Lesson III:

Electrical, Electronic and Logic Components

This standard contains definitions and general information applicable to most of the
commonly used Electrical and Electronics Diagrams. It also includes detailed recommendations
on preferred practices for use in the preparation of Electrical and Electronics Diagrams. The
recommended practices covered by this standard are ground rules designed to eliminate
divergent Electrical and Electronics Diagram drafting techniques. The illustrations shown
represent good drafting practices. They are not intended as engineering design guides.

Integrated Circuit

Every electronic appliance we use in our day-to-day life, such as mobile phones,
laptops, refrigerators, computers, televisions and all other electrical and electronic devices are
manufactured with some simple or complex circuits. Electronic circuits are realized using
multiple electrical and electronic components connected with each other by connecting wires or
conducting wires for the flow of electric current through the multiple components of the circuit,
such as resistors, capacitors, inductors, diodes, transistors, and so on.
Circuits can be classified into different types based on different criteria, such as, based on
connections: series circuits and parallel circuits; based on the size and manufacturing process
of circuit: integrated circuits and discrete circuits; and, based on signal used in circuit: ana0log
circuits and digital circuits.

Integrated circuit or IC or microchip or chip is a microscopic electronic circuit array

formed by the fabrication of various electrical and electronic components (resistors, capacitors,
transistors, and so on) on a semiconductor material (silicon) wafer, which can perform
operations similar to the large discrete electronic circuits made of discrete electronic
components.

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 Integrated Circuits

As all these arrays of components, microscopic circuits and semiconductor wafer

material base are integrated together to form a single chip, hence, it is called as integrated
circuit or integrated chip or microchip.

Electronic circuits are developed using individual or discrete electronic components with
different sizes, such that the cost and size of these discrete circuits increase with the number of
components used in the circuit. To conquer this negative aspect, the integrated circuit
technology was developed – Jack Kilby of Texas Instruments developed the first IC or
integrated circuit in the 1950s and thereafter, Robert Noyce of Fairchild Semiconductor solved
some practical problems of this integrated circuit.

Different Types of Integrated Circuits

There are different types of ICs; classification of Integrated Circuits is done based on
various criteria. A few types of ICs in a system are shown in the below figure with their names in
a tree format.

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 Different Types of ICs

Based on the intended application, the IC are classified as analog integrated circuits,
digital integrated circuits and mixed integrated circuits.

Digital Integrated Circuits

The integrated circuits that operate only at a few defined levels instead of operating over
all levels of signal amplitude are called as Digital ICs and these are designed by using multiple
number of digital logic gates, multiplexers, flip flops and other electronic components of circuits.
These logic gates work with binary input data or digital input data, such as 0 (low or false or
logic 0) and 1 (high or true or logic 1)

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Digital Integrated Circuits

The above figure shows the steps involved in designing a typical digital integrated
circuits. These digital ICs are frequently used in the computers, microprocessors, digital signal
processors, computer networks and frequency counters. There are different types of digital ICs
or types of digital integrated circuits, such as programmable ICs, memory chips, logic ICs,
power management ICs and interface ICs.

Analog Integrated Circuits

The integrated circuits that operate over a continuous range of signal are called as
Analog ICs. These are subdivided as linear Integrated Circuits (Linear ICs) and Radio
Frequency Integrated Circuits (RF ICs). In fact, the relationship between the voltage and current
maybe nonlinear in some cases over a long range of the continuous analog signal.

Analog Integrated Circuits

The frequently used analog IC is an operational amplifier or simply called as an op-amp,

similar to the differential amplifier, but possesses a very high voltage gain. It consists of very
less number of transistors compared to the digital ICs, and, for developing analog application
specific integrated circuits (analog ASICs), computerized simulation tools are used.

