Improving Knowledge Management in e-Learning:

A Contingent Framework for Efficient

Knowledge Transfer
Dr. Anitha Chennamaneni1 and Jayson G. Brown1
1
Computer Information Systems, Texas A&M University – Central Texas, Killeen, TX, USA

This research paper explores the role of knowledge

Abstract - Knowledge management (KM) is the top most
management in e-Learning and develops a conceptual
important factor in e-Learning. This research paper explores
framework for managing knowledge effectively in e-
the role of KM in e-Learning and develops a conceptual
Learning programs. We discuss different types of knowledge
framework for successfully managing and transferring
and make an analysis of how varied KM techniques, e-
knowledge. We review different types of knowledge and
Learning technologies, platforms and online solutions are
discuss how varied KM techniques, e-Learning technologies,
usable in managing and disseminating the knowledge. Our
platforms and possible solutions improve KM and knowledge
research framework is grounded theoretically in the
transfer in e-Learning programs. Our research framework is
knowledge creation theory [1] and the media richness theory
grounded theoretically in the knowledge creation theory and
[2]. Our framework is extremely useful to the academicians
the media richness theory. This framework is extremely useful
and practitioners alike as it provides them the expertise to
to the academicians and practitioners alike as it guides them
implement a respectable pedagogy to maximize the online
in implementing a respectable pedagogy for effectively
students’ learning curves with proper KM management. We
managing and transferring knowledge in the e-Learning
will validate this framework through an assessment by a
environment.
panel of experts as well as a lab experiment in a future study.
Keywords: Knowledge Management, Knowledge Transfer,
The rest of this research paper is organized as follows.
Course Combination, Research Framework, Knowledge
The next section discusses the unique facets of learning in
Management Systems
the environment of e-Learning. It will be followed by a
1 Introduction review of KM literature on what constitutes knowledge,
different types of knowledge and how knowledge is created.
E-Learning has become a well-known popular Following it, we describe the research framework for
alternative to traditional education. Today, many colleges managing and transferring knowledge effectively. Finally, we
and universities around the world adopt it. Several conclude the paper with discussion on contributions to
universities are starting to teach online versions of their research and implications to practice.
courses and new logical universities are coming to exist to
include this demographic of the population. A number of 2 The e-Learning environment
trends such as developments in information and
communication technologies, flexibility and convenience of An important aspect of KM is the transferring and
distance education have accelerated the demand for e- sharing of knowledge as opposed to dissemination of
Learning. Asynchronous online education allows individuals information. For the knowledge to be successfully transferred
to achieve the ability to harness the power of the Internet or a and shared there has to be a close interaction between the
local Intranet to obtain educational materials and services at student, instructor, learning content and peers in the class.
any place or time with accessibility. The e-Learning environment differs from traditional learning
environment in many ways. First, the e-Learning
However, e-Learning poses some unique challenges as environment allows both synchronous and asynchronous
learning in this environment is distributed with students and learning unlike traditional environment where synchronous
instructors physically separated in space and time. In learning is the most common form. The learning in the e-
addition, the students exercise volitional control of learning Learning context is generally self-paced, with zero to many
rather than the instructor. The success or failure of learning
virtual interactions using tools such as virtual lecture halls,
in e-Learning courses depends not only on the course design
Skype, chats, discussions and so forth. Second, students tend
and quality of the content, but also on how fruitful the
to be afraid to ask questions in traditional settings, which
knowledge transfer has been from the instructor to the
lowers participation, while students in online learning ask
students as well as from students to students. Therefore,
them easily [3]. T h i r d , equal contributions from each
knowledge management (KM) is the uppermost factor in any
learner can occur in the environment of e-Learning, while
e-Learning environment.
traditional methods must move on to the next lesson to interactive conversations, shared experiences and the use of
accommodate their time periods which will leave out appropriate knowledge transfer techniques, such as
crucial contributions from students. Fourth, online storytelling, mentoring, content maps, tools and technologies
education allows more time for the individuals to mediate that have the capability to support rich media.
about the situation and assert an effective meaningful
The online environment can have sufficient explicit
response. Fifth, e-Learning environment requires the students materials, but the lack of tacit knowledge will lead to
to have access to technology and be competent in using the confusion of the subject matter and the inability to complete
required technology to access the course content. Traditional the lesson. An example is in programming, the student might
methods will not need technology access and can press on learn the syntax of the language that resembles the explicit
without these types of amenities. The lack of this feature will knowledge but not the actual logic behind the coding, which
