbean life
did not seem bad for me because this part of New York is known to be a
‘hotspot’ for West Indians. It should be noted that I always thought of the US
as my happy place because of the type of freeness and relaxation that I felt
whenever I visited, as well as because of the 'American dream,’ which was sold
to me ever since I was a little girl by various television shows, movies and
advertisements which made me long for the day that I would be able to live
there! However, one day when my family decided to take a trip down to
Queens, my entire outlook on the US changed.
Early one summer morning, my parents were giving my brother and I
the plan for the day which included a lot of running around, with our final stop
being the Green Acres Mall in Queens. The day had been going great thus far,
but as we got closer to the mall, it began to look as if we were about to get
caught in some heavy rain showers: a storm was coming. Upon arrival we
decided we should hit the food court first since we were all starving. The
mixture of scents of the various food options made me want to try everything.
I was drawn to a booth with Chinese food, and the scent that had been holding
my nose and stomach captive was that of freshly fried plantains. Fortunately
for me, I was next in line and got the last few pieces, along with some other
food items from that fresh batch and I was ready to dive into my meal.
Unfortunately for me, however, there was a lady behind me who had also been
eyeing those plantains and was therefore not pleased when I got the last bits.
As soon as I gave my order, I began hearing murmurs and feeling a hot
set of air on the back of my neck as if the person speaking was intentionally
coming up directly behind me. It started with what I had believed were
innocent comments such as, “I hope she doesn’t take all of those. There better
be enough for me!” in a high pitched and innocent sounding, almost childlike
voice. This, however, immediately changed into a deep and dark Southern
voice, almost sinister, that was filled with anger and rage when my brother
(who is tall and dark skinned) and father (who is also tall but ‘buff’ and a bit
lighter than my brother), came to meet me and stood next to me while I waited
to pay for my food. Snide comments such as, “These damn niggers! I hate all
of them! Why don’t they just go back to Africa?” were among the things that
I began hearing from the person standing behind me. Only this time, she was
no longer speaking in murmurs onto my neck, but had begun raising her voice,
 John Jay’s Finest  42

almost as if she had started to yell for attention and support with each comment
that was being made.
After hearing these comments, we decided to walk away and ignore the
voice so that we could have continued along with our day. Seeing that I was
the closest to the person, I decided that I should not turn around to face her
before I walked away (even though I wanted to see her), but that I should
instead walk in the direction that I was already facing and find a seat there.
That was a bad idea. As soon as I began walking away, I felt a sharp pull on
my hair, which had been braided, and the next thing I knew was that I was on
the cold, hard-tiled ground facing the ceiling, staring into the bright white
lights. Before blacking out for a few seconds because of how hard I hit the
ground, the sinister voice that I was hearing behind me in the line was now
coming from above me and had erupted into laughter because of what she had
just done. This was accompanied by a burst of heavy rainfall from outside
which hit the roof of the mall with just as much force as I had hit the ground-
the storm had arrived.
My brother and father, upon seeing what had happened, rushed to my
side to pick me up when the lady started making more snide comments such
as, “All you monkey niggers should just leave us in America alone! Go back
to your country, you don’t belong here! Go pick some cotton!” and even
attempted to hit my brother. Although my head had been spinning because of
the fall, I jumped up to defend my brother, who was already being shielded by
my father, and I wanted to see what the person looked like. To my surprise,
she was a small and almost frail- elderly Caucasian woman. I was baffled for
a split second when I looked at her because I could not believe that such a
sweet-looking elderly woman was capable of such evil. I was snapped back to
reality however when she looked at me in my eyes, almost as if she were staring
into my soul, and said “Did the monkey hurt itself?” This filled me with rage
and sadness because I had never heard such comments in my life before, which
caused me to feel hurt, but also upset because of what she had done. A part of
me wanted to cry because of all that had just happened, but another part of me
wanted to swing back at her. Nonetheless, we again decided to walk away and
pay no mind to what was going on, as if we were so successful with that the
last time, right?
When I was about to take my first bite of my food, I began wondering
to myself, “all of this over some plantains?” when suddenly, something
knocked our table hard and caused some of my mother’s drink to spill. To no
surprise, it was the lady who had come back to torment us some more. She
repeated her original set of comments, but on realizing that we all were
ignoring her to the point where we decided to get up and move, she decided to
turn it up a notch and spat in my father’s food- everyone in the food court was
staring at this point. Eventually, the security, who had been there the entire
 John Jay’s Finest  43

time but was perhaps too appalled to do anything in the beginning (or at least
so I hope), rushed in when he saw what she had just done and escorted her out
of the food court, and he then apologized to us for everything that she did. Not
long after we decided it would just be best to go home and get some rest to
forget everything that happened that day- hoping that it would soon become a
distant memory.
That night before I went to bed, I laid down and again stared into the
bright white light in the ceiling. I began to think about what had happened, and
I got angry when I realized that no one around us even tried to jump in and
help us. They all just stared at us and spoke among themselves, allowing it all
to happen. I told myself that maybe it was because they were all in a state of
shock and could not wrap their heads around what was going on, but then I
realized that although they were staring at what was going on, most of them
were not even looking at the old lady, their eyes were fixed on us. Why? What
did we do? Then another shocking reality hit me: the persons who were staring
at us did not look like us, they were all Caucasian as well. Did they enjoy what
was happening? Did they agree with the lady and her comments? I began
crying again because I was confused that such a thing would have happened to
us. Was the cause of this really some plantains? Or was it because America is
still a very racist country? Are we still in the era of Jim Crow and segregation?
Were we not supposed to go to that mall or eat in that food court just because
we are black? If so, why wasn’t there any sign saying, “whites only”? I thought
that America was the land of the free, where all are equal and are welcomed?
I felt the total opposite that day. Was she expecting us to lash out at her, that
this is the way that ‘blacks are supposed to act in America’? Was she trying to
get us to lash out at her? I realized right then, at that moment, that no matter
how many years have passed since the days of slavery, I will forever be seen
as an outsider and an ‘alien’ and will forever be treated as an outcast simply
because of my race.

IV
Based on my experience, various aspects of both Omi and Winant as
well as Massey’s theories are glaring. As Omi and Winant would have
explained, one of the first things that we notice about people when we meet
them is their race, and we use such to provide clues about who that person is,
due to preconceived notions. Based on this, it can be assumed that the lady who
I had such a violent encounter with was very calm with me at first as she
perhaps assumed that I was Caucasian or perhaps mixed, just not black, due to
the fact that I am light-skinned. This is especially so as a sharp change in her
attitude, tone and overall manner was seen only when my dark-skinned brother
came and stood with me. On her realizing that I was in fact black and not white
and/or mixed, she decided to lash out on me as she perhaps then saw me as
 John Jay’s Finest  44

some sort of threat simply because of my race. Such may have been because,
due to her appearance in age, she was raised in a time where the groups such
as the KKK were prevalent in society and would have terrorized blacks, all
while making such persons seem like the enemy and themselves like the
saviors of society. Thus she still holds on to the beliefs/ideologies which would
have been drilled into her head at that time and she still acts on them or behaves
as if we are living in the era of Jim Crow. Hence, she treats black people in a
similar manner to how she would have either treated them herself back in those
times and/or would have been raised and taught how to treat such persons by
her parents and other whites in her community, especially since she spoke in a
deep Southern accent, thus suggesting she would have been raised in the
hotspot for racism during that era.
Further, as I would have kept my composure without responding to her
distasteful comments and continued to go along my way with my brother and
father, it can be assumed that this would have angered her more. As Omi and
Winant explain, this would have betrayed the underlying image of what a black
should be or act like as she would have expected me to act out my apparent
racial identities, and when I did not act in the way that she expected (loud,
aggressive, violent and so forth) she then became very disoriented and decided
to take her racist actions up a notch by, more or less, physically assaulting me
by making me fall to the ground. It is in moments like these that I truly agree
with persons like Phipps whom Omi and Winant make reference to in their
theory. They explain that she wanted to change her race from black to white as
she looked more White and identified more with the latter, because I’m sure
that if I was just a tad bit lighter such would have never happened to me as she
would have seen me as her equal rather than as a threat. There, race to her was
‘common sense’ or a way of comprehending, explaining and acting in the
social world, that blacks are bad and should be treated horribly. As it relates to
the other people who were there and did nothing to intervene, it can be said
that to them this was perhaps ‘common sense’ for them as well, maybe not in
the sense that because we are black, we therefore deserve to be treated as we
were, but more in the sense that because she is a racist white woman, then those
sorts of actions and so forth were expected from her.
Moreover, one can perhaps go as far as saying that this ‘common sense’
of hers came as a result of what Massey describes as the psychology of social
classification. Through the process of social cognition, she would have divided
the world into categories and would have then become reliant on such
categorical judgements under (perceived) conditions of threat or uncertainty.
She was perhaps uncertain about my race until my brother appeared which then
made me (or us) a threat in her mind, causing her to become reliant on her
preconceived ideas and judgements about black people. Such comes about due
to the two parallel processors of the human brain, the emotional and rational,
 John Jay’s Finest  45

with each playing an important role in shaping the way we think and view
others. As explained by Massey and as highlighted above, since the number
and speed of connections running from the emotional part of the brain to the
rational part are greater than the reverse, emotional memories (typically
unconscious), tend to greatly affect how humans make use of the categories
which exist in the latter (conscious) part of the brain. When associated with
specific social classes, such can contribute to prejudice. Massey explains
throughout his theory that such prejudice or anti-black sentiments and
associations may have come about or been created through conditioning
processes (for example, the repeated visual pairing of violent crimes with black
perpetrators on television) which may thus cause such persons to act out on
those ideas, sometimes unconsciously. Hence, it can be assumed that even if
she was not a conscious racist, she would have been unconsciously conditioned
to think and act like one again due to her age which suggests that she grew up
during the era of Jim Crow, and which also suggests that for either all or most
of her life, she would have seen black people get vilified on the news and be
portrayed as nothing but criminals who want to harm whites in every way that
they can; and such is brought into play/to life due to the way in which the
human brain works. Hence, it can be said that her calling me a ‘monkey’ and
other such comments as well as becoming very violent with myself and my
family may just have been her subconscious speaking up and/or her emotional
brain telling her that this is what she needs to do as she is under attack. With
regard to the bystanders, it can also be said that their emotional brain perhaps
prevented them from intervening maybe because they too had unconscious
prejudiced views about us (blacks) and thus part of them agreed with what she
was doing, or because such emotions simply clouded their judgements and
thoughts as they may have had prejudiced views about the woman, which left
them confused or unsure about what they may be able to do to help us.

V
In conclusion, while I do believe that such theories do a good job at
explaining my experience, as I was shocked by how well they went together, I
am of the belief that it is still a bit inadequate in the sense that I somewhat view
them as an excuse for racism and inequality, although I know that they are not
such. This is because they simply attempt to explain what causes racism and/or
people to act on such racist or unequal beliefs about others, but they do not
explain what one may be able to do when they encounter such situations and
they also do not point out the fact that persons may go so far as to act on such
deeply held beliefs which they have about ‘others’ in possibly violent ways, as
was my experience. So, although yes, they suggest that one should expect to
encounter acts of racism or come into contact with racists here and there, as
such is more or less the basis of the American society, it does not prepare one
 John Jay’s Finest  46

for how serious and heated such encounters may be: what I would call the
different ‘levels of racism’ and/or ‘types of racists’ that one may encounter. I
would like to learn more about what one should do during such an encounter,
as the authors do not offer real solutions to combat racism (rather they more or
less simply state that as such is deeply rooted in history, and it is difficult to
get rid of/remove from the minds of many). I, like the theorists, am simply
using the word racism (and social inequality) in its broad sense and through
that I may perhaps be missing out on key factors on why certain ‘types’ of
racists act the way that they do as well as what may be the triggers for such,
because there are people who are racist but may never show such in public.
There are those who would simply stick to making slight, covert racist
comments, and then there are others who act on their beliefs very violently.
Such persons are not all the same and there may be several reasons for such,
which these theories are missing out on fully explaining as they simply scratch
the surface of this issue (perhaps because gathering information from
conducting research on this topic may not be as easy as it seems, even in such
as racist country as America).
To gather further data in order to test this theory, I may perhaps conduct
field research whereby I, along with some of my dark-skinned friends, go to
live in the most racist part of the country for a few months and simply observe
and record the way in which we are treated. I would get a Caucasian friend to
come with me as well, perhaps undercover so those living in the area do not
suspect that they are with us, and get them to conduct interviews and so forth
with the members of the community and find out their views on us, and the
reason why they hate blacks so much as well as what can be done to change
their view on such persons, among other things. This can perhaps help in
categorizing such persons into different groups and levels of racism, as I am
sure that they each would not have the same explanations or beliefs, and some
may be far more hateful than others. For future research, I suggest that similar
approaches be undertaken so that racism can be explained in depth. Go to the
root of the matter rather than simply sticking to the surface level of such an
issue.
 John Jay’s Finest  47

 POLITICAL SCIENCE 235

JOANNA BIELAWSKI V.
CITY OF CLEVELAND, ET AL
COURT OBSERVATION
____________ _______ _
SHRISTI THAPA

Joanna Bielawski v. City of Cleveland, et al

Carl B. Stokes U.S. Courthouse, Cleveland, Ohio
Civil Jury Trial
Judge Donald C. Nugent, presiding
Plaintiff’s Lead Attorney: Kenneth D. Myers
Defendant’s Lead Attorney: John Bacevice
August 6-12, 2012

PRELIMINARY INSTRUCTIONS BY JUDGE NUGENT TO THE JURY

JUDGE NUGENT WELCOMED everyone to the court and asked the jurors to keep
an open mind. He explained that it was important to understand that the
lawyer’s arguments were not evidence. He further explained that what the
lawyers said would help them understand the testimony of the witnesses.

___________________________
The Assignment and the Writer: In Political Science 235, Judicial Processes and Politics, students write
a cogent summary and analysis of what they see watching a videotaped jury trial available in an online
database of the federal courts. In their observations, students also make meaningful connections to
relevant course readings and discussions. Ms. Thapa chose to follow a "reverse discrimination" case
brought by a white plaintiff against her Black supervisor at a Cleveland, Ohio, airport. Ms. Thapa's paper
(a condensed version of which is presented here) is comprehensive, detailed, and nuanced, offering a
careful journalist's keen report about the litigation. Plus, her linkages to course materials are abundant
and on target. – Professor Daniel Pinello
 John Jay’s Finest  48

OPENING STATEMENT BY THE PLAINTIFF, GIVEN BY MR. MYERS

Mr. Myers clarified to the jury that what he said was not evidence but
an overview of the case.
Joanna Bielawski was a program safety manager at Cleveland Hopkins
Airport hired in 2007. Her job was to make sure that people stayed safe on the
job. Before her, the position was vacant for about a year and a half. The federal
regulations mandate that people at Airports have to have safety training. But,
before Ms. Bielawski was hired, it was not being done.
The Airport administration was run by Ricky Smith, an African
American man, who was the Director of the Division of the Department of Port
Control for the City of Cleveland. He had worked there since 2006. When Ms.
Bielawski was first hired, she worked at the department of the Airport that did
operations, headed by Fred Szabo, a Caucasian man. Under Mr. Szabo was
Eric Williams, an African American man, who was the direct supervisor of Ms.
Bielawski.
For about two years after Ms. Bielawski got hired, everything was good
at the workplace. She had a very good performance review after her first year
of building programs. Then, in March 2010, she was hired to do safety training
for the Airport.
Suddenly, Ms. Bielawski was transferred from the direct supervision of
Mr. Szabo and Mr. Williams to the Airport administration side. She was then
placed under the supervision of Jeanette Sauders-Willis, an African American
woman. Ms. Saunders was the acting head of the administration department
and was eventually made the full-time head of the department.
Ms. Bielawski’s transfer to administration from operations added to her
workload. Along with safety management, she now had to work for risk
management.
Ms. Bielawski’s office was out on the Airport grounds, where the fire
office was also located. So she had a lot of interactions with the firefighters
working at the Airport.
Mr. Myers told the jury that the evidence would show that many people
at the Airport, for racial or non-racial reasons, had a problem with Ms.
Saunders’ supervision. In addition, Ms. Bielawski, whose performance review
had been very good when she worked under Mr. Szabo and Mr. Williams,
suddenly could not perform well.
Ms. Bielawski was the only white manager in the administration
department. At the first weekly managers’ meeting under Ms. Saunders,
everyone sat around the conference table, leaving no room for Ms. Bielawski.
She had to sit on the side. During several events that occurred during a year
and a half, Ms. Bielawski felt excluded and discriminated against. One of such
events was how Ms. Saunders ran her day-to-day business.
 John Jay’s Finest  49

Mr. Myers informed the jury that the evidence would show that many
people under Ms. Saunders’ supervision were upset with her and filed
complaints against her. Accordingly, whenever a white manager would leave
the job, the position was filled by black people who were not as qualified as
the people who left. In the case of Ms. Bielawski, she was replaced by someone
who did not even meet the minimum qualifications for the job.
In the weekly meetings, which included Ms. Bielawski, about five other
managers, and Ms. Saunders, who headed the meeting, Ms. Saunders used
racial epithets like the “N” word and urban vernacular. Additionally, she talked
about personal business and movies she had watched at the meetings. Thus,
race became a predominant topic in the weekly meetings. Naturally, this course
of events made Ms. Bielawski uncomfortable.
In June 2011, the Airport administration decided to move Ms.
Bielawski’s office from the Airport grounds to the Airport’s second floor,
where the administrative offices were located. Her new office was right down
the hall from Ms. Saunders’ office. Ms. Bielawski talked to her former boss,
Mr. Szabo, about the exclusion, abuse, ranting, and raving that she faced. Mr.
Szabo informed her that it was not his chain of command and that she should
go through the appropriate chain of command. But in this case, she had a
problem with the chain of command itself.
In July 2011, Ms. Bielawski submitted her letter of resignation. In the
exit interview, one of her required questions was her reason for leaving the job.
She stated that her reason for leaving the job was Ms. Saunders and her
inappropriate racial comments during professional meetings. Ms. Bielawski
further answered that Ms. Saunders was not qualified to run the department.
She added that Ms. Saunders did not release the funds required for her to run
the safety programs. She submitted the answers to Mr. Szabo, who was still
chief.
After a week, Ms. Bielawski reconsidered her resignation because she
realized it was a good job until she was put under Ms. Saunders’ supervision.
So, she emailed Mr. Smith suggesting she be transferred back under the
supervision of Mr. Szabo. Mr. Smith did not reply to her email. So she wrote
letters to Mr. Smith and Mayor Jackson. When she got no response, she hired
an attorney to write a letter for her. Eventually, she went under a civil process
to become reinstated to an eligibility list. The civil service commission allowed
Ms. Bielawski to put her name on the list. Regardless, the employers were not
obligated to pick someone from the eligibility list. As a result, she never got
her job back.
When Ms. Bielawski was hired, the minimum qualification of the job
was a four-year degree in occupational safety or a related field. Ed McDonald,
an African American man, hired to replace Ms. Bielawski, had a marine
background. He had done some public safety work but had no education or
 John Jay’s Finest  50

training in occupational safety. When Ms. McDonald was hired, the

qualification was changed to a four-year degree in occupational safety or
business administration. In case the qualifications were not met, three years of
business experience could be a substitute. Mr. McDonald did not have a college
degree at the time. He was in the process of getting one within a few years.
Mr. Myers told the jury that Ms. Bielawski claimed that she was forced
out of her job, also called constructive discharge, due to a hostile work
environment. The plaintiff also claimed retaliation since she was not hired due
to her exit interview answer of racial allegations against Ms. Saunders. Mr.
Myers asked the jury to keep an open mind and hold him to his burden of proof.

OPENING STATEMENT BY THE DEFENDANTS, GIVEN BY MR.

BACEVICE
Mr. Bacevice greeted the jury and stated that he represented the City of
Cleveland, Director Smith, and Ms. Saunders.
Mr. Bacevice started by stating that the charges from Mr. Bielawski were
baseless. The federal spending and civil service issues that Mr. Myers talked
about were completely irrelevant to the case. He further explained that the only
thing that mattered was race. He informed the jury that the evidence would
show that Ms. Bielawski’s interpretation of the events was misguided and
malicious.
Mr. Bacevice continued that Mr. Myers’ claim that only African
American managers were in the weekly meetings under Ms. Saunders was
false. The meeting had a Hispanic manager and also a white employee named
Diane Stevens. Ms. Stevens reported directly to Ms. Saunders. There were
plenty of seats at the conference room table, but Ms. Bielawski chose to sit
away from everyone. Thus, the first meeting was the beginning of Ms.
Bielawski’s pattern of disengagement and disinterest in her job.
Ms. Bielawski was particularly good at occupational safety, but she struggled
with work comp and risk management, but not to the point where the Airport
administration considered her termination. The resignation letter dated June 27
was written on either July 14 or 15th. Ms. Bielawski did not give her two-week
notice before her resignation.
Mr. Bacevice continued that the alleged use of the “N” word, the use
of urban vernacular, and other such allegations of racism were, in fact,
offensive to African Americans. He informed the jury that they would hear
testimonies from witnesses who worked under Mr. Saunders and Mr. Smith
and how they were as supervisors. Ms. Bielawski left the job unprofessionally,
without a two-week notice. She also made sure that she had a safety net before
she left. She left the Airport job on the 15th and started another job on Monday
the 18th.
 John Jay’s Finest  51

Mr. Bacevice asked the jurors to keep an open mind and listen to what
everybody had to say. Then he asked the jury to return a verdict in favor of the
defendants.

TESTIMONY BY THE PLAINTIFF:

JOANNA BIELAWSKI; DIRECT EXAMINATION BY MR. MYERS
Ms. Bielawski graduated from Cleveland State University with a
Bachelor of Science in Geology, attending night classes. She worked at
McDonald’s investments during the daytime. She later applied for a job at Case
Western Reserve University and worked there for seven years.
Ms. Bielawski applied for a job opening for Safety Programs Manager
at Cleveland Hopkins International Airport. During her interview led by Mr.
Szabo, she was told that the Human Resource Department handled workers’
compensation.
However, after Ms. Bielawski started her job, workers’ compensation
came under her responsibility. She had to report the injuries to the City Hall
Office and follow up with the injured worker and their manager.
Risk management was never a part of Ms. Bielawski’s job until M.
Saunders took over Operations. The Department of Port Control did not have
someone handling risk management. During her interview, Ms. Bielawski was
not told to handle risk management.
Ms. Bielawski’s first year at the office was mostly workers’
compensation. She prepared reports of injured employees and investigated
fraudulent claims.
Ms. Bielawski’s first supervisors were Mr. Szabo and Mr. Williams.
Her office was located on the postal road. All the other administrative offices
were located on the terminal’s second floor, including Mr. Szabo and Mr.
Williams.
Regarding safety, Ms. Bielawski reviewed personal protective
equipment around the central receiving area at the Airport, among other jobs
like building maintenance. A part of her job also included being a liaison with
federal agencies like USDA and NASA.
Ms. Bielawski got along with Mr. Szabo and Mr. Williams very well.
She met with Mr. Szabo every Thursday for weekly managers’ meetings.
Similarly, she met with Mr. Williams weekly in the managers’ meetings and
quarterly for performance appraisals.
Ms. Corchado wanted Ms. Bielawski to handle all of the workers’
compensation, but Ms. Bielawski did not want that. Therefore, Ms. Bielawski
solved the issue of work division with Ms. Corchado. Ms. Bielawski
complained about the condition of the safety programs with Mr. Smith. She
had no issues with Mr. Szabo and Mr. Williams.
 John Jay’s Finest  52

The Department of Port control was not compliant with the Ohio
Administrative Code and the National Fire Protection Association. However,
Ms. Bielawski did her best to accomplish the compliance after she started her
job. When Ms. Bielawski was hired, she did not have an assistant. So she
requested one.
In early 2010, Mr. Szabo notified Ms. Bielawski that she was being
transferred under the supervision of Ms. Saunders. However, Ms. Bielawski
had noticed Ms. Saunders’ poor treatment and did not want to be transferred
under her. Ms. Bielawski felt protected under Mr. Szabo and Mr. Williams and
feared she would be terminated under Ms. Saunders.
Ms. Bielawski started working under the supervision of Ms. Saunders
at the beginning of April of 2010. Unfortunately, Ms. Bielawski was not
informed that her office location would be changed. Initially, Ms. Saunders
forbade Ms. Bielawski from attending Mr. Szabo’s weekly meetings, but after
a year, Ms. Saunders allowed her to do so.
At the first meeting, Ms. Saunders did not invite her to sit at the
conference table or welcome her. Comparatively, Mr. Szabo’s meetings were
professional and followed an agenda whereas, Ms. Saunders’ meetings
included personal discussion and the use of foul language.
In Ms. Saunders’ weekly meetings, Ms. Bielawski was the only white
manager apart from Ms. Stevens, who was Ms. Saunders’ executive assistant.
Additionally, words like “bitching” and “pissed” were used multiple
times in the weekly meetings by Ms. Saunders. Ms. Saunders used the “N”
word while she explained the term “picnic.” Ms. Bielawski was offended by
the use of such words in a professional setting. No other managers that attended
the meetings used foul language apart from Ms. Saunders.
Ms. Bielawski did not hear Ms. Saunders use phrases like “baby mama”
and “baby daddy” directly. She did, however, hear Ms. Saunders use phrases
like “we be doing,” “I be checking,” and such. No other managers except Ms.
Saunders use such language. It made Ms. Bielawski feel excluded since she
could not understand the language used by Ms. Saunders while other people
did. There was a communication barrier.
Ms. Bielawski felt like she was not being treated the same way as other
managers by Ms. Saunders. For instance, in a performance management
meeting, when managers had to give a presentation, if Mr. Smith had questions
on the manager’s presentations, Ms. Saunders would help the other managers
but not Ms. Bielawski.
The topics of discussion during the meeting were racially oriented. For
instance, Ms. Saunders talked about “fish and grits” and “greens” that Ms.
Bielawski felt were prone to the African American community. Additionally,
Ms. Saunders mentioned in a meeting that the movie The Lion King was “a
black man’s yearning to be free.” That made Ms. Bielawski feel excluded.
 John Jay’s Finest  53

Ms. Saunders singled out Ms. Bielawski to do busy work like a safety
programs presentation that no other manager had to do. Ms. Saunders did not
approach Ms. Bielawski with an email or verbal confirmation to perform risk
management duties.
The racial tension and hostility caused eczema on Ms. Bielawski’s
hands resulting in her inability to sleep properly. Finally, she talked about her
situation with Ms. Corchado on Human Resources. Ms. Corchado advised Ms.
Bielawski to file an official complaint with Human Resources, but Ms.
Bielawski felt that she would be retaliated.
Mr. Bielawski talked to Mr. Szabo about her situation with Ms.
Saunders. He advised her to go around the obstacle. Ms. Bielawski thought
about getting help before quitting the job, but she did not want to continue to
be Ms. Saunders’ target.
Ms. Bielawski was not informed directly about the change of location
of her office. She found out through a company presentation. Ms. Bielawski
could not be in close proximity to Ms. Saunders because of the tension.
Ms. Bielawski wrote a letter to Mr. Szabo instead of Mr. Smith or Ms.
Saunders because she felt more comfortable with Mr. Szabo. Ms. Bielawski
made allegations against Ms. Saunders in the letter so that the City Hall would
know of this and start an investigation.
Ms. Bielawski never wanted to leave the job in the first place, so she
sent an email to Mr. Smith showing an interest to be rehired. In a meeting,
when Ms. Bielawski mentioned that it was the last day, they did not want her
to leave.
Ms. Bielawski contacted Mr. Szabo to be rehired after quitting. She
also contacted Mr. Smith and the mayor’s office but got no response. Finally,
Mr. Szabo expressed that he wanted Ms. Bielawski back, but she had to go
through Mr. Smith.
In the process, Ms. Bielawski went to Civil Service to be reinstated. As
a result, Ms. Bielaski was reinstated but did not get her job back.
When Ms. Bielawski quit her job at the Airport, she had a job
previously offered to her lined up at the VA medical center as a health
physicist. However, she did not know that the position was still available to
her. The job was good but not Ms. Bielawski’s career focus. As a result, she
stayed at the job for only a year with less salary.
Following that, she found an opening in Westlake at Energizer Holding
Company as a safety health environmental coordinator. The job was closer to
her home but paid less than the City of Cleveland job. She worked there for
thirty-seven months and was terminated because the company let go one-third
of its workforce.
 John Jay’s Finest  54

After that, she was employed by Vitamix Corporation, whose salary

was less than the City of Cleveland. However, the Airport job, before being
transferred under Ms. Saunders, she had was more satisfying.
Ms. Bielawski sent an email to Mr. Smith asking Safety management
be put back under operations. He replied to her, saying he would consider it.
There were no follow-up emails on the issue after that by Mr. Smith.
Ms. Bielawski claimed that her budget for Safety programs was
increased for an additional employee. They were created under Mr. Williams,
except for one. She could write checks, but either Mr. Williams or Ms.
Saunders would have to sign them.
After Ms. Bielawski resigned, she sent a follow-up email to Mr. Smith
expressing her interest in being rehired, to which Mr. Smith never responded.
She also sent a letter to Mayor Jackson, but she did not hear back from the
mayor’s office.
Ms. Bielawski brought the lawsuit against the City of Cleveland
because of the racial injustice, harassment, and hostile work environment
during her time at the Department of Port Control.

SUMMARY OF THE DEFENDANT’S ARGUMENTS AND THE LAWS

THAT APPLIED TO THE CASE BY MR. BACEVICE
Four claims were made against the defendants: reverse discrimination,
hostile work environment, constructive discharge, and retaliation. The first
three were inextricably intertwined. To show retaliation, the plaintiff must
show that she engaged in activity protected by Title Seven. Ms. Bielawski
testified that there was no adverse action, such as suspension or being
disciplined, taken against her. Mr. Bacevice asked the jury to rule in favor of
the defendants regarding the retaliation claim.
To claim a hostile work environment, the plaintiff must show that they
were a member of the protected class, were subjected to unwelcomed racial
harassment, or harassment was based on race, and the harassment had the effect
of unreasonable interference with their work performance by creating an
intimidating, hostile, or offensive work environment. Title Seven was not a
general civility code for the American workplace, and personal conflict did not
equate with discriminatory animus.
Plaintiff was able to take the time to find other jobs, so she was not
compelled to leave immediately. Instead, she waited until she had another
position. However, five days later, she wanted to get the job back. The plaintiff
described only one incident where she heard Ms. Saunders use the “N” word,
the “picnic” incident. That incident, alone, was not enough to create a hostile
work environment, nor was it enough to create a constructive discharge.
There also was no intent to force the plaintiff to quit her job. The
defendant Ms. Saunders testified that she wanted Ms. Bielawski to succeed
 John Jay’s Finest  55

prior to her resignation. The City of Cleveland did not have any sort of policy
or broad pervasive reverse racism. Director Smith did not know of the alleged
hostile behavior or the alleged environment that led to the supposed
constructive discharge. As far as Ms. Saunders’ behavior, one incident was not
enough to create a hostile work environment. Therefore, Mr. Bacevice asked
the jury, under rule 50, that the defendants be granted judgment in their favor
on all accounts.

SUMMARY OF THE PLAINTIFF’S ARGUMENTS AND THE LAWS

THAT APPLIED TO THE CASE BY MR. MYERS
The protected activity was Ms. Bielawski’s allegations on Ms.
Saunders in her exit interview. The retaliatory act was Mr. Smith’s decision
not to rehire Ms. Bielawski upon knowing of the allegations on the exit
interview.
In addition, there were ample testimonies by Ms. Bielawski and other
employees that there was the constant use of slang, urban vernacular, and the
“N” word. Ms. Bielawski was treated harshly by Ms. Saunders, which Ms.
Brown and Ms. Corchado confirmed.
The explanation of the term “picnic” using the “N” word made Ms.
Bielawski feel as though she was being pegged as White. The Lion King
remark should not have been made in a professional setting.
Mr. Szabo notified Mr. Smith of the problems Ms. Bielawski was
having with Ms. Saunders. However, Mr. Smith did not take action about it. In
addition, Mr. Smith also hired African American employees to replace the
Caucasian employees who either retired or resigned.

TESTIMONY OF THE DEFENDANT:

RICKY SMITH; DIRECT EXAMINATION BY MR. BACEVICE
In a performance evaluation of Ms. Bielawski in 2008, her supervisor
stated that she had to be more open-minded.
The Cleveland Hopkins International Airport employed 400 people.
Well over 50% of the employees were Caucasians. Mr. Smith started working
at the Department of Port Control in 2006. One of his priorities was to change
the organizational culture of the Airport.
Mr. Smith also made changes to the organizational structure. At the
time he started, everything had to be channeled through the Chief of Staff. To
make the work environment efficient, Mr. Smith created eight additional
divisions. With each division, the intent was to have expert managers in that
particular area. The additional divisions allowed Mr. Smith to hire competent
employees.
 John Jay’s Finest  56

The safety and risk manager was responsible for the welfare of the
workforce. The primary focus of the manager was to promote good safety
behavior and to keep them safe. It also included a function of workers’
compensation. Before Mr. Smith started working at Hopkins, the Occupational
Safety manager reported to the Human Resource Department.
On more than one occasion, Ms. Bielawski talked to Mr. Smith in an
informal manner about her concerns about the lack of support from Deputy
Commissioner Eric Williams. As a result, Mr. Smith came up with a strategy
to help Ms. Bielawski during her presentation.
The 2010 reduction in Ms. Bielawski’s budget was due to the Airport’s
revenues trending behind projections. As a result, Mr. Smith instructed all the
managers to develop a revised budget plan for their divisions.
In the same year, Mr. Smith transferred the Safety Programs manager
position from CLE to Administration Performance Management (APM). Mr.
Szabo had an opinion on the transfer and did not want Safety to be transferred
from under Operations. Nevertheless, Mr. Smith transferred Safety Programs
from under Operations to Administration Performance management.
Ms. Bielawski was good at certain parts of the job, but she was
unwilling to embrace all of her job duties. She constantly had to be reminded
that workers’ compensation was a part of her job, and she had to handle it.
When Ms. Bielawski was under APM, she did not officially complain to Mr.
Smith about the racially hostile environment in the meetings.
The employee offices were moved to keep them in close proximity to
their managers. Similarly, Ms. Bielawski’s office was moved in close
proximity to Ms. Saunders for better communication. Mr. McDonald, who
replaced Ms. Bielawski after her resignation, was stationed at the same office
in the suite of APM.
Ms. Bielawski’s resignation was dated June 27, 2011. However, Mr.
Smith saw the letter a couple of weeks after the letter was dated on the last day
of Ms. Bielawski’s job at the Airport. The resignation was surprising to Mr.
Smith for multiple reasons. One, it was written to Mr. Szabo when Ms.
Saunders was her supervisor. Second, the fact that she was resigning was a
surprise too.
Mr. Smith was also surprised by Ms. Bielawski’s exit interview and her
allegations against Ms. Saunders as creating a hostile work environment by
using slang and racial slurs.
Mr. Smith had never seen Ms. Saunders treat a Caucasian employee
unfairly based on her race.
Mr. Smith had never heard Ms. Saunders use the “N” word or any foul
words. He found it offensive that someone would attribute “fish and grits” and
“greens” to African Americans and consider it to create a hostile working
environment.
 John Jay’s Finest  57

Mr. Smith did not see logical reasoning behind considering “urban
vernacular” to be offensive. Instead, he considered it to be light-hearted and
less robotic.
There were several employees that Mr. Smith hired who were
Caucasians. For instance, Robert Fischetto, Jill Kalamante, Andreas Custos,
Christine Gil-Marten, Jennifer Johnson, Paul Harris, Melissa Brkich, Hugh
Holland, Shannon Bernhardt, Matthew Crawley, Sharon Muir, Bill Mullins,
and Richard Pancam.