Mixed Integrated Circuits

The integrated circuits that are obtained by the combination of analog and digital ICs on
a single chip are called as Mixed ICs. These ICs functions as Digital to Analog

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converters, Analog to Digital converters (D/A and A/D converters) and clock/timing ICs. The
circuit depicted in the above figure is an example of mixed integrated circuit which is a
photograph of the 8 to 18 GHz self-healing radar receiver.

Mixed Integrated Circuits

This mixed-signal Systems-on-a-chip is a result of advances in the integration

technology, which enabled to integrate digital, multiple analog and RF functions on a single
chip.

General types of integrated circuits (ICs) include the following:

Logic Circuits

Logic Circuits

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 These ICs are designed using logic gates-that work with binary input and output (0 or 1).
These are mostly used as decision makers. Based on the logic or truth table of the logic gates,
all the logic gates connected in the IC give an output based on the circuit connected inside the
IC- such that this output is used for performing a specific intended task. A few logic ICs are
shown above.

Comparators

Comparators

The comparator ICs are used as comparators for comparing the inputs and then to
produce an output based on the ICs’ comparison.

Switching ICs

Switching ICs

Switches or Switching ICs are designed by using the transistors and are used for
performing the switching operations. The above figure is an example showing an SPDT IC
switch.

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Audio amplifiers

Audio amplifiers

The audio amplifiers are one of the many types of ICs, which are used for the
amplification of the audio. These are generally used in the audio speakers, television circuits,
and so on. The above circuit shows the low- voltage audio amplifier IC.

Operational amplifiers

Operational amplifiers

The operational amplifiers are frequently used ICs, similar to the audio amplifiers which
are used for the audio amplification. These op-amps are used for the amplification purpose, and
these ICs work similar to the transistor amplifier circuits. The pin configuration of the 741 op-
amp IC is shown in the above figure.

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Timer ICs

Timer ICs

Timers are special purpose integrated circuits used for the purpose of counting and to
keep a track of time in intended applications. The block diagram of the internal circuit of
the LM555 timer IC is shown in the above circuit.
Based on the number of components used (typically based on the number of transistors used),
they are as follows

 Small-scale integration consists of only a few transistors (tens of transistors on a chip),

these ICs played a critical role in early aerospace projects.
 Medium-scale integration consists of some hundreds of transistors on the IC chip
developed in the 1960s and achieved better economy and advantages compared to the SSI
ICs.
 Large-scale integration consists of thousands of transistors on the chip with almost the
same economy as medium scale integration ICs. The first microprocessor, calculator chips and
RAMs of 1Kbit developed in the 1970s had below four thousand transistors.
 Very large-scale integration consists of transistors from hundreds to several billions in
number.(Development period: from 1980s to 2009)
 Ultra-large-scale integration consists of transistors in excess of more than one million,
and later wafer-scale integration (WSI), system on a chip (SoC) and three dimensional
integrated circuit (3D-IC) were developed.
All these can be treated as generations of integrated technology. ICs are also classified
based on the fabrication process and packing technology. There are numerous types of ICs

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among which, an IC will function as timer, counter, register, amplifier, oscillator, logic gate,
adder, microprocessor, and so on.

The conventional Integrated circuits are reduced in practical usage, because of the
invention of the nano-electronics and the miniaturization of ICs being continued by this Nano-
electronics technology. However, the conventional ICs are not yet replaced by nano-electronics
but the usage of the conventional ICs is getting diminished partially. For improving this article
technically, please post your queries, ideas and suggestions as your comments in the below
section.

Transmitters

A transmitter consists of a precise oscillating circuit or oscillator that creates an AC

carrier wave frequency. This is combined with amplification circuits or amplifiers. The distance a
carrier wave travels is directly related to the amplification of the signal sent to the antenna.

Other circuits are used in a transmitter to accept the input information signal and process
it for loading onto the carrier wave. Modulator circuits modify the carrier wave with the
processed information signal. Essentially, this is all there is to a radio transmitter.

NOTE: Modern transmitters are highly refined devices with extremely precise frequency
oscillation and modulation. The circuitry for controlling, filtering, amplifying, modulating, and
oscillating electronic signals can be complex.