create a technology access barrier against the student in the is the tacit knowledge. Tacit knowledge is vital to increasing
knowledge transfer of an e-Learning environment [4]. Several the learning and knowledge transfer [4]. Several instructors
other differences exist between these two learning exhibits different levels of tacit knowledge due to their field
environments, but the above discussion facilitates crucial experience and overall wisdom and it is important that this
facets of e-Learning. knowledge be shared with the students.
3 Knowledge 4 Knowledge transfer
Knowledge is the accumulation and awareness of Depending on the knowledge type, four different
information, facts, ideas and principles. It can be acquired processes are involved in knowledge conversion and transfer
by study, investigation, observation and experience. [1]. These are socialization, externalization, combination and
Knowledge management is critical in harnessing these internalization [1]. Table 1 presents Nonaka and Takeuchi’s
varieties of knowledge [6, 7]. Knowledge is the main capital KM model [1].
of knowledge workers and exists in a variety of forms and
media [5]. Knowledge can be explicit or tacit [1, 7]. The Table 1: Nonaka and Takeuchi’s KM model [1]
combination of explicit and tacit knowledge makes up the
learning content in e-Learning. Knowledge management is Nonaka and Takeuchi’s KM model [1]
critical in harnessing these types of knowledge [6, 7].
To
3.1 Explicit knowledge Tacit Explicit
Explicit knowledge is knowledge that is consciously From
understood and can be formally articulated, codified and Tacit Socialization Externalization
documented [1]. Explicit knowledge exists in forms of
words, documents, computer programs or other means [8]. Explicit Internalization Combination
Content management systems such as Blackboard and Web-
CT support the creation, storage and distribution of • Socialization involves transferring tacit knowledge from
explicit knowledge. The course administrator can upload one person to another person through socializing and
the explicit knowledge content into the knowledge exchanging of ideas and experiences.
repository for the students to retrieve and review at any
• Externalization involves articulating and translating tacit
time during the lesson. Non-existence of this content
knowledge into explicit knowledge and storing it in a
material will lead the individuals to failure. In the
repository.
environment of e-Learning, this is a crucial aspect since
face-to-face meetings do not exist. • Internalization involves acquiring explicit knowledge from
repositories, books, Internet and other public sources and
3.2 Tacit knowledge internalizing it, where upon it becomes tacit knowledge.
Unlike explicit knowledge, tacit knowledge is
subconsciously understood and applied. It is very difficult • Combination involves combining explicit knowledge from
and challenging to articulate, share and leverage this type of multiple sources to create new explicit knowledge.
knowledge. Generally speaking, tacit knowledge includes
personal experiences, judgment, skills, individual expertise
4.1 Knowledge transfer in e-Learning
and integrates human factors such as beliefs, perspectives and The current students’ obtainment of knowledge requires
culture that make it very difficult to interpret [4]. Because of a successful learning strategy from the instructor and an
“tacit-ness” in knowledge, it is not feasible to capture it in a adequate feedback mechanism to determine the potency of
report or a power point slide. In the e-Learning environment, the overall transfer of knowledge in each lesson. The
articulation and sharing of tacit knowledge requires highly feedback mechanism will serve to instill changes in the
learning strategy and to fill in the voids that the students secession with a well-planned deterrence strategy to lessen
exhibit during the testing stage to achieve top optimization of the barriers’ presence to achieve top optimization for the
overall knowledge transfer of the course material. Figure 1 success of knowledge transfer in an e-Learning environment.
presents the flow of knowledge during an e-Learning course,
which facilitates the different stages and impediments to the 5.1 KM in traditional education
knowledge transfer during the course’s progress. Traditional course delivery requires students to attend
synchronous meetings in a physical classroom setting with
the instructor presenting the lecture over the lesson’s subject
matter [10, 11]. There is not an online knowledge repository
to provide explicit materials to the students in true traditional
delivery. The students will need to take notes and uphold
mental images of the lecture if the professor does not hand
out hard copy material over the lecture. Explicit knowledge
will come in the form of the course manual and the handouts.
Other documentation from the instructor might be available
depending on the learning strategy employed and the degree
of active teaching involved. Much of the tacit knowledge that
exists in the minds of individuals is transmitted through
social group interaction and networks making knowledge
management people-intensive [8]. Internship and mentoring
exercises provide practical experiences to students. Upon
externalization, the people-intensive knowledge becomes
technology-intensive. The feedback mechanisms to determine
the students’ learning curves are crucial to achieve top
optimization of the course’s knowledge transfer. Hybrid
courses have been emerging to instill an online knowledge
repository. This hybrid development combines traditional and
online functionalities [10]. Hybrid implementations need to
analyze the material, determine the translation of this material
to an online format and evaluate and change the strategy as
issues emerge [10]. This functionality allows traditional
settings to achieve several opportunities and lowers the
course burden that might be present in traditional delivery.