CONTINUED DIRECT EXAMINATION OF MR. SMITH BY MR.

BACEVICE
Mr. Bacevice continued listing Caucasian employees hired by Mr.
Smith like Diane Cardona, John Hoose, and Jean Simmons. All of the names
that Mr. Bacevice listed were management and supervisory positions. The
Airport had a diverse workforce and management team.
The photograph of Ms. Saunders’ weekly managers’ meeting room
displayed that it could comfortably fit ten people at once.

TESTIMONY OF THE DEFENDANT:

JEANETTE SAUNDERS; DIRECT EXAMINATION BY MR. BACEVICE
On Ms. Saunders’ first weekly managers’ meeting, possibly six people
attended. Exhibit H, a photograph of the conference room, showed eight chairs
around the table. However, Ms. Bielawski sat up against the window at the
back. Ms. Saunders invited Ms. Bielawski to the table, but she did not join the
table.
At that meeting, Ms. Bielawski was on her phone and not engaged. A
couple of times, she walked out of the meeting to take calls. The disengaged
behavior was fairly common for Ms. Bielawski at Ms. Saunders’ meetings.
Ms. Saunders explained to Ms. Stevens why “picnic” was considered
derogatory but did not use the “N” word. The explanation was not directed at
Ms. Bielawski.
Ms. Saunders had not watched the movie The Lion King and denied
making a racial comment about it.
Ms. Saunders, through an investigation, found out that Ms. Willis, an
African American woman, called Jennifer Johnson, a Caucasian woman, “little
white girl.” In addition, Ms. Willis made Ms. Johnson do her son’s homework.
When Ms. Saunders heard of this, she held a pre-disciplinary hearing against
Ms. Willis. Following that, an investigation was launched by Cedric Jones. Ms.
Willis resigned from the organization the day she was supposed to be
suspended.
 John Jay’s Finest  58

CONTINUED DIRECT EXAMINATION OF MS. SAUNDERS BY MR.

BACEVICE
Ms. Saunders testified that she only cared about performance in her
department and not her employee’s race. Her nomination of employees for
awards was purely based on performance. Regardless of her employees’ race,
she continued to work together with all of them to balance their work and
personal lives wherever necessary.
The emails sent out by Ms. Saunders to Ms. Bielawski and other
managers were respectful and professionally written. Ms. Saunders praised
Ms. Bielawski through her emails whenever she deserved it.

CLOSING STATEMENT BY PLAINTIFF, GIVEN BY MR. MYERS

Mr. Myers told the jury that the closing statement was not evidence. He
reasserted that Hopkins Airport had an atmosphere that was not inclusive. Mr.
Smith created an environment where it was okay to in meetings to talk about
race and use phrases like “I be” and “we be.”
Mr. Myers questioned the discussion of award ceremonies and dinners
for minority groups during meetings. He also questioned the use of words like
“sister” and discussion of soul foods like “fish and grits.” He asserted that the
use of such language created a hostile work environment.
Ms. Bielawski told her colleagues about her discomfort as the only
white manager in the room. Ms. Stevens and Ms. Jimenez, who still worked
for Ms. Saunders, denied claims of the racially hostile environment during the
weekly meetings or otherwise.
Ms. Saunders admitted that she used the “N” word in her deposition
but denied it during her testimony. Ms. Bielawski was uncomfortable during
Ms. Saunders’ meetings because she was pegged as the white girl and was
made to feel excluded.
Ms. Bielawski let Mr. Szabo know that she did not want to be
transferred under Ms. Saunders. She was performing her job very well until
she got transferred from under Mr. Szabo.
From the very first meeting under Ms. Saunders, Ms. Bielawski felt
uncomfortable and intimidated. Ms. Bielawski put up with Ms. Saunders’
hostile behavior for eighty meetings. She was given a hard time. It got worse
when the management wanted to move Ms. Bielawski’s office to be close to
Ms. Saunders’ office. Ms. Bielawski resigned after that.
Mr. Smith replaced Ms. Bielawski with Mr. McDonald, an African
American man whose background was in corrections and who had no college
degree.
 John Jay’s Finest  59

CLOSING STATEMENT BY DEFENDANTS GIVEN BY MR. BACEVICE

Mr. Bacevice reasserted that the case was about the racial relationship
between Ms. Saunders and Ms. Bielawski. Mr. Bacevice claimed that race was
in no way a factor in their relationship.
Ms. Bielawski testified that she had interacted with Ms. Saunders a
couple of times, and she did not feel comfortable with her. Mr. Bacevice
differentiated between race and racism to the jury. Racism must not be
tolerated, whereas appropriate general talks about race were encouraged.
Regardless of Ms. Saunders’ use of the “N” word, one instance would
not suffice to meet the standard to create a hostile work environment. Ms.
Bielawski also claimed to be offended by the discussion of soul food like “fish
and grits” and “greens.”
Mr. Bacevice reminded the jury that they were ordinary, reasonable
people. He asked them if the use of phrases like “I be,” “we be,” “baby mama,”
and “baby daddy” was offensive and could be classified as racist.
Ms. Bielawski had a job lined up before resigning. The work
environment was not hostile, and she had to work immediately. She had the
time to look for another job and resign when it was convenient for her.
However, five days later, she wanted the job back.
Mr. Bacevice questioned the plaintiff’s claim of the interpretation of
The Lion King as “a black man’s yearning to be free” to be offensive.

COMMENTARY ON THE TRIAL OBSERVATION AND LINKS TO

COURSE MATERIALS
Title VII of the Civil Rights Act prohibits racial discrimination, among
others, in the workplace. The Joanna Bielawski v. City of Cleveland trial was
an example of a Title VII lawsuit. On pages 17-21 of Chapter 1 (“Foundations
of Law in the United States”), Judicial Process in America says that although
the United States of America is not the most litigious nation in the world, the
statistics are comparable to the most litigious nations. Ms. Bielawski’s
interpretation of an uncomfortable situation at work to be “reverse racism” and
hence sue the City of Cleveland along with her supervisors could be the reason
why the number of lawsuits in America is high.
On pages 349 and 350 of Chapter 11 (“The Civil Court Process”),
Judicial Process in America talks about the opening statements presented by
the attorneys of the case and its importance in outlining the case for the jurors.
In my opinion, Mr. Myers’ opening statement for the plaintiff beat around the
bush by giving information about federal spending and civil services to the jury
when the issue of the case was racial discrimination. Furthermore, the
plaintiff’s arguments included her supervisor not releasing funds at her
 John Jay’s Finest  60

disposal, which, again, to me seems more like a personal matter and not a
reason to sue the supervisor.
In contrast, Mr. Bacevice’s opening statement to the court properly
outlined the case to the jury. He brought the jury’s attention to the central issue
of the case, which was racial discrimination. In addition, he also stated the fact
that the plaintiff had another job lined up before leaving her job at the Hopkins
Airport, and her resignation letter was backdated. Therefore, there was no
constructive discharge at hand. Most importantly, he outlined the racial
allegations made by the plaintiff to make it easier for the jury to understand the
case.
On pages 350 and 351 of Chapter 11 (“The Civil Court Process”),
Judicial Process in America talks about the overall presentation of the
plaintiff’s and defendant’s case by questioning the witnesses. On several
occasions, Mr. Myers’ questions were irrelevant to the case. Therefore, there
were multiple objections raised by Mr. Bacevice and sustained by Judge
Nugent. In my opinion, Mr. Myers crossed his lines when he examined Mr.
Smith by asking questions that had racist undertones. Specifically, when he
acted out “black street language” to Mr. Smith. I think Mr. Myers’ behavior
while questioning the witnesses in the courtroom had more racist issues than
the plaintiff’s whole case. Such conduct is inappropriate in general, let alone
in a courtroom.
Furthermore, Mr. Myers provided questionable evidence to a racially
hostile environment. For instance, the use of terms such as “baby mama” and
“baby daddy” to create a “racially hostile environment” is something I could
not understand. In addition, the discussion of “fish and grits” and “greens” to
have created a “racially hostile environment” further made the plaintiff’s case
weak. In short, there was no case of a racially hostile environment at the
plaintiff’s hand.
In contrast, Mr. Bacevice did a good job in presenting the defendant’s
case overall. There were fewer objections on the grounds of relevance, and less
of so were sustained by Judge Nugent. His questions and conduct were apt and
appropriate.
On page 305 of Chapter 10 (“The Criminal Trial and its Aftermath”),
Judicial Process in America explains how the nature of the judge’s instructions
can “nudge the jury in one direction or the other.” When giving his instructions
in the middle of the trial, he informed the jury that the plaintiff’s arguments,
although a stretch, was of racial discrimination. He informed the jury that there
was no evidence against Mr. Smith and the City of Cleveland of participating
or being aware of a hostile work environment. Therefore, the only claim that
went to the jury for deliberation was the allegation against Ms. Saunders to
have created a racially hostile work environment. Since jury verdicts are
 John Jay’s Finest  61

influenced by the judge’s explanations, Judge Nugent’s tone towards the case
may have affected the jury’s verdict.
Chapter 5 (“State Judges”) of Judicial Process in America talks about
the different ways in which the states elect or appoint judges. And Chapter 6
(“Federal Judges”) of the Judicial Process in America talks about how
presidents appoint judges with similar ideological values. Judge Donald C.
Nugent was appointed by President Clinton and perhaps leaned towards
democratic principles. Therefore, keeping the facts of the case in mind, his
instructions to the jury were in favor of the defendants who were African
American in a case of racial discrimination.
On page 302 of Chapter 10 (“The Criminal Trial and its Aftermath”),
Judicial Process in America states that the role of the judge during the trial is
passive. It was evident in Joanna Bielawski v. City of Cleveland that the
judge’s role was relatively passive. Judge Nugent gave instructions to the jury.
Besides that, he would be called upon to rule on the motions raised by the
attorneys. The attorneys and the witnesses had more active roles.
On page 304 of Chapter 10 (“The Criminal Trial and its Aftermath”),
Judicial Process in America talks about the jury’s role during the trial. The
jury is passive during the trial. Likewise, it says that the jurors are not allowed
to take notes during the trial. In Joanna Bielawski v. City of Cleveland, the
juror was not allowed to take notes. Instead, Judge Nugent advised the jurors
to rely on their memory to assess the testimonies.
On page 348 of Chapter 11 (“The Civil Court Process”), Judicial
Process in America talks about depositions as a tool for discovery. In this case,
one particular deposition was at the center of the debate. In her deposition, Ms.
Saunders admitted to using the “N” word when explaining the term “picnic.”
However, she denied it at the time of her testimony. The deposition perhaps
helped the jurors decide the credibility of that portion of her testimony.
On page 348 of Chapter 11 (“The Civil Court Process”), Judicial
Process in America talks about the production of documents as a tool for
discovery. The importance of this tool was highlighted when Mr. Bacevice
presented a photograph of the “infamous” conference room where Ms.
Bielawski attended Ms. Saunders’ first weekly managers’ meeting. The
photograph showed eight chairs at the table, and only six managers were
present at the meeting. Despite Ms. Saunders and Ms. Stevens inviting Ms.
Bielawski to join everyone at the table, she remained at the corner. It was an
important tool used by Mr. Bacevice to show Ms. Bielawski’s deliberate
negligence and a pattern of disengagement at the meetings.
On page 351 of Chapter 11 (“The Civil Court Process”), Judicial
Process in America says that the plaintiff may bring rebuttal evidence aimed
to refute the defendant’s evidence. Mr. Myers brought Mr. Jones as the
plaintiff’s rebuttal evidence. However, Mr. Jones’ testimony was mostly
 John Jay’s Finest  62

limited to interactions between him and Ms. Bielawski. Mr. Jones’ testimony
went back to questioning the job description of Ms. Bielawski and the location
of her office. The testimony did not cover any racial part of the case. Overall,
I think the rebuttal evidence by the plaintiff was not strong enough to refute
the defendants’ evidence.
 John Jay’s Finest  63

 AFRICANA STUDIES 227

A CRITICAL SUMMARY
OF ESTHER FARMER'S
COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT AS
IMPROVISATIONAL PERFORMANCE

ANDREW OLDFIELD

IN THE ARTICLE “Community Development as Improvisational Performance,”

Esther Farmer (2005) tells the story of how creating “stages” of opportunity
for conversations between many people who would otherwise never have
spoken, blossomed into unscripted dialogues where these “actors” were able
to interact without expectations and agendas to improvisationally develop
skills and solutions where both they and the community grew.
In this context, improvisation means unscripted, with no set outcome
in mind. It means creating space to let people who might otherwise never even
set foot in the same room have a different way of interacting where old
expectations have been set aside. It means not having any expert or outsider
direct the process in a way that attempts to control or determine the outcome.
The idea is to let them “act” in a new space where they can step outside their
old roles, or grow beyond themselves, step into a place of seeing themselves
as “becoming” rather than limited by who they currently “are.” The process
also involves all participants playing off what others contribute, very much like

______________________________
The Assignment and the Writer: The assignment, for Africana Studies 227 Community-Based
Approaches to Justice, was to write a critical summary of the Esther Farmer reading. In addition to a
basic summary, students were to provide a critical analysis of the article and connect this reading to
another course reading. Drew hit the ball out of the park with his essay. Not only does he do an excellent
job of summarizing the article, but he provides deep analysis of many of the issues and practices the
author explains. In addition, he thoroughly and creatively compares this article to four other course
readings. He reflects on things in completely new ways and pulls it all together masterfully.
– Professor Jessica Gordon-Nembhard
 John Jay’s Finest  64

actors doing improv. Here residents and other stake holders share ideas about
how to develop their community, which meld and merge or build on each other
to slowly create a greater whole. One example of this is how the 24-hour tenant
patrol in one building was expanded throughout the whole project. Another
example is the way including people previously deemed “unacceptable” in
community conversations expanded from at first including the drug-trade-
involved youth to later including the coalitions (who were protesting for
greater minority inclusion in the construction trade) which had been slowing
down renovations and competing with youthful project residents for jobs.
Including the coalitions led to collaboration between them and the project
youth seeking work, rather than competition for jobs, and the invocation of the
Section 3 law where construction companies were required to hire project
residents.
Farmer followed this practice by creating opportunities for new
conversations between individuals and groups who might never have spoken,
simply for the sake of letting people feel heard, seen, included, valued and
giving them an opportunity to contribute, grow, find their voices and be as
involved in the community as they might wish. Being included, given a chance
to find their voice, to be – and to be recognized as – “becoming” allowed them
to enter a new “stage” or environment that wasn’t defined by old roles and
expectations. Such as controversially giving the new Tenant President working
space in the staff management office, while this might in other cases have bred
conflict, instead here relationships were developed where all played off each
other’s skills, knowledge and relationships as they learned to appreciate each
other.
It was interesting how so many different groups with little or negative
relationships all shared a common goal – to stop the violence – but couldn’t
find a way to interact. And it was inspiring how, once the process of building
new stages for new conversations began, it continued to expand to include
more and more groups, even eventually the police who helped create a bike
race and the Fuji bike company who donated parts and became a yearly sponsor
of the bike race. It was especially inspiring to think of hundreds of children
from a housing project normally at odds with the police having their first
positive experience with police building bikes for them to use in the race –
where previously fear of violence meant you couldn’t even get a pizza
delivered. The community building of the bike race was so successful, it
sparked other events such as talent shows and after-school centers, as well as
inspiring other local agencies and businesses to seek ways to get involved with
this transforming community.
Farmer also wrote about finding and developing local leaders, such as:
the woman who had lost a son to community violence and came to the office
angry about lack of community participation on meetings; and another woman
 John Jay’s Finest  65

who was a leader looking to organize 24-hour tenant patrols in the most drug-
infested building in the project. This reminded me of how in “Mobilizing the
Community,” Barajas (1998) found that formally or informally acknowledged
leaders are instrumental in mobilizing others into action, as well as give a head
start on assessing community needs and positions. The way the author reflected
on her professional role supporting – but not directing – community
development reminded me of how Barajas’ discussed Organizers Roles and
Skills. Farmer neatly filled out every one listed… being a teacher to build the
capacity of a community to solve its own problems; being a catalyst
identifying skills in community members and motivating them to contribute
these skills to the betterment of the community as they promote a sense of
teamwork, community, and a can-do attitude; being a facilitator for projects
and tasks completion by providing participants with information (not taking
the lead); and acting to link people with information and people to each other
(as Farmer did with information on the Section 3 law, and the two emerging
leaders with each other, and the office staff with the President of the Tenant
Association).
I was also often reminded of “Community Justice: A Conceptual
Framework” by Karp & Todd (2000) where inclusion, being one of the seven
principles of community justice, was described as moving away from defining
“kinds of people” as good or bad and focusing on reintegration. With a similar
message to Karp & Todd, Farmer spoke here about the youth who were
involved in the drug trade not being all good or all bad, much like everyone
else who live in the project. She emphasized that such judgements weren’t
useful in community development, and that input from everyone had value and
potential. Farmer’s article also reminded me of Karp & Todd’s four outcomes
of Community Justice. She seemed to hit on all of them: integration, where
marginalized members of the community (such as the drug-trade-involved
youth, or in some ways even the coalitions, and perhaps from the perspective
of the project residents even the police) are not shunned, displaced or exiled;
increased community capacity to solve its own problems, leverage resources
for its development, and enforce local normative standards; community
satisfaction where the subjective feeling of satisfaction in your community led
to children in the playgrounds again, neighbors outside talking to each other,
and of course pizzas being delivered; and a sense of community where all felt
included and had a sense of membership/belonging where their contributions
to the community made a difference and they could feel an emotional
connection to others in the community.
Farmer comments that “Too often low-income people in inner city
communities are related to and relate to themselves as ‘fixed’ in the sense of
lacking the capacity to develop. People see themselves as broken and in need
of experts to repair them. These categories often become so calcified and
 John Jay’s Finest  66

entrenched that they are seen as almost impossible to transcend” (2005, p.2).
This observation reminds me of “Mapping Community Capacity,” where to
paraphrase McKnight & Kretzmann (1996), social service agencies often see
people as broken, inferior or incapable and fail to empower clients to solve
their own problems, and how this creates an ongoing cycle of dependency,
rather than striving to empower people to reach their maximum independence.
Farmer exhibited a more strengths-based approach in line with what McKnight
& Kretzmann suggested as a “capacity based” approach used to focus on the
abilities, skills and assets of low-income people and their neighborhoods – as
well as modeling how community development can’t happen from the top
down or the outside in – but you can provide assistance to help them do it for
themselves. In addition, the concept of primary, secondary and potential
building blocks for community development was evident in Farmer’s article.
Primary building blocks include the skills of residents and the groups the
residents organized into. Secondary building blocks include the outside
professional that the author was, and the local police department. Potential
building blocks include the bike company and news outlets that highlighted the
changes in the community that helped bring in new investment.
Finally, Farmer’s article also reflects concepts from “Mapping the
Assets of your Community” where Beaulieu (2002) highlighted the difference
between development OF the community and IN the community. Both were
evident in the changes at the Farmer’s Maple housing project. Development
OF the community took place in uncovering emerging leaders and expanding
the knowledge and skills of them, as well as others in the community –
including the youth who became community organizers. It also was evident
because communitywide improvements could not be fully realized unless
people representing all parts of the community were involved in deciding the
future of their community – as the breakdown of barriers in Maple housing
allowed to happen. Then with those changes having occurred there was
development “IN” the community where the bike company became an ongoing
sponsor and local business and city government began to invest in the area.
Overall, Farmer’s article was interesting, educational, and inspirational
– though I did find some areas to be unclear, unexplored, or to perhaps feel a
bit too “in the eye of the beholder” to be concrete and replicable. On her
LinkedIn in page, Farmer describes herself as a “teaching artist/director” – so
it makes perfect sense she would be inclined towards and comfortable with a
theater-related lens for the processes she describes. While the process seems
powerful and effective, I’m not sure the improvisational theater lens is one that
a majority of likely community participants would understand, appreciate or
be comfortable with – moreover, if explained as such, some might pull back
from it simply due to the framing in a theater context. While Farmer
consistently explained the ideas and actions she described in a theatrical
 John Jay’s Finest  67

context, it was never made clear to me if anyone else involved had that
perspective explained to them or if anyone else ever adopted that lens
themselves.
Additionally, while Farmer explains her improvisational method and
references that it “is based on the theoretical and practical work developed over
the last thirty years at the East Side Institute for Group and Short Term
Psychotherapy” and “serves as the basis for several large-scale adult and youth
development projects nationally” (2005, p. 2) there is little description how it
was applied elsewhere, how successful it was, or how replicable it may be. In
fact, at more than one point in the article she mentions that some things might
not have worked under other conditions or with other individuals – which
makes it all the more difficult to picture this approach as widely replicable.
Further examples of where and how such a model has been applied and ideas
of what made it more or less challenging and or successful would allow readers
a better chance to apply similar concepts in their own work.

REFERENCES
Barajas, E. (1998). Chapter 6, “Mobilizing the Community,” pp. 87-110. In Community
justice: Concepts and strategies. essay, American Probation and Parole Association.
Beaulieu, Lionel J. 2002. “Mapping the Assets of your Community.” Southern Rural
Development Center. SRDC Publication 227.
[Link]
Farmer, E. (2005). Community development as improvisational performance: A new framework
for understanding and reshaping practice. Community Development, 36(2), 1–14.
[Link]
Karp, David R. and Todd R. Clear. 2000. “Community Justice: A Conceptual Framework.”
Community Justice Vol. 2: Boundary Changes in Criminal Justice Organizations, pp.
323 - 368. NCJ 185527. [Link]
McKnight, John L. and John P. Kretzmann. 1996 (Revised). Mapping Community Capacity.
The Asset-Based Community Development Institute for Policy Research
Northwestern University (1990). [Link]
59428575-dt-content-rid-
462003577_1/courses/JJC01_AFR_227_01_1219_1/MapCommCapacity-
McKnight_Kretzmann.pdf
 John Jay’s Finest  68

 ENGLISH 201
CENTURY EGG
__________________________
AMY ZOU

AS GROUPS OF FOURTH GRADERS RUSHED into the large cafeteria, sounds of

chatter filled the room. Ms. Bella had left us at our assigned lunch table with
the strict cafeteria supervisor, Ms. Wendy. I could hear her hoarse and scratchy
voice from across the noisy cafeteria, yelling at our class to sit down. Most of
the students lined up when Ms. Wendy called my class for lunch. I caught a
glimpse of the boy eating at the table across from me. The crust of the pizza he
had stuffed in his mouth looked like cardboard, the cheese looked like glue,
and the lumpy tomato sauce looked like goo. Lucky for me, my mother
prepared lunch for me today. My food thermos rested on the greasy, white-
topped lunch table. I placed my hands on the lid of the thermos and twisted,
but it wouldn’t budge. My classmates came back to the table with their lunch
trays, one by one, and I asked them if they could help me open the container.
After a few tries, the lid was off; I was ready to enjoy my lunch.

____________________
The Assignment and the Writer: In English 201, students learn the rhetorical characteristics of cross-
disciplinary writing styles. The theme that students explore in this section is diversity, equity and
inclusion in the context of educational settings and learning experiences. Amy Zou’s piece, a memoir,
recreates moments through narrative techniques and sensory detail. Zou skillfully navigates the
conventions of memoir where she uses detail and dialog to recreate the past while highlighting the
importance of diversity and inclusion in a school setting. With her focus on storytelling, Zou makes us
feel, remember and care as we read. – Professor Madhura Bandyopadhyay
 John Jay’s Finest  69

I examined the congee inside the thermos. It was one of my favorite

dishes, Chinese congee with pork and century egg. My mother knew I loved
century eggs, which were preserved eggs where the egg whites became black,
translucent, and gelatin-like while the yolks were greenish black. With my
metal spoon, I carefully scooped a piece of the egg, along with some
rice.
“Ew, what is that?” one of my classmates stared at me and asked.
“It’s a century egg.” I explained what it was, but she wouldn’t stop
telling people how “nasty” my food looked.
“That’s not an egg,” she kept saying.
I quickly threw my spoon into the thermos and secured it tightly. As I
felt my cheeks burning and my eyes watering, I immediately placed my arms
on the table and buried my head in them, telling everyone that I wasn’t feeling
well.
Later that day, I arrived home with my thermos and placed it on the
kitchen counter.
“Mom, you don’t need to make me lunch anymore,” I told her.
She opened the thermos and noticed that I had barely eaten anything.
She shook her head. As I watch her pour out the congee, I told her, “I don’t
like it. Plus, we have lunch at school anyways, so you don’t need to cook in the
morning anymore.” I walked towards my room without her saying anything.
Eight years later, I rested on the blue cafeteria chair, chewing the same
cardboard-like pizza that every school serves. I grew accustomed to the stale
whole grain-rolls, the bitter salads, and the dry turkey sandwiches. There was
no way I could get through six to seven hours of classes without eating. After
my last year of high school, I would no longer have to eat the “pile of hot
garbage,” as my friends would describe it. As I continued to think about life
after high school, my friend settled down in the seat across from me. She pulled
out her rectangular lunch box and unzipped it. Inside, there was a thermos and
a Ziplock bag. She took out the thermos and took off the lid.
“What did your grandma make for you today?” I asked, examining her
thermos.
“Fried rice and an egg!” she exclaimed, pulling out the paper towel
inside her Ziplock bag, unfolding it to reveal a hard-boiled egg.
“Lucky. I wish my mom made me lunch every day. School lunch tastes
disgusting. Too bad she is busy with work.”
She sliced the egg in half with a plastic spork. “Here, I like egg white
more than yolk. You like the yolk more than the egg white.” She handed me
the half with more yolk.
I began to notice the different types of food people ate during lunch.
While most students ate school lunch, others brought their own. I imagined the
creaminess and sweetness of the boy’s peanut butter and jelly sandwiches, the
 John Jay’s Finest  70

savory taste of the girl’s ham and turkey sandwich. The aromas from
someone’s fried rice and another person’s burrito bowl mixed and filled the
room. What one person had was different from what another had. And to me,
each dish looked delicious. As I ate the egg my friend offered me, I thought of
my favorite egg, the century egg. I remembered when my mother was not as
busy and always offered to make me lunch. I missed eating the food she made
me, but I knew I would no longer be able to enjoy it at school.
While I thought nothing much of the incident afterwards, I did mention
to my mother how my friend’s grandma always made lunch for her. I told her
maybe I should bring lunch to school because of how unappetizing school
lunch was. Even though I knew she wouldn’t have time to make me lunch, I
continued to let her know that the food she made tasted great.
In New York, schools serve meals such as pizza, PB&J sandwiches, or
turkey sandwiches. As children grow up accustomed to the food they see and
eat every day at school, food from other cultures seems foreign to them. Food
shaming occurs when an individual notices that others do not have the same
food preferences as them and thus demeans them for it. Even though this is
more likely to occur with children, it happens with adults as well. In an attempt
to assimilate into American culture and traditions, many turn away from their
own cultures and force others to do so as well. They are also less likely to
accept the traditions of other cultures. It is important for schools to address this
issue by finding ways to prepare meals of different cultures and allow students
to embrace various cuisines.
 John Jay’s Finest  71

 SOCIOLOGY 275
PRESENT DAY GENOCIDE:
UIGHUR MUSLIMS IN XINJIANG
_________________________
SEEMA RAMDAT

INTRODUCTION
IN THE XINJIANG AUTONOMOUS REGION of the People's Republic of China
(PRC), Uighur Muslims have been forcefully imprisoned by the Chinese
Communist Party. Uighur Muslims are a religious group in the nation and
belong to the Xinjiang Autonomous region - where 380 reeducation camps
have been created to detain the group. Thus, it is relatively straightforward that
the detainment of Uighur Muslims is purposeful and targeted towards them
specifically. This is evident since internment camps are strictly located in the
region where Uighur Muslims are a majority.

____________________________
The Assignment and the Writer: In SOC 275, Political Prisoners, students study historical and
contemporary forms of forcible confinement. The class examines the political, social, and economic
conditions that have motivated governments to radically limit individual freedom, as well as the harsh
conditions imposed within the prisons, often in violation of the Geneva Convention. The "Research
Briefing Paper" asks students to report on a situation of interest to them. In this case, Seema provides
an in-depth and insightful analysis of the case of the Uyghurs in China. The case analyzes the context
of the situation, examines sociological theories that explain the harsh, dehumanizing efforts of the
state, and informs students about a genocide taking place as part of the political strategy against a
people with a culture, language, and religion that is different. – Professor Martha Rose
 John Jay’s Finest  72

The Chinese Communist Party postulates many justifications for the

minority group's relocation into prison. Albeit, none of them are morally
justified given the heinous conditions said persons are subjected to. The unjust
internment of Uighur Muslims is a current issue that is slowly gaining
international traction and attention. The declaration of this phenomenon as a
genocide has been spearheaded by the United States' recognition of the
suspicious sprouting of reeducation camps as a signal of crimes against
humanity.

BACKGROUND INFORMATION
The exact timeline of when mass detentions began is unknown due to
restrictive media policies in China. Currently, most evidence retrieved on these
reeducation camps has been garnered by satellite footage and a relatively small
amount of defector reports and interviews. Still, it is estimated that arrests
started in April of 2017, with an initial two million Uighur Muslims detained.
China, a relatively homogenous nation, has systemically relocated and
arbitrarily incarcerated Uighur Muslims into, what they call, reeducation
camps. Forced relocation is utilized to combat religious extremism that is
commonly (although false) associated with the Islamic faith.
The religious minority runs the risk of being detained if they fit into the
arrest criteria. Uighur Muslims have been recorded to be arrested for traveling
to "extremist nations," attending services at a Mosque, being caught reading
the Quran or having "more than three children" (Council on Foreign Relations,
2021). This criteria strictly targets individuals of the Islamic faith as it cites the
Quran as a mortal sin and, through its association with middle eastern nations,
as extremist. Thus, China is intentionally attempting to conduct ethnic
cleansing by removing a particular demographic from a specified region.
Reeducation camps are prison institutions where incarcerated Uighur
Muslims are expected to conduct forced labor. These camps are created with
the intent to shape prisoners into law-abiding citizens who respect Chinese
culture and virtue (HRW, 1998). Such a declaration, made by the Chinese
government, proves that the PRC deems Islam as a national security threat and
that anyone practicing Islam is not a law-abiding citizen. In layman terms,
Islam is perceived to be the antithesis of Chinese values and is thus, a threat
necessary to subdue through forced detention.

POPULATION
1.5 million Uighur Muslims are incarcerated for practicing their faith,
making them political prisoners (VOX, 2021). As of 2021, China formally
recognizes five primary religions in the nation: Chinese folk-religionists
(30.8%), Buddhism (16.6%), Christianity (7.4%), Islam (1.8%), and Daoism
(0.4%) (Council on Foreign Relations, 2021). Given these statistics, it is
 John Jay’s Finest  73

estimated that there are 23 million Muslim followers in China, with 6% of the
observing population being incarcerated in reeducation camps (Council on
Foreign Relations, 2021). The listed statistics emphasize that Islam is seldom
practiced in the Communist nation and is, in fact, highly suppressed. Anyone
of the Islamic faith is considered enemies of the state due to the religion's
correlation with extremism and militancy in the nation.

HISTORICAL DISCRIMINATION:
HAN CHINESE V. UIGHUR MUSLIMS
The Xinjiang Autonomous region is indigenous to the Uighur Muslim
population, who established their language and culture. However, after falling
under the People's Republic of China (PRC), more Han Chinese individuals-
other known as the dominant ethnic group, migrated to Xinjiang (VOX, 2021).
This migration shift spearheaded ethnic tensions and uprisings that would lead
to the subjection and insubordination of the Uighur population, despite their
mass numbers.
The Xinjiang region is populated by twelve million Uighur Muslims
and ten million Han Chinese individuals (NY Times, 2018). However, in the
entirety of China, 94% of the 1.4 billion population comprises Han Chinese
individuals. Whereas Uighur Muslims only comprise 13.5 million in the nation
- most of the demographic belonging to the Xinjiang Autonomous Region (NY
Times, 2018).

SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES TO DESCRIBE

HISTORICAL DISCRIMINATION
IN-GROUP/OUT-GROUP
There is a wide variation of sociological theories that explains the
exclusionary history of Uighur Muslims in China's Northwest region. As the
above information has established, Uighur Muslims are an ethnic minority
compared to the Han Chinese. The Uighur's lack of numbers in China, as a
whole, translates to a lack of political power and distribution of human rights
functions. Uighur Muslims lack political authority in the region, and thus
cannot affect change. This effectively makes Uighur Muslims the out-group in
political affairs and daily life, where Han Chinese individuals are within the
in-group.
There have been instances where Uighur Muslims have assembled to
create political change and speak out against daily discrimination. Before the
mass imprisonment of Uighur Muslims in 2017, Uighur intellectuals
documented their repression in China for years. One political prisoner, Ilham
 John Jay’s Finest  74

Tohti, created a website that illuminated the lack of human rights afforded to
the ethnic Muslim minority in the region (Vox, 2020).
The Chinese government subsequently removed the website as a means
to silence the ethnic minority. Tohti would later be kidnapped and detained
while his family was constantly blackmailed with death threats by Chinese
authorities (Vox, 2020). If local constituents attempt to raise public awareness,
they are speculated to face life in prison, much like Ilham Tohti.
Also, as Uighur's have concocted a unique language and traditions, they
are not considered deserving of the epithet of "Chinese citizens." They are not
beneficiaries of the social contract created between Chinese authorities and the
Han Chinese. Thus, Uighur Muslims are displaced from in-group favoritism
and subjected to out-group discrimination (Haenfler, 2013).

STRAIN THEORY
Another sociological theory that explains the build-up to the political
imprisonment of Uighur Muslims is a concept defined as strain theory. As
Uighur Muslims are conceptualized as constituents of the out-group, they don't
receive societal, economic benefits. The poverty witnessed by Uighur residents
in Xinjiang is the highest precedent in any Chinese providence. Counties with
a high concentration of Uighurs see a decline in employment rates by this
ethnic minority but an increase of labor opportunities afforded to Han Chinese
individuals (Borgen Project, 2020). Employment discrimination prevents
Uighurs from making an ordinary income, thereby propelled into a state of
poverty.
Strain theory argues that denied "legitimate access to society's cultural
goals (e.g., wealth, status, power), some individuals will inevitably turn to
illegitimate means of achievement," including crime. (Robert Merton, 1938)
(Haenfler, 2013). There is a psychological strain endured by individuals who
have limited opportunities to survive and thrive. Thus, the affected out-group
will, in some cases, turn to deviance or violent acts to access their wealth
aspirations.
This is the case amongst Uighur Muslims in the Xinjiang region, where
a handful of the population have committed violent acts of rebellion to attain
independence and financial freedom (Borgen Project, 2020). The Chinese
government, specifically the new Communist party boss, Chen Quanguo, and
the Han Chinese majority view this deviance as deriving from their Islamic
faith instead of social conflict (HRW, 2021). Hence, these acts have only
bolstered the Chinese authorities' justification for their forced imprisonment of
Uighurs into reeducation camps.
 John Jay’s Finest  75

REEDUCATION CAMPS
The purpose of reeducation camps is to reeducate Uighur Muslims
from an extremist religion into "productive and moral members" of society. In
the Xinjiang region, there are 380 camps constructed to detain and forcefully
house the ethnic minority. As all of these camps are designated to the Xinjiang
region, which is inhabited by most Uighurs in China, Chinese authorities are
directly targeting this ethnic group.
In these 380 reeducation camps, 1.5 million Uighur Muslims- men,
women, and children alike, are victims of forced labor and systematic torture.
Former detainees interviewed by Amnesty International cite that they face
daily dehumanization aimed at making them physiological incapacitated.
These tactics are explicitly violent, ranging from "beatings, electric shocks,
solitary confinement," rape, starvation, sleep deprivation, exposure to
penetrating cold weather, and "the abusive use of tiger chairs" (Amnesty
International, 2021). These egregious tactics are used as collateral, ensuring
that prisoners do not retaliate against their abuse and reeducation to become
"moral, higher individuals."
Tiger Chairs are steel torture chairs that bind the imprisoned individual
from head to toe with ropes or cuffs. This torture device is utilized to restrict
any movement from the political prisoner while they are repeatedly beaten and
abused. The more the "subject" restrains or fights, the tighter the ropes and
cuffs become on their body. Several prisoner accounts argue that these
restraints get so tight that prisoners naturally urinate and defecate themselves
in Chinese cells (BBC, 2021).
Uighur Muslims who have yet to be detained must restrict their Internet
activity and in-person whereabouts to not be surveilled by security forces.
Apps like WhatsApp, which many foreign users frequent, are placed under
surveillance by police forces to ensure knowledge of abuse isn't circulated to
outsiders (Amnesty International, 2021). In addition, Xinjiang Muslims have
been banned from practicing Islam and forced to eat pork to show their
allegiance to the Chinese culture. This violent mandate is the definition of
ethnic cleansing as it is the purposeful removal of an ethnic group from a
specified region (Amnesty International, 2021).

INTERNATIONAL AWARENESS
Public awareness is present in this instance, as the international
community has condemned China's actions as genocidal. China has justified
its detainment of the religious minority to counter extremism and radicalization
posed by the group. Twenty-four countries, in 2019, has recognized China's
human rights abuses and issued a "public rebuke" on the Chinese government's
actions, forcing the United Nations to consider creating a specific monitoring
mechanism for this isolated event (HRW, 2021).
 John Jay’s Finest  76

Though, China has attempted to cover up its actions by garnering

support from corresponding nations. The Human Rights Watch reports that
China "coordinated" a response to the United Nations High Commissioner,
with "North Korea, Saudi Arabia, Venezuela, and other nations with poor
human rights records” (HRW, 2021). In this public response, each nation
argued that China's actions were justified, widely supported, and necessary to
reduce religious extremism globally (HRW, 2021).
The United States has joined the international community, in 2021, by
recognizing China as committing crimes against humanity (HRW, 2021). The
United States has not taken further disciplinary action against the economic
superpower owed to fears of losing a vital trading partner. Other nations have
not taken corrective action owed to fear of facing an economic decline, lack of
UN direction, and lack of proof - owed to low media coverage in the
Communist repressive state.

CONCLUSION
Undeniably, in the Xinjiang Autonomous Region, the People's
Republic of China is conducting crimes against humanity through the forceful
detention of Uighur Muslims. Although international pressure remains in
response to this genocidal event, progressive action is still minimal. It is
disheartening and draining to understand that the United Nations has not yet
created a unique monitoring system to track the ethnic cleansing occurring.
This lack of resolution is owed to China's power-hold and hierarchal
placement on the UN Security Council. The United Nations Security Council
determines what type of action should take place in a nation that violates
human rights. The Security Council determines whether humanitarian or
military intervention should occur in an unstable region.
However, the United Nations has been unable to intervene in this
instance since China is a sitting permanent five-member on the Security
Council. Whenever a P5 member rejects a resolution, the United Nations
cannot provide aid to the respective country or ethnic group. China has
constantly voted no on conducting investigative operations on their land
(HRW, 2021).
The United Nations also needs consent from the hosting nation to have
humanitarian or military intervention occur. Chinese authorities have not
consented to any intervention as they have called these genocidal claims
baseless (HRW, 2021). Until China's repressive P5 veto power can be revoked
or circumvented, there is limited international action that could take place.
The United Nations, by granting this tool to world superpowers, is
hypocritical. The United Nations was created after WWII, primarily focused
on preventing an atrocity like the Holocaust from materializing again. Albeit,
it has failed to take preventative measures or react accordingly. To indeed
 John Jay’s Finest  77

amend this situation, there needs to be executive action taken to override

China's veto power and allow for proper investigative and disciplinary
measures to occur against the People's Republic of China.

REFERENCES
Amnesty International. (2021, August 17). “China: Draconian repression of Muslims in
Xinjiang amounts to crimes against humanity.” Retrieved from
[Link]
repression-of-muslims-in-xinjiang-amounts-to-crimes-against-humanity/
Buckley, C., & Ramzy, A. (2018, December 16). China's Detention Camps for Muslims Turn
to Forced Labor. Retrieved from
[Link]
[Link]
Council on Foreign Relations. (2020). The State of Religion in China. Retrieved from
[Link]
The Economist. (2016). The upper Han. Retrieved from
[Link]
Haenfler, Ross. (2013). Subcultures: The Basics. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge
Human Rights Watch. (1998). Retrieved from [Link]
98/[Link]
Human Rights Watch. (2021, April 20). “Break Their Lineage, Break Their Roots.” Retrieved
from [Link]
roots/chinas-crimes-against-humanity-targeting#_ftn7

Kirby, J. (2020, July 28). “Concentration camps and forced labor: China's repression of the
Uighurs, explained.” Retrieved from
[Link]
labor-xinjiang
Matthew Hill, D. C. (2021, February 02). 'Their goal is to destroy everyone': Uighur camp
detainees allege systematic rape. Retrieved from [Link]
asia-china-55794071
NBC News. (2021, June 10).New details of torture, cover-ups in China's internment camps
revealed in Amnesty International report. Retrieved from
[Link]
internment-camps-revealed-n1270014
Thelwell, K. (2020, November 01). “Poverty & Oppression: The Uyghur Muslims in Xinjiang,
China.” Retrieved from [Link]
 John Jay’s Finest  78

 ENGLISH 212
CALLING ME HOME

MICHAEL LEE

Time: 1920s

Setting: In the early morning on the outskirts of a rural town, a young

man is joined by his mother Jen while he sits on the steps of their weathered
porch. He looks west, only glancing away briefly when his mother Jen sits
next to him.

Characters:
Jen Reilley. Late forties with graying hair and calm disposition. Smile lines
etch her face. Mother of Samuel Reilley.

Sam Reilley: Twenty-four years old, bags under his eyes and with a heavily
scarred face sits outside in the early morning looking west.

___________________________
The Assignment and the Writer: In English 212, Introduction to Creative Writing, students read and
write in three genres. In this piece, Michael Lee approaches the work with intuition and feeling and
creates a quietly compelling dramatic scene, Calling Me Home, about the return of a soldier to his
mother and home town. The scene is set in the 1920s but is utterly contemporary. The soldier’s mother
and the town welcome him home, but he no longer knows where he lives, literally and figuratively. His
perceptive mother confronts him about the genial mask he’s wearing but to no avail. Almost nothing is
more difficult to embody than ambivalence, but Michael Lee does just that, with hard-won knowledge
and subtle skill. – Professor Estha Weiner

**********
 John Jay’s Finest  79

Jen: Can’t remember the last time you were up this early.

Sam: Wasn’t much time to sleep the last few years. Guess I got used to early
mornings..

(They sit in silence for a few minutes before Jen places a hand on her Sam’s
shoulder.)

Jen: What’s on your mind?

Sam: Nothing, Ma. Nothing. Just excited to be home.

(Sam removes Jen’s hand from his shoulder.)

Jen: Oh? Are ya, now? Home, I mean. You’ve been walking around this
house, this town, for a week now. But I can’t say it feels like you’re back.

(Sam laughs slightly.)

Sam: How does it feel?

Jen: Like you're visiting.

Sam: Mother. You. Are. A lovely, benevolent, completely mad old woman.
Where else would I go but here? Where the beer is cold, the beds are soft and
the landlords are so accommodating.

Jen: Hmm, to wherever that mind of yours keeps wandering off to.

Sam: It wanders back.

Jen: For a little while. I remember how you used to spend your summer out
on this porch. looking East, down the road. Looking to where your friends
were waiting, to the bakery where Sarah would pretend to be surprised when
you stopped by the same time every day. Listening for the church bell to call
the town in on Sunday.

Sam: And now I’m looking West.

 John Jay’s Finest  80

Jen: And now you're looking West. Where the only thing waiting for you is
an hour's walk on a dusty trail. And the only thing calling is a lonely train
whistle billowing steam.

Sam: I’m not trying to leave. I spent six years dreaming of walking down that
road, chest full of medals, head held high.

Jen: And instead you snuck off the train, uniform in a duffle bag, with only a
set of new scars on your pretty face to show for your time gone.

(Long pause)

Sam: And you didn’t recognize me.

Jen: I still don’t. Not because of the scars. Never that. But six years is a long
time and I expected my boy to come walking off that train. Instead, there was
a tall man with an empty smile and a sadness in his eyes I haven’t seen since
the first time I met your father.

Sam: Ma -

Jen: And that’s fine. I love you, Sam. I will always love you.

(Sam nods his head angrily.)

Sam: Yuh just don’t know me. Yeah?

Jen: How could I? My quiet boy now runs the conversations in every bar he
walks into. You talk for hours without saying a damn thing. So no, I don’t
know you Sam, but I want to. I don’t care about the war. I don’t care about
the scars. I don’t care why you are always acting so cheerful when you are so
clearly not. I just want to know you as well as I used to.

Sam: I don’t know what you want me to say. I’ve been gone for six years.
Met folks from around the world. Guys that right now, this early in the
morning, have been up for hours already doing what needs to be done. Doing
what’s expected of them. But here? Here in this place, I’ve been dreaming
about. Six years gone by and the people are still telling the same fucking
jokes. Getting upset over the same fucking arguments. I know, I’m cursing,
but it seems pretty fucking strange doesn’t it. The only thing that’s changed
here, is that now I have more stories than the town combined. I don’t run the
conversations at the bar, I am the conversation.
 John Jay’s Finest  81

They say, “I bet you're glad to be home Sam.”

“So proud of what ya done, boy.”

“If I had been there, then I would have done this.”

“I would have enlisted, if only that.”

I don't wear a uniform. Everyone knows exactly who I am and is willing to

give me their opinion about it.

Jen: They’re just not used to you being back yet.

Sam: I don’t care. I used to do more in the morning than these people do in
their day. I’d wake up and know what was expected of me, what I needed to
do and how to get it done. Now I wake up, and I sit on a fucking porch. I look
East, I look West and I wait. And I have no idea what the hell I’m waiting on.

Jen: You can do whatever you want to, Sam. There's plenty of work. They’d
all be happy to have you.

Sam: It’s not enough. I don’t know how any of this will ever be enough.
 John Jay’s Finest  82

 SPANISH 215
COMING OUT
_______________________
GEMA GARCÍA

NO ME ACUERDO NI DEL año ni de la edad que tenía cuando salí del closet. Mis
únicos recuerdos son del lugar en que sucedió y la reacción de mis padres. Mi
coming out, como se dice en inglés, ocurrió en Ecuador y mis padres estaban
decepcionados. Ellos siempre tuvieron ilusiones sobre mi sexualidad: querían
que me casara, que tuviera hijos, que viviera una vida “normal” de una mujer
heterosexual. Así que decidí primero hablar con mi mamá para aclararle que la
fantasía de ella de ser abuela y tener un yerno nunca se haría realidad. Se lo
dije en su apartamento en Portoviejo, una ciudad en la provincia de Manabí,
en donde se criaron mis padres. Mi mamá estaba en su cuatro, sentada enfrente
del espejo, secando su cabello negro y rizado. Entré a la habitación para
sentarme en su cama, me sentía un poco nerviosa y después se me salió como
un vómito:

___________________________
The Assignment and the Writer: This essay was initially written in Spanish as a final assignment for
Spanish 215, Spanish Conversation and Composition. This course discusses Latin American Chronicles,
exploring contemporary representations of race, migration, sexuality, and class issues. Gema decided
to work on her experience coming out to her parents in early adolescence. The paper is a compelling
"testimonio" on the heavy burden of sexual prejudice and how to overcome it. Gema presented it at a
National Symposium in Spanish in 2021, as one of the winners, and brilliantly translated this piece into
English herself as part of her experiential learning work in the BA in Spanish (with concentration
Translation and Interpretation). The accuracy of her translation and her excellent word choice allow the
English reader to fully partake in the emotions of in the original essay. This is the first time that a paper
written in Spanish is published in the Finest. – Professors Vicente Lecuna and Aída Martínez-Gómez
 John Jay’s Finest  83

− Mami, me gustan las mujeres. Soy lesbiana.

Su rostro no tenía ninguna expresión, pero sus palabras transmitieron
todos sus sentimientos.
− ¿Qué? ¿Cómo que lesbiana? Pero te gusta usar maquillaje, eres
femenina. ¿Crees que te gustan las mujeres porque estás insegura de tu cuerpo?
¿Y piensas que ningún hombre se sentirá atraído a ti?
− Mami, una lesbiana no es una mujer que tiene cualidades masculinas
o la autoestima tan baja que prefiere salir con mujeres en vez de hombres. No
seas tan ignorante para generalizar de esa manera. La feminidad no es un
sinónimo de heterosexualidad. – Me levanté y salí de la habitación y cerré la
puerta. −
Las palabras de mi madre dolieron, pero lo que dolió más fue su idea
de una mujer lesbiana. Una mujer por naturaleza en su percepción sería incapaz
de ver a otra mujer como un objeto de deseo, al menos que haya algo mal con
ella. Antes de cerrar esa puerta quería gritarle:
“¡Vete a la casa de la verga!”.
Pero no respondí porque su reacción era inevitable, como la de mi papá.
Cuando le confesé a mi padre sobre mi orientación sexual estábamos en una
fiesta en Portoviejo, en la casa de uno de mis tíos. Estábamos escuchando a
Rubén Blades y me sentí inspirada a no silenciar esta parte de mí identidad que
traté de reprimir por tanto tiempo. Le pedí que caminara conmigo; tenía algo
importante que decirle. Cuando le dije que era lesbiana él solamente me miró
con una gran tristeza en sus ojos y expresó:
−Me rompiste el corazón. – Me quedé sin palabras, no por sorpresa,
sino porque mis padres rechazaron la parte de mí de la que menos me
avergüenzo. −
Traté de no ofenderme por las reacciones de ellos; ese prejuicio que
poseían era un malentendido. Mis padres crecieron en un país donde el
patriarcado influyó sus ideas sobre el mundo exterior. Ambos fueron criados
en Sudamérica y tienen familias católicas. Mi mamá nació en 1965 y mi papá
en 1954, tres décadas después de que Ecuador les concediera a las mujeres el
derecho a votar. Cualquier preconcepto que los dos tuvieron se lo atribuyo al
entorno al que pertenecieron durante ese tiempo. Ellos no crecieron expuestos
a la homosexualidad como algo natural en su juventud, era un pecado. Vivieron
dentro una burbuja, en la cual la heteronormatividad era la única expresión
pública de la sexualidad humana. Cualquier otra expresión de sexualidad se
consideraba un castigo de Dios. Algunos años después de mi coming out,
entrevisté a mis padres por el teléfono sobre la concepción de la
homosexualidad en Ecuador en su juventud. La pregunta que les hice a los dos
fue la siguiente:
− ¿Cuáles fueron las ideas o conceptos que la sociedad tenía sobre la
homosexualidad cuando ustedes eran jóvenes?
 John Jay’s Finest  84

Mi madre contestó primero:

−Los padres de esa época dicen que eso de la homosexualidad no estaba
bien. Los padres querían que los trataran los psicólogos porque se creía que
estaban poseídos por el diablo y que sus deseos sexuales no eran normales.
Mi padre también afirmó lo mismo sobre el sesgo del que fue testigo
en su juventud:
− Cuando yo vivía en Ecuador mija, los padres no aceptaban si un hijo
o una hija era homosexual. Los trataban mal, los marginaban y cuando salían
a la calle a caminar, la gente se les burlaba.
Luego de entrevistarlos empecé a reflexionar sobre mi noción del
lesbianismo y como es diferente de la de mis padres debido a que nací en la
ciudad de Nueva York. Desde que era una niña pequeña siempre vi personas
queer en programas de televisión, en las pantallas del cine, parejas en las calles
de Manhattan besándose; para mí ver dos personas del mismo género juntas no
era nada extraño. Todo lo contrario, era algo familiar porque reconocía esa
añoranza y atracción hacia el mismo género. A diferencia de mis padres no
interioricé la heterosexualidad como el estándar normal de la sexualidad
humana.
Ellos no reconocen el privilegio de su sexualidad y el poder que tienen
de oprimir mi expresión sexual. A diferencia de ellos expresar mi sexualidad
me puede poner en riesgo en otras partes del mundo; besar a mi novia en la
calle puede resultar en que un pervertido nos persiga o que nos acose. Jamás
podría expresar mi sexualidad libremente a causa de que el lesbianismo es
todavía percibido como algo contra la naturaleza. Mis padres tienen el
beneficio de no conceptualizar las varias dimensiones dentro de su preferencia
sexual y de no pensar en cómo el sistema del heteropatriarcado construido para
ellos ha reforzado el miedo a la homosexualidad. Mis padres son evidencia de
lo dominante que es la heteronormatividad; a ambos les costó tiempo
aceptarme. Les costó tiempo romper con todas las tradiciones de su cultura, de
admitir que las ideologías con las que crecieron sobre el lesbianismo son nada
más que falsedades. Tenían que reflexionar, contemplar lo que significaba
quererme, a pesar de que soy totalmente lo que ellos no imaginaban.
Las últimas dos preguntas que les hice a mis padres sobre el
lesbianismo fueron las siguientes:
− ¿Qué piensan sobre los padres que no aceptan o aman a sus hijas
porque son lesbianas? ¿Piensan que aceptar la homosexualidad de una hija es
quererla?
Mi papá habló primero; después mi mamá respondió:
−Para mí son malos porque no la aceptan como son, tienen que aceptar
que así nacieron y quieren vivir su vida de esa manera. No estoy de acuerdo
con no aceptar una hija así, yo lo veo eso mal. Esos padres son ignorantes. Así
no se puede vivir feliz. Para mí siempre has sido la misma, te respeto, aunque
 John Jay’s Finest  85

en el momento que me dijiste me quedé impresionado. Me siento orgulloso de

ti, mija.
−Creo que los padres que no aceptan el lesbianismo de su hija están
desilusionados porque tienen el deseo de que su hija les va a dar nietos y que
una mujer deber llevar un camino diferente. Si esos padres no reconocen que
su hija nació así, jamás se van a acostumbrar a este cambio ni intentar aceptarla.
Los tiempos cambian y cambia la mentalidad de uno. ¡Cómo no te voy a querer
a ti simplemente porque eres lesbiana! No, eres mi hija y tengo que aceptarte,
no negarte mi amor.
Antes de colgar el teléfono les dije:
−Han sido unos años llenos de desafíos para ustedes dos para
finalmente estar cómodos con mi sexualidad. Sé que no ha sido fácil adaptarse
a que su única hija sea lesbiana, pero aprecio el esfuerzo que ambos hicieron
para no ver mi orientación sexual como la totalidad de mi ser. − Y colgué. −
La entrevista con mis padres fue unas de las conversaciones más
honestas que hemos tenido acera de mi sexualidad. Sentí las emociones de mis
padres cuando respondían las preguntas, la vergüenza por no aceptarme
inmediatamente. La intolerancia que una vez tuvieron sobre la homosexualidad
desapareció y su estado mental llegó a cambiar por tener sus propias
experiencias con una hija lesbiana. Todos los prejuicios anteriores que tenían
solo eran malentendidos porque crecieron en un mundo donde la
heterosexualidad fue moldeada para ser la única forma de sexualidad humana.
Nunca los juzgué por sus sesgos; tampoco fui paciente porque la aceptación
que necesitaba era solo la mía. A través de los años me empezaron a dar su
apoyo y amor incondicional. No soy ingrata porque sé que mis padres tenían
la opción de no aceptarme y echarme a la calle. En vez de discriminarme, ellos
eligieron amarme y reconocer que la homofobia es inaceptable.
Tengo veintisiete años y creo han sido más de diez años que salí del
closet. Este largo camino de aceptarme a mí misma ha estado lleno de dudas,
lágrimas e inseguridades. Salir del closet es aterrador; uno nunca sabe lo que
recibirá a cambio de su honestidad. Mi honestidad obligó a mis padres a
confrontar la homofobia en su cultura y separarse de ese pensamiento peligroso
para poder aceptarme y amarme como soy.
 John Jay’s Finest  86

 SPANISH 215
COMING OUT
_______________________
GEMA GARCÍA

I DO NOT REMEMBER THE YEAR nor the age I was when I came out of the
closet. My only memories are the place it happened in and the reaction of my
parents. I came out in Ecuador and my parents were disappointed. They always
had fantasies about my sexuality: they wanted me to marry, to have children,
to live the “normal” life of a heterosexual woman. I decided to come out to my
mother first, to dissolve the illusion she had of becoming a grandmother and
having a son-in-law. I told her inside her apartment in Portoviejo, a city in the
province of Manabí, where my parents were raised. My mother was in her
bedroom, sitting in front of the mirror, blow drying her black curly hair. I
entered the bedroom and sat on her bed, I was a little anxious and then it came
out like word-vomit:
“Mami, I like women. I am a lesbian.”
Her face had no expression, but her words transmitted all her feelings.
She replied:
“What? What do you mean, lesbian? But you like to wear makeup, you
are feminine. Do you think you like women because you are insecure about
your body? Do you think that men will not be attracted to you because of this
reason?”
“Mother, a lesbian is not a woman that possesses masculine qualities or
a low self-esteem that she would prefer to go out with women instead of men.
You are being ignorant to generalize that way. Femininity is not synonymous
with heterosexuality.” I stood up and left the room.
The words of my mother hurt, but what hurt more was her idea of what
a lesbian is. In my mother’s perception, this type of woman would be incapable
 John Jay’s Finest  87

of seeing another woman as an object of desire, unless there was something

wrong with her. Before closing the door of her room, I wanted to yell:
“Go fuck yourself!”
But I did not respond because I knew her reaction would be the same
as my father’s. When I came out to my father, we were at a house party in
Portoviejo hosted by my uncle. We were listening to Rubén Blades, and I felt
inspired to not silence a part of myself that I had suppressed for so long. I asked
my father to take a walk with me as I had something important to tell him.
When I told him I am a lesbian, he looked at me with such sadness in his eyes
and said:
“You broke my heart.”
I was speechless not because his reaction startled me, but because my
parents neglected the part of me of which I am least ashamed.
I tried not to be offended by my parents’ reaction as the prejudices they
held at that time were a misunderstanding. My parents grew up in a country
where the patriarchy influenced their ideas of the exterior world. Both were
raised in South America and had Catholic families. My mother was born in
1965 and my father in 1954, three decades after Ecuador granted women the
right to vote. Whichever preconception my parents had during this time, I
attribute it to the environment they belonged to. In their youth, they were not
exposed to homosexuality as something natural; it was considered a sin. They
lived inside a bubble in which heteronormativity was the only public
expression of human sexuality. Any other form of sexual expression was
deemed a punishment of God. A few years after coming out to my parents, I
interviewed them about the concept of homosexuality in Ecuador during their
youth. The question I asked both is as follows: “What were the ideas or
concepts Ecuadorian society had about homosexuality when you were young?”
My mother responded:
“The parents of that era used to say that homosexuality was not good.
They wanted their children to be treated by psychologists because they
believed they were possessed by the devil; their sexual desires were perceived
as abnormal.”
My father affirmed he was a witness to the same bias in his youth:
“Honey, when I lived in Ecuador, parents would not be accepting if
their daughter or son were homosexual. They were mistreated, marginalized,
and when they walked on the street, people would mock them.”
After interviewing my parents, I began to reflect on my ideas about
lesbianism and how they differ from my parents’ views because I was born in
New York City. Ever since I was a little girl, I was always a witness to
queerness through watching TV shows, the screens of movie theaters, or
couples kissing on the streets of Manhattan. Two individuals of the same
gender being together was nothing strange; on the contrary, it was something
 John Jay’s Finest  88

familiar because I identified with that longing and attraction towards the same
gender. Unlike my parents, I did not internalize heterosexuality as the standard
of human sexuality.
My parents do not acknowledge the privilege and power of their
sexuality, and how it has the capability to limit my sexual expression. Unlike
them, expressing my sexuality can place me in grave danger in certain parts of
the world; kissing my girlfriend on the street could result in being followed by
a pervert or harassed. I will never be able to fully express my sexuality if
lesbianism continues to be judged as something against nature. My parents
have the benefit of not conceptualizing the various dimensions inside their
sexual orientation; they never have to think about how the heteropatriarchy
functions as a constructed system that instills the fear of homosexuality. They
are evidence of how dominant the heteropatriarchy is. It took my parents a long
to accept me and break away from the traditions of their culture; admitting that
the ideologies they were molded to believe about lesbianism are nothing more
than falsehoods. They were forced to reflect and contemplate the significance
of loving me, even though I am the totality of everything they did not imagine
me to be.
The last two questions I asked my parents were about lesbianism:
“What do you think about parents that do not accept or love their
lesbian daughter? Do you believe accepting her homosexuality means to love
her?
My father spoke first and later my mother:
“Parents that do not accept their daughter are not respectable people.
They must accept that their daughter was born this way, and this is how she
chooses to live her life. I do not agree with parents that neglect their daughter
that way; I see them as ignorant. You cannot live happily that way. You have
always been the same person to me, although in the moment when you told me
I was stunned. I am proud of you, mija.”
“I believe parents that do not accept their daughter because of her
lesbianism are under the illusion of a desire that their daughter would give them
grandkids and that a woman is supposed to lead a different path. If those
parents do not recognize that their daughter was born that way, they will never
adjust to the change or attempt to accept who she is. Time changes and one’s
mentality changes with time. How can I not love you simply because you are
a lesbian? No, you are my daughter and I have to accept you, not deny you, my
love.”
Before concluding the interview, I expressed to them:
“These last few years have been fueled with challenges for both of you
to finally be comfortable with my sexuality. I know it has not been easy to
adapt to the idea of your only daughter being a lesbian, but I appreciate the
 John Jay’s Finest  89

effort both of you have made to perceive my sexual orientation as not the sum
of my being.” And I hung up.
The interview with my parents was one of the most honest
conversations I’ve had with them regarding my sexuality. I could feel the
intense emotions my parents felt in each of their responses to my questions; I
also sensed their shame for not accepting me immediately. Their state of mind
managed to change after having direct experiences with a lesbian daughter; the
intolerance they once had towards homosexuality disappeared. All the
prejudices my parents previously held were only misunderstandings as they
grew up inside a world where heterosexuality was molded to be the singular
expression of human sexuality. While I never judged my parents for their
biases, I did not wait for them to accept me because the only acceptance I ever
needed was my own. Throughout the years, they began to give me their
unconditional love and support. I am not ungrateful to my parents because I
know they could’ve chosen to not accept me and kick me out to the streets.
Instead of discriminating against me, they chose to love me and acknowledge
that homophobia is unacceptable.
I am 27 years old, and I think it has been more than 10 years since I
came out of the closet. It has been a long road to self-acceptance; a road filled
with doubts, tears, and insecurities. Coming out is terrifying because one never
knows what they will receive in exchange for their honesty. My honesty
compelled my parents to confront the homophobia in their culture and separate
themselves from that dangerous ideology, allowing them to accept and love me
for me.
 John Jay’s Finest  90

 ENGLISH 216
THIS IS WHAT MAKES US GIRLS
_______________________
RAE’L HARRY

I MET LOLA our first day of junior year. It was the worst time possible I could
think of to move to a new school: two years in, and everyone already knew
each other, especially in such a small town like Staten Island. Hell, these kids
had known each other since elementary. Friendships had been formed and
broken seven times over by the time I arrived. Where was I going to fit in?
I resented my mother a little bit (deep down, I know it was more than a
little bit) for making the decision to move here, for forcing me to start over.
After my sister’s death, and her divorce from my father, she decided she
needed a fresh start. So, she got a new job, bought herself a little sports car,
gathered her remaining two children, and took a ferry across the bay. My father
let her, thinking it would be easier on us to not fight about who stayed with
who. It felt like my younger brother had no thoughts about it at all.

___________________________
The Assignment and the Writer: In English 216, Fiction Writing, students write original, character-
driven stories that, ideally, are low-to-the-ground. That is, with all the manipulation that goes into
developing characters and moving them forward, the piece should read real. In her poignant short
story This Is What Makes Us Girls, Rae’L shows us a high school student, new to Staten Island, navigating
a complex relationship with her “best friend,” the most popular girl on campus. Allegiances are tested,
lessons learned. With sharp prose, a keen attention to gesture and detail, and the restraint to let subtext
do its work, Rae’L’s story resonates with vulnerability and texture and truth. – Professor Adam Berlin
 John Jay’s Finest  91

I remained vocal about it—right up until she tried dropping me off in

front of St. Charles High School.
“Here is fine,” I told her, pointing to the corner of the tree-lined block
the school was on. I didn’t want to draw too much attention to myself on the
first day and pulling up in a sleek black drop-top was a sure-fire way to do that.
“On the corner?” my mother laughed. She pulled down her sunglasses
to examine me. We were almost carbon copies of each other: caramel colored
skin, short, thick bodies, brown kinky hair. We even had the same dimply
smile—just like the one she flashed at me then. “What, are you ashamed of me
or something?”
“No,” I lied. “This is just not the impression I want to give on my first
day. It’s gaudy.”
“Trust me, Carmen,” she said. “There are much gaudier people in this
town than us.”
“Exactly why we don’t belong here,” I shot back under my breath. I
almost regretted it, in the wake of my mother’s silence. A twinge of guilt
flittered in my chest as my mother pulled over to the corner. She put the car in
park and looked straight ahead out the windshield.
“I wish you would stop criticizing me,” she said. I tensed up. “I don’t
know what you want from me.”
I sighed. “It’s fine, ma.” I didn’t know what I was saying was fine.
Nothing was fine, but this is how I pretended it was. By saying it was.
I grabbed my bag and quickly got out the car. “Have a good day today,
okay?”
“You too, sweetie,” she smiled, but no dimples showed.
It was there that I found Lola: walking down the long block to school,
and there she was, crouched against a tree, bawling into her knees. A thought
passed through my head to just keep walking. I could go past her without her
hearing a thing, and not interrupt what seemed like a low moment. I almost
did, but I felt like a crappy person after the conversation with my mom. So, I
awkwardly stopped a couple of feet in front of her, wondering what to say.
“Hey,” I started. “Uh, are you okay?”
Lola’s head shot up, revealing probably the prettiest face I think I’d
ever seen in my life. She had the smoothest brown skin, made glowy by her
own tears. Full lips with a cupid’s bow that would make even the angels
jealous. And the biggest, Bambi brown eyes, smeared dark with runny
mascara. She took a sniff and breathed out.
“Don’t you ever just hate boys?” I blinked at her, not knowing what to
say. Was she outside, crouched in the dirt, crying over...a boy?
“Like, don’t you ever just want to—” she took her long, slender fingers
and wrapped them around an imaginary neck before squeezing them together.
 John Jay’s Finest  92

My eyes widened. Suddenly feeling like stopping was a bad idea. Lola giggled.
It sounded almost child-like. “You probably think I’m crazy, huh?”
I shrugged. “Maybe a little bit,” I said.
She nodded, and I couldn’t ignore the sudden sadness that washed over
her features. “Yeah. Sometimes I think I’m crazy too.”
I bit my lip, and then decided to speak honestly again: “Look. I don’t
really know you like that. But I do know that you are way too pretty to be
ruining your makeup and outfit over some boy.”
Her eyes switched back to me, and her lip trembled again. She shot up
to her feet, and it happened so quick that it startled me. Two things surprised
me: the first was how tall she was. Lola was all leg, showed off in a cute mini
skirt. The second was the tight hug she gave me. She suddenly wrapped her
arms around my neck, draping my face in her long black hair, and held on to
me like her life depended on it. Not knowing what else to do, I hugged her
back.
“Thank you,” she said. “For reminding me who I am.”
“Yeah, sure,” I said, eating the silky strands of her hair. “No problem.”