5.2 Challenges of KM in e-Learning

Figure 1: Knowledge transfer in an e-Learning environment The management of knowledge in e-Learning is a new
ballgame in comparison to the traditional delivery. Students
Communication technologies such as email, forums, can set the learning at their own pace in most e-Learning
chats and video conferencing support knowledge transfer [4]. instances [10]. The implementation of e-Learning is not
Effective transfer of knowledge requires several prevention hybrid and has several differences from traditional
techniques to reduce barriers that will affect the learning of knowledge management. Explicit materials will be present in
the online student(s) [4]. These barriers will include cultural the online repository for downloading and studying. The lack
differences, low computer literacy, lack of technology access, of these materials and the absence of a procedure for
lack of trust and several impediments that affect the learning advancing will present a barrier. There are no physical class
[4]. Online environments will have different types of barriers meetings in e-Learning and the entire course is run in virtual
from traditional methods and will need proper adjustment to reality [10].
provide an excellent learning strategy.
Tacit knowledge becomes much harder to acquire from
5 KM in e-Learning this standpoint due to the lack of observation and other tacit
knowledge acquisition means that exist in the traditional
The management of knowledge is one of the key setting. Therefore, it becomes critical to implement chats,
characteristics in achieving successful knowledge transfer in discussions, wikis and video and audio conferences to raise
e-Learning [3]. The lack of efficient knowledge management the students’ learning curves. Testing will come in the form
will spark confusion among students, create impending of online quizzes and exams, but some institutions may
barriers and lower the overall knowledge transfer of the require proctoring in these situations to reduce academic
lesson(s). These types of barriers need proper elimination or dishonesty. The results will provide the feedback mechanism
to implement new materials in the knowledge repository that present contents in an e-Learning program influences how
will help with the students’ weaknesses. Another barrier in effectively knowledge is transferred and shared among the
online setting is cultural differences. Online learning can learners in the e-Learning course. For instance, lean media
harness worldwide or regional cultures that differ widely and may be sufficient to transfer explicit knowledge. However,
may cause issues such as the ones with language and rich media is necessary to facilitate the effective transfer of
linguistics [4]. A last barrier in e-Learning is the lack of trust tacit knowledge that requires high interactive conversations,
that appears in the online environment [4]. Students do not shared experiences and use of knowledge transfer techniques.
meet the instructor(s) and therefore may not establish an
emotional bond that facilitates knowledge transfer. This can 6.2 Research Framework for improving KM
create distrust and cause the student(s) to create a mental in e-Learning
block since these individuals are not sure over the legitimacy
of the material or about bias presentation from the individual. Our research framework is grounded theoretically in the
knowledge creation theory [1] and the media richness theory
6 Improving KM in e-Learning [2]. Based on theoretical conceptualizations of these theories,
we have assessed the various communication media, KM
Knowledge management (KM) has various paths to techniques, tools and technologies for their potential to allow
establish sufficient knowledge transfer in e-Learning. A transferring and sharing of knowledge in the e-Learning
successful learning strategy or pedagogy with high degree of program. Table 2 maps the Nonaka and Takeuchi’s KM
knowledge management in the online repository will raise model with the appropriate communication media, KM
knowledge transfer and the overall students’ learning curves. techniques, tools and technologies for effective capture and
transfer of knowledge in e-Learning. The classification is
6.1 Media richness tentative and is presented as theoretical propositions.
A communication channel facilitates interaction and Table 2: Mapping Communication Media to Knowledge
sharing of knowledge among individuals. Examples of few Creation and Transfer Process
online communication channels include video conferencing,
teleconferencing, chats and the use of social networking tools Nonaka and Takeuchi’s KM model [1]
such as Web 2.0 technologies. Per media richness theory [2], TO
each of these channels has its own advantages and Tacit Explicit
disadvantages and as such is more suited to transfer particular Tacit Socialization Externalization
type of knowledge over the other. The media richness is the
Knowledge Portals, Groupware,
ability of a medium to transfer information and has lean and
Knowledge Maps, Knowledge Portals,
rich implementations for each of the two types of knowledge
Online social Knowledge Based
[12]. Lean material will include electronic mails,
networks, Systems, Workflow,
documentation, asynchronous audio and discussions that are
Video Video
common in either learning methods. Video conferencing,
Conferencing, Conferencing,
face-to-face communication, and several other interactive
Web2.0 Web2.0
tools facilitate rich media into an e-Learning environment.
Any medium typically has two types of capacities to carry Technologies, technologies,
information. These are the data carrying capacity and the Corporate Yellow Chat Rooms,
symbol carrying capacity [12]. The data carrying capacity is Pages, Document
the ability to transmit overall information such as the Streaming, Tagging
F Audio/Video
throughput [12]. The symbol carrying capacity refers to the R
ability to carry metadata over the situation [12]. O Explicit Internalization Combination