That first day of school, she toted me around school on her arm like a
purse, introducing me to everyone that she knew. And that also happened to be
everyone. It wasn’t a surprise—such a pretty girl like her had to be popular.
After we shared our names, I told her the light version of my story on the walk
to our class, and by the end of the day, the whole school knew that there was a
new girl on the island. It was a whirlwind—almost overwhelming. But
something about being next to Lola gave me a confidence I had never found in
myself. When she asked me if I wanted to hang that weekend with some friends
of hers, I didn’t think twice. My other option was being at home, and that was
the last place I wanted to be—and just not on a Friday night.
That night would only be the first of me doing things I never thought
I’d do. Lola pulled up in front of my home in a black Jeep, hanging out the
passenger seat window. The car belonged to Terrance, a curly headed kid,
whom, judging by the way Lola draped herself over, was her new romantic
interest. Whatever had happened to the boy that left her in tears the day I met
her, she had clearly moved on from him. I sat next to his friend in the backseat,
Rocky, a blond kid who was quiet, but had a sweet smile.
“Gentlemen,” Lola addressed them. “This is Carmen. My new best
friend.”
I couldn’t help but beam at the title.
The night started off normal: we went to a diner to grab something to
eat, and then bowling down the street. It was only walking back to the car that
Lola got the bright idea to sneak into a hotel pool.
 John Jay’s Finest  93

“Guys,” she said, pointing to the fence across the street. “Wanna go for
a swim?”
I laughed, shaking my head. “Yeah, you have fun doing that.”
Terrance, however, was already crossing the street. “Hell yeah, I do!”
Rocky gave a small sigh, and a resigned shrug before following his
friend. I watched in disbelief as Lola flashed me a charming smile before going
to follow them.
“Wait!” I stopped her. “Are you crazy?”
She laughed. “You said so yourself.”
I rolled my eyes. “This is more than crazy. It’s illegal. It’s trespassing!”
“It’s only trespassing if we get caught.”
“Lola!” I protested, and this time, she rolled her eyes.
“What the craziest thing you’ve ever done?”
“What?”
“The craziest thing you’ve ever done. Something so wild that you still
can’t believe you did it.”
I shook my head. “I don’t—”
“Carmen. You need to do at least one thing that you can tell a story
about. Something you can tell your kids or your mom years later when she
can’t do anything about it. You can come with us,” she paused, and a steely
look crossed her soft features, “or be a loser about it and stay here. It’s your
choice.”
My adrenaline was pumping. Just the idea of getting caught paralyzed
me with fear. But a small part of me didn’t want to be seen as a loser. A bigger
part of me didn’t want to disappoint Lola. She had a way of sweeping you up
in the moment—sugar coating things in a way where you couldn’t help but
romanticize them too.
“Yo,” Terrance waved at us from across the street. “Hurry!”
Lola raised an expectant eyebrow at me.
I bit my lip, still a bit reluctant, but ultimately, I gave in. “Fine,” I said,
barely believing the words coming out of my own mouth. A smile broke out
onto Lola’s face, and a sense of relief washed over me. Even though I was
scared out of my mind, I couldn’t help but smile a bit too. I mean after all, who
doesn’t love a good story?
Our friendship would boil hot for the next year. We became
inseparable. Like sisters. People would refer to us as a unit—if one was
coming, the other was expected to be there as well. Well, I rarely got invited
to places, but that was okay. I didn’t mind because being around her was
always an adventure. She somehow made this small island seem big. The pool
hangouts after dark became routine for us, but there were also the parties, the
spontaneous ferry rides to the city at ungodly hours of the morning, hell—Lola
 John Jay’s Finest  94

even made going to the movies an experience with her loud, witty comments
that would piss off other movie goers.
But what really brought us close, was that I knew all her secrets. One
day, after we got tipsy at a nearby bar (courtesy of the men Lola charmed into
buying drinks for us), we stumbled onto South Beach and just talked. Well, she
did. I mostly listened, but again, I didn’t mind. The things she was telling me
felt sacred. She told me about her parents—her father was flaky, around
sometimes but mostly not. Her mother, she claimed, was a massive narcissist.
“She swears her problems are worse than anyone else’s—especially mine,” she
said. “If I complain about anything, suddenly I’m ungrateful. Like, what the
hell? She’s always like, ‘you’re pretty and popular, what do you have to
complain about?’”
I listened sympathetically as she went on about her delinquent older
brother, and how he was her mother’s favorite. He wasn’t doing anything but
constantly getting himself in trouble, but because he kissed up to her mother,
she let everything he did slide. Then, they attacked her whenever she brought
either of their behavior up. I didn’t interact much with Lola’s family when I
was at her house, but I never assumed that was what it was like for her behind
closed doors. It made me feel guilty for thinking my own home situation was
bad.
But the thing that twisted my stomach the most was hearing Lola’s shift
in tone when she discussed her failed relationships. She listed them, and their
problems: Too controlling, too nice, not ambitious enough, boring, boring,
boring. But there was something underneath her apparent dismissal of them.
She’d recently decided to end things with Terrance, but came to my door in
tears, wondering why he couldn’t be what she wanted. It surprised me, because
I hadn’t known she felt so strongly about the boy in the first place. Eventually,
she laughed it off, and so I did too. Just like now.
“Jeez,” I said. “You get bored easily.”
“I don’t get bored easily—these guys just can’t keep up,.” Lola shot me
a smile. “That’s why I have you.”
I laughed. “Girl, I’m barely managing. Besides, who are these guys
anyway? Jared? Marcus?”
We laid in the sand, looking up at the stars. She sighed. “You don’t
know them.”
“If I don’t know them, then how the hell do you know them?” I
chuckled, but Lola remained silent. I looked at her from the corner of my eye,
and saw the dark look on her face. I knew something was off. I flipped onto
my side.
“Lola?”
“They were older,” she revealed. “Much older.”
A cold feeling washed over me. “What do you mean?”
 John Jay’s Finest  95

“Like, I was 15, and they were 18. Sometimes older.”

My heart dropped. “Jesus, Lola.”
“Yeah, I was stupid. I thought I was in love. They made me feel like I
was in love.”
“Hey,” I sat all the way up. “You weren’t stupid. You were young.
Those men took advantage of you.”
“I liked it though,” she admitted quietly. It was dark, but I could see the
glistening in her eyes. “I loved the attention. I needed it.”
“You didn’t know any better,” I told her. “How could you at that age?
You were just looking for love, and they knew that. You’re the victim.”
“That’s such an ugly word.”
“It’s nothing to be ashamed of,” I assured her. A memory popped up in
my head. “Who were you crying over the day I met you?”
She looked away from me. “No one. He doesn’t matter anymore. None
of them do. Besides, I’m talking to Rocky now. He treats me good.”
She sat up with me and began rubbing the sand from her arms and legs.
“Enough about me. How are things at home with you?” I knew she didn’t like
Rocky the way she claimed. He was filling whatever hole was inside her.
Though I wanted to talk about it more, I could tell she didn’t, and I had to
respect that. Besides, I swear I could feel my blood pressure spike at the simple
mention of home. It felt like things were getting worse. My mother and I
couldn’t speak two words to each other without getting into an argument. So I
tried my best to avoid her. The less time I was at home, the better.
“It sucks,” I started. “I--”
Lola’s phone pinged. She immediately picked up and giggled at
whatever was on screen. Whatever moment I felt like we were sharing was
shattered. This was a bad habit of Lola’s. Anytime the conversation shifted
away from her, it felt like she’d lose interest. Even if it was me. An annoyance
crept up on me, but I tried to push it away. It wasn’t that big of a deal to get
upset over.
I checked my phone, hoping it would distract me from the lonely
moment. The time flashed 12:44, and I cussed underneath my breath. How was
it almost one in the morning? I pushed myself to my feet and found my head
still spinning from the alcohol. I groaned, knowing there was no way I could
go home like this.
“Hey, can I crash with you tonight?” I asked.
“Sorry girl,” she waved her phone at me. “Rocky is actually coming to
pick me up. We can give you a ride though!”
I sighed. “Sure.” I would have rather swept the sand of the beach we
were on than third wheel with them, but at that time of night, I had no choice.
When Rocky pulled up about 15 minutes later, my anxiety built, blowing any
remaining buzz I had, over how I was going to get into my room undetected. I
 John Jay’s Finest  96

gave unenthusiastic byes as the Jeep pulled up in front of my house, distracted

by the foreboding dark windows. As I slipped out the car, the front door light
flicked on, triggered by my movement. I walked up, slid the key in the door,
and twisted the knob as silently as possible. I took a peek in to see the television
softly playing some late-night adult cartoon, and my brother knocked out on
the couch.
Perfect, I thought, planning to use the noise from the TV to cover the
sounds of my late-night arrival. I slid in and locked the door behind me before
creeping up the carpeted stairs. I made it to my room, pulling off my sweater,
kicking off my shoes and pulling down my jeans when I heard—
“Carmen.”
My mother’s voice sounded from down the hall and I froze. There was
no way— “You freezing in place isn’t going to make you suddenly not there,
Carmen,” she said, and I released my form in defeat.
“Come here, right now,” she demanded, and I silently screamed into
the darkness of my room before pulling back up my jeans and shuffling down
the hall to her room. I stopped in her doorway to find her bedside lamp on, and
her sitting up in bed, arms folded. Her lips were pursed in annoyance, and I
could already feel what was coming. I’d dreaded it the entire way here.
“I told you last time you came in at this time of night that it would be
your last,” she started. “Would you like to tell me what you were doing and
who you were with?”
Exhaustion hit me like a ton of bricks, because no, I didn’t want to tell
her. It would just start an argument I was too sober to deal with. So, I said,
“Not really.”
“Was it Lola?”
“Do I really even need to answer that?”
“Carmen,” my mother said in a warning tone. “That mouth is getting
smarter and smarter every time you open it. I don’t know how Lola speaks to
her parents, but you’re picking up one too many things from her.”
I didn’t respond, and instead looked at the ground, hoping that this
would be over quickly.
“This is the deal.” My mother slid her legs from out underneath the
duvet and set them on the ground. “You’re going to respect the rules of my
house, or you can not deal with them at all.”
I scoffed. Was she threatening to kick me out?
“Is something funny?” She raised her voice. “Because I don’t think I’m
cracking jokes here.”
“No, it’s just ironic,” I said. “’Cause I can’t dream of anything better
than leaving this house.”
 John Jay’s Finest  97

She stood. “Oh really? Because your life so damn bad, right? Because
I don’t cook for you? Because I don’t provide a roof over your head? Because
I don’t pay for all the nice things you have?”
“No,” I snapped back. “Because you pretend like nothing’s wrong. Like
you didn’t just start a whole new life and dragged us with you. Away from
Dad, away from my friends, away from Serena—everything that made me
happy you took away.”
“And what about my happiness? You’re not the only person that
matters, Carmen! I made the best decision for all of us at the time --”
“—No, you ran, Mom. That’s what you did. You ran from Serena’s
death, you ran from Dad, and you covered it all up with your nice little car, and
this house and and you acted like none of it ever even happened! You don’t
even talk about her!” I felt a ball forming in my throat, but I forced it down. I
would not be weak right now. “We never even talk about her!”
My mother put a hand up. “Just stop, Carmen. I can’t do this right now.”
“See!” I flung my hands up in frustration. “You’ve never been able to
do it! All of this didn’t just happen to you. It happened to me, too!”
“You are so selfish.” My mother shook her head at me. “You have no
idea how hard it is. You have zero sympathy. I’ve only ever done things for
you and Cameron. The one thing, the one thing I can’t do right now you throw
in my face.”
“I’m not throwing it in your face. I’m trying to get you to see.”
“I do see!” she shouted.
“No, you don’t!”
“Guys,” Cameron appeared at the top of the staircase, rubbing his eyes.
“Can we not do this right now?”
I fell quiet, my heart hammering and my hands shaking. “Yeah. I’m
done.”
I left my mother’s doorway and whisked past my little brother to the
bathroom door. “Sorry for waking you,” I told him, before closing the door.
I leaned back against the door, fighting the tears that were building. I
hated it here. I hated that there was never any peace. I hated my mother’s
infinite list of bad decisions that led us to this point. I hated the way my mother
looked at me when I told her how I truly felt. I hated that it felt like I had no
one to go to with all the hate in my heart. I knew if I texted Lola right now,
there would be no response.
I swallowed hard and pushed off the wall. I just needed a good shower.
To wash all of it away. I cleaned the day and the argument away, and got ready
for bed. As I slipped out the door, I heard my mother’s sniffles through her
door. My heart dropped. I crept towards it and leaned to hear better. “I don’t
understand why she’s so cruel to me,” she said, I assume to someone on the
phone. “Sometimes I wish Serena had just survived instead. She could mitigate
 John Jay’s Finest  98

all of this. I don’t know what to do without her...” I pulled back and walked
back to my room. I fell into bed, burying my face in my pillow. I didn’t know
what to do without her either, Mom.
That summer was when things would begin to change. I began to
change, taking fashion and beauty tips from Lola. I’d watch her as she got
ready for every party, and bought similar clothes, being more comfortable
showing off my legs and midriff. People started to notice me. Boys started to
notice me. It was an unexpected, but welcome change. I had never been asked
out by a guy before, so naturally, I went to who I considered to be the expert
with men: Lola. But when I asked her what to say, she shrugged me off.
“I don’t know. Tell them yes if you want to.”
I pretended not to be stung by her dismissiveness. That was the thing
about us. We were intimate enough to check each other’s pants for period
blood, but distant enough that the mention of her hanging with someone else,
or me suddenly getting attention from guys was enough to make things
awkward. I told myself that maybe her breakup with Rocky made her sensitive
about the topic, since all we had now was each other.
So, I ended up telling the boys no. The truth was, I knew I wasn’t
interested in them. The one person I wanted attention from, seemed like they
could care less when it came to me. I was waiting for her to change. Hoping
for her to. To put in as much energy into our relationship as I did. For now, I
would be there for her. I felt like she needed me. Too many people in Lola’s
life existed just to use her. Men, her family, the friends who wanted to be
around her just because she was popular. I understood the rush being around
Lola gave some people. I watched her go day by day, soaking in attention from
whoever gives it to her. They loved her, but only when she was doing
something for them. Performing, flirting, or charming them. They used her for
validation, and then forgot about her once she was gone. She felt like
opportunity. Who knew what would happen when you were around her? Still,
those feelings were fleeting. I felt obligated to be the one thing in her life that
stayed. Who else would?
That summer, we got jobs to occupy all our free time. Lola needed the
money, and I needed to be anywhere other than home. At work, the same diner
we hung out at for the first time over a year ago, we would plan our lives
together after high school.
“We should just move back into the city,” I suggested, wiping the
counters down as I finished the last bit of closing tasks for the night.
“Absolutely not,” Lola said, sitting atop the counters. She picked at her
nails, her legs swinging absentmindedly. “We need a totally fresh new start.
We have to be completely inaccessible. We know too many people in the city.”
“Florida?”
“Do I look white and retired to you?”
 John Jay’s Finest  99

“Okay then, how about California?”

Her eyes brightened. “That’s perfect. A big city filled with big
opportunities. I could model, or act! And we could both work part-time jobs
while you go to college, and I pick up gigs here and there. And you could get
a dog like you’ve always wanted! Oh my god, and our apartment would be so
cute!”
My heart warmed at her excitement. She wanted to leave just as much
as I did—if not more. She deserved a new life. The bell over the door rang as
someone swung it open. I cursed under my breath. “You were supposed to lock
the door, Lola!”
“Oops,” she said. “I’ll tell them we’re closed.”
She hopped off the counter and disappeared around to the front of the
restaurant. I waited for the bell to ring again, but after a few minutes of
complete silence, I got worried. Maybe someone was giving her a hard time.
I followed Lola’s path around the corner and stopped in my tracks at
what I saw. Lola stood inches away from a man’s face, a furious look splayed
across her soft features. The man looked familiar, and it took a minute for me
to register who he was. My head spun as my mind made the connection. Lola’s
back was turned to me, but the man’s furrowed eyebrows changed to surprised
when he caught my eye. Lola whipped around to look at me before taking a
step back to put space between her and the man.
“Hello, Carmen.” He waved, looking sheepish.
“Dr. Renn,” I said coldly. “We’re closed.”
Our history teacher awkwardly looked at Lola, for back-up or
reassurance, I didn’t know. But she didn’t even look in his direction. Just stared
off at something behind me, not acknowledging him at all. He swallowed hard
and nodded.
“Right. Well, I’ll see you girls on Monday.”
He began his walk out the restaurant, and I shouted out after him, “And
can you grade my damn essay already, please?”
Once the door closed behind him, I ran to lock it before turning on Lola.
She was still in the same position she was before, not looking at anything.
“You’ve got to be kidding me,” I said.
“I don’t want to hear it,” she responded, finally moving behind the
counter.
“He’s our teacher,” I stated.
“Thanks, Captain Obvious.”
“Was it him?” I pressed, following her, dropping my keys onto a table.
“The man you were crying over, right?”
“I don’t want to talk about it, Carmen!” She walked away from me,
heading towards the back room of the diner.
 John Jay’s Finest  100

“You wouldn’t tell me about him. This is why, huh?” I followed her.
“’Cause he’s our freaking teacher?”
We entered the room, and she sat on the edge of the table, her lips
pursed and arms crossed in stubbornness. I shook my head. “Lola, this could
ruin you.”
“No.” She turned her eyes on me for the first time. “It would ruin him.
I’m the victim, right?”
My shoulders dropped. “Lola. You’re so much better than this. You
don’t need these men coming in and out of your life, taking advantage of you.”
“You don’t know what you’re talking about, Carmen.”
Anger rose in my chest. “I know better than anyone what I’m talking
about! You do the same thing over and over again. Run to a boy for validation,
and when he gets tired of you, you run back to me, shattered. And I know
because I have to put together the pieces again. It happened once already with
him, and it happened with Terrance! Now you’re trying to go down that same
path again. I’m not having it.”
“No one ever asked you to do that,” she said, and it felt like she’d spit
in my face.
“But you did, Lola. You did when you dragged me into your life,” I
stepped towards her, my voice rising at my anger. “When you found some poor
sucker who would do anything you asked and then labeled her your ‘best
friend.’ You literally only care about yourself.”
She was silent, and my head spun as I realized it. The one-sidedness of
this relationship that I had been making excuses for months. Outside of herself,
Lola didn’t care about me. But I had been too enraptured with feeling like she
could save me from whatever it was that I was running from, that I allowed her
to push past my boundaries, walk all over me, and use me however she wanted.
“Wow,” I said, as the silence truly settled between us. “Nothing, huh?”
She stared at the ground.
“You know,” I said. “I really wanted the best for you. I still do. I might
be the only person in this whole damn town who does. But I’m not wrecking
myself for you anymore.”
I walked past her and grabbed my bag hanging on the back of the door.
I exited the store, not bothering to look behind me. Outside, the humid air felt
like it might suffocate me. Still, I decided to walk home anyway. As I went, I
thought the worst thing about this was her silence. Did she want to stop me?
Did she even care enough to? Or would she just call up someone who could
replace me? My face burned with anger as I thought about it. How used I felt,
and how foolish I was to let it happen. I walked the rest of the way home trying
not to think about it. Trying not to check my phone to see if she had texted,
trying not to feel the full brunt of what felt for some reason like a breakup.
 John Jay’s Finest  101

I reached home, my legs dragging my feet to the front door. I

rummaged through my bag for my keys, confusion building when I didn’t feel
then. My frustration grew as I pulled items from my bag, searching frantically
for the set but not being able to find them. I paused as I remembered locking
the door after Dr. Renn left, and then leaving the keys on the table. I groaned,
tears prickling at my eyes as the events of the night started to hit me at full
force. Suddenly, the door swung open.
My mother stood on the other side, confusion written across her face.
“Carmen?” I looked at her, in her robe, and watched as she took me in.
“Sweetie, what’s wrong?”
It all hit at once.
I ran into her arms and cried.
 John Jay’s Finest  102

 LITERATURE 373
THE SILENT OPPRESSOR
IN OROONOKO

_________________________
FRANCESCA CHERY

APHRA BEHN’S OROONOKO provides a detailed account of an African prince’s

European enslavement in Surinam. Set in the seventeenth century, the story is
narrated by a nameless woman who stands as a witness to this tale. The work
depicts a man of high status who is tricked into slavery where fierce honor and
love not only characterize our protagonist, Oroonoko, but mobilize the
novella’s plot. In Oroonoko, there are prominent themes of colonialism,
slavery, and racism. The functioning themes in Behn’s work cannot exist
without enablers such as the narrator that help to maintain the oppression that
Oroonoko and other Africans face. Despite not having a direct hand in the
conflict, Oroonoko’s female narrator is implicated in the slave trade because
the established voice reflects a classist and superior mindset that aligns with
the privileged yet destructive agenda of the European oppressors.

___________________________
The Assignment and the Writer: In Literature 373, Topics in Seventeenth- and Eighteenth-century
Literature, students encounter literary responses to New World colonization such as Aphra
Behn’s Oroonoko (1688), a major candidate for the first novella in English. Engaging with anti-racist
pedagogy, this topic question asked readers to gauge the extent to which the English narrator is
implicated in the international slave trade. Francesca’s sophisticated essay focuses on perspective,
using the tools of close reading to argue that Behn’s female narrator possesses a colonialist aesthetic
that makes oppression seem natural and imperialist expansion appear inevitable. In short, this
student writer builds a claim about the politics of a work by hewing closely to its language.
– Professor Ann Huse
 John Jay’s Finest  103

Behn indicates from the start of the story – through the detailed
narration – that practices like colonialism represent the norm. Before detailing
Oroonoko’s story, the narrator provides the reader with insight into the general
functions of 17th-century Britain as it relates to economic advancement. The
narrator tells us of the manner in which individuals are brought into new
colonies: “for those they make use of there, are not natives of the place; for
those we live within perfect amity, without daring to command them; but on
the contrary, caress them with all the brotherly and friendly affection in the
world” (Behn 144). There is a positive tone throughout this description which
alludes to how normalized colonization is. The narrator speaks in great detail
about a great rapport between the Surinamese white colonists and the Natives
when trading goods such as fish, skins, little rarities, and feathers (Behn 144).
Essentially, the narrator relays that acquiring these goods is necessary, and
using them serves a valuable purpose for them. Of course, the white colonists
continuously demonstrate goodwill with the Natives because it allows them to
profit and capitalize. They acknowledge that if the Natives are to remain useful
to them in this manner, a harmonious relationship is key; therefore, in order to
achieve their other goals, they must enslave another group: the Africans. As
long as there are benefits, then it is a means worth pursuing, and such a mindset
creates agendas for growth, advancement, and power maintenance which are
also present in the slave trade.
It is essential to explore the principles – namely the narrator’s –
presented in the narrative that allow practices such as the slave trade to be
justified and perpetuated. Firstly, there is the manner in which the narrator
describes Western culture. One instance in which the narrator’s voice reflects
prejudice is when she praises the Natives’ beauty. The narrator speaks of their
pleasing shapes, pretty features, and how, overall, they are very charming,
except for their color, which is a reddish yellow (Behn 145). The compliment
is seemingly innocent, and the detail appears to be a mere preference regarding
what is the most beautiful skin tone; however, the comment goes beyond
subjectivity. The minor detail alludes to the narrator’s idea of racial superiority,
even in a superficial sense. Eventually, we see how this superiority extends to
other aspects where it becomes more dangerous and establishes the basis for
oppression as seen with slavery.
When the narrator finally recounts Oroonoko’s slave tale, the way that
she introduces him is also telling when it comes to her views of cultural
superiority. Initially, she labels Oroonoko as “a gallant slave” who perfectly
charms others with his great character (Behn 144). Throughout the novella,
Oroonoko is highly regarded by everyone. The narrator provides background
information on his upbringing and education, and we see how his education
aligns with that of Western values. The text states that he possesses “those
refined notions of true honor, that absolute generosity, and that softness that
 John Jay’s Finest  104

was capable of the highest passions of love and gallantry” (146). These are
traits attributed to being under the care of a Frenchman of “wit and learning,”
a royal tutor who taught Oroonoko morals, language, and science, all of which
he valued. Oroonoko’s background is reflective of ethnocentrism because the
characteristics that he comes to possess are most valued within the West Indies
culture under English colonialism. The nobility that depicts Oroonoko is
consistent with the superiority of that particular culture. All aspects rooted
within that culture, whether that be looks, education, and poise, represent the
standard. The narrator places great emphasis on his physical characteristics that
set him apart, which again communicates microaggression and prejudice. As
opposed to the “brown, rusty black” and “African and flat nose” of the
majority, Oroonoko’s face is of a “perfect ebony” with a rising Roman nose
(Behn 147). In other words, the narrator emphasizes that his best features are
also his European ones, which perpetuates European standards and a sense of
superiority.
When Oroonoko is eventually tricked by the Captain and enslaved, the
narrator continues to highlight her admiration for Oroonoko concerning the
way he carries himself despite his terrible circumstances, as opposed to
critiquing how and why he is faced with said circumstances. For instance, she
emphasizes that although Oroonoko is a slave, he continuously differentiates
himself in a way that has left her in awe of him. The narrator states that
Oroonoko “endured no more of the slave but the name” and spoke with air
impatient enough to relay that he would not be in bondage long, nor did he
have the toil and labor of one (Behn 164). The narrator glorifies Oroonoko as
this honorable and brave individual. While these are admirable traits of his, the
projection of heroism undermines his struggles as a victim of oppression
placed in a dire situation. Even in the description of Oroonoko’s hunting, we
see how the narrator paints him as this individual with immense courage, skill,
and strength when Oroonoko takes on the tiger. The traits that Oroonoko
possesses are fitting of an individual that would lead a slave rebellion as he
did. Oroonoko is a man of virtue, loyalty, and honor as the narrator, and many
accurately characterize him; however, she also fails to acknowledge how little
this personal integrity is actually worth in the end. The narrator’s inability to
view Oroonoko beyond an “exceptional” person and simply a human being
treated unfairly makes her an enabler because it is consistent with the same
principles that allow for the slave trade to exist in the first place.
Oroonoko is perceived as a respectable individual, and yet these
striking distinctions do not prevent him from being subjugated or oppressed
just like any other African. The narrator’s supposed displeasure with
Oroonoko’s enslavement is noteworthy. She does not believe that an individual
of such high rank should be enslaved. Essentially, the novella’s argument is
not about the cruelty of slavery with respect to basic human rights but rather
 John Jay’s Finest  105

which specified groups of people are deserving of such a right. In the narrator’s
perspective, Oroonoko should have differential treatment due to his royal
status. That the narrator does not actively condemn such acts and instead
justifies them and focuses on his valuable traits makes her complicit. She has
portrayed Oroonoko as this hero who faces unfortunate circumstances, which
eventually leads to a tragic end. It seems as though the narrator only deems
Oroonoko as important and the situation as tragic because he is a valuable
person according to her standards. This mindset parallels modern-day classism.
The disparities and discrimination and consequential strife that are so prevalent
within our society are a consequence of a philosophy that some people are less
deserving of certain rights or opportunities on the basis of their identity or
status.
 John Jay’s Finest  106

 AFRICANA STUDIES 310

ATTITUDES & ACCEPTANCE
RATES: THE COVID-19
VACCINE AMONG AFRICAN
AMERICANS AND WHITES IN
RICHMOND HILL, QUEENS
_____________________________
RASHMATTIE HIRALAL

JUSTIFICATION OF THE RESEARCH

THE PURPOSE OF THIS RESEARCH is to educate and raise awareness for African
Americans and White Americans in Richmond Hill, Queens, who may be
hesitant about getting the Covid-19 vaccine. This research will highlight the
most effective ways to encourage individuals to take the Covid-19 vaccine.
This research will also enhance the knowledge of older generations within the
community who are headstrong or lack understanding of Covid-19 vaccines.
Moreover, it will benefit individuals who are aware of the Covid-19 vaccine
and are interested in learning more about the vaccine’s effectiveness, safety,
and availability, while addressing public health concerns and herd immunity.

___________________________
The Assignment and the Writer: Mattie Hiralal’s essay is an example of the original research conducted
in AFR 310 (Research Seminar in Africana Studies) where students may pursue any topic of interest
pertaining to the Africana diaspora, broadly defined. Mattie’s research was particularly salient because
she asked a timely question that was not only relevant to a specific community but could have
implications for other communities, as well. In only 16 weeks, she conducted a literature review,
created an online survey, sampled a population, and recruited participants for her study. She received
55 useable responses—a rather extraordinary feat during a pandemic—and made three status
PowerPoint presentations to the class as well as a culminating 10-minute PowerPoint presentation.
– Professor Teresa Booker
 John Jay’s Finest  107

RESEARCH AIM
This research investigates the various factors that motivate attitudes
and vaccine acceptability of Covid-19 vaccines between African Americans
and Whites in Richmond Hill, Queens.

RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
Determine whether African Americans are more accepting of the
Covid-19 vaccine than White Americans in Richmond Hill, Queens.

RESEARCH QUESTION
Are African Americans more or less accepting of the Covid-19 vaccine
compared to Whites in Richmond Hill, Queens?

LITERATURE REVIEW
VACCINE HESITANCY
Vaccines are developed to be effective mechanisms that prevent and
reduce the increasing rates of viral infectious diseases nationwide. Scientists
and researchers are cooperating and working swiftly for the development of
vaccines against the Coronavirus. However, vaccine hesitancy has become a
major issue that prevents many individuals from different backgrounds from
taking the Covid-19 vaccine. The scale of vaccine hesitancy is examined from
complete refusal to full acceptance, influenced by the level of confidence and
willingness to get vaccinated (Hooper et al., 2021). According to Akarsu et al.
(2021) if the vaccine had been recently developed, chances are the levels of
hesitancy and anxiety would be high and the level of trust in the vaccine would
decrease. It states, “people trust vaccines is the slow and methodical process it
takes to develop them, which may take up to several years before final
approval” (Akarsu et al., 2021, para. 4). Trust in vaccines depends on the
amount of time it takes to develop the vaccine to ensure the safety and efficacy
of the vaccine.
Various factors fuel vaccine hesitancy, including anti-vaccination
campaigns, mental health, potential side effects, and misinformation in how
the media distributes accurate and reliable information. For instance, the
impact of anxiety on an individual contributes to greater levels of vaccine
hesitancy, personal responsibility, and risk perceptions of possible negative
outcomes that reduce the number of visits to health clinics (Imai & Furukawa,
2021). There are two forms of pandemic-related anxiety which are disease
anxiety and consequence anxiety (McElroy et al., 2020). Disease anxiety is
concerned about catching or transmitting the virus while consequence anxiety
is concerned about the effects of the pandemic. Also, anti-vaccination
campaigners utilize popular social media platforms including Instagram,
 John Jay’s Finest  108

Facebook, and Tik Tok to spread misinformation, or inadvertently draw

statements based on inaccurate facts (Huynh & Senger, 2021). Anti-
vaccination campaigners share a common belief that pharmaceutical
companies have taken advantage of health experts, scientists, and doctors as a
way of making a profit out of the various types of Covid-19 vaccines.
However, others may intend to cause disinformation by intentionally spreading
deceptive rumors hoping to disrupt health service organizations, dissuade
families, and friends from getting vaccinated. Moreover, the rising numbers of
mortality rates that are displayed throughout the media are causing severe
emotional, psychological, and physical distress as the public experiences social
distancing and isolation (McElroy et al., 2020).

PRIORITIZATION OF RACIAL/ETHNIC GROUPS & DISTRIBUTION OF COVID-

19 VACCINE
Throughout the nation, racial or ethnic minorities in the United States
suffer disproportionately from Coronavirus. African Americans are more
likely to be diagnosed, to be hospitalized, and are more likely to pass away
from the Coronavirus (Ferdinand, 2021). According to Peek et al. (2021), racial
disparities in Covid-19 mortality rates have been increasing since April 2020
between African Americans and Whites across the United States. Areas with
higher populations of African Americans are reported to have higher death
rates due to the impact of structural racism and residential segregation that exist
(Peek et al., 2021). The Covid-19 pandemic further reveals such inequities in
education, employment, health care access, income, availability, and
distribution of Covid-19 vaccines. Low-income neighborhoods of African
American populations are reported to have higher numbers of Coronavirus
infections. Due to more crowded living conditions, higher unemployment,
greater rates of chronic diseases, lower rates of health insurance, and less
preventional practices of social distancing (Ferdinand, 2021). The low rates of
vaccination among African American individuals are solely not based on
vaccine hesitancy but other structural factors including inadequate access to
vaccine distribution clinics in local areas, limitations in the cold-supply chains,
and competition between buyers and consumers (Hooper et al., 2021).
Economically, an individual’s willingness to get vaccinated may depend on
whether or not the vaccines are free. According to Akarsu et al. (2021),
unemployed individuals were more likely to be undecided compared to
individuals who have social insurance (SSI) or private health insurance.
The struggle for equal access to Covid-19 vaccines is because of the
continuing impacts of Structural Racism that affects most inequalities in the
United States. Many African Americans who face hardship in battling their
complicated health conditions oftentimes struggle to overcome them due to the
effects of unfair treatment in the healthcare system. The link between structural
 John Jay’s Finest  109

racism and health care systems prolong for decades from African enslavement
to racialized residential segregation, police violence, mass incarceration, and
unequal medical treatment. It states “distrust is often traced to the legacy of the
infamous syphilis study at Tuskegee” where hundreds of Black men were
denied treatment (Warren et al., 2020). African Americans' distrust of
medicine, physicians, and public health officials reflect experiences from the
way they have been treated in the past. The way African Americans were
subjugated and dehumanized for centuries from African Slaves to later today
as Black U.S. citizens (Wake, 2021).

RAISING AWARENESS & EDUCATING THE PUBLIC

It is important to raise awareness and educate the public in order to
increase an individual's confidence and willingness to receive the Covid-19
vaccine. According to Warren et al., (2020), it is recommended that priority of
vaccine distribution and earning trust with credible evidence is necessary for
those who are considered more disadvantaged. The approach targets those who
suffer from various social determinants of poor health conditions among
individuals from racial and ethnic minority groups. Also, it is recommended
that health officials should take some level of responsibility to provide
improvements on immunization policies and acknowledge the characteristics
of different vaccinations including their contents and side effects. In ensuring
the success for the future of the Covid-19 vaccination crusade, it is crucial for
political leaders, health experts, and the media to be more attentive to the
process of vaccination development and the consideration of the public’s
concern (Akarsu et al., 2021). A human factor-center vaccination campaign is
recommended to address hesitancy, improve confidence among diverse
communities, and ultimately better the public’s understanding of the value of
getting vaccinated (Schoch et al., 2021). Lastly, it is important to educate the
public to spot misinformation and disinformation online to avoid spreading
misconceptions and be analytical consumers of the media.

DEFINITION OF TERMS
Efficacy is defined as the effectiveness or capacity to produce a desired or
intended result (Wake, 2021).

Disinformation refers to something or someone who intentionally spreads false

information to influence public opinion or divert the truth (Warren et al., 2020).

Dehumanization is defined as depriving something or someone of human

qualities including their personality and dignity or degrading conditions and
treatment (Ferdinand, 2021).
 John Jay’s Finest  110

Structural Racism is perceived in how societies manifest racial discrimination

through public policies, cultural representations, institutional practices, and
systems that violate the human rights of minority groups (Peek et al., 2021).

Misinformation is misleading information or inaccurate use of facts (Warren

et al., 2020).

Vaccine Hesitancy is “a complex cognitive and behavioral construct that varies

for specific vaccines, places, and times” (Hooper et al., 2021, para. 3)

METHODOLOGY
The purpose of my survey was to understand the attitudes and
acceptability rates of the Covid-19 vaccine between African Americans and
Whites in Richmond Hill, Queens. My survey consisted of nine demographic
questions compared to sixteen non-demographic questions. The majority of my
survey questions were closed-ended questions. Also, four of the questions in
my survey represented Likert scale questions. In order to create my online
survey, the survey administration software tool that I used was Google Forms.
My overall population pertaining to individuals in Richmond Hill,
Queens were African Americans and White Americans. In choosing my
sample, I used systematic sampling to remove close togetherness in population
or clustered selection. I advertised my survey through various social media
apps for conveniences such as WhatsApp, Facebook, Instagram, and Snapchat.
Through social media apps, I started asking for participants before
Thanksgiving weekend and mostly asked individuals who are at least eighteen
years of age and older. After Thanksgiving weekend ended, I launched my
survey on November 29 using the various social media platforms available to
advertise for participants. Please see Appendix A at the very end to view the
list of survey questions.