Media richness theory defines the richness of a medium M Innovation Document
as its capability to reduce uncertainty and equivocality in the Support Tools, Management
information presented. It asserts that matching the richness of Web2.0 Systems,
medium to the task improves the performance of the task. Technologies Document
Further, it claims that richer media is better at supporting Tagging,
tasks that have both uncertainty and equivocality built into Knowledge
them. Rich media such as face to face interaction, video Portals,
conferencing facilitates users to communicate effectively by Intranet
allowing them to convey multiple cues (body language, facial Based systems
expressions, voice tone etc.), immediate feedback, Discussion
personalization and language variety, thus, improving the Forums,
performance of the tasks. Alternatively, lean media is better Chat Rooms
suited to less equivocal tasks. The choice of media used to
 E-Learning technologies coupled with KM facilitate knowledge transfer and reduction of the said will prove vital
each of these different types of knowledge creation and to successful knowledge transfer. Adobe Acrobat, FileFold
conversion processes and allow a high level of knowledge and several other knowledge control programs allow
transfer. Socialization requires the creation of a collaborative metadata tagging with certain versions for portable document
learning environment between the instructor and the students formats or other documents with simple processes. Another
as well as among the students. Online social networks such as example is Meta tags in HTML documentation that will
Facebook, Twitter, Web 2.0 technologies, knowledge portals permit the parser to optimize search engine results and the
and knowledge maps facilitate tacit to tacit knowledge browser’s behavior. A last method is document clustering,
transfer by identifying and promoting high interaction among which help group documents and ensure effectiveness with
students and instructors with special interests, shared the proper usage of algorithms to improve accuracy with
experiences and knowledge. Online social networks often similarity matrices and probabilistic methods [14]. Instilling
function as virtual lounges wherein instructor and students these types of metadata functionalities in the material will
can converse with one-to-one, one-to-many, and many-to- improve overall knowledge management and benefit the
many students and collaborate on their school work. Social courses’ knowledge transfer in the e-Learning environment.
networking sites such as KnowledgeBook, BookTag, and
SlideShare are known to facilitate knowledge dissemination. 6.4 Yellow/White Pages
Externalization involves articulation and translation of An expert directory is another managerial technique that
tacit knowledge into explicit knowledge and storing it in a exists to allow a source of obtainment for human capital and
repository. The knowledge of instructors and other learners in their respective knowledge. Yellow Pages, or sometimes
the e-Learning course can be captured and represented using referred to as White Pages, are essentially a list of available
appropriate knowledge transfer mechanisms and can be made experts, expertise and contact information [15]. Yellow
available for reuse by others. Some tools that externalize Pages foster knowledge communication between co- workers
knowledge in e-Learning include content maps, knowledge through the meta-knowledge of experts, but do not maintain
portals, synchronous and asynchronous groupware, the actual knowledge [15]. Tacit knowledge becomes highly
application sharing, instant messaging and learning available with this system and will help improve productivity
management systems. Internalization involves acquiring and flexibility in these organizations. In the event of the
explicit knowledge from repositories, books, the Internet and necessity of knowledge to incur competitive advantage, then
other public sources then internalizing it, where upon it the recipient(s) can review the Yellow Pages and deduce
becomes a tacit knowledge. Several e-Learning media such as possible knowledge sources over the particular topic for their
Web 2.0 technologies, including wikis and blogs, foster an specific issue. Large pools of employees from different
innovative learning environment. Finally, the combination geographical locations disallow the ability to personally
technique creates new knowledge in the e-Learning course know each of these individuals [15].
using knowledge portals, document management systems, Keeping the system up-to-date is critical for efficient
document tagging and other means. Pedagogical techniques knowledge management. Personal ownership abilities to
can also be included in this process. update their own respective instance will help eliminate the
principles of neglect and ignorance with ensured
6.3 Document tagging
participation. Initiating this directory into an easy to access
E-Learning materials are exponentially rising in quantity area and reminding the users of its existence is another key
causing difficulty to organize and disseminate materials with aspect. The benefits from Yellow Pages are manifold. The
the abundant information [13]. Large collections of institution will be able to identify who knows what and share
knowledge will become harder to sift through and can cause the knowledge to gain competitive advantage [15]. The
delays and confusion. Achieving the ability to index materials dissemination of knowledge is crucial for sufficient
is crucial to the classification and the dissemination of knowledge transfer to e-Learning students. Lack of expert
knowledge in an online repository. Archiving knowledge will directories such as yellow/white pages in the institution will
help with successful searching and rendering of information incur a learning barrier and prevent successful student
inside the knowledge repository and raise the efficiency of learning curves or development of pedagogies for instructors.