RESULTS
In conducting my research, approximately 55 people were sent the
survey link and 52 people responded to my survey questions. However, only
30 of the responses were usable results that pertained to my research. Based on
my demographic findings, about forty-three percent (43%) of the respondents
(N=13) were Whites, non-Hispanic and fifty-six percent (56%) of the
respondents (N=17) were African American or Black, non-Hispanic. The
majority of respondents were between the ages of 18 and 24 which is about
forty-six percent (46%) of respondents (N=14). In the last 6 months, one
hundred percent (100%) of the respondents (N=30) resided in Queens. In
regard to current employment status, approximately forty-six percent (46%) of
the respondents (N=14) have a full-time job and thirty-six percent (36%) of
 John Jay’s Finest  111

respondents (N=11) have a part-time job. Also, thirty percent (30%) of the
respondent’s (N=9) political viewpoints are slightly liberal.
The second half of my survey questions consisting of non-demographic
questions begins with the Likert scale question asking participants whether or
not they are aware of various kinds of vaccinations such as Pfizer, Johnson &
Johnson, and Moderna. One hundred percent (100%) of the respondents
(N=30) are aware of Pfizer and eighty-six percent (86%) of respondents
(N=26) are aware of Moderna. Ninety-three percent (93%) of respondents
(N=28) are aware of Johnson & Johnson. Participants were asked if they
received a Covid-19 vaccine and thirty-six percent (36%) of respondents
(N=11) said “no” compared to forty-six percent (46%) of respondents (N=14)
said “yes”. About fifty-six percent (56%)of respondents (N=17) said they did
have Covid-19. In receiving the Covid-19 vaccine, eighty-six percent (86%) of
respondents (N=26) believed the vaccine was created too quickly for it to be
effective. Seventy percent (70%) of respondents (N=21) stated that a monetary
incentive would motivate them in changing their minds about receiving the
Covid-19 vaccine. Forty-six percent (46%) of respondents (N=14) said that it
is very important to prioritize certain groups in receiving the Covid-19 vaccine.
In understanding what would strengthen confidence in the uptake of the Covid-
19 vaccine, one hundred percent (100%) of respondents (N=30) said the
vaccine is effective enough to protect me.
My findings suggest that individuals would take the Covid-19 vaccine
if a sufficient amount of monetary incentive was involved to change their
minds despite vaccine hesitancy. Based on the results, it did not answer my
research question. Although I received 52 responses, I only had 30 usable
respondents. This is not enough to come to a solid conclusion or answer. For
individuals who did not receive a vaccine yet, the divide was mixed between
18 responses where twenty-seven of respondents (N=5) said yes they will be
getting it as soon as possible and twenty-seven percent of respondents said
maybe (N=5). Twenty-two respondents (N=4) said no they never plan on
getting it. Further research is necessary, with a greater number of respondents,
to establish whether African Americans are more or less willing to receive the
Covid-19 vaccine than Whites in Richmond Hill, Queens.

LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

● This study was limited to Black or African Americans and White
Americans although Covid-19 vaccine attitudes and acceptance affects
other racial and ethnic groups including Afro-Caribbean, Asian
Americans, Hispanic, and Latino Americans.
● The study was limited to Richmond Hill, Queens because of time
constraints. Queens is a large borough with other neighborhoods
 John Jay’s Finest  112

including Forest Hills, Long Island City, Flushing, Far Rockaway,

Jackson Heights, and Astoria.
● My survey contained only 25 questions and most are closed-ended
questions. This limited the possibility of asking other valuable
questions that would enhance my data analysis and options.
● This survey was an online-web-based survey leading to the possibility
of respondents with biases affecting the sample and not everyone has
internet access (older generations).
● Of the 52 responses received, only 30 responses were usable results
which are not enough to determine whether or not African Americans
are more or less acceptable to receiving the Covid-19 vaccine compared
to Whites in Richmond Hill, Queens.

REFERENCES
Akarsu, B., Özdemir, D. C., Baser, D. A., Aksoy, H., Fidancı, I., & Cankurtaran, M. (2021). While
studies on Covid‐19 vaccine is ongoing, the public’s thoughts and attitudes to the future
Covid‐19 vaccine. International Journal of Clinical Practice, 75(4).
doi:10.1111/ijcp.13891
Ferdinand, K. C. (2021). Overcoming Barriers to Covid-19 Vaccination in African Americans: The
Need for Cultural Humility. American Journal of Public Health, 111(4), 586-588.
doi:10.2105/ajph.2020.306135
Hooper, M. W., Nápoles, A. M., & Pérez-Stable, E. J. (2021). No Populations Left Behind: Vaccine
Hesitancy and Equitable Diffusion of Effective Covid-19 Vaccines. Journal of General
Internal Medicine. doi:10.1007/s11606-021-06698-5
Huynh, H. P., & Senger, A. R. (2021). A little shot of humility: Intellectual humility predicts
vaccination attitudes and intention to vaccinate against Covid‐19. Journal of Applied
Social Psychology, 51(4), 449-460. doi:10.1111/jasp.12747
Imai, H., & Furukawa, T. A. (2021). The risk perception against Covid ‐19 and outpatients anxiety
of visiting the clinic during Covid ‐19 pandemic. Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences,
75(6), 208-209. doi:10.1111/pcn.13217
McElroy, E., Patalay, P., Moltrecht, B., Shevlin, M., Shum, A., Creswell, C., & Waite, P. (2020).
Demographic and health factors associated with pandemic anxiety in the context of Covid‐
19. British Journal of Health Psychology, 25(4), 934-944. doi:10.1111/bjhp.12470
Peek, M. E., Simons, R. A., Parker, W. F., Ansell, D. A., Rogers, S. O., & Edmonds, B. T. (2021).
Covid-19 Among African Americans: An Action Plan for Mitigating Disparities.
American Journal of Public Health, 111(2), 286-292. doi:10.2105/ajph.2020.305990
Schoch-Spana, M., Brunson, E. K., Long, R., Ruth, A., Ravi, S. J., Trotochaud, M., . . . White, A.
(2021). The public’s role in Covid-19 vaccination: Human-centered recommendations to
enhance pandemic vaccine awareness, access, and acceptance in the United States.
Vaccine, 39(40), 6004-6012. doi:10.1016/[Link].2020.10.059
Wake, A. D. (2021). The Willingness to Receive Covid-19 Vaccine and Its Associated Factors:
“Vaccination Refusal Could Prolong the War of This Pandemic” – A Systematic Review.
Risk Management and Healthcare Policy, Volume 14, 2609-2623.
doi:10.2147/rmhp.s311074
Warren, R. C., Forrow, L., Hodge, D. A., & Truog, R. D. (2020). Trustworthiness before Trust —
Covid-19 Vaccine Trials and the Black Community. New England Journal of Medicine,
383(22). doi:10.1056/nejmp2030033
 John Jay’s Finest  113

APPENDIX A: SURVEY QUESTIONS

1. To which gender identity do you most identify?
a. Male
b. Female
c. Transgender Female
d. Transgender Male
e. Prefer not to answer

2. What is your age?

a. 18-24
b. 25-34
c. 35-44
d. 45-54
e. 55-64
f. 65-74
g. Above 75
h. Prefer not to answer

3. What is your ethnic background?

a. White, non - Hispanic
b. Black, non - Hispanic or African American
c. Hispanic or Latino or Spanish Origin
d. Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander
e. American Indian or Alaska Native
f. Asian Indian
g. Other
h. Prefer not to answer

4. Where have you resided in the last 6 months?

a. Queens
b. Bronx
c. Brooklyn
d. Manhattan
e. Staten Island
f. None of the Above

5. What is your marital status?

a. Single, never married
b. Married/ Domestic Partnership
c. Widowed
d. Divorced
e. Separated
f. Prefer not to answer

6. What is the highest level of education you have achieved?

a. Less than a high school
b. Some high school
c. High school graduate or equivalent (e.g., GED)
d. Some college
e. Associate’s degree (e.g., AA, AS)
f. Bachelor’s degree (e.g., BA, BS, AB)
g. Graduate degree (Masters, Professional, Doctorate)
h. Prefer not to answer
John Jay’s Finest  114

7. What is your current employment status?

a. Full-time employment
b. Part-time employment
c. Self-employed
d. Contract/ Temporary
e. Unemployed
f. Disabled
g. Retired
h. Prefer not to answer

8. How would you define your family income?

a. Less than $10,000
b. $10,000 -$19,999
c. $20,000 - $29,999
d. $30,000 - $39,999
e. $40,000 - $49,999
f. $50,000 - $59,999
g. $60,000 - $69,999
h. $70,000 - $79,999
i. $80,000 - $89,999
j. $90,000 - $99,999
k. $100,000 - $149,999
l. $150,000 or more

9. What is your political viewpoint?

a. Very conservative
b. Slightly conservative
c. Neither conservative nor liberal
d. Slightly liberal
e. Very liberal
f. Prefer not to answer

10. Which of these vaccinations are you aware of? If you choose other please specify.
a. Pfizer - BioNTech
b. Johnson & Johnson (Janssen)
c. Moderna
d. AstraZeneca
e. Novavax
f. Other _____________

11. Have you received a vaccine for Covid-19?

a. Yes
b. Not yet
c. No
d. I don’t want it

12. To your knowledge, do you have (or have you ever had) Covid-19?
a. Yes, I have Covid-19
b. Yes, I did have Covid-19
c. No, I do not have or have had Covid-19
d. I don't know
e. I don't care to say

13. Based on the previous question, if yes, did you experience any symptoms?
a. Yes, I experienced symptomatic
b. symptoms
 John Jay’s Finest  115

c. Yes, but I experienced asymptomatic

d. symptoms
e. No, I did not experience any symptoms
f. I don't know

14. If you did not receive the vaccine yet, do you plan on getting it?
a. Yes, I will be getting it as soon as possible
b. Yes, however, I plan to wait until it is 100% effective
c. Maybe
d. No, I am never planning to get it
e. I don’t know

15. What are your concerns about receiving the Covid-19 vaccine? Please select all that apply.
a. I am concerned about potential side effects or health complications
b. I prefer to utilize natural remedies or local alternatives
c. I may not be able to afford the vaccine
d. I believe covid-19 is not real or just a conspiracy
e. I do not trust the vaccine or vaccine manufacturers
f. I believe the vaccine was created to quickly for it to be effective
g. I do not think I can get Covid-19
h. I think I can get covid-19 from taking the vaccine
i. I have no concerns

16. If you have not taken the vaccine, how hesitant are you in taking it?
a. Extremely
b. Very
c. Moderately
d. Slightly
e. Not at all
f. I have already taken the vaccine

17. If given the choice, where did you/ do you plan to receive the Covid-19 vaccine?
a. Family Physician or other physician's office
b. Health department clinic
c. Hospital
d. Vaccination Site
e. In-store Retail Pharmacy or Drugstore (e.g. CVS, Walgreens, Rite Aid etc.)
f. Not Sure

18. Are you planning on getting additional doses of the vaccine (booster shots)?
a. Yes
b. Maybe
c. No

19. Do you trust the Government in how they are handling the Covid-19 Pandemic?
a. Strongly Agree, through the implementation of government policies and measures
(e.g. social distancing, masks, sanitization, etc.)
b. Agree
c. Undecided
d. Disagree
e. Strongly Disagree, the Government is manipulating/controlling us

20. What are your trusted sources for gaining Covid-19 vaccine information? Please select all
that apply.
a. Scientists, Doctors, Health Experts
b. Ministry of Health
John Jay’s Finest  116

c. Public Health Organizations (CDC, PAHO, WHO, CARPHA)

d. Social Media/ Apps
e. Friends/Family/Acquaintances
f. Religious Institutions
g. Journalists/News
h. Newspapers/Articles/Web-based
i. Local Health Workers, Clinics, Community Organizations

21. Did you lose your job and experience a loss of employment income since March 13, 2020?
a. Yes, lost my job/laid off, and experienced loss of income
b. No, but had to accept a cut in pay and experienced loss of income
c. No, did not lose my job and did not experience loss of income

22. Would a monetary incentive motivate you to change your mind about receiving the Covid-19
vaccine?
a. Yes
b. Maybe, pay enough or don’t pay at all
c. No

23. How important is it to prioritize certain groups (racial/ethnic minorities) in receiving the
Covid-19 vaccine?
a. Very important
b. Important
c. Fairly Important
d. Slightly Important
e. Not Important

24. What would be important for you to know to strengthen your confidence in taking the Covid-
19 vaccine? Please select all that apply.
a. The vaccine is effective enough to protect me
b. Increased levels of neutralizing antibodies
c. The fast development of the vaccine did not jeopardize the safety
d. The vaccine works to prevent the transmission of Covid-19 from one person to
another
e. The risk of getting sick with Covid-19 is greater than the risk of potential side
effects from the vaccine
f. Health Experts who recommend the vaccine
g. I do not need any more information

25. Do you feel that the current status of the Covid-19 vaccination in the United States is at herd
immunity?
a. Far below
b. Moderately below
c. Slightly below
d. Met expectations
e. Slightly above
f. Moderately above
g. Far above
h. I don't know
 John Jay’s Finest  117

APPENDIX B: PROOF OF RESPONSES

Total Responses:

Usable Responses
 John Jay’s Finest  118

 HUMANITIES AND JUSTICE STUDIES 310

JUSTICE FOR WOMEN IN QING
FICTION AND REALITY

ELEANOR ARIAS

“IN CHINA, A WOMAN IS NOTHING” is the way Yu-I Chang introduces the story
of her life to her great niece, Natasha, in Bound Feet and Western Dress
(Chang, 6). Qing Dynasty (1644-1911) law and culture differed significantly
from that in the Western world. Confucian culture was patriarchal, because it
was based on hierarchical relations between superior and inferior relations.
Women were subordinate to their husbands, just as citizens were subject to the
emperor, sons to fathers, and elders to younger siblings. According to Yu-I,
who was born in Qing China and died in New York in 1989, a woman is always
ruled by some man. As a girl, you have to obey your father, as a woman, you
have to obey your husband, and if widowed, your sons would take
responsibility for you (Chang, 6). Were women truly treated as if they were
nothing? While that answer might have depended on a woman’s particular
family, Qing law might be seen to protect a woman's chastity and her value as
a wife more than her body as a matter of principle. Thus, marriageable women
and women in the household of a father, father-in-law, or husband would have
more protections than marginalized women, such as prostitutes and some
widows.

___________________________
The Assignment and the Writer: Eleanor Arias’s paper fulfilled the research requirement of my HJS 310
(Comparative Perspectives on Justice). In addressing the dilemma of women under Qing law and
Confucian ethics, Ms. Arias elegantly contrasted the real plight of powerless women, victimized by male
superiors (magistrates, husbands and stepsons), with their fictional counterparts in Qing tales of the
marvelous, where the wronged women, particularly widows and prostitutes, were able to secure an
ideal justice. In querying Qing legal culture, she independently analyzed Qing law cases, while adroitly
adapting the findings of legal scholars, and her paper concludes with an astonishing role reversal, where
a divorced woman was able to exercise real legal agency, with the support of her parents-in-law.
– Professor Toy-Fung Tung
 John Jay’s Finest  119

If one were to examine Qing law cases, the value of female chastity
would be clearly evident, but does this dispel Yu-I’s implication that women
were at the mercy of male relatives? For example, Qing law treated the crime
of rape and other sexual violations very seriously. In one case, we read:

The governor-general of Chihli has reported a case in which Fan Yu-

ch´uan tried unsuccessfully to rape a girl of fourteen, Li Erh-Chieh. In
view of the girl´s youth and immaturity, Fan feared the rape would be
difficult to carry out. He therefore started thrusting his finger into her
vagina, causing a flow of blood….

The governor-general has accordingly sentenced Fan Yu-chuan to exile

[at a distance of 3,000 li] under the statute…on attempted but
unsuccessful rape.

(Case 222.16, Bodde and Morris, 427). The commentators, Bodde and Morris,
add: “[h]ad the rape been achieved, it would, under the same statute, have been
punished by strangulation after the assizes” (Bodde and Morris, 428). Clearly,
rape was an especially serious crime in Qing China, because, had the rape been
successful, the rapist would have gotten the death penalty of strangulation.
Given the Qing culture’s veneration for female chastity, a practical reason for
preserving the girl's virginity was to keep her marriageable in the near future,
so her family could collect the betrothal payment. Some may argue that rape
laws were designed to benefit the girl’s father and future suitors rather than the
girl. But these laws also show that a woman’s body was protected by law, as
long as she could be viewed in her relations as a daughter, wife, or
mother/mother-in-law—that is, in legitimate relations to a man.
The Qing law revolving around women’s bodies was highly
ambiguous. While adultery was one of the four serious crimes to which a
magistrate needed to attend (the others being robbery, murder, and fugitive
slaves), and this agreed with Confucian family values, women were also
routinely “sold” into marriages or prostitution by their superior male relations
for economic reasons. This was not a legal practice but it was tolerated.
According to Philip C.C. Huang, out of 131 cases he examined in one archive,
almost half, or 68 cases, dealt with the “buying and selling of wives into
marriage or prostitution, the abduction or seduction of females for sale, the
forcible remarriage of widows, and the practice of purchasing young girls as
future daughters-in-law” (Huang, 6). While Qing law condemned the selling
of one’s wife into another marriage or concubinage, or worse, into prostitution,
these sales were such a widespread practice during the Qing that the Qing
judicial system responded with toleration (despite such sales violating the
family values of Confucius). By 1818, the Board of Punishment (one of the
 John Jay’s Finest  120

highest levels of the judiciary) took a position that decriminalized the selling
and buying of wives. Under extreme circumstances of poverty, the husband
could part with his wife without suffering the punishment for the offense of
maixiu maixiu (wife selling) (Huang, 6). Usually, being sold into a new
marriage was a better outcome for women then being sold into prostitution
(maichang). Selling a wife into prostitution, or the selling of a wife’s sexual
favors, of course, violated Qing adultery laws. Significantly, the powerless
victims, or women forced to become prostitutes, were not considered at fault
in the eyes of Qing law. The people that were seen as culpable were the "actors''
or men who controlled the women. Here, the law implicitly considered the
women sold into prostitution as “objects,” who were taken by “theft and
robbery” (Huang, 7). Given what we know, this implies that the perpetrators
were the husband, father, father-in-law, or some other male relatives, who were
giving the woman up as a prostitute:

[I]n the peasant society of Qing China, once a woman's husband died
she became vulnerable to abusive treatment by her marital family, the
more so if she had no heir or was young and attractive (and therefore
could fetch a higher price on the market for women). If a widow
(shuangfu) did not have the recourse of returning to her natal family,
she could find herself under great pressure to be remarried (gaijia) for
the betrothal gift price (caili) she could bring or, worse, be sold into
concubinage or prostitution.
(Huang, 8).

In Qing society, a woman was worth “nothing,” because her legal status
and her protection under the law depended on her relation to a superior male.
Specifically, the women who were marginalized were widows without
husbands or sons, women without a natal family willing to take them back, or
prostitutes cut off from all protective Confucian familial ties. The fate of such
women could often have a gruesome end. What life was like for such women
cannot be appreciated from legal analyses alone. To understand their plight,
we have to turn to a genre of Qing stories called zhiguai or tales of the
marvelous, often involving ghosts. In some of these stories revolving around
prostitutes and childless widows, we see how these marginalized women were
beaten, mutilated, or worse, driven to suicide. Incidentally, causing a person to
commit suicide was a crime under Qing law (Art. 299 Qing Code, Jones trans.)
Unlike legal reality, within these stories of the marvelous, we get to see some
form of karmic justice for the victims, due to supernatural intervention. Where
Qing law generally failed these marginalized women, they were sometimes
avenged in a fictional world of ideal justice
 John Jay’s Finest  121

Ghost or zhiguai stories did not agree with Confucian ideals and values.
Confucius has been known for his pragmatic and humanistic
approaches toward fundamental political questions about state,
government, power, law, and…Confucius´s hesitation in discussing
supernatural forces appears to be surprisingly secular…Lao Tzu warns
those who govern a country to always remain vigilant of the power of
demons, as demons do have the power on them if they do not follow
the Way. On the contrary, throughout his Confucius Analects,
Confucius repeated his unwillingness to discuss supernatural forces
and judgment in the afterlife.

(Yi, paragraph 24). However, Ji Xiaolan, in his career as a Qing official,

gathered many tales and anecdotes of the marvelous. According to Ji Xiaolan´s
translator and commentator, David E. Pollard:

The Neo-Confucian view ruled out [the] afterlife: they held that the qi
of living beings dispersed forthwith upon death and mingled with the
qi of heaven and earth: end of story. The basis of all ghost stories,
contrariwise, is that the story continues: ghosts retire to a parallel
universe where some seem to live uneventful lives until disturbed,
while others actively intervene in the earthly world because they have
unfinished business, usually a grudge or grievance of some kind, most
dramatically one that led to unnatural death.
(Pollard, 21).

As Pollard suggests, ghosts and other specters in Qing literature may

be related to the wrongful death of a disturbed person, or some other injustice.
Furthermore, ghost stories can also be used to provide social commentary on
the morals and the matters of the times, since they were ostensibly about unreal
ghosts. As we shall see in two stories below, “Helping a Ghost Get Revenge,”
and “The Immortal Prostitute,” a vengeful ghost could have been pressed into
suicide by injustice or simply have some unfinished business that needs
resolving. Sometimes, the spirits are angry to the point that they become crazy
and deranged lunatics. This means that within the stories the spirits can inflict
an evil curse against those who treated them unjustly in life, and thus, be
avenged. The key here is that the injustices were real and happened in the
human realm. Regarding how ghost stories should be understood from a
Confucian perspective, Ji Xiaolan appealed to his readers:

When I write of other people's affairs, I always set down what is told
to me; whether it is false, factual, or less than the whole story, others
are in a position to know, but I am not. . ..
 John Jay’s Finest  122

However, since I do endeavor to give a full and fair rendering, and try
to impart some kind of positive moral—not, as so many similar works
of the past, standing facts on their head, paying off personal scores,
romancing about fine dandies and fair ladies, or catering to prurient
interests—I hope that gentlemen of discernment will not think my work
beneath their notice.
(Ji Xiaolan, Pollard, epigraph).

With a discerning mind, let us now examine how the conditions of

marginalized women were depicted in Qing fiction. In “Helping a Ghost Get
Revenge,” a tale from Censored by Confucius, a zhiguai collection written by
Yuan Mei, a concubine was purchased by Ma Jixian, a man in his old age, to
care for him, and she was so good to him that he willed her 2.000 caddies of
gold and his house, upon his death. However, under Qing law, women could
not own land, so the execution of Ma’s wishes depended on his son,
Huanzhang, and the son’s uncle, Prefect Wu. In this tale, the Ma family
patriarchs did not respect the dying wishes of Ma Jixian. After his death, they
took the concubine’s gold. Unfortunately, the widowed concubine had no sons
by Ma Jixian to protect her and her property, and her birth family had no
intention of providing for her. When she later returns to Ma Jixian’s house to
do the final prayers for his passing, she is told to leave as soon as she is done.
After crying all night, the concubine hangs herself, and the Ma patriarchs sell
the house to Mr. Zhang, a good Buddhist, who believes in the afterlife. Zhang
wants some peace in his new house, so he makes a deal with the concubine’s
ghost—he will make a charmed tablet into which her spirit can go, and he will
convey her to the house of Ma’s evil son and his uncle. Once there, she curses
them and they both die mysteriously within days. Her revenge was complete,
since Huanzhang had no sons, and “his property was claimed by relatives. Wu
also had no descendants, so the fortunes of this line of his family also went into
an immediate decline” (Censored, 169).
This story, among many others, shows how supernatural karmic justice
compensates for the lack of legal justice. Ma´s son violated the teachings of
the Confucian relationship between father and son by disobeying his father's
dying request. We are also told that the son was wealthier than the father, so
he had no need for the concubine’s property. While the concubine honored the
Confucian husband-wife relation, Ma Jixian gave her no male heirs. Sadly, the
Ma patriarchs were within their legal rights, because women could not own
property. Justice for this widow concubine comes from the ghostly realm,
which is shown here to reinforce Confucian values.
Another example of supernatural karmic justice is found in “The
Immortal Prostitute” (Censored, 82-84). A failed scholar named Wang was
 John Jay’s Finest  123

trying to travel up to Mount Yun´ai, known as a place of immortals. He wanted

to try his luck at becoming an immortal after he failed the civil service
examinations. There, he met a “high-ranking prostitute,” Xie Chongniang, a
woman whom he loved about six or seven years ago (Censored, 82). The
former prostitute told him she had come to the mountain to commit suicide
after Prefect Wang (same name as scholar) had her stripped naked and
viciously beaten. But an old woman saved her and taught her the mystical arts,
so that now she had become one of the immortals. She also told him that the
old woman on one of her trips to “heaven” saw the Perfect being “whipped by
a god” while reciting his sins (Censored, 83). How could she, then, become an
immortal? What of the “sin” of prostitution, asks Scholar Wang. She answers:
“If a butcher lays down his knife, then he can become a Buddha in that instant”
(Censored, 83). Wang asked her to teach him to become an immortal, but all
she does is sleep with him without allowing him any sex. Finally, Xie sends
him back to his family and when he refuses, she pushes him off the mountain
cliff. When he returns to his family, he finds that he himself has been dead for
twenty-seven days. Scholar Wang’s ghost also finds out that Prefect Wang died
some time ago. Under Qing law, prefects and magistrates were allowed to
administer beatings for offenses such as adultery, while serious sentences
ranging from penal servitude to death had to be reviewed by higher authorities.
However, Xie was being punished, the story tells us, so Prefect Wang could
look good to his superiors. In the afterlife, he gets whipped, while the prostitute
he punished for egotistical reasons was now an immortal. As historians,
analyzing the past, we can see how useful zhiguai or ghost stories may be in
illuminating the workings of Qing law and society, as well as Qing social
norms and ideals of justice. Stories of vengeful ghosts or other specters are a
means of showing how injustices could go unpunished under Qing law,
especially when the targets were marginalized women. In the two stories
above, a widowed concubine and a high-class prostitute both were avenged,
and the prostitute was now more knowledgeable than her former scholar-lover.
In two more stories, we again see a disturbing trend among these tales,
which show us power-hungry officials, with high-ranking jobs, who are
abusing their positions to “punish” prostitutes and/or their clients. These un-
Confucian magistrates are shown abusing their authority and later being
themselves punished by supernatural forces, since they could not be punished
under Qing law for sentencing people to beatings. Along with Prefect Wang in
“Immortal Prostitute,” we have Magistrate Zhu in “The Magistrate of
Pingyang” and the unnamed magistrate in "Quan Gu." All three of these
magistrates targeted prostitutes, while bragging about their own superior
morality.
In “The Magistrate of Pingyang,” we see the condemnation of a
magistrate who prided himself on being Confucian gentlemen, while in reality
 John Jay’s Finest  124

being a cruel and immoral sadist. In this tale, Magistrate Zhu punished
prostitutes by “stripping them and repeatedly ramming cudgels up their
vaginas” and he would also “promptly order that clients’ faces be smeared with
blood from the prostitutes’ buttocks” (Censored, 11). He was especially
ruthless towards the women he considered “beautiful,” and he would order
their heads shaved and nostrils slit, because “[i]f all beautiful women are made
to be plain, then our society will be rid of the scourge of prostitution”
(Censored, 11). He bragged that he had absolutely no sexual desire and what
these women were doing was a serious crime: adultery. Magistrate Zhu’s
arrogance was paid for in the blood of his own loved ones. When he was
traveling to his new post, he chose to stay on the haunted floor of a guesthouse.
There, he was tricked by “the local earth god” into thinking that he could be a
ghostbuster, and he was told to be ready when demons would come later that
night. Eventually demons did appear to Magistrate Zhu and he spent all night
killing those demons, who were in actuality, his wife, concubines, and all his
children. Ultimately, the magistrate collapsed dead after finding out what he
had done.
The story, “Quan Gu,” follows the fate of Chen, a wealthy young man,
who falls in love with Quan, a teahouse owner (teahouses were associated with
prostitutes). They had an affair and he paid those who knew to keep the affair
secret. However, this was not enough for the blackmailers, and the secret got
out. The head magistrate, who prided himself on being a “neo-Confucian who
maintained a strict moral code among the populace” (Censored, 136),
sentenced Chen to 40 strokes. When Quan pleaded for mercy for Chen, he also
sentenced her to 40 strokes, allowed her tiny slippers to be “fondle[d]” by
everyone, and ordered her to be sold as a concubine (Censored, 137). Chen
made an arrangement to purchase Quan. This greatly offended the magistrate,
so he decided to punish the two lovers again. This time, he had Quan beaten
on her bare buttocks, and when Chen tried to stop it, the magistrate slapped
Chen’s face a hundred times and had him beaten, so that he later died of
injuries. Quan was again sold. Liu, a “provincial-level scholar,” mysteriously
appears and says he came to see what the magistrate had been doing, since he
assumed that he was punishing robbers or other criminals. After Liu found out
that all he had done was punish a mere “affair,” he asks why. The magistrate
replies that he did not want to be accused of being a “sex maniac” (because
Quan was beautiful), and he did not want to look as if he had been “bribed” by
the wealthy Chen. Liu tosses his scarf and marches out. After a near decade
(this karmic justice took a long time), when the magistrate was transferred to
Song-jiang, a mysterious intruder (as if supernatural) came in through the
window and smacked the magistrate three times on the back before escaping.
This gave the magistrate serious back pain, which led to his death ten days
later. He died with a huge protrusion growing on his back, which looked
 John Jay’s Finest  125

“exactly like a pair of human buttocks” and felt “like the pulp of a rotten peach”
(Censored, 138). This death is another example of “poetic” and supernatural
justice, when the law offers no remedy.
We have examined the counterpoint between legal justice and ideal
justice for marginalized women in Qing China. Now we will turn to Yu-i
Chang’s memoir about her life, which was initially one of privilege, until her
family became poor. As a result, she was married at 15—but she was also
divorced at 22 (Chang, 7). Yu-i’s husband, Hsü Chih-mo, was one of the
literary innovators of modern China, and he asked her for a divorce after the
birth of their second son in Paris. In an instant, Yu-I became a marginalized
woman. A divorced woman was assumed to be blameworthy. But, with the
help of her brothers, and continuing support from her in-laws for their
grandson, Yu-i remade herself, unwillingly, into a modern, independent, and
self-supporting woman. Her husband was not a Confucian son. He divorced
Yu-i without his parents’ consent and did not give her time to consult with her
own parents. He asked for a “modern” divorce, without grounds under Qing
law, which allowed divorce only if the wife’s actions satisfied one of the
“Seven Outs''—such as when the wife was refusing to accept her husband’s
concubine or disobeying his parents (Chang, 131). In the end, Yu-i became the
first woman vice-president of the Shanghai Women’s Savings Bank (Chang,
179), and she also made a lot of money on the stock market and running a
clothing store with her brother and ex-husband (Chang, 181,187). Eventually,
she not only built her in-laws a new house, but she supported Hsü Chih-mo’s
second wife after his untimely death.
Yu-I contemplated suicide when her husband demanded that she abort
their second child (which she refused to do, on Confucian grounds). She could
easily have become one of the scorned women ghosts, such as the widowed
concubine in “Helping a Ghost Get Revenge,” but instead, she fulfilled all of
her husband’s obligations to his parents, when he himself neglected them. She
remained the beloved daughter-in-law to her ex-husband’s parents despite her
divorced status. This led to an astonishing reversal of her marginalized status
as a divorcee. When Hsü Chih-mo wanted to get married again, this time to a
beautiful young socialite, his parents refused to grant permission, unless Yu-i
traveled back to the family house and gave her permission in person. To
understand how remarkable this moment was, we have to return to Qing sex
laws. In the selling of wives or their sexual favors, women were supposedly
the ones giving ‘consent’ to these actions, while the man supposedly did these
acts with her ‘consent.’ This situation revolves around the Chinese word he:

When referring to the woman, the he meant to consent to the following:

helüe, consenting to being abducted; hemai, consenting to being sold;
heyou, consenting to being seduced; and hejian, consenting to illicit
 John Jay’s Finest  126

sex. When applied to the man, it meant literally doing something to a

woman with her consent—thus, helüe, abducting a woman with her
consent; hemai, selling a woman with her consent; and so forth. Note
that this usage was gender specific. The man did the lüe, mai, you, and
jian. He did not he; the woman was the one who he-ed.

What these he categories reveal, in fact, is the way Qing law saw the
nature of choice or will exercised by the woman. In all of these
categories, the man was assumed to be the active agent; her choice
consisted of consenting or resisting.
(Huang, 11) (italics added).

Under Qing law, this basically gives the woman zero ability to make a
positive choice; she can only decide to give consent (or not) to what a man
decides. When Yu-i’s in-laws forced their son to secure Yu-i’s permission to
remarry (and in a sense, to cast her aside), they put him in the woman’s position
of being “the one who he-ed,” or consented, rather than being the one who
controlled the choices!
Confucius may have ignored the supernatural, while encouraging
people to focus on living a virtuous, peaceful, and harmonious life. But that
was the vision for a Confucian gentleman. What about the women that were
condemned to injustice in Qing society? The women that had to consent to sell
themselves for money? The women who were put at odds with their own
morality? The zhiguai stories of ghosts pose some very real questions. How
could marginalized women live by the Confucian way, if they were put in
positions to be harmed, killed, or forced to commit suicide? What happens
when the perpetrators are magistrates, or worse, husbands or fathers, who get
off scot free because of their positions? Would it be fair to say that Confucius's
teachings are flawed to the extent they are thoroughly patriarchal? Perhaps we
should also question the Qing laws that deprived marginalized women of
agency. If the only way these women could receive justice was in zhiguai tales,
through supernatural intervention, then those tales were certainly indirectly
critiquing Qing society.
In conclusion, we notice a gap between the ideal justice in zhiguai tales
and the injustices permitted under Qing law for marginalized women, who
were “nothing,” because they lacked the protection of a superior male relation.
Yu-i was a real woman, who lived through Qing China’s transition to the
modern world. In Qing China, she tells her great niece, a newborn girl’s
umbilical cord is discarded or buried outside of the house, while a boy’s
umbilical cord is honored by being put in a jar under the mother 's bed (Chang,
6). This may be how Yu-i's life began, but later as a marginalized, divorced
woman, she defied all conventional expectations by being able to support
 John Jay’s Finest  127

herself, her son, and even her in-laws. So, just as she was not the “one who he-
ed” (in the position of powerlessness) when her husband cast her aside and
wanted to remarry, she was also in the end, not “nothing.”

REFERENCES
Bodde, Derk, and Clarence Morris. Law Imperial China: Exemplified by 190 Ch’ing Dynasty
Cases.. Philadelphia : University of Pennsylvania Press, 1973.
Chang, Pang-Mei Natasha. Bound Feet & Western Dress. New York: Anchor Books, 1997.
Huang, Philip C.C. “Women's Choices under Law: Marriage, Divorce, and Illicit Sex in the
Qing and the Republic,” Modern China 27 (2001): 3-58.
Ji, Xiaolan. Real Life in China at the Height of Empire: Revealed by the Ghosts of Ji Xiaolan.
Ed. and trans. David E. Pollard. Hong Kong: Chinese University Press, 2014.
Mei, Yuan. Censored by Confucius: Ghost Stories. Ed. and trans. Kam Louie and Louise
Edwards. New York: Routledge, 1996.
The Great Qing Code. Trans. William C. Jones with the assistance of Tianquan Cheng and
Yongling Jiang. Oxford: Clarendon, 1994.
Yi, Se-Hyoung. “Persuasion Without Words: Confucian Persuasion and the Supernatural.”
Humanities 8, no. 4 (2019). [Link]
(accessed January 10, 2022, cited by paragraph number).
 John Jay’s Finest  128

 HONORS 380
A SUCCESS AND A FAILURE: GAY
MARRIAGE AND THE DEATH
PENALTY ABOLITION MOVEMENT

MADELYN MULLEN

SOCIAL MOVEMENTS ARE POPULARITY CONTESTS. It's even in the name.