the overall knowledge transfer. Marking the documentation
with descriptive tags becomes a common method of 6.5 Combining course instances
accomplishing efficient future searches [13]. Instilling this Many universities generally have multiple sections for
ability into the knowledge will allow efficient results during some of the courses taught each semester. Often, the
searching to the actual information that the user needed and instructors teaching different sections have different levels of
eliminate false positives. tacit and explicit knowledge depending on their field
There is a great demand for knowledge and information experiences and other factors. Also, the teaching methods
causing information overload which is a serious issue [14]. they employ are different. While some are proactive and
Information overload is a critical barrier during a student’s provide all the content materials needed to maximize the
student’s learning, others may provide minimal content. This preference and funding. There are several operable database
creates an impediment that will cause unfairness between mediums to allow universities to harness this KM
these course sections and will cause few of the students not to functionality. Moodle, Blackboard, WebCT and internal
achieve their full potential. A simple remedy is to store all the databases are a few examples of learning management
important content materials in a centralized repository and systems. Each has a wide variety of available tools to
give students and instructors to access it. implement successful management and dissemination of the
course content. Several of these systems also allow
The mandated learning objectives from the university
communication, collaboration, group decision support and
system will remain the same in each section, but will have
technical help. A crucial aspect of these systems is the
different delivery methods. Each instructor will still have his
interface’s user friendly aspect and its functionality that it
or her own pedagogy of teaching, but knowledge will be
provides to the end user population. Management inside of
obtainable in every instance from the combined course area
these databases can be astounding, but the lack of
for the students. Discussions would achieve more responses
navigability will cause user confusion causing a lower
from students, which raises the knowledge level and reduces
learning curve. Therefore, courses in the learning
bias of the subject. Other advantages remain and will raise
management system have to be carefully designed in order to
the overall learning curve from the abundant material. The
optimize knowledge transfer.
diagram below depicts this scenario to raise the efficiency of
knowledge management and improve knowledge transfer in 8 Contributions & implications
an e-Learning environment.
This research article reviewed different types of
knowledge and analyzed how usage of varied KM
techniques, e-Learning technologies and platforms improve
KM and knowledge transfer in e-Learning programs. We
developed an extremely suitable framework for efficient
knowledge management in e-Learning. The framework based
on the knowledge creation theory and media richness theory
utilizes a well-built pedagogy that minimizes barriers and
raises the overall creation and transfer of knowledge. We will
validate this framework through an assessment utilizing a
panel of experts and a lab experiment in a future study.
Successful knowledge management in e-Learning begins
with the implementation of explicit knowledge in the
knowledge repositories, knowledge portals and learning
management systems. However, it is important to note that
managing and transferring tacit knowledge effectively is vital
to increasing the overall learning of students. We assessed
Figure 2: Knowledge Combination Inside of a KMS the various communication media, KM techniques, tools and
technologies and contend that rich media is necessary for
7 Learning mgmt. & content systems effectively managing and transferring tacit knowledge. Our
Implementation of efficient learning management with framework and recommendations are extremely useful to the
the previous research framework and the other facets exhibits academicians and practitioners alike as they guide them in
a correct strategy to apply a successful e-Learning experience implementing a respectable pedagogy for effectively
in an instructor’s pedagogy. In traditional methods, managing and transferring knowledge in any e-Learning
knowledge creation and dissemination happens through program. Several other adjustments to help raise the
lectures, face-to-face interactions, mentoring and practical adeptness of KM in e-Learning are also discussed. Instilling
hands-on experiences. E-Learning relies on learning combination methods to reduce redundant materials will
management and content systems since both of these systems provide across the board information to all students. The use
serve as repositories and medium of communication and of document tagging and utilization of corporate yellow
collaboration during the entire course while synchronous pages are other available methods to enhance learning.
actions are not present. The actual knowledge transfer is the
most crucial aspect in learning and will require an efficient
9 References
knowledge repository for the most successful dissemination [1] Ikujiro Nonaka and Hirotaka Takeuchi. “The Knowledge-
capabilities. Creating Company: How Japanese Companies Create the
Learning management systems can exist through Dynamics of Innovation”; Oxford University Press Inc., May
intranets or extranets depending on the university’s 1995
[2] Richard Daft and Robert Lengel. “Organizational [13] Daiga Bekere and Sarma Cakula. “Modeling of
Information Requirements, Media Richness and Structural Collaborative Tagging Services for Sharing and Reusing E-
Design”; Management Science, Vol. 32, No. 5, 554-571, learning Materials on the Web”; ICTE In Regional
1986 Development: 2008 Annual Proceedings, 65-72, 2008