Social movements are indeed social. To be successful, a movement requires
several components including exceptional leadership and insightful
messaging. But these are not sufficient conditions for success. Without popular
support, a movement cannot succeed. This is exemplified by the movements
for marriage equality and death penalty abolition. Both movements possessed
exceptional leadership and insightful messaging, but the abolition movement
ultimately lacked popular support. This caused its eventual downfall. Popular
support is the foundation, and a house without a foundation cannot stand for
long.
During the mid-1960s, the Legal Defense Fund (LDF) kickstarted the
death penalty abolition movement. They did what was unthinkable just a
couple years prior: question and resist the constitutionality of the death penalty.
At first, it looked like the abolition movement was headed for triumph. In 1972,
after many legal challenges and a finely crafted moratorium, courtesy of LDF,
the Supreme Court ruled the death penalty unconstitutional in Furman v.
Georgia. Problem is, it didn’t last. It was the eye of the hurricane.

_____________________________
The Assignment and the Writer: This section of Honors 380 focused on legal and social issues
surrounding the use of the death penalty in America. A central question is whether the abolition
campaign, led principally by the NAACP Legal Defense Fund, has succeeded as a social movement. This
assignment asked the students to identify the elements of a successful social movement and draw a
comparison between the movement to abolish the death penalty and another social movement. In this
elegantly written essay, Maddy Mullen incisively compares the mixed record of the capital punishment
campaign with the unqualifiedly successful movement to constitutionalize the right of same-sex couples
to marry. – Professor Evan Mandery
 John Jay’s Finest  129

In a flash, the Court reaffirmed capital punishment. In July of 1976, the

Court overturned Furman with Gregg v. Georgia. Ever since, the death penalty
has persisted. In 2020, the Trump administration executed thirteen federal
prisoners in a matter of months (Honderich, 2021). And, currently, Arizona
holds access to the lethal drug Pentobarbital and the Arizona Attorney General,
Mark Brnovich, is yearning for a chance to administer it.
Same-sex marriage has been constitutionalized since 2015, thanks to
Obergefell v. Hodges. And no panic of reversal sits on the horizon, even with
today’s conservative leaning Court. But gay marriage has also been on a
tumultuous journey. The first rumblings of marriage equality began in the
1990s. At this time, some states allowed for civil unions, most did not. In 1996,
The Defense of Marriage Act, which legally defined marriage as between a
man and woman, halted any further state legislation for the time being (The
journey to marriage equality in the United States).
In the early 2000s, things began to turn around. In 2004, Massachusetts
became the first state to legalize same-sex marriage. Then, more states
followed. In 2008, the California Supreme Court ruled marriage discrimination
unconstitutional. But the decision was dismissed not even a year later by the
passage of Proposition 8, a ballot initiative that changed the state constitution
to define marriage as between a man and a woman (The journey to marriage
equality in the United States). But the movement continued on and in 2015
marriage equality was secured in all 50 states.
Marriage equality and death penalty abolition movement share many
similarities. They both had leadership and meaning. Both fought most of their
battles in courtrooms. Both movements were relatively new at the time of their
initial litigation. And both movements were laborious and rocky. Nevertheless,
2,504 inmates are currently on death row and marriage equality is enshrined as
the law of the land (Death row USA).
*
Proper leadership can make or break a movement, but it isn’t the
paramount element. Still, sociology researchers at Northwestern found that
good leaders are essential to social movements – “they inspire commitment,
mobilize resources, create and recognize opportunities, devise strategies, frame
demands, and influence outcomes” (Morris & Staggenborg, 2004). For
example, take Martin Luther King Jr. and the Civil Rights Movement. It is no
wonder why his words “I have a dream” are forever etched into the steps of the
Lincoln Memorial. King’s gifts of oration and communication enamored
people, both Black and white. He transformed the demeanor of the Civil Rights
movement and ultimately led to much of its success.
LDF had Tony Amsterdam in its arsenal. Amsterdam commanded
whatever room he stood in front of. He was unstoppable in and out the
courtroom. Poised, present, and persuasive, he owned whatever space he
 John Jay’s Finest  130

occupied. Throughout his life, he faced the Supreme Court multiple times, he’s
a true SCOTUS hall of famer if there ever was one (Anthony G. Amsterdam).
Amsterdam’s enlistment with LDF marked a turning point for the
abolition movement. He became the distinguished leader it desperately needed.
Relentlessly determined and sharp as a tack, Amsterdam put his entire being
into the movement. LDF had many other brilliant and enthusiastic lawyers, but
Amsterdam outmatched all of them (Mandery, 2015, p.43).
Amsterdam brilliantly argued some of the most influential death
penalty cases in history. This includes Furman v. Georgia, the ground breaking
case that overturned the death penalty and Lockett v. Ohio, which allowed for
all mitigating evidence to be introduced in a capital trial. The NYU law
magazine reports that, “Even the Supreme Court justices, who would prove
Amsterdam’s toughest audience, did not know quite what to make of the
lawyer whose intellect was matched only by the intensity of his opposition to
the death penalty” (Labi).
In the end, all of Amsterdam's efforts were not enough. Capital
punishment was ultimately reinstated and practiced. Amsterdam undoubtedly
changed the game, but he was just one man. Even outstanding leadership
cannot substitute the absence of popular support.
On the other hand, individual leadership was not a substantial weapon
in the gay marriage movement. No prominent leader existed for gay marriage,
or for the LGBTQ+ rights movement in general. Several LGBTQ+ plus
activists took part in the movement, but no clearly defined leader stepped up
to the plate. Gay marriage had a different kind of leadership.
The type of activists involved in gay marriage ranged far and wide from
legal scholars, and brave individuals who sued for their rights, to Lady Gaga
and her liberation anthem “Born This Way.” But what one thing accounted for
the lack of leadership was the wave of politicians (who are leaders themselves)
embracing gay marriage. The Brennan Center found that by 2013, the gay
marriage movement finally had significant support from political leaders,
which led judges to have an easier time legalizing marriage equality (Kowal,
2015).
Community leaders were also crucial to the acceptance of marriage
equality. In fact, researchers found that people “...were more likely to express
support for marriage equality when they had been exposed to that message
from an “in-group” leader, such as an athlete on their favorite sports team, a
politician or a pastor” (Schmidt, 2019). So, while no one leader helped advance
the LGBTQ+ agenda, local, community, and political leaders were still
relevant and indispensable to the movement.
*
To stand up for something people need clear messaging. Not only do
people need a force to rally behind, but a meaning. Specific and understandable
 John Jay’s Finest  131

messaging is key to increase participation and support. Moreover, messages

that deal with widely held values, such as civil rights and freedom, are more
prone to success (Messaging strategies). Both marriage equality and capital
punishment abolition had varying degrees of success on this front and both of
their messages were subject to change.
LDF is a branch of The National Association for the Advancement of
Colored People. Historically, LDF has only defended Black clients. When it
came to capital punishment, LDF had to decide if they should stick to their
roots, by only defending people of color, or risk their foundation in order to
condemn the entire practice. This was no small decision. LDF was already on
a shoestring budget and taking on white clients could lead to a loss of funds.
They also risked a blow to their reputation. Most importantly, it was a risk to
their clients. In their decision, LDF had to consider "the possible submerging
of special claims of individuals and groups such as southern black rapists in a
general effort including all persons sentenced to death" (Muller, p.169).
Nevertheless, LDF took the gamble.
For LDF, capital punishment switched from a race issue to a principle
issue. From this, LDF attorneys only got busier, but their message around the
death penalty became simplified. People knew what they were fighting for.
Their unified message also led to complete control over death penalty cases.
After 1963, when LDF began accepting white death row clients, they managed
every notable death penalty case in the country (Mandery, 2015).
Message evolution was a considerable piece of the marriage equality
movement as well. For many LGBTQ+ activists, in the years preceding
Ogberfell, marriage equality was never the goal. They sought other things like
adoption rights, anti-discrimination laws, and criminalizing conversion
“therapy.” Marriage was viewed by many activists as a “straight phenomenon.”
As much as they loved and cherished their partners, marriage wasn’t
particularly important. Verta Ann Taylor, a professor of sociology at the
University of California, found that many activists worried “...the legalization
of same-sex marriage will encourage LGBT couples and families to mimic
heterosexual families structured around male dominance…” (Estrada, 2013).
Furthermore, some activists believed that other issues were far more pressing
than gay marriage. "I'm not concerned about whether I can get married…”
wrote queer activist Legba Carrefour, “but whether I will die in the street at the
hands of homophobes” (Geoghegan, 2013).
Still, LGBTQ+ activists decided to fight vigorously for marriage
equality. The majority of Americans believe that marriage is important to
living a fulfilled life (Barroso, 2020). And, it's true, marriage often comes with
various social, economic, and health benefits (Schwartz, 2005). Marriage is
generally associated with white picket fences, children, and a Golden Retriever
named Bailey.
 John Jay’s Finest  132

A couple of years before Ogberfell, researchers conducting focus

groups and polling found that calling gay marriage a “right” was the wrong
move. They found more heterosexual support for “the humanitarian idea that
gay people might love and want to commit to their partners, just like anyone
else” (Wofford, 2015). Terms like commitment and partnership were found to
be useful. Phrases such as “love is love” were born. And so, because of the
high regard of marriage and ideas surrounding love in American culture, the
LGBTQ+ community made marriage equality their headliner issue. It
normalized their cause. One of the researchers in the focus group project, Doug
Hattaway, said, “The rapid turnaround in public support for marriage equality
is unprecedented, and it shows that message really matters…” (Wofford,
2015).
*
The success of social movements boils down to people and popularity.
Marriage equality easily takes the cake on this factor. Support for gay marriage
has grown at a rapid pace. In 1996, just 27% of Americans supported marriage
equality. In 2004, it was 31%. Today, it’s 70%. And for the first time, even the
majority of Republicans are in favor (McCarthy, 2021). What used to be highly
controversial is now mundane. Signs that read “God made Adam and Eve, not
Adam and Steve” used to project most people's sentiment, now opposers are
the minority.
The unprecedented speed at which LGBTQ+ activism has grown has a
lot to do with proximity, empathy, and love. Mahzarin Banaji, a Harvard
researcher speculates that gay marriage is different from other social
movements because “...often times “love is already in place” (Schmidt, 2019).
Being a member of the LGBTQ+ community isn’t always a physical
characteristic, unlike race or sex. One can easily bond with a gay person
without knowing they’re gay. And when news of their sexuality comes out,
feelings don't just vanish. This makes prejudice and hostility toward the
community much trickier.
Look at Dick Cheney. He is one of the most recognizable names in
conservative politics. Yet, his daughter, Mary, is a lesbian. In a statement
regarding gay marriage, Cheney stated, “With respect to the question of
relationships, my general view is that freedom means freedom for everyone.
People . . . ought to be free to enter into any kind of relationship they want to”
(Gluek & Hohmann, 2013). Having Mary in his life has certainly shaped his
stance. And while he probably isn't waving a rainbow flag, his love for Mary
and hope for her happiness led him to adopt a broader worldview.
Harvey Milk, the first openly gay elected official in America, used his
voice to urge LGBTQ+ members to be open about their sexuality. “I would
like to see every gay doctor come out, every gay lawyer, every gay architect
come out, stand up and let the world know.” Milk stated, “That would do more
 John Jay’s Finest  133

to end prejudice overnight than anybody would imagin.” (Harvey Milk). Milk
was spot on. As more people came out, support for the LGBTQ+ community
grew. Homophobia becomes a more difficult task when your son is gay, or
when childhood best friend is bisexual. As more members came out, the harder
prejudice became.
On the other hand, the death penalty abolition movement is far more
remote. A slim minority of people have been sentenced to death or know
someone who has. Death row makes up just 0.000750179% of the population
(Death row USA). Besides, no one even likes to think about death. It is an
intimidating, dark, and eerie subject that most people try very hard to keep out
of their thoughts. Although, people on capital juries are forced to fall down that
rabbit hole, whether they like it or not. In 2019, the Death Penalty Information
Center conducted juror interviews after a capital trial in South Carolina. They
found lingering stress and anxiety after the trial ended. ““I think about it every
day,”” one juror reports, ““Many times during the trial, I went in the jurors’
bathroom and just wailed – cried my eyes out”” (Jurors report experiencing
continuing trauma after serving in South Carolina Death-penalty trial).
Just as no one is ecstatic about being on a capital jury, no one is thrilled
about death penalty activism either. No abolition parades take over
Manhattan’s West Village. No abolition protesters march in the streets. No
abolition story takes over the 5PM nightly news. Very few people are truly
invested in it. It’s easy to imagine why. People on death row are often the most
hated individuals in the country. Abusers, serial murders, and rapists are the
vulnerable group in the death penalty abolition movement. Very few are quick
to defend them.
Moreover, people seem to like the death penalty as an option. In 1972,
when Furman ruled capital punishment unconstitutional, only a handful of
people were partying, unlike the aftermath of Ogberfell that had the White
House illuminated in bright rainbow lights. In fact, support for the penalty
skyrocketed after the decision. Opinion polls taken in 1972 showed a cool
50/50 split, directly after Furman it grew to 66%, then to 75%, and in the 90’s
it reached a whopping 80% approval rate. Today it’s 60% (Gallup poll).
Humans are wired to seek revenge. Some people support capital
punishment to channel their desires for it. In a series of mock trial simulations,
researcher Lawrence White concluded the most popular reasoning for death
sentences was an “eye for an eye”. Similarly, in multiple Gallup polls the two
most consistent answers for capital punishment defense have been “An eye for
an eye/They took a life/Fits the crime” and “They deserve it” (Jones, 2021).
Overcoming lack of support and human instinct is quite a daunting task.
Justice Stewart thought that through striking down the death penalty, the Court
could lead public opinion. He has been proven wrong many times over.
 John Jay’s Finest  134

Because of its attractive qualities, general discomfort, and distance from

everyday life, the death penalty is hanging on.
*
In order for social movements to succeed, people need to get on board.
The marriage equality movement was attractive. It was filled with love,
fairness, and emotion. The death penalty abolition movement required a deep
inspection of human nature and an honest confrontation about death, which
people generally loathe. In the end, leadership doesn't matter if no one is
following. Messaging doesn't matter if no one is listening. Gay marriage was
able to get followers and listeners, the death penalty abolition movement was
not.

REFERENCES
Bernstein, & Taylor, V. (2013). The Marrying Kind? Debating Same-Sex Marriage within the
Lesbian and Gay Movement. University of Minnesota Press.
Schwartz, J. (2005), THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC BENEFITS OF MARRIAGE: A REVIEW
OF RECENT EVIDENCE FROM THE UNITED STATES. Economic Affairs, 25:
45-51. [Link]
Amsterdam receives National Coalition to abolish the death penalty's lifetime achievement
award. Amsterdam receives National Coalition to Abolish the Death Penalty's
Lifetime Achievement Award | NYU School of Law. (n.d.). Retrieved December 6,
2021, from [Link]
Anthony G. Amsterdam. Oyez. (n.d.). Retrieved December 6, 2021, from
[Link]
Barroso, A. (2020, August 18). More than half of Americans say marriage is important but not
essential to leading a fulfilling life. Pew Research Center. Retrieved December 10,
2021, from [Link]
americans-say-marriage-is-important-but-not-essential-to-leading-a-fulfilling-life/.
Elster, J. (1990). Norms of Revenge. Ethics, 100(4), 862–885.
[Link]
Estrada, A. (2013, July 2). UCSB sociologist examines same-sex marriage debate within LBGT
Movement. The UCSB Current. Retrieved February 12, 2022, from
[Link]
marriage-debate-within-lbgt-movement
Gallup poll. Death Penalty Information Center. (n.d.). Retrieved December 7, 2021, from
[Link]
lowest-in-a-half-century.
Geoghegan, T. (2013, June 10). The Gay People Against Gay Marriage. BBC News. Retrieved
December 10, 2021, from [Link]
Harvey Milk. AZ Quotes. (n.d.). Retrieved February 12, 2022, from
[Link]
Jones, J. M. (2021, November 22). Understanding Americans' support for the death penalty.
[Link]. Retrieved December 10, 2021, from
[Link]
[Link].
Jurors report experiencing continuing trauma after serving in South Carolina Death-penalty
trial. Death Penalty Information Center. (n.d.). Retrieved December 7, 2021, from
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[Link]
after-serving-in-south-carolina-death-penalty-trial.
Kowal, J. F. (2015, September 29). The improbable victory of Marriage Equality. Brennan
Center for Justice. Retrieved December 6, 2021, from
[Link]
marriage-equality.
Labi, N. (n.d.). The Law School magazine The New York University School of Law. NYU Law
Magazine. Retrieved December 6, 2021, from
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Mandery, E. J. (2015). A wild justice: The death and resurrection of capital punishment in
America. W.W. Norton and Company.
Messaging strategies. Effective Activist. (n.d.). Retrieved December 6, 2021, from
[Link]
Pew Research Center. (2020, May 30). Growing public support for same-sex marriage. Pew
Research Center - U.S. Politics & Policy. Retrieved December 10, 2021, from
[Link]
sex-marriage/.
Pew Research Center. (2021, July 13). Most Americans favor the death penalty despite
concerns about its administration. Pew Research Center - U.S. Politics & Policy.
Retrieved December 10, 2021, from
[Link]
penalty-despite-concerns-about-its-administration/.
Schmidt, S. (2019, June 8). Americans' views flipped on gay rights. how did minds change so
quickly? The Washington Post. Retrieved December 10, 2021, from
[Link]
gay-rights-how-did-minds-change-so-quickly/2019/06/07/ae256016-8720-11e9-
98c1-e945ae5db8fb_story.html.
White, Lawrence T. “Juror Decision Making in the Capital Penalty Trial: An Analysis of
Crimes and Defense Strategies.” Law and Human Behavior, vol. 11, no. 2, 1987, pp.
113–130., doi:10.1007/bf01040445.
Wofford, C. (2014, March 26). How did public opinion on gay marriage shift so quickly. U.S.
News and World Report . Retrieved December 10, 2021, from
[Link]
opinion-on-gay-marriage-shift-so-quickly.
The journey to marriage equality in the United States. HRC. (n.d.). Retrieved December 10,
2021, from [Link]
in-the-united-states.
Death row USA. Death Penalty Information Center. (n.d.). Retrieved December 10, 2021, from
[Link]
McCarthy, J. (2021, November 20). Record-high 70% in U.S. support same-sex marriage.
[Link]. Retrieved December 15, 2021, from
[Link]
Muller, E. (n.d.). The Legal Defense Fund's capital punishment campaign: The Distorting
Influence of Death. Yale law school. Retrieved December 16, 2021, from
[Link]
Hohmann, J., & Glueck, K. (2013, November 18). Dick Cheney takes Liz's side. POLITICO.
Retrieved December 16, 2021, from [Link]
cheney-liz-cheney-gay-marriage-099999
 John Jay’s Finest  136

 LITERATURE 374
IDEOLOGIES IN HELEN MARIA
WILLIAMS’ LETTERS WRITTEN
IN FRANCE
____________________
DESTINY FALLS
SARAH RAMSAROOP
ADRIANA VALDEZ

THE PURPOSE OF THIS PROJECT is to delve into the mind of someone present
during the French revolution. Helen Maria Williams’ Letters Written in
France, a text published in 1791, is a series of letters written at the start of the
French revolution (1789). These letters inform an anonymous friend about the
build-up to the revolution, and France during the revolution, simultaneously
weaving in the effects of the revolution on an ordinary couple’s life. Our replies
to the letters identify course themes observed in the original letters and provide
a new perspective on concepts in Williams’ letters.

___________________________
The Assignment and the Writer The project Destiny Falls, Sarah Ramsaroop, and Adriana Valdez wrote
for the course on “Literature and Revolution” is a wonderful critical experiment. Using the epistolary
form, the project imitates and critiques Helen Maria Williams’s Letters Written in France (1790), a rare
text by a woman writer who went to France to witness the unprecedented drama that was the French
Revolution. Falls, Ramsaroop, and Valdez use the letter form to mirror Williams’s excitement about
unprecedented radical social change and the role of women in creating a more just society. Their letters
also question the power of the letter form, however, suggesting that even this genre of authenticity can
offer only a mediated representation of feelings, historical events, or personal experience.
– Professor Olivera Jokic
 John Jay’s Finest  137

Helen Maria Willams (1761-1827) was born in London to Helen Hay

and Charles Williams. She is best known as a writer of novels, poems, and
translations of French texts. Because of the content of her writing, she is also
regarded as a social critic who supported radical ideals and abolitionism.
Educated by her mother, Williams was able to climb the literary ladder by
writing poems and essays to help her mentor, Dr. Andrew Kippos, and to
establish her political status. A great deal of her life was spent in France, from
where she recounts the French Revolution in Letters Written in France.
This paper focuses on the way her writing supported the French
Revolution. Helen Maria Williams wrote Letters Written in France in the
epistolary form, which is unique because it personalizes her experiences and
thoughts of the French Revolution. The epistolary form creates a moment of
connection between the reader and the writer. As we read Williams’ letters we
see her entries as truthful and vulnerable rather than strictly academic.
Williams’ letters feel endearing and exciting. Her emotions are at the forefront
as she recounts the French Revolution from her point of view. The epistolary
method is most effective at conveying the significance and shock of the
revolution by highlighting the complex emotions of different people during
this time. Williams explains the intricate details of their private lives to
demonstrate how these private lives reflect public and societal instability.
Traditionally letters are perceived as personal and private, but
Williams’ public use of the form demonstrates how the French Revolution
turns the personal attributes of life into political ones. We highlight the
personal-as-political by creating our own replies to Williams’ letters, and we
analyze Williams’ tone for authenticity. Replies to Letters Three, Eight, and
Twenty-Five will center around the excitement and passion in Williams
‘writing. The intention is to question how an outsider's perspective affects their
perception of dramatic events. Writing as another outsider, our replies will
challenge Williams’ reliability as a narrator. In the same epistolary form, we
consider the complex emotions of the time and intellectual concepts discussed
in class to investigate the impact of the French revolution.
We also examine the feminism in Williams’ letters, which speak to the
various ways women contributed to the revolution. Williams incorporates
many of the ideals of feminism mentioned in Mary Wollstonecraft’s A
Vindication of The Rights of Woman: With Strictures on Political and Moral
Subjects. Feminism is one of the primary themes in our course, and Letters
One, Five, and Nine also suggest how a regime change requires a shift in
gender norms.
A group project will always produce varying perspectives on the same
text. As a group, we decided to use our different angles to advantage. We each
composed replies to three different letters in Williams’ text, and each reply
centered on our own perspectives that relate to the larger concepts discussed in
 John Jay’s Finest  138

our course: personal-as-political, feminism in a limited society, and the idea of

authenticity of various sources of information. These three concepts became
the focus of our letters.

REPLY TO LETTER 1: “PARIS: BREAKING AWAY FROM VENTRILOQUY”

CONCEPT: FEMINISM IN A LIMITED SOCIETY

Dear Helen,
It pleases me to know you have arrived in Paris on time to attend your
show. It gives me great honor to know you’re willing to share such wonderful
and new experiences with me; although I do wonder if this play is as good as
you claim, England is home to many great writers and theatrical events. You
may believe your description to be bare, but I believe it is enough for me to
understand what is happening and to erect a desire to see the play myself. It
marvels me to see the strives you are taking for the female population and
feminism. It may seem as though your letter is just a tribute to your
experiences, but indeed it are not. You are leaving behind the restrictions and
defined “female” duties placed on us as women. Using your literacy and
education as the foreground of your adventures will be the stepping-stone for
young girls to strive for more. Your actions contribute to feminism and the
breaking of stereotypes.
It’s a magnificent sight to see, the emotions and breaths held by French
citizens as the church bells ring in Bastille as if it were the first time again.
Your mere presence is a testament to Mary Wollstonecraft’s feminist ideals;
it’s a new piece published that I have all my young ones reading. I highly
recommend you pick up Mary Wollstonecraft’s “A Vindication of The Rights
of Woman: With Strictures on Political and Moral Subjects”, you’d love it.
She beautifully expresses that it is our job to redefine ourselves and receive an
education that is equivalent to that of our male counterparts. I think you will
thoroughly enjoy the pamphlet. She explains that women are not just to be
trained in romanticism and motherhood but must learn politics, music, and how
to articulate themselves in a manner outside of ideals defined by society. Your
mere decision to travel and experience the French Revolution exemplifies the
practice Wollstonecraft preaches.
Helen, you portray to me the Te Deum in such a manner that shows
where your education lies and the power we women hold in a life outside of
romanticism. Sharing the scene, music, change in tone, and reaction of the
French as they relive the taking of Bastille breaks the stigma associated with
the “housewife” view placed on us. If you can’t find a copy, then let me know
in your next letter; I can send one over with my next letter.
Yours truly,
A dear friend
 John Jay’s Finest  139

P.S. Please be careful. You may be breaking stigmas and holding power in the
eyes of revolutionaries, but there are still dangerous people out there.

REPLY TO LETTER 3: REVOLUTION OR FESTIVAL?

CONCEPT: AUTHENTICITY OF EMOTIONS REGARDING THE REVOLUTION

Dear Helen,
It is so great to hear from you. Being apart has made me miss you and
the news of what is happening has come this way. I’m glad you are enjoying
yourself. Seeing a priest in between two soldiers had to have been a good laugh.
Treating them like ladies is a sight I wish to have seen myself. Forbidden
carriages for days in a row must have been quite the feat. There is so much
excitement going on and while it does sound fun, what about those who oppose
it? I don't imagine that everyone is happy with what has happened, has there
been any resistance to the joy and enthusiasm of the people?
The rejoicing sounds breathtaking. I can imagine the excitement
through your words. “Vive la nation” has such an exhilarating ring to it, it
makes me want to revel in my own freedom. When I first read it, I could
imagine the fist in the air and the joined screams from the people. I find myself
a little jealous not to be witnessing it as you are currently. I would do the same
as you and join in as well. However, I do hope that you aren’t getting too
excited out there. There is a lot going on and your safety is what I care for. You
paint such vivid images, and I can see the people and the decor. Does the
cheering mean that the people have won? I would imagine so and yet it feels
like this revolution has taken many by surprise. The dancing and singing has
to be a sight in itself.
You speak of how this ordeal has lasted days. Have you rested well?
Being tied up into all the excitement, must have kept you up. I’m curious to
see all you have learned of their culture as well. You must come and visit soon.
To teach me the dances and songs of the revolution. I may not be where you
are, but you have written its ordeal so vividly that I must see this in your
presence. I am happy that the people can find joy and means to celebrate. I
presume from your letters that this really means a lot to the people. Continue
to celebrate but safely Helen. I adore you and can’t wait to read the next one.
With Love,
Your Friend
 John Jay’s Finest  140

REPLY TO LETTER 5: “ROYALS STAKE A CLAIM”

CONCEPT: FEMINISM FOR WHICH WOMEN?

Dear Helen,
It would come as no surprise that I am shocked by the prince’s openness
to a regime change and willingness to see the people get what they want. Also,
I am amazed to see that the royal family allows him to have the freedom of
choice and free will over his beliefs. Madame Sillery is the type of woman that
will create a better future for our girls, helping to form polite, well-educated
women. Madame Sillery, an author of the children’s book, seems to be a fine
woman that will lead and educate the French children into prosperity under the
new regime. By permitting the young princesses to assist in their education,
they are beginning to take agency in a male dominant world. Madame Sillery
seems to believe that both men and women deserve the same level of education
and gives the princesses and princes the same opportunities to be a better
generation. I think this Madame Sillery depicts feminism and the core of the
French Revolution- we must do away with the social hierarchy and caste
system. There must be a change in France and Madame Sillery is growing
those young lads to see the change as normal rather than an abrupt change; I
know there are some old farts that probably believe the regime change and
revolution are unnecessary.
Doing away with her name because she believed in the National
Assembly’s fight to abolish nobility and titles, and Madame Sillery’s name
change is the first step in feminism and taking back our bodies. Changing to fit
the new regime and her status as a well-educated woman, Madame Brulart,
previously Madame Sillery, will be the first person I visit when I go to Paris-
I’d love to get her views on some of the feminist changes we can start
implementing in our everyday lives. As for those pesky French women that
refuse the French Revolution by holding onto their familiarity with aristocracy,
we must say good riddance; it is time for a change in France and maybe our
England, too.
To the women who exhibit feminist acts highlights one of
Wollstonecraft’s important phrases:

I wish to persuade, women to endeavor to acquire strength, both of

mind and body, and to convince them that the soft phrases,
susceptibility of heart, the delicacy of sentiment, and refinement of
taste, are almost synonymous with epithets of weakness and that those
beings who are only the objects of pity and that kind of love, which
has been termed its sister, will soon become objects of contempt.
(Wollstonecraft 111)
 John Jay’s Finest  141

By offering up their jewelry in the name of revolution and still fighting for a
change despite a lack of recognition shows me, and hopefully you, how strong
the female population is. You made the exceptional comparison to women
acting as the “secret springs in mechanisms” and I think Wollstonecraft saw
this too. The women actively contributing and participating in the French
revolution are coming out of the “secret springs” role and becoming more
recognizable pieces like car bodies, AI parts, and even the mastermind behind
some inventions.
By sharing your letters, that one day we can share with the larger
population, you are publicizing our unrecognized contribution to society. I am
looking forward to your next letter and your further illustrations of female
contributions to the French revolution.
Yours truly,
A dear friend

P.S. I can’t believe Mons. De Chartres destroyed Louis the Fourteenth’s

punishment cage—a representation of tyranny it is indeed—and initiated the
revolution. I agree this is a testament to his humanity and desire to make France
a better France. Have you gotten the pamphlet? Oh, never mind, I’ll just send
it with my next letter!

REPLY TO LETTER 8: “NOT SO ONE-DIMENSIONAL AFTER ALL”

CONCEPT: AUTHENTICITY OF EMOTIONS REGARDING THE REVOLUTION

Dear Helen,
You remark on the French Revolution as beautiful and yet I cannot
fathom it. How can a revolution be beautiful when it requires violence and
wrongdoing? Are you merely speaking to the passion behind the revolution? It
seems you are having a great time viewing this. The witnessing of a revolution
unfold could make one excited I suppose.
In anticipation of your letters, I’ve found myself reading through some
articles regarding this revolution. It seems your reaction and fascination with
this revolution differs quite a bit to that of Edmund Burke’s. He seems to
believe that the ideas that the revolution has been founded upon are too abstract
and unreachable. While you find it beautiful and can see the passion in going
against one's country, Burke finds it distracting to what the government can
provide. Since I am not there, my perception is from what I hear from you and
through the passion you describe and the frustrations Burke seems to convey,
I find this entire ordeal exhausting. I can see that Burke is rather stuck in his
traditions. He’d rather things be peaceful for the sake of peace rather than the
sake of equality and comfort for all. I would ask him if he ever thought about
 John Jay’s Finest  142

how his treasured traditions looked to other people. When something is held
dearly by us it is nearly impossible to be objective when faced with an opposing
position. I can see that the French people are suffering and that they are
exhausted as well. Burke believes that staying true to the laws already in place
could be a way to gain the liberty the people seek however weren’t they already
doing that? Where was their liberty? I would ask him that if I had the chance.
With so many differing opinions and many voices to be heard, I am questioning
whether your response to this revolution is from genuine concern and authentic
want for change for the French civilians or if this experience has taken some
toll on you. You have called this revolution Sublime in a way that only you
can witness. Are there no bad days? No days of regret? No days of wishing it
were over? It sounds a bit too light for this to be a revolution. You say the men
are leading the movement with passion and knowledge of the people’s needs.
You also say women bring about actions by utilizing pretty faces. Is that the
role of women? To be pretty faces? I hope they too, (the women), can use their
passion as well. Beauty is great and can lead to wonderful tactics however it is
not all there is to give. I do hope you are staying safe Helen. Waiting to hear
back from you soon.
Sincerely,
Your Friend

REPLY TO LETTER 9: “ROMANCE VS. REVOLUTION”

CONCEPT: FEMINISM IN A LIMITED SOCIETY

Dear Helen,
To all your companions that believe your enthusiasm and acceptance
of the French Revolution makes you a Republican, I say, diversity in thought
is key to a well-rounded world. And there may be “finer” ways to gain liberty,
but there has never been a peaceful display for change that is working and
forcing the government to give the people what they deserve. I, too, stand with
the French Revolution and the French people. I stand by your defense for
France.
I think it is your well-rounded education and travels that have allowed
you to show what an independent woman is and how we too have opinions that
may not change how we see our country but hold weight too. It is the never-
changing theme of our lady England and the posh beliefs of our nations that
makes others believe the French Revolution is going too far and is barbarous.
We are never seeking liberty or change, as you have said, England remains in
her “matron state” and “sober veneration.” I do believe the English are jealous
at the lengths the French citizens would go to gain their freedom and to finally
find peace and liberty.
 John Jay’s Finest  143

In the hours spent awaiting your letters, I have been rereading and
analyzing Wollstonecraft’s and firmly believe you are walking proof of her
pamphlet. You’re well versed in your education, and it has allowed you to look
at the world from a political and social standpoint. Someone might think you
snuck into your brother’s weekly lessons and stole his notes. As a woman, we
are taught to see the romance in everything, but the way you handled your
critical friends through a lens of politics and understanding the society around
you speaks to your intelligence and Wollstonecraft’s fight for equal education.
You walk and breathe feminism!
Yours truly,
A dear friend

REPLY TO LETTER 17: “SOCIETAL VS. PERSONAL PROBLEMS”

CONCEPT: THE PERSONAL IS POLITICAL

Dear Helen,
What a captivating story you have just told me! I hope that everything
goes well with Mons. du F----- and that his father does not betray him like he
worries he will. I could never understand why parents allow themselves to have
poor relationships with their children well into adulthood. But alas, things
cannot always be perfect (as you and I both know very well).
And as for the sickness that takes over Madame du F----- after her husband’s
departure, how is she doing? And what of the child? Please report that all is
well, if the news is otherwise then I do not want to hear it! Why did her
husband’s fellow-traveler give her such a cold look and response? I fear that
his cold demeanor is a representation of how his father plans on treating him
once he arrives. I do not trust his father!
It has been a while since you have mentioned the revolution in France.
How is that going? I can only imagine that this seemingly lovely couple with
their own problems is only a small glimpse at the instability during these
uncertain times. It is almost as if the problems of society trickle down into
one’s relationships and societal problems become personal problems. Oh my,
am I looking at this too deeply? Because this is something I have thought a lot
about lately especially since you are over there right in the middle of
everything. This family is not the only one that you mention to me in your
letters, so I can only imagine that I am right about personal problems being
political problems. Is it safe to assume that the personal is political? I think so,
and more so now after reading all your letters to me and seeing how difficult
and trying these times have become since the revolution. But they have also
been difficult and trying before the revolution. I guess it depends on who you
ask. We both know that Burke thinks French society would have been better
off without a revolution and that everyone needs to survive and thrive with the
 John Jay’s Finest  144

laws already in place. I guess not many people agreed with him seeing that
there was a revolution. What do you think? Please, stay safe!
Warm regards,
Your Friend

REPLY TO LETTER 18: “A FORCED ABSENCE”

CONCEPT: THE PERSONAL IS POLITICAL

Dear Helen,
It is great to hear from you, although you did not address my thoughts
in my previous letter on the personal being political. That is okay, because even
though you may not agree with my wording, your explanation of the
extenuating circumstances in the relationship of Mons. and Madame du F----
is more than enough! I knew my intuition was on to something! That Baron du
F----- is a no-good father! Who is he to decide who his son can and cannot
marry? And on top of that, his son already married Madame du F---- so why
must his father go through extreme lengths to make his son return home,
imprison him, and keep him disconnected from his wife for two whole years!
I cannot imagine what I would do in Madame du F----’s position. How does
she even maintain herself and her child? Sure, she works now, but how long
can that last? Well, it does seem that she has supported herself for two years in
her husband’s forced absence. I don’t know what to say about that though. I
know that it isn’t particularly easy for women to get by on their own especially
when the husband isn’t around. That needs to change and soon because we
deserve better, and men do not need to be the sole supporters or providers
anyway.
I think you make such a bittersweet point when you write, “In the
dismal solitude of a prison, his pains were alleviated by the soothing reflection
that he suffered for her he loved; while that very idea was to her the most bitter
aggravation of distress.” Mons. du F---- is at peace knowing that he did
everything he could for the woman he loves, and Madame du F---- is distressed
by the same thought. It is particularly sad to know that she has endured two
years without hearing any news about her husband since his arrest for marrying
Madame du F---- (what an absurd reason to arrest someone!). And their child
that calls for Mons. du F----! Another heartbreaking moment. I am starting to
feel somewhat intrusive to this family. I am learning so much about their
struggles, and their lives while they know nothing about me. But I cannot shake
the feeling that I still need to learn more about them. I have found myself in a
very difficult position, morally that is, but I must persevere because I only hear
from you through these stories.
I was truly moved when you mentioned Mons. du F----'s brother and
the difficult situation that his father puts him in. He is stuck having to choose
 John Jay’s Finest  145

between his father, the man who has control over his inheritance and his future,
and his brother, the man whose inheritance he would be taking because their
father refuses to give it to Mons. du F----. You make me wonder what is to
become of their relationship since you write, “Or, was it not sufficient to
remain a passive spectator of injustice, without becoming, as he afterwards did,
the agent of cruelty on a brother?” What injustices will one brother commit
onto another? This sounds an awful lot like Cain and Abel from the biblical
stories. Are you intentionally alluding to them? Isn’t the French revolution
slogan “Liberty, Equality, Fraternity”? I am curious to hear in your future letter
just how Mons. du F----'s younger brother’s actions are representative of
liberty, equality, and fraternity when it seems like he and his father are going
against those very ideas. It is almost as if they are against the revolution itself.
Do you see where I am going here? The! Personal! Is! Political! Helen!
Missing you dearly! Please write back to me soon as I eagerly await to hear
more about this fascinating couple and their tragic experience!
Warm regards,
Your Friend

REPLY TO LETTER 19 “A FATHER’S CRUELTY”

CONCEPT: THE PERSONAL IS POLITICAL

Dearest Helen,
Do you not see the connection between private and public life? The
personal really being the political. The first line of your most recent letter to
me just screams this concept! Maybe I can break it down for you. You write,
“Mons. Du F---- was repeatedly offered his liberty, but upon conditions which
he abhorred” for what is liberty if it is conditional? This reminds me of the
early times in the revolution. The French citizens were fighting for their own
liberty from the monarchy, not the perceived liberty that the monarchy claimed
to give its citizens. This “perceived liberty” only served the monarchy, not the
French citizens, and Mons. Du F---- embodies the same French resistance to
monarchical control with his father. In this case, his father represents the
monarchy and Mons. du F---- represents the French citizens. He continues to
fight the oppressive regime and continues to claim his wife as his legitimate
wife, and he refuses the conditional liberty which would have him reject his
wife. Coincidence? I think not!
This letter is quite different from the rest of your letters to me. In this
letter you include another letter but from Mons. du F---- himself! The poor man
is suffering more than he cares to let on. But he is suffering at the hands of his
father who, as you so eloquently point out, is supposed to convey “all the ideas
of protection, of security, of tenderness” but does the opposite instead.
Interestingly enough, Mons. du F---- is a father himself and he wishes nothing
 John Jay’s Finest  146

less than the best for his little girl and his wife, unlike his own father who is
tormenting him by keeping him away from his family. Mons. du F---- decides
to reject the toxic cycles he learns in his youth and implement new healthy
cycles with his family. Yet, I still cannot seem to understand why a father
would go through such lengths to stop something that has already happened.
You would think that Baron du F---- would just be happy for his son and
excited to meet his granddaughter. It is dismal that this is not the case for these
two men.
I unfortunately (yet, also thankfully) did not hear anything about the
injustices that Mons. du F----'s brother does to him in this letter. But you did
inform me of the abhorrent conditions and treatment of all the prisoners in
Providence. Preventing people from speaking to one another is truly a difficult
feat, yet it is one that is accomplished toward these prisoners.
Going back to the letter that Mons. du F---- sends his wife, (well, with
hopes that it reaches his wife) I would like to say thank you. In my previous
letter to you, I mentioned how I felt like I was invading the family’s privacy,
and here you are sending me extracts from a letter written by Mons. du F----
himself! Must you be so cruel knowing that my curiosity is insatiable.
Nonetheless, I loved hearing from him. You could really sense his pain, hurt,
and desperation to see his family once again. His father has truly placed him
in a difficult situation. He inspired me to write the following poem:

Fathers can be cruel to their sons

Rather than protect them, they hold up what they love for ransom
Why can’t all fathers love their sons like their mothers loved them
Perhaps there needs to be a new revolution to condemn
The hatred some fathers hold toward their sons

And maybe then “Liberty Equality and Fraternity” will truly be for
everyone

I know it’s rough, but it was inspired by Mons. du F----'s experience.

Maybe you can share it with him if you see him again any time soon. Anyway,
I must go, I left the kettle on!
Stay safe, Helen! Please write again soon. I would like to hear about
what happens with the younger brother!
Warm regards,
Your Friend
 John Jay’s Finest  147

REPLY TO LETTER 25: “ADIEU TO OUR WINDOW SEAT OVERLOOKING

FRANCE”
CONCEPT: AUTHENTICITY OF EMOTIONS REGARDING THE REVOLUTION

Dear Helen,
While I am glad that you would be coming to visit soon, I also am sorry
for your departure from France. There will be no more letters describing the
lives and happenings of France in such a way that you do. Your passion for
Shakespeare is understandable. I too find his work to be amazing and on its
own level. However, I can also see how the standards between what people
find to be valuable art is different in every culture. The gentleman with no
name who believed that art and state shouldn’t mix might not have truly
experienced art the way we have. However, in saying that, I also see that your
own passion regarding the subject may not let you see it objectively. Perhaps
you may be the one who is prejudiced against their views. The similar way that
you have seen this revolution as exciting and thrilling could be the way others
see it as a burden and/or unnecessary. I don’t mean to question your
authenticity in the way that you have it, because I believe these are your words
and thoughts truly. I am merely suggesting that your authenticity and your
opinion as an onlooker presents itself with a different lens than those of the
citizens.
I do feel rather bad about the young men forced into prison due to their
families. Confinement of physical body and mind must put an amount of stress
on oneself that is unexplainable. Mere moments alone can intensify the
emotions surrounding our thoughts so I imagine that years would bring about
such a state that one could only hope to stay sane in. The gentleman's brother
was so young when sent into prison, for a young adult who should be focusing
on growing a career and a life, to have that stripped away would have been
terrifying. I hope those men can recover for the lost time with themselves and
loved ones. In solitude with the gentlemen who have been freed, I have taken
a toast to them. It is nothing but a small recognition of their suffering, however,
from many miles away, I feel for them, and I support them.
Your return from France has been anticipated by many people. These
letters have given me such a sense of wonder and understanding that I feel
almost as upset that you must bid farewell. Among the voices of the people,
you have found a way to use your own and being the recipient of these letters,
I find this connection between us memorable. Stay safe on your departure, bid
France a beautiful goodbye for me, and join in with the people for one more
“Vive la nation” for me.
With great admiration,
Your Friend
 John Jay’s Finest  148

REFERENCES
Burke, Edmond. Reflection on the Revolution in France. New York. Oxford University
Press.2009. Print.
Williams, Maria Helen. Letters Written in France. Toronto, ON: Broadview Literary Texts.
2001. Print.
Wollstonecraft, Mary. A Vindication of the Rights of Woman, with Strictures on Political and
Moral Subjects. New York: Norton, 1967. Print.
 John Jay’s Finest  149

 ENGLISH 320
SWISS-FRENCH BEN

__________________________
GRACE SUN

SWISS-FRENCH BEN takes his eye off the gin and not-quite-tonics—cheap at
two euros—and laughs at me. His wide mouth spreads into a thin smile with
eyes closed and head tilted up. He holds onto his stomach and tries not to lean
on the wobbly table.
He laughs in a French accent. Ben doesn’t chuckle, doesn’t “ha-ha.”
His curated high-pitched “ahi-ahi” barely makes a dent on our ears. I’ve grown
accustomed to this sound. My head is heavy. The bar is too dim to hear. And
there is music around us, but my ear is too focused on Ben to notice.
He tapers off and grabs the table. The drinks shiver, Hannah grabs her
beer, Gia leans away and apologizes to a man behind him. Ben says, “You’re
fucking stupid—so funny.” He mimics my speech, as everyone eventually
does. If I hadn’t drunk so much I wouldn’t think about it. His elbow bumps
into Hannah’s arm while he reaches for his gin and tonic. Ben tells me, “You
have to listen to the trill. This is deep house, not techno. Techno is the unz-unz,
this song has too much tempo to be techno.”
I nod. “I can hear the unz-unz.”

___________________________
The Assignment and the Writer: You wouldn’t think an essay called—and ostensibly about—Swiss-
French Ben would have been written for a Workshop in Autobiography , where the assignment is always
the self. Yet here, in this sly, insightful, very original piece, Grace Sun keeps her eye on the scene in
order to observe herself in it. She’s at just the right angle to look through Ben’s antics at her own
curiosity, her telling physical responses, even the pleasurable dislocation of an innocent abroad. There’s
a gentle irony throughout the essay and a sharper one at the end, signaling this narrator’s sense that as
meaningful as a connection seems, it may really be only of the moment. Grace has got full control.
– Professor Jeffrey Heiman
 John Jay’s Finest  150

“There is no unz-unz!” Ben says. He licks a finger then holds it to the

air as if tasting the music. “Mhm, yes, do you hear the deepness? Techno is
light, it’s beautiful. This is beautiful too.”
I mimic his tone, “Mhm...no.”
“Ridiculous!” He turns toward Gia and juts his thumb at me. “So
funny.” He finishes his drink and swings his legs over the seat. We sit on
battered ottomans and wooden chairs crowded around a table engulfed in
condensation. I rub it off on my pants. It smells sweet. I don’t remember
spilling anything. There’s a pool of carbonated liquid in our ashtray. Black and
gray ash mingle in a swirl. Hannah sniffs her turtleneck and tells us the aroma
reminds her of home. I mix the concoction with my finger and create a puke
yellow. Gia mocks her, and I can feel a heady nausea. I palm my heart, then
my face. This feeling is red. But my friends are still talking. Ben buys us
another round. I see him bobbing his head up and down like a pigeon to the
music. His gangly body moves on its own rhythm as he waits for the
bartenders.
I wonder if Berlin is always like this. Or perhaps, the strangers we find
gravitate to the foreign—a sort of truce, an unspoken camaraderie. I have yet
to shake this feeling. Like the travelling profession, we collect temporary
friends. Two American radio-hosts we met on Karl-Marx-Straße join us after
hearing Cotton Eye Joe from Gia’s phone, an Indian-British man reads our
palms and teaches us how to roll cigarettes, two Romanian girls drag us around
the city—my image of Berlin shrinks as I kept seeing Alexanderplatz’s
television tower poke out from all four cardinal directions—and Ben who hails
from the Alps returns to us with beers in hand. The song fades into a new one
as Ben seats himself.
“Is this techno?” I ask.
“Grace, stop, you're killing him,” Hannah says.
Even this close, the red distance is palpable. I think it’s the alcohol. It
always makes my heart tremble. I must be confusing tipsiness with something
else. There’s no tightness in there, my breathing is stable, and my friends are
talking. The first panic attack I had must’ve left a mark. It was a year ago but
my body remembers.
Ben gapes comically. Mouth drawn open, eyes blown wide, and he
follows with a brief “ahi-ahi.” Ben hands me a beer and holds his diagonally,
the lip pointing at me. “No, no, no. This is House. There’s a four-by-four beat.
Techno has no snare.” Hannah nods with him. He notices something and stops.
“Come, let me show you something German. It’s like a handshake.”
I follow his movements. The necks of our bottles clink on both sides,
then the bottom of our bottles, then the flat side. Incredible. Amazing. I am
dazzled. I do the same ritual with Hannah, then with Gia. They clink their
bottles with each other and then with Ben. Our night continues and drifts
 John Jay’s Finest  151

through different bars and different streets. Ben insists we go to a techno club
but my ID doesn’t have a birthdate on it. So we stand on a train platform
ignoring the ticket machines behind us. Ben is giggling as we add drawings to
the heavily graffitied walls. A tall man slinks his way out of his group and
points at my drawing. “What is this? You did this?” he asks in a Scottish accent.
“Yeah.” I take a step back and hold my beer bottle by the neck.
“Away ye go!” He says more but none of it is intelligible. Less so due
to his drunken slurring—I have a theory that it’s mine. That it’s always been
mine. I’ve been so strange these past few days, or rather, with the lack of any
reaction I felt strange. Conversations and bars and clubs, the distance is close.
No one says anything, though, and I don’t know I have to cry.
The man gives me a thumbs up and leaves with a “Cheers.”
We ride the train to Mendelssohn-Bartholdy-Park. I tell Ben how quiet
these trains are compared to New York’s and the conversation turns into a
complaint about the MTA. He listens intently and interjects an occasional “Oh,
really?” and “Wow.”
“You should visit sometime,” I say.
“Oh, I don’t know. America sounds scary.”
I agree with him. I’ve never felt safe at home.
“You should visit me! I’m going to France soon on a road-trip,” Ben
says.
Gia leads us through pitch-black streets to the hotel Hannah and I share.
Scandic Hotel stands on its own like a beacon surrounded by dark streets. We
funnel into our room decorated in midcentury-modern orange. Gia kicks his
legs onto my bed and reclines in an egg-shaped lounge chair. Hannah pulls out
a small bottle of vodka. She searches for the free mugs we got from Christmas
Market glühwein. And Ben stands in the middle of the room between our two
beds, head swishing slowly back and forth between nowhere and here, at the
small hourglass table and the uncomfortably small chairs. I motion him to sit.
I nod at him while Hannah pours the vodka into green juice. “Have fun
in France.”
Ben holds up a finger and takes out his wallet. “Here, here. If you have
this, then you can find me.” He hands me a white card with a green border. His
black-and-white picture in the corner is smiling. The address of a language
school, his birthday, and a class number are printed in hard-to-read grey.
I feel I should choke, but my voice is steady. “Don’t you need your
ID?”
“I’ll get a new one.”
We clink our mugs together. Gia promises to buy me more green juice
as we drink the last jug. They sit on my bed, their voices low chuckles and
rumbles. I wonder how I look on the outside. Are my laughs well-placed, words
 John Jay’s Finest  152

misplaced, do I stare too much or is everything only red to me? Gin and tonics
make me weak. I hope they leave soon. I can sob better in the shower.
A week goes by, then two years. Gia and I are in New York, Hannah is
in Chicago. And I don’t feel as strange anymore. Ben is somewhere in
Switzerland or France or in between. He is also in New York, tucked in a
drawer under museum tickets and Polaroids.
 John Jay’s Finest  153

 ANTHROPOLOGY 450
CHALLENGED BUT NOT LIMITED:
NEW YORK CITY’S DISABLED
COMMUNITY IN THE FACE OF
COVID-19 (AN EXCERPT FROM AN
ETHNOGRAPHY)

___________________________
TOI JILES

WHEN I EMBARKED ON THIS RESEARCH PROJECT, I set out to uncover the

hindrances that I perceived to be taking place inside the disabled community
courtesy of Covid-19. I wanted to learn what Life was like for them pre-Covid-
19 and the months that followed since its debut. During the course of my
research, I was brought to the realization that New Yorkers are tough as iron,
even when they are physically disabled. As a native New Yorker, one would
think that I would already know this, but I am embarrassed to say that the
insertion of Covid-19 knocked me off of my square. Thankfully, neither my
family members, friends, nor I were suppressed health wise; yet, the new rules

___________________________
The Assignment and the Writer: In Anthropology 450, Major Works in Deviance and Social Control,
senior undergraduates focus on a contemporary social problem and examine it using the theories and
methodologies of Anthropology and other social sciences. The goal is to produce an analysis of data
from an ethnographic field project, which they devise and implement based on their chosen problem.
John Jay senior Toi Jiles sensitively focuses on how ethnography can reveal to us the everyday-ness of
those challenged with disabilities in the context of the Covid-19 pandemic. She also shows us how this
revelation might move us to question—and perhaps transcend—our own limits and visions as human
beings. – Professor Edward Snajdr
 John Jay’s Finest  154

and regulations outlining how humans were to socially-engage while socially-

distancing threw me for a loop. Customs and traditions tied to formal
celebrations, mourning or simple gatherings at local restaurants became
hazardous and unattainable. As a busy New Yorker, I struggled with the
psychological and emotional side-effects of having to slow down and carry out
simple tasks from afar. I was unprepared by all of this and as an abled-bodied
person, I kept thinking about people who could only feel the sun and not see
it. How were they coping? That question constantly came into play because
for a moment, the routines I had developed over the years, suddenly became a
memory.
I felt the abrupt inconvenience of the virus’ impact at the Bergen Street
subway station in Brooklyn during the spring of 2020. When I approached the
token booth clerk who was nestled safely inside the glass booth, he refused to
honor my transaction when I attempted to hand him my paper money meant to
be used to load up my Metro Card. He said new rules were put in place due to
the pandemic, and that he was not allowed to touch money because it was one
of the ways the virus could spread. I was so confused in that moment. My
interaction with another human-being was altered, and I was unprepared for
that. I was even more annoyed because I felt that the announcement for this
mandate should have been in heavy rotation on the news so that veteran
subway riders like me could have been more prepared. While I begrudgingly
used the vending machine, it was not lost on me that members of the disabled
community frequent the subway to get around. What if on that day a blind
person, who may have been traveling alone, was in need of assistance? Would
they have been refused help because of this mandate, and how would they be
expected to get to their destination?
I have had several disabled people on my Life path. Some were blind,
deaf or confined to a wheelchair. None were destitute, cast off or maligned to
a corner unable to be full participants inside of their own lives. They were not
intentionally made to feel different from their family, classmates or
professional peers. Some possessed intimidating personalities not to be stirred,
while others remained cool and collected in the face of circumstances fair and
unfair.
My “what about-ism” was triggered that day in the train station because
my sprightly routine came had come to a halt. Was there anyone on standby,
qualified enough to give a comprehensive breakdown to the revised definitions
to social engagement, the new normal and what or who is considered essential?
These thoughts lingered and piqued my interest to delve deeper into this
subject; and gave me a legitimate reason to poke and prod inside this
exceptional population. Perhaps the data would highlight what New York
City’s disabled community can achieve when their latent wheel power and grit
 John Jay’s Finest  155

is forced into motion. Most importantly, I wanted this space to allow me to

safely share outlooks I would normally choose to hide.

October 8, 2021

When I did my research to find credible places to study, I did it with

some haste. My speed had nothing to do with disinterest; it had more to do with
scouring the web to find organizations that are open and operating at full
capacity. At first glance, I mistook Xavier Society for the Blind as a school.
The day I decided to use their premises for field research, I had the intellection
of blind students entering and exiting the building in my head. As I stood
outside, I decided to take the chance and go inside and pay their “school” a
visit. When I exited the elevator and pressed the bell outside their office, I was
greeted by a friendly, middle-aged gentleman, who was possibly Sicilian or
Jewish. I explained who I was and the purpose of my (unexpected and
unannounced) visit. He clarified that Xavier Society was not a school, but a
library. He told me to wait while he stepped away; then he returned with a
young woman, possibly Irish or Italian, tall and professionally astute. She
greeted me. I repeated my introduction to her and she politely agreed and
ushered me in.
As a social scientist, being amongst the coterie of my interest is vital to
my research as well as my soul. The rude interjection of Covid-19 has been
crushing and repressive to the anthropology community. The exhilaration and
elation by being able to do this interview on-site cannot fully be explained.
 John Jay’s Finest  156

The three of us have our impromptu meeting in a conference room with glass
windows. Once seated, I give an in-depth summary of what led to my interest
in this research and this community. The floor opens up and the interviewees
introduce themselves.

A: My name is Ashlyn. I’m the Coordinator of Communications and

Fundraising here at Xavier Society for the Blind.

S: And I’m Saul Landy, Client Services Coordinator for Xavier Society.

T: Thank you, pleased to meet you. As the impact of Covid-19 heightened,

what were some of the coping strategies, tactics and approaches used when the
visually impaired were facing the many social and structural changes brought
on by the pandemic? For example, as children we are taught that in case of an
emergency, if there is a fire, we have to use the stairs and not an elevator. If
the electricity goes out, we are to use flashlights or candles. For all other
emergencies, call 911 for assistance. I do not recall drills on how to mentally
or physically navigate our way through a pandemic? What were some of the
perspectives shared, if any?

A: Um, well, I know our focus here at the library is on materials that are
spiritual and inspirational, mostly Catholic but not strictly. So the majority of
the people we serve are Catholic, so they found getting to church or you know,
obviously the churches were closed and things like that. So throughout the
pandemic we had been serving our clients still from home so they would get
our materials and it helped them, you know, continue to practice their faith,
you know, learn about and develop it.

T: Did you see an increase of requested materials to get through the pandemic
because they had to social distance and quarantine?

S: It was a period of time that we were naturally not functional for a very very
brief amount of time, so they, so for that amount of time, (Saul is a little
nervous. I reassure him that it’s okay and to take his time). So for that moment,
so once we came back, we had request for materials coming in very often.

T: Just out of curiosity, are the two of you, do you, or are the two of you related
or in direct contact with someone who is visually impaired or who is not
associated with your library?

S: I, myself am visually impaired.

 John Jay’s Finest  157

T: You are? (I say this with some surprise). Oh, so how would you describe
the quality of your Life pre-pandemic? Were you happy? Just okay or
frustrated? And I ask this question because due to the serious nature of the
virus, establishments were shut down. Many people had to work remotely and
that left in-person visits to doctor’s offices, restaurants, movies, family
gatherings and networks where you used to be hands-on with other humans at
a standstill. How did you cope under quarantine mandates?

S: Well, I myself happen to be a very independent. The only issue is that, with
my vision I can’t drive. So I rely full on public transportation. So it was …I
was hesitant at first with the whole social distancing and everything, but over
a period of time, I just slipped right back into the way things were.

Saul’s mentioning of how he “slipped right back into the way things
were” speaks volumes. He says this so matter-of-factly as if the pandemic was
a quick-fading fad that left no residue and went unnoticed. Maybe I am biased.
Perhaps his snapping back into his own personal routine as a visually impaired
person can teach the masses of able-bodied people a valuable lesson. Non-
disabled people see disability as both a category belonging to “the other” and
an experience that does not change over time. If that is true, it makes the master
narrative all the more potent. Able-bodied and neurotypical people’s lives
change all the time, often without too much difficulty. It’s much easier to find
cultural and personal stories about abled people who have an active role in
shaping their Life and finding happiness than it is to find such a story about a
disabled person (Hoban, 2021).

T: Okay, but as someone who is visually impaired, the mandate called for
humans to stand six feet apart and I know on occasion when riding a subway,
sometimes visually impaired people rely on someone to loan them their arm so
they can get off and on the train or they are just crossing the street, you know
they rely on a sighted person to help them cross safely. Did you go through a
phase where you may have been afraid to be touched by someone because you
thought you would catch the virus from a stranger?

S: I mean, I am fully functional. I am completely independent. I can cross

streets by myself unless you know, they’re not marked, or there’s no one
around, I, so it was never really an issue for me. The only difference was the
social distancing.

T: Speaking of help and assistance, due to businesses closing down, there was
an increase in technology use. For instance, the use of Zoom skyrocketed and
was the main platform used in keeping employees, family members and friends
 John Jay’s Finest  158

connected. How were the disabled accommodated in being able to use Zoom
and/or other electronic networks that temporarily replaced the services
traditionally offered by other humans?

A: Well, I can speak personally about that but I know that we had made a lot
of our materials downloadable from our website that hadn’t been before. Our
clients could log in, download audio books, download braille files for their
electronic readers and things like that. We’re doing a Zoom event in two
weeks, so it will be interesting to see how that goes, but I’ve been on plenty of
Zoom calls with other visually impaired people.

T: How does that work? For those of us who are fully sighted it’s like logging
on and you know, trying to get in passcodes, you know, even for a sighted
person it is sometimes a headache. How did the…how do the visually impaired
use them? I mean I know some people are partially sighted but for those who
are just completely blind….

S: Well I mean, myself even have problems reading small print so I happen to
have software that blows up the screen. We have patrons, clients who are
completely blind, quite a few who are more tech-savvy than some of the I.T.
people I know.

A: I can concur with that.

T: Wonderful. Wonderful. I am happy to hear that. Would you like to expand

on that because the next question was what customized technologies were
already in place for the disabled pre-pandemic? Are you aware of any
technologies currently being customized for post-pandemic? Like has this put,
like a new proposals on the table to accommodate people just in case there is
another emergency or a global pandemic or any other world event?

A: Um, not that I can think of. I mean there’s plenty of technology that I think
that was in place, that has helped them even more since then, screen readers
things like that, but I don’t know…you know.

S: I can’t give anything, that came out or was released you know, post-
pandemic and everything that I can think of has been around for quite a while.

T: Is it safe for me to assume that the visually impaired community was already
fully equipped just in case of an emergency, something a sighted person may
be lost on?
 John Jay’s Finest  159

S: I believe so. I think that the um, you know, I think that the Americans with
Disabilities organizations make sure that having things around in that not
necessarily you know 100% but for the most part I think there’s technology or
devices that help most anything.

T: I know this was an unexpected visit (I laugh) and I am really really happy
with your participation and taking the time out today.

Conclusion
The Americans with Disabilities Act set a standard for the rest of the
world. It meant that, legally, any public place must accommodate anyone who
wishes to go there; wherever there’s a stair, there must also be a lift or a ramp.
It caused the proliferation of automated doors; including textured curb cuts that
alert the visually impaired that they’re about to step into traffic (Davidson,
2019).
After tying up my third and final interview with Saul and Ashlyn, I
became curious about the ADA and decided to visit their website. Seeing how
this Act was only put into effect in 1990 left me with a lot of questions because
people living with disabilities is an age-old phenomenon. Saul spoke about the
ADA confidently, believing that it made sure that those who are disabled can
count on their expertise to guard them from being discriminated against. I
wondered what that meant when it came to Sonia. I cannot say for certain if
she is aware of the ADA or well-versed on their policies or if she has refused
services offered by them. I do know that sometimes economics plays a crucial
role in who can afford a referral to organizations designed to champion on
behalf of the disabled. Poorer disabled people are usually left in the dark and
shuffled off to overloaded and impersonal government agencies.
I believe Ernie benefitted from organizations pre-dating the ADA that
helped women like his mother and babies like him. I cannot be sure if that was
the case being that his mom, and so many women like her, were treated like
guinea pigs and their children lab rats. Someone in a position of power had to
create a foundation safeguarding their livelihood to ensure that Ernie and his
generation who were victims of experimental drugs, could lead happy, active
and solvent lives.
Advocates like Ashlyn, helping hands like Mr. Vega and even the
violin player who is friends with Sonia, play a crucial part to the well-being of
the disabled. Their abled bodies cement the pleasure and desired qualities of
Life the disabled get to enjoy in spite of their confines. It is an all-hands-on-
deck operation when you are in the presence of persons with visual and
physical needs. Knowing that to also be true for an abled-person, I am
confident in believing that is why my subjects blew my mind with their
responses.
 John Jay’s Finest  160

The abrupt inlaying of Covid-19 did not have a greater impact on the
disabled because they are disabled. From what I gathered, once everyone
found their footing in the new normal, Life went on. It is evident that Life is
still going on although each of my subjects are unique and existing in spaces
not identical to the others. My reaction to the sudden change within my
existence on the planet, made me believe members of the disabled community
of New York City felt the same way I did and I was wrong. Each response to
my questions rendered me speechless. I was not expecting to hear most of what
I heard. Sonia was happy with social-distancing and Saul acclimated to the
changes and moved forward confidently. Ernie lived through 2020 and
graciously departed in 2021. That was Ernie. He would have never missed
out on the excitement of something new, even when it was a pandemic that
required sheltering-in-place. He got to see what humankind could do under
duress and he got to see some humans be kind under duress.
None of my disabled informants were victims, and that is a lesson
abled-bodied people can learn.

In Loving Memory of Ernest Mucci

 John Jay’s Finest  161

 HONORS 401
A THEORY ON PARTISAN
REALIGNMENTS WITH THE
CONSIDERATION OF GRASSROOTS
ORGANIZATIONS

___________________________
ELISA MATEO-SAJA

I. INTRODUCTION
THE AMERICAN DEMOCRACY is undergoing a metamorphosis; our political
climate has entered into a new realm of tensions and division over the past five
years. Red versus blue, left versus right and, more important, an us-versus-
them mentality plagues our political system. The American electorate is
changing in demographic ways and also in its political ideologies. These
tensions and heightened awareness of government and politics are evidence of
the current partisan realignment the nation is enduring.

___________________________
The Assignment and the Writer: In the Honors Capstone Seminar, students develop, execute, and
present original research projects. These projects are developed over the course of a year, resulting in
a research paper and presentation given during Research and Creativity Week. The work presented
here is the final research paper. Elisa conducted empirical research on partisan realignments, which
have been largely ignored in political science over the last 20 years. Her compelling argument, for which
she finds support through case studies of previously identified realignment periods, is that grassroots
activity is important to creating realignments in partisan political control. Elisa extends this analysis to
identifying two recent potential realignment periods, providing a sound and sophisticated
interpretation of the last few decades of American politics. – Professor Andrew Sidman
 John Jay’s Finest  162

A significant factor in United States partisanship stems from the

misunderstanding of the major political parties to navigate their constituents’
needs. Voters rely on parties to help them decide which candidate to vote for,
but their party does not reflect all of their views, especially not at a national
level. Classical partisan realignment theory is evidence of the lacking
progression in our understanding of American partisanship. V.O. Key
introduced the theory of partisan realignments and critical elections in 1955,
and it suggests that the United States undergoes periods of partisan transitions,
marked by important elections. The current realignment framework focuses
too heavily on the end of the realignment cycle, which occurs at the national
level. It neglects to include how everyday Americans participate in our
government.
American politics is built on the premise of democracy and a voice for
all. Nevertheless, realignment theory lacks the crucial consideration of the
average voter, and I seek to amend that in my analysis. Considering the
involvement of localized political organizations, now commonly referred to as
grassroots organizations, may shed light on factors not accounted for in
existing realignment theory, leaving the theory considerably vague. I
hypothesize that realignments occur over an entire era, and while critical
elections may indicate peaks in partisanship, the root of shifts in behavior stem
from mass political action at a local level. The earliest work on realignments
recognized the importance of mass political action. However, since then, the
field has done little to study and understand the centrality of grassroots
organizations in building the momentum of and sustaining realignments.

II. CLASSICAL REALIGNMENT THEORIES

The American political sphere is governed by two major parties, the
Republicans and the Democrats. Throughout the nation’s history, these two
parties have changed names and agendas but have maintained their monopoly
on the American public. Throughout history, however, there have been crucial
moments where one party has dominated the federal government. On occasion,
the public reconsiders its needs, and the power shifts. These shifts are known
as partisan realignments.
The origin of critical election theory stems from the works of V.O. Key.
A critical realignment election is “a category of elections in which…the
decisive results of voting reveal a sharp alteration of the pre-existing cleavage
within the electorate” (Key,1955, p.4). Key’s (1955) first paper on realignment
theory looks at election data from the New England region. It explores a
national “critical realignment” theory based on the small group of states. The
current working theory identifies the building of political homogeneity and
incurs that “change itself does not produce a realignment, but it creates an
opportunity for exploitation of political leadership” (Key, 1959, p.204). Key
 John Jay’s Finest  163

argued that small shifts in the voter base could be exploited to become large-
scale realignments if party officials use the right strategies. Subsequently, Key
(1955, 1959) implies that the presidential candidates are correlated with why
these elections are “realigning.” The essential conclusion of Key’s works is
how realignment occurs in the United States’ existing two-party system. Key
identifies the three essential factors that comprise a critical election are: (1) a
sharp and durable shift in the electorates party alignment; (2) “electoral
involvement [that] is relatively quite high”; and (3) voters that are “unusually
deeply concerned “ with the election (Key, 1955, p.4). Existing realignment
literature primarily focuses on the presence of a shift in the electorate’s party
alignment and high electoral involvement but has spent less time addressing
Key’s final criteria, a strong collective concern. Deep concern, as Key says, is
not an immediate reaction but instead a progression that occurs over time. Key
(1955) also states that a power shift in the community is a part of the shift in
party alignment or possibly the creation of a new and lasting voter group.
While Key claims his work represents the entire country and thus his theory on
realignment could be nationally applied, he may have overestimated the
implication New England states had on the rest of the electorate.
Researchers have looked at statistical occurrences of these critical
realignment elections; there is a consensus that the elections of 1800 (Thomas
Jefferson),1828 (Andrew Jackson), 1860 (Abraham Lincoln), 1896 (William
McKinley), and 1932 (Franklin Delano Roosevelt) are critical elections (Key,
1955; Meffert & Norpoth, 2001; Merrill, 2008). While these elections have
since been agreed upon by other researchers as realigning understanding the
events that built up these elections is crucial to understanding the phenomenon
of realignment.
Contemporary works have proposed various factors that could serve as
realignment indicators. Burnham (1967) suggested that realignment occurs
roughly once per generation, approximately every 30 years (as cited in Merrill,
Grofman, & Brunell, 2008). In this research, Merrill et al. (2008) continue to
say that realignments can be seen as a shift in the voter base that supports a
given party. Given that American demographics change in a generation for
several reasons, such as immigration, a generational realignment is a logical
conclusion. Campbell (1966, 76) suggests that realignments occur in the face
of a national crisis and opposing party solutions (as cited in Merrill et al.).
A study by Norpoth, Sidman, and Suong (2013) found that one of the
essential factors that served as the foundation for the critical realignment in
1932 happened far after 1932. They argue that the durability and the creation
of a new voter group occurred over time after the 1932 election, with World
War II and the Great Depression’s effects playing a significant role in the
electorate’s party affiliations (Norpoth, Sidman, & Suong, 2013).
 John Jay’s Finest  164

The research on critical elections and national realignments seem to

imply that one of the critical factors necessary for a realignment is that lasting
party shifts occur in the time surrounding the critical year and not in the
specific critical election (Meffert et al., 2001; Norpoth et al., 2013). Suppose
this data is consistent for the other commonly cited critical elections, as it is
for Key’s research of 1928. In that case, it may be indicative that the period
surrounding a critical election offers more crucial data than the critical election
years themselves.
Key’s theory of the critical realignment assumes that the entirety of the
United States shifted in a critical presidential election, and the long-term shift
was seen in more local level politics over time. Even though the 1932 election
is a “confirmed” critical election, Key’s (1955) paper focuses a significant
amount of time on the 1928 presidential election and particularly the
presidential candidate Al Smith. Key (1955) points out that Al Smith worked
to activate the low-income, Catholic urban immigrants, a new voter bloc at the
time. Key’s data points to an essential element of realignment that realignments
build over time and are not the instant phenomena that critical elections
suggest. Realignment research has become stagnant in recent years, and Key’s
framework does not reflect the modern American party system and
contemporary voting patterns. While Key’s work is not conclusive, further
research in this area may provide evidence of realignments that occur slowly,
starting at a local level and eventually becoming national trends. Most
evidently, the lacking justification for Key’s final criteria of realignment,
widespread and profound concern from the public, may be best explained by
looking outside of the elite scope of American politics.