[3] Md. Shiful Islam, Susumu Kunifuji, Motoki Miura and [14] Kam-Fai Wong, Nam-Kiu Chan and Kam-Lai Wong.
Tessai Hayama. “Adopting Knowledge Management in an E- “Improving Document Clustering by Utilizing Meta-Data”;
learning System: Insights and Views of KM and EL Research In Proceedings of the Sixth International Workshop on
Scholars”; Knowledge Management & E-Learning: An Information Retrieval with Asian Languages (Association for
International Journal, Vol.3 No. 3, 375-398, 2011 Computational Linguistics), Vol 11, 109-115, July 2003

[4] Nthaniel David Oye, Mazleena Salleh and N.A. Iahad. [15] Stéphanie Gretsch, Heinz Mandl and Raphaela Schätz.
“E-Learning Barriers and Solutions to Knowledge “Implementation Process of a Knowledge Management
Management and Transfer”; Information Management and Initiative: Yellow Pages”; New Research on Knowledge:
Business Review, Vol. 3 No. 6, 366-372, Dec 2011 Management Models and Methods, 311-332, Mar 2012

[5] Linh-Chi Vo. “Pragmatist Perspective on Knowledge

and Knowledge Management in Organizations”; International
Business Research (Canadian Center of Science and
Education), Vol. 5 No. 9, 78-88, Aug 2012

[6] Rifat Shannak, Ra'ed Masa'deh, Zu'bi Al-Zu'bi, Bader

Obeidat, Muhammad Alshurideh and Hamzah Altamony. “A
Theoretical Perspective on the Relationship between
Knowledge Management Systems, Customer Knowledge
Management, and Firm Competitive Advantage”; European
Journal Of Social Science, Vol. 32 No. 4, 520-532, Aug 2012
[7] Rana Geeta. “Knowledge Management and E-Learning
Activities in the 21st Century to attain Competitive
Advantage”; Advances In Management, Vol. 3 Issue 5, 54-
56, May 2010

[8] William King. “Knowledge Management and

Organizational Learning”; Annals of Information Systems
(Springer-Verlag), Vol. 4, June 2009

[9] Samantha Murray and Joseph Peyrefitte. “Knowledge

Type and Communication Media Choice in the Knowledge
Transfer Process”; Journal of Managerial Issues Vol. 19 No.
1, 111-133, Mar 2007

[10] Genie Black. “A Comparison of Traditional, Online, and

Hybrid Methods of Course Delivery”; Journal of Business
Administration Online, Vol. 1 No. 1, 2002

[11] Roy Howsen and Stephen Lile. “A Comparison of

Course Delivery Methods: An Exercise in Experimental
Economics”; Journal of Economics and Finance Education,
Vol. 7 No. 1, 21-28, Mar 2007

[12] Linda Trevino, Robert Lengel and Richard Daft. “Media

Symbolism, Media Richness, and Media Choice in
Organizations : A Symbolic Interactionist Perspective”;
Communication Research: An International Quarterly, Vol 14
No. 5, 553-574, Oct 1987