III. GRASSROOTS ORGANIZING

Activism has a long history in America and democracy, and many
political scholars have looked at its effects. Activism, at its core, aims to
change people’s views and transform the institutions that shape society
(Svirsky, 2010). However, it is still a question as to whether this type of
political engagement has led to critical elections. Small-scale political groups
are riddled throughout American history, and even now, they are pillars of our
democracy. Presently we often refer to these groups as “grassroots
organizations,” referring to local non-profits, primarily run by volunteers
looking to affect a collective goal (Smith, 1997). Common examples in our
current climate are Black Lives Matter, Fair Fight, and FreedomWorks. While
some of these have grown to address national agendas, they are rooted in local
actions organized by people within the community. The origins of these groups
and other organizations like them can likely be tied to a principle of American
democracy: the importance of public input on the government. Following that
logic, American’s are likely to work in collective settings to bring political
 John Jay’s Finest  165

change when they see fit because they believe their participation in government
is crucial to an effective democracy (Finkel, Muller & Opp, 1989). Grassroots
organizations offer the space for collective action with community support and
can often be a source of information for the community at large (Smith, 1997).
Some studies have shown that individuals are more likely to participate
in “activist” activities when they have a stronger political affiliation (Saunders,
& Abramowitz, 2004). This study also highlights the extremism that activist
movements often portray. They are rarely reflective of the moderate beliefs
that a significant amount of the country hold (Saunders, & Abramowitz, 2004).
Nevertheless, despite movements primarily being radical in nature, Arceneaux
and Kolodny suggest that with proper organizing local groups can rally support
from uneducated voters and improve turnout for their endorsed candidates
(2009). Furthermore, grassroots organizations have also been tied to campaign
strategies that target voters from the opposition that may be susceptible
(Cornfield, 2007 as cited in Arceneaux & Kolodny, 2009). If grassroots
organizing can mobilize an uninformed electorate, even outside of their
traditional demographic, they may be instrumental in the partisan transition.
Especially important is that grassroots organizations are often able to achieve
increased voter turnout not only with endorsements but by using mainstream
political issues that even disengaged voters can relate to (Arceneaux &
Kolodny, 2009). Given Key’s third qualifier for critical elections being
unusually great concern from the electorate, grassroots organizations’ ability
to highlight particular political matters speaks to their involvement in a partisan
realignment. Research has also shown the intense impact that activists have
around party policies not only in party leaders but also in individual party
affiliates (Miller & Schofield, 2003). Local organizations have strong ties in
both the elite and civilian spheres of political engagement, making them the
crucial bonding instrument in communication in the two sectors of democracy.
This level of connection is essential in voter party affiliations, as grassroots
organizations are not diluted with national or federal level agendas and can
serve as the body that makes higher-level policy legible to the average voter.
It is also imperative that in the discussion of grassroots organizations
and realignments, we consider intentionally ignored communities. Michener
demonstrates in her work the ability of community-oriented groups to mobilize
voters that are often left out of campaign efforts by political and economic
elites (2019). Grassroots offers a unique opportunity to transition voters and
mobilize entirely new voter blocs that could lead to partisan realignments.
This is why I believe grassroots organizing offers a unique addition to
American politics. The current existence of grassroots activism in America
represents non-party affiliated groups that disseminate information to the
public in a way they can understand. Thus, grassroots organizing may affect a
greater population than political elites can. Given the present literature, I
 John Jay’s Finest  166

hypothesize that grassroots involvement plays a decisive role in indicating and

inciting the transition of American partisanship throughout the nation’s
history.

IV. METHODOLOGY
To test the hypothesis stated above, I compiled information on the five
major realignment elections and the grassroots organizing that was taking place
in the surrounding years, both leading up to the elections and after the elections
concluded. The five most-cited critical elections being 1800, 1828, 1860, 1896,
and 1932.
My study focuses on these realignment periods because the existing
research indicates that these elections have a vital role in American electoral
history. These periods also have rich histories of local political action that I
believe played a role in the greater national political agendas, and ultimately
the partisan realignments. My study is creating an initial framework and
outlining only a few of the important local actors that could have contributed
to a national realignment and highlighting key factors previous research has
not accounted for. This study examines the period around each critical election
to identify the grassroots-related factors that presage these realignments and
allow them to continue after the critical election.
Once common factors have been identified in these realigning periods,
I consider potential recent realignment periods that existing literature has not
identified. In the years following the 1932 realignment, America underwent a
realignment and is currently experiencing another. I followed the same
analysis pattern for the two new potential realignments by identifying mass
political actions during the time periods and their effects on the national
political agenda.

V. HISTORICAL ANALYSIS: Grassroots Activity Throughout

Realignment Periods
In order to better understand the role of grassroots organizing in
partisan realignment I will analyze the role of mass political action leading up
to the historical critical elections. This analysis will show why the politics of
the common people should not be ignored in the theory of partisan realignment.

The Election of 1800

The first critical election we will explore is the election of 1800, where
incumbent John Adams faced Thomas Jefferson. Both framers of the American
democracy, Adams was a Federalist whilst Jefferson represented the
Democrat-Republicans (Rubel, 2001). The Federalists represented the elite of
American politics: the North East, rising industrialists, and defendants of
England regarding foreign policy (Rubel, 2001). On the other hand, the
 John Jay’s Finest  167

Democrat-Republicans were the party of recent immigrants; they concerned

themselves with individual liberties and states’ rights (Rubel, 2001).
At this point in history, most Americans were not voting. For one, a
large part of the population consisted of non-eligible voters: women, Black and
Indigenous people, indentured servants, and all the White men that did not
meet the rigid requirements for voter eligibility. And yet, this is considered a
point of inflection of American partisanship. Many framers promoted an elitist
view of government and elections, one in which government service was
performed by a landed elite, elected by a land-owning and well-educated
public. It would not take long before the apparent contradictions between this
model and democracy created stresses on the system, which were ultimately
and thankfully resolved in favor of greater access of the mass public to voting.
However, in 1800 the president was not decided by popular vote.
The House of Representatives decided the election of 1800, and the
poor planning of the election led to a tie between Jefferson and his running
mate Aaron Burr. Ultimately, Jefferson won because Hamilton persuaded
representatives to submit blank ballots to avoid another stalemate. The election
of 1800 led to the first peaceful transfer of power between opposing political
parties, thus proving the American democracy stood a chance (Rubel, 2001).
Though the Federalists and the Democrat-Republicans were barely even
political parties as we understand them today, it was the transfer from one
ideology to the other without blows that made the event so important to the
principles of the American democracy. However, while critical, this election is
evidence of the alignment of American partisanship, not a realignment,
because it was the first. The election of 1800 marks the first peaceful transition
of power; however, the election of 1796 barred similarities to the election of
1800 and was influential in developing the political parties. Nevertheless,
neither election is relevant to the discussion on partisan realignment because
most American people did not participate in either election, meaning they
could not meet Key’s main criteria.

The Election of 1828

With the minimal scale of the 1800 election in mind, we move to the
election of 1828 and the rivalry of John Quincy Adams and Andrew Jackson.
Where 1800 is a subtle transition in many ways, the election of 1828 was the
exact opposite. Many consider Jacksonian politics and his campaigning to be
the beginning of the modern election. Jackson and Adams led a contentious
battle up until the ballot. Jackson represented the Democrats and John Quincy
Adams the National Republicans (Rubel, 2001). While party allegiances were
only beginning to solidify, the American election had expanded beyond the
elite politicians, and many Americans would be voting for the first time in
1828. It was not just the electorate that had grown since 1800; by this time,
 John Jay’s Finest  168

new states had been added to the union, which meant new local issues were
developing as well as new perspectives on national governance. America was
expanding its population and its geography, and more local government meant
more opportunities for grassroots politics.
While most campaigning still occurred at the local level Andrew
Jackson, whom many have compared to Donald Trump, stirred something in
new demographics that previous politicians had not. Andrew Jackson, as a
military man, was not the typical politician (Parsons, 2009). He had not had
the same education as his opponent. However, he was the consistent image of
the American war effort with successful massacres in New Orleans and
Florida, fresh in the minds of the average American (Rubel, 2001). On the other
hand, Adams was a former diplomat, the sitting president, and a representation
of American nobility as the first president to be related to a former president
(Rubel, 2001). Jackson became a symbol of a new America. He supported the
farmer as opposed to the industrialist. He was from Tennessee, which made
him an outsider even in statehood, given that four of the six presidents were all
from Virginia. Jackson was firm on his belief to expand America under
Manifest Destiny and amplify his merciless oppression of non-white people.
Necessary for Jackson was not just his strong background and charisma but
also his approach to the election. Jackson’s campaign worked in many local
municipalities to familiarize the people with Jackson.
To best understand the events of the election of 1828, we must also
consider the election of 1824. In 1824 Jackson and Adams first ran against
each other; however, the election had four major candidates, none of whom
won the majority of the electoral vote. Jackson, however, won the popular vote
(Parsons, 2009). Because the election of 1824 was decided in the House of
Representatives, and to prevent Jackson from winning, Henry Clay negotiated
that his supporters would vote for Adams in exchange for the position of
Secretary of State (Parsons, 2009). Jackson and his supporters were infuriated
and referred to it as the “Corrupt Bargain” (Parsons, 2009).
With the election of 1824 fresh in the minds of Americans, it was no
shocker that the election of 1828 was a ruthless one. With biting newspaper
advertisements riddled with gossip and slander (Parsons, 2009). But it also
made the campaign more involved and influenced by other party members,
such as Martin Van Buren. Van Buren was a well-connected politician, senator
from New York and ran the Albany Regency (Parsons, 2009). In a bid to
prevent a second term for John Q. Adams, Van Buren enlisted Adam’s Vice
President, John C. Calhoun, as Jackson’s running mate for 1828, and he used
his network of strength through the Albany Regency to create a coalition of
Republicans in the South and North Eastern support (Parsons, 2009).
Additionally, Van Buren saw the opportunity to turn Jackson’s previous
 John Jay’s Finest  169

injustice into another victory of the popular vote, and it was in these actions
that Jackson’s grassroots support was ignited.
Jackson had a unique appeal to the masses, which made him a perfect
candidate to segue the American campaign into an affair of the people.
Jackson’s win of the popular vote in 1824 set the stage for what came in 1828,
and Jackson’s campaign team wanted to achieve a new level of voter turnout
and set out to reach voters that had never cast a ballot before. Hickory clubs,
an ode to the public’s affectionate nickname for Jackson, were local
Jacksonian-supported organizations (Parsons, 2009 & Rubel, 2001). These
clubs often planted hickory trees or raised hickory poles in their towns and
counties. They organized meetings around other large events to rally as many
voters for Jackson in one time as they could (Parsons, 2009). They used this
network of Hickory clubs to coordinate allegiance with county committees and
expanded Jacksonian supporters into the offices of representatives that selected
the nominations (Parsons, 2009). 1828 was the first presidential election year
in which most states held nominating conventions, which made for favorable
support for Jackson even more accessible (Parsons, 2009). Try as Adams did,
he was not successful. His voter base organized conventions of their own but
were never able to reach the same level of enthusiasm as the Jacksonians.
Overall, Adams’ strategy neglected most regions of the country without
gaining significant support from other politicians in the South or West
(Parsons, 2009).
In the end, Jackson won the 1828 election, for the first time in
American history, the popular vote held heavyweight with all but two states,
Delaware and South Carolina, using the popular vote to determine their
electoral college votes (Parsons, 2009). The election of 1828 presented the
challenge of the American system in two forms: the power of elites through
existing systems of government and challenging opposition from a man
supported by the people. While just one election prior, the elites were able to
hold the election by votes through the House of Representatives, when the
election remained in the hands of the public, it was Andrew Jackson, an
accessible politician 1 in a time of minimal national communication that was
able to embody American idealism.
Party officials and the elite noticed the organizing of everyday voters
by Hickory Clubs because the election of 1824 was a narrow victory. In order
to maintain democracy, the inclusion and acknowledgment of new voters was
a necessity, but it also meant a shift in the conversation. The elites focused on
1
I find it imperative to note that while Andrew Jackson was able to effectively serve as a
politician for the electorate at the time, which was mainly in favor of the continued theft of
land from the Indigenous population, it does not amend his erroneous actions. It should be
abundantly clear that, while a political success, Jackson's actions were consistent with those
of a bigot, a racist, and a murderer.
 John Jay’s Finest  170

new voter groups because they would have lost in 1828 and afterward without
them. The Jacksonian realignment is evidence that the Republicans lost the
support of the public, which they needed to maintain national authority. As a
result, the Jacksonian Democrats monopolized the government because they
held the public’s attention throughout the era, but this was only possible
because of local groups like Hickory clubs. The nation did not have the
technology or infrastructure to keep the public informed of the affairs of the
president, but local groups were able to serve voters in this way and sustain the
Democrats’ support throughout the era.

The Election of 1860

The election of 1860 is most likely one of the best-known critical
elections. While the nation was on the precipice of civil war, Abraham
Lincoln’s contentious election is an easily recognized pinnacle of partisanship.
While most people are familiar with the main issue leading to tensions in
America, the debate over slavery, what is less told is the story of the two
ideological perspectives approaches to spreading their beliefs to the American
populous. In the election of 1860, the American elite could no longer postpone
the discussion of slavery as it affected political action, which led to the
importance of the grassroots organizing of the era.
James Buchan was the incumbent leading into the 1860 election. As a
northern man, many people had expected different actions from him, but while
in office, he affirmed that while he disagreed with slavery, he felt states had
the right to make their own decisions because of the existing constitutional
protections (Rubel, 2001). During his time in office, Dred Scott vs. Sanford
was decided, effectively ruling that African Americans could not be citizens of
the United States and thus make the national debate all the more contentious.
While Lincoln is well known for his actions, what is less discussed are the
actions of local groups that led to Lincoln’s success.
In Troy, New York, there was a congregation of Black men and
women, Black Trojans, that worked for universal abolition and civil rights of
Black Americans across New York state. While they were aware of the many
issues with Abraham Lincoln, they understood what his victory could mean for
the future of the United States. Two districts of Troy had more robust support
for Lincoln than their counterparts, and these two wards were also the two
districts that supported the Black Trojan’s movement for Black suffrage
(Burns, 2019).
Meanwhile, in Illinois, a similar set of movements was developing.
Starting in the 1830’s Illinois had a large community of activists that began
speaking out against slavery. The activist energy culminated in the 1837
Illinois Anti-Slavery Convention, which eventually led to thirteen active
abolitionist organizations forming (Chapman, 2015). One of the most
 John Jay’s Finest  171

prominent in Illinois was the Illinois Anti-Slavery Society (IASS), most well-
known for the group’s prominent leader and newspaper editor Elijah Lovejoy
who was murdered in a pro-slavery mob (Chapman, 2015). The IASS prided
itself on being more action forward than its eastern counterparts leading more
demonstrations and protests. The activist coalesced to form the Liberty Party,
which ran abolitionist for local political offices (Chapman, 2015). While most
activist sentiments were rooted in religious values, they were still a powerful
political force. The decades of abolitionist activity continued to bring slavery
into political life in Illinois, where future president Abraham Lincoln was
getting his political start. While in the 1840s, the state was still very divided
on the issue, by the time of the 1860 election Lincoln and his abolitionist
platform could win the state beating out the three other major presidential
candidates.
Furthermore, while the elite politicians were slow to act in the decades
leading to the Civil War, the local abolitionists were not. They frequently
formed activist organizations and made their ideologies clear to try and make
changes in the local politics, and eventually had effects on the national level.
For most people, politics was often confusing and difficult to follow, and the
turmoil of America’s original sin compounded with day-to-day issues. Local
leaders were instrumental in clearing up the fog of elitist agendas and
incoherent messaging on slavery for decades. Frequent and vocal activism
offered a pillar of consistency and a foundation for the future of government
that the elite hid from. In the election of 1860, the candidates had to take note
of these organizations to succeed amidst a large pool of competitors.

The Election of 1896

Despite leading into one of America’s lesser-known presidents, the
Progressive Era in American politics paved the way to many grassroots
movements. The Gilded Age of American politics flourished the economy for
particular people. It led to the foundation of mass amounts of wealth that
birthed today’s “old-money” families in the United States, like Carnegies and
the Morgans. Understandably, the leniency in economics and labor abuse
fueled the labor movement and strides for workers’ rights. The era was driven
by labor movements and women’s and religious movements, all working to
create a more liberal America.
Post-civil war America, while not harmonious, was more connected
and with the country’s largest tensions being put to rest in the years after the
civil war. Moreover, the industrial revolution radically changed
communication, allowing national organizations to flourish as they became
more feasible. The change in communication is imperative in understanding
how the National American Women’s Suffrage Association (NAWSA) was
able to have many chapters that organized with similar agendas. The NAWSA
 John Jay’s Finest  172

was able to publish a newspaper known as the “Women’s Journal” to circulate

their information and motives (Lange, 2015). Despite the NAWSA’s national
acclaim, the Women’s Rights movement is well known for its many divisions
and independent agendas. Within what became known as the first wave of
feminism, there were also movements for Christian women and Black women
(Lange, 2015). The NAWSA was nationally open to all women; however,
local chapters could exclude people. Exclusionary chapters led to the creation
of independent organizations like the Ohio Women Suffrage Associations and
the New Hampshire Women’s Association, the African American Women’s
Club, and the Woman’s Christian Temperance movement (Suffrage
Organizations, 2021). This plethora of movements showed strength in local
organizing, with the NAWSA winning suffrage in Western states first
(Wyoming, Colorado and, Utah). Despite having ample support in states like
New York and Virginia, only some chapters could transition their action into
policy. The prominent activist of the Women’s suffrage movements and the
early states that granted women’s right to vote were not republican supporters.
Thus they did not vote for McKinley.
The women’s temperance movement had many of the same leaders and
operated at the same time. Another movement that coexisted in the Progressive
Era was the people’s populist movement. Many supporters of the Women’s
movement were also more aligned with the People’s populist party (Edwards,
2000).
William McKinley won the 1896 election and transitioned the
executive branch from Democratic power to Republican control, but the
Republican party dominated the realignment period preceding McKinley’s
election. The Lincoln realignment period had seven unique presidents
(Cleveland is elected twice non-consecutively), and only two during the era
were Democrats. Andrew Johnson, the first Democrat, changed his party
identification after completing Lincoln’s second term, and Cleveland was
unable to hold the office for two consecutive terms (Rubel, 2001). The era was
marked by single term republicans, an indication of the national party turmoil.
The party recognized that in order to maintain their power and have more
impactful presidential legacies, they needed to shift their behavior and be more
aware of the people. This action came in two ways first through recognizing
the vital role of women in the future of the American electorate, and secondly,
by choosing to engage labor movements and the working class. In 1896
Republicans only narrowly won the presidency, during a transition not only of
politics but also of information. The Republican party needed to focus on new
voter groups showing national activity and increased power of information to
continue their electoral success. In the McKinley realignment, the Republican
party dominance was maintained, thus ruining the traditional understanding of
 John Jay’s Finest  173

realignment work. The more critical shift, however, is apparent in the political
action of the period.
The grassroots organizations of the late 1800s and the early 1900s did
not affect change in the party power of the American president, but they did
help to effect sweeping national changes. McKinley’s presidency in many
ways, acted as a transition. His major party competitor, William Jennings
Bryan, was a Democrat and a supporter of the populist movement (Rubel,
2001). He advocated for farmers and laborers. While his campaign was
unsuccessful, it signified a significant portion of the support of the national
electorate of workers’ rights, which was a radical change from the Gilded
Ages’ dominance of elite businessmen and robber barons.
McKinley’s successor, Theodore Roosevelt, while still a Republican,
redefined the party’s national agenda and curbed the history of the party to be
more aligned with the wills of the populous. Before McKinley’s presidency,
the constitution had undergone the Reconstruction Era amendments but had
been untouched in the decades preceding him. However, during the McKinley
realignment period, four constitutional amendments were all passed, and
unlike previous eras of change, they each had unique areas they addressed.
Lincoln’s realignment added the twelfth through fifteenth amendments.
However, all were regarding the inclusion of Black Americans in the United
States and attempting to amend the generational trauma brought about by
slavery. But the sixteenth amendment addressed taxation; the seventeenth
made senators popularly elected instead of appointed; the eighteenth enacted
prohibition; and the nineteenth granted women’s suffrage nationally. Each
issue represents the unique movements of McKinley’s realignment. While the
advocates would likely have aligned with Democratic or Populist party
politicians, Republican politicians did make monumental changes that were at
one point oppositional to the party.
The McKinley realignment is an essential transition in realignment
studies. After the Lincoln realignment, America underwent the industrial
revolution. Leading into McKinley’s presidency, the American electorate was
reformed by introducing new voters, but the entire nation also saw the
development of new technologies that redefined political action. As a result,
McKinley’s realignment is the earliest to show a new wave of organization of
voters and a shift in realignments no longer needing to revolve around
presidential campaigns because the national media became a more inclusive
affair.

The Election of 1932

The 1932 realignment is likely the most visible in public memory.
Franklin Delano Roosevelt (FDR) is one of America’s most well-known
presidents. His policies and tactics are well known in political research for
 John Jay’s Finest  174

expanding the presidential office and shifting the Democratic party into the
modern era. However, behind the vast number of political changes were not
just elite politicians. The era is well known for the formation of many
grassroots organizations, two types in particular that changed American
politics: Labor movements and Identity movements.
The Labor movement was not new to American politics. The New Deal
era and the crisis of the Great Depression left people once again looking for
economic alternatives as they suffered through the hardships of the capitalist
downturn. America was not immune to the communist rhetoric that was
spreading through the rest of the world. As the American workforce began to
dwindle, the Communist party across the nation began organizing
demonstrations (Gregory, 2015). The party organized Unemployed Councils,
which worked on several large marches in big cities like New York and
Chicago (Gregory, 2015). While the Communist Party was involved in most
of the organizing, there were also movements in Seattle and several cities in
California that were organized independently advocating on behalf of workers
(Gregory, 2015). Many of the efforts were designed to express the frustration
of workers with the elite and business class. However, many also helped
organize mutual aid efforts for the unemployed to gather support for homeless
and hungry workers (Gregory, 2015).
Identity movements were also on the rise at this point in American
history. With the increased organization against the dominant powers in
America, minority communities began to participate in the rising activism in
their unique ways. Like the Labor movement, racial and cultural movements
were not invented during the FDR realignment; however, the newest
generation transitioned the movements to reflect their wants and needs.
Latin Americans were a growing group in the 1930s and throughout the
FDR realignment. Like other minority communities, they struggled to have
representation in political matters and were denied fundamental human rights
in the United States. The Great Depression, exasperating the problems of their
community, led Latinx Americans to organize to make sure their voices were
heard. One example of the Latinx movement can be found in the League of
United Latin American Citizens (LULAC), the oldest civil rights group for
Latin Americans (Gregory, 2015). LULAC was formed in Texas in 1929
(Gregory, 2015). With years of organizing, the group spread awareness and
created more chapters, and during WWII, LULAC had multiple chapters in
eight different states (Gregory, 2015). LULAC was formed to end the
widespread xenophobia and segregation Mexican Americans faced in the
1930s (Gregory, 2015). In order to work on this issue, LULAC aimed to get
support from other grassroots organizations like the Sons of America and the
Knights of America, which had similar intentions and helped to garner broad
support for the issues facing Mexican Americans. These groups played a
 John Jay’s Finest  175

prominent role in representing Latinx Americans, mainly because learning

English was difficult as a Mexican immigrant. The rampant segregation and
the nature of labor Latinx Americans took on often prevented their children
from enrolling in schools, and learning English in a segregated society without
school was extremely difficult. The language barrier made fighting these
injustices extremely challenging, but local organizations gave Latin Americans
not only a support system but provided them with a collective of voices which
lessened the burden of individuals who could not speak English. Many of the
Latinx movements were molded after movements created by Black Americans.
Black Americans played a crucial role in supporting many movements
by other communities but, of course, also in the fight for their rights. In the
1930s and through the duration of the FDR realignment, these movements took
shape in groups like the NAACP. The NAACP was formed long before the
FDR realignment, but by 1941, the organization had over three hundred and
fifty chapters and over seventy thousand members across the nation (Gregory,
2015). The NAACP worked largely to fight the injustices of segregation,
creating a Legal Defense fund to work to protect and defend Black Americans
from unfair laws and persecution (Gregory, 2015). The group also worked
tirelessly to promote Black political engagement even through strenuous
efforts to prevent Black voters from participating.
The NAACP’s structure was also essential in disseminating
information to Black Americans. The vast network they had achieved was a
tremendous service to keeping Black Americans connected and informed about
issues across the nation. However, by the end of the FDR realignment, other
groups would join the NAACP to fight for civil rights for Black Americans,
particularly the Black Panthers. In 1966 in California, the Black Panthers were
formed by two college friends, Huey Newton and Bobby Seale, to create an
organization to protect minority communities from the U.S. government
(Gregory, 2015). While often disregarded as militant revolutionaries, the Black
Panthers sought to fight oppression across many communities and fight the
great oppressive factors of global capitalism to create a more just future for all.
The Brown Berets were a similar Latinx organization inspired by the Black
Panther Party, organized against police brutality, racism, and systemic
inequalities for Latinx Americans (Gregory, 2015). The movement was
primarily found in California but had a few chapters in various other states.
The McKinley realignment addressed similar distress from the public.
Leaving the Gilded Age, the people looked for regulation and government
involvement to help redistribute wealth and opportunity to local people. The
post-1896 America calmed those needs for a time, redefining what Republican
politics looked like and giving politicians the space to serve the people while
still holding control with elites’ citizens. However, these efforts were
ultimately insufficient as the FDR realignment seeks to settle the same unrest.
 John Jay’s Finest  176

In 1932 the organization is still revolving around resetting the power structure
in the United States and making room for the underrepresented and
intentionally ignored communities. The 1929 financial crisis that led to the
Great Depression exacerbated the lack of change made in the previous era and
emphasized the issue with performative change instead of instrumental change.
In the FDR realignment, new voter groups, particularly the younger
generations, made it impossible to ignore grassroots organizations’ activity.
FDR’s realignment is the final of the researched realignment periods, and thus
its end date is not conclusive. The motives and movements that originated in
1932, many of which still exist today, held strong relevance well into the
seventies; some never lose their importance. I would argue that the era can be
ended shortly after 1964. The 1964 Civil Rights act represents the era of
activism and showed an expansive policy move that aligned with the requests
of organizers.

VI. POTENTIAL REALIGNMENT PERIODS

WITH THE CONSIDERATION OF GRASSROOTS ACTIVITY
After 1932 there has not been another realignment in American history,
according to the existing literature. With the consideration of grassroots
organizing and recognizing a collective concern, I believe I have been able to
identify realignment periods in the time since the New Deal era.

The Era of the American Nightmare

The FDR realignment arguably ends with the success of the Civil
Rights Act, an act made by a Democrat in response to local organizing. The
era is filled with movements from left-wing activists, as is mentioned above,
and their success is evident in the 1964 Civil Rights Act. These actions are not
unnoted by the Republican party, and Barry Goldwater’s 1964 Presidential
campaign is a testament to that.
Goldwater embodied much of the grassroots mentality as a “plain
spoken” conservative Republican that prioritized a small federal government
and state and local actions (Sabato, 2014). At his core, Goldwater was
opposing the traditional political elite in the way he appealed to voters. While
Goldwater’s campaign was unsuccessful, with Lyndon Johnson winning over
sixty percent of the popular vote, it was an essential indication of where the
Republican strategy would emerge (1964 United States presidential Election,
n.d.).
I believe these actions lead to the political activation of the Ku Klux
Klan (KKK), which is thoroughly explored in McVeigh, Cunningham, and
Farrell’s 2014 article. The KKK are essential in this realignment as they were
a dominant factor in mobilizing White voters in southern states to uphold white
supremacy over their previous party identifications (McVeigh, Cunningham
 John Jay’s Finest  177

Farrell,2014). It is also important to note that this local activity was often found
in areas with higher populations of Black Americans, where KKK activists
thought their political agendas were most in danger of changing. McVeigh et
al. show that through four decades, the KKK sustained an increase in
Republican support through Southern states.
While the KKK was started in 1865 and has ties to American politicians
dating as far back, their activity in 1960 assisted in redefining the Republican
party and relocating White Southern voters that were previously Democrats
but opposed the recent actions on Civil Rights. Nixon’s election may be the
critical election in the era, given Barry Goldwater’s measly turnout and Nixon
receiving over forty percent of the popular vote in a three-candidate race. The
Nixon realignment is continued with an era of viciousness in the struggle for
political control.
During this realignment, Americans were active, but violence became
ingrained in politics in many ways. Some examples being the War on Drugs,
the Vietnam and Korean Wars, the assassination of numerous public figures,
including Malcolm X, Martin Luther King Jr, and Bobby Kennedy, the Kent
State Massacre, the Detroit Riots, and the many bombings from the Weather
Underground.
While the bloodshed of this era is undoubtedly vital to note, the
opposition to the Liberals of the Great society found their match in the
normalization of a Republican resurgence through casual suburban gatherings.
Groups like the College Republican and active participation in social clubs led
to easy and frequent dissemination of Republican ideologies.
The era of the American Nightmare began with the end of Martin
Luther King Jr.’s dream. It represented the repeated attempts, from the left and
the right, to preserve their image of the American dream through violence. The
period was marked by war, domestic terror attacks, mistrust in government,
and a struggle to preserve the image of a strong American democracy. While
President Carter offered a brief reprieve of this era of Republicans, Ronald
Reagan’s sweeping success and vehement declaration of a “tough on crime”
agenda are significant in an era ushered in by a terrorist organization.

The American Rebranding

The final realignment is currently ongoing. The American Nightmare
Era concludes with George H.W. Bush’s single term, whom many thought of
as an extension of the Reagan administration, and the Clinton presidency
brought the era to a close. Seeing major struggles throughout the Clinton
presidency and the narrow loss in the 2000 election, Democrats were reeling
from decades of an inadequate national presence. Their reformed strategy has
propelled us into the era we currently exist in, brought on, not only but in large
part, due to the technology revolution that created the internet and social media.
 John Jay’s Finest  178

The realignment we are facing now is based around the Democrats’ fight to
gain control again through the activation of non-white and young voters: The
American Rebranding.
Beginning with the Obama 2008 campaign, their new media strategy
began a path toward activating a new set of voters to help revitalize the
Democratic party. Essential to this attention to marginalized communities can
in part be attributed to the Immigrants’ Rights Protest movement, which drew
a significant amount of attention to the non-white electorate. The movement
began in response to a House bill that would have enforced further
criminalization of immigrants through increased enforcement organizations
(Gregory, 2015). The protests spanned multiple weeks and various cities. Most
notably, on April 10th, nationally held protests and walkouts tried to emulate
a “Day without Immigrants” in over 100 cities with close to one and a half
million advocates participating in some form of a coalition (Gregory, 2015).
The Age of Rebranding is continued with significant actions like Black
Lives Matter and the MeToo movement. Out of this era, we have seen the rise
of nearly countless grassroots organizations that have changed the scene of
modern politics in many ways. The Obama presidential campaign utilized new
media like Facebook and Twitter but in no way came close to how these
platforms were used in the 2016 and 2020 elections (Nelson, n.d).
Groups like Black Lives Matter, Mijente, MoveOn, Sister District, and
FreedomWorks have all had a hand in activating voters in an attempt to swing
this realignment period one way or the other. At the moment, it is difficult to
assess which groups will be the most influential on the era, but it is clear a
transition is upon us. The American electorate is shifting in its racial and ethnic
makeup. The control of the branches of government is contingent on the ability
to activate growing groups and not just the dominant ones. The growth of social
media platforms has allowed for grassroots organizing to soar to new heights,
with political action at the click of a button.
The entirety of the Trump presidency made it clear that the American
electorate is at a contentious divide, but in the near future, that tension will end.
The victor of the American Rebranding will lead our nation into a new political
age that will likely see sweeping change to our government structure. If the left
is successful, there will be serious consideration of expanding the American
states, progressive policies on the environment, the economy, and healthcare,
and intentionally ignored communities may become the leading changemakers.
If the right wins out, America may face continued reverting to Reagan era
policies, small government initiatives, and a rollback on environmental and
economic protections.
 John Jay’s Finest  179

VII. CONCLUSION
Existing realignment literature has not agreed on a realignment since
the New Deal era. That means it has been 89 years since the last realignment
period or that America is still experiencing the New Deal realignment, both of
which I believe are incorrect. My analysis of the American elections integrates
the American voter into the traditional understanding of partisanship through
grassroots organizations. In each of the historical realignment periods, local
political action was instrumental in fortifying what became of the dominant
political party and how they governed. Mass political action has continued to
be a driver in our government system since 1932 in the American Nightmare
era and what will become the American Rebranding.
My research is limited in part because of minimal reporting on the
history of these organizations. However, it also does not include many other
political organizations that could have played a role in realignment.
Nonetheless, our current political climate has shown us how vital local voices
can be in the national agenda. Understanding how and why realignments
develop is instrumental in understanding the volatility of American
partisanship.
While previous theories attempted to explain the phenomena,
grassroots organizing reintroduces the voter into the discussion. If democracy
is built on the constituents, a theory of partisanship must include their
involvement. Over time, individuals change their minds, learn and develop.
They grow to reflect the changing world around them. Politicians do the same,
but they need to follow their supporters and they do this by understanding local
groups. In the aftermath of crisis and upheaval, it is not the political elite that
stabilize the nation. It is in our communities that we find a way forward.

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