A transmitter prepares and sends signals to an antenna that, in the process described
above, radiates the waves out into the atmosphere. A transmitter with multiple channel
(frequency) capability contains tuning circuitry that enables the user to select the frequency
upon which to broadcast. This adjusts the oscillator output to the precise frequency desired. It is
the oscillator frequency that is being tuned. [Figure 11-84] As shown in Figure 11-84, most radio
transmitters generate a stable oscillating frequency and then use a frequency multiplier to raise
the AC to the transmitting frequency. This allows oscillation to occur at frequencies that are
controllable and within the physical working limits of the crystal in crystal-controlled oscillators.

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 Figure 11-84. Block diagram of a basic radio transmitter.

Receivers

Antennas are simply conductors of lengths proportional to the wavelength of the

oscillated frequency put out by the transmitter. An antenna captures the desired carrier wave as
well as many other radio waves that are present in the atmosphere. A receiver is needed to
isolate the desired carrier wave with its information. The receiver also has circuitry to separate
the information signal from the carrier wave. It prepares it for output to a device, such as
speakers or a display screen. The output is the information signal originally introduced into the
transmitter.

A common receiver is the super heterodyne receiver. As with any receiver, it must
amplify the desired radio frequency captured by the antenna since it is weak from traveling
through the atmosphere. An oscillator in the receiver is used to compare and select the desired
frequency out of all of the frequencies picked up by the antenna. The undesired frequencies are
sent to ground.

A local oscillator in the receiver produces a frequency that is different than the radio
frequency of the carrier wave. These two frequencies are mixed in the mixer. Four frequencies
result from this mixing. They are the radio frequency, the local oscillator frequency, and the sum
and difference of these two frequencies. The sum and difference frequencies contain the
information signal.

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 The frequency that is the difference between the local oscillator frequency and the radio
frequency carrier wave frequency is used during the remaining processing. In VHF aircraft
communication radios, this frequency is 10.8 MHz called the intermediate frequency, it is
amplified before it is sent to the detector. The detector, or demodulator, is where the information
signal is separated from the carrier wave portion of the signal. In AM, since both sidebands
contain the useful information, the signal is rectified leaving just one sideband with a weak
version of the original transmitter input signal. In FM receivers, the varying frequency is changed
to a varying amplitude signal at this point. Finally, amplification occurs for the output device.
[Figure 11-85]

Figure 11-85. The basic stages used in a receiver to produce an output from a radio wave.

Over the years, with the development of transistors, micro transistors, and integrated
circuits, radio transmitters and receivers have become smaller. Electronic bays were
established on older aircraft as remote locations to mount radio devices simply because they
would not fit in the flight deck. Today, many avionics devices are small enough to be mounted in
the instrument panel, which is customary on most light aircraft. Because of the number of
communication and navigation aids, as well as the need to present an uncluttered interface to
the pilot, most complicated aircraft retain an area away from the flight deck for the mounting of
avionics. The control heads of these units remain on the flight deck.

Transceivers

A transceiver is a communication radio that transmits and receives. The same

frequency is used for both. When transmitting, the receiver does not function. The push to talk
(PTT) switch blocks the receiving circuitry and allows the transmitter circuitry to be active. In a

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transceiver, some of the circuitry is shared by the transmitting and receiving functions of the
device. So is the antenna. This saves space and the number of components used. Transceivers
are half duplex systems where communication can occur in both directions but only one party
can speak while the other must listen. VHF aircraft communication radios are usually
transceivers. [Figure 11-86]

Figure 11-86. VHF aircraft communication transceivers.

Basic Components Used in Electronics & Electrical

In any electronic circuit, we come across two types of electronic component: One which
response to the flow of electrical energy and either store or dissipate energy. These are the
Passive Components. They can be linear components with a linear response to the electrical
energy or nonlinear components with a nonlinear response to the electrical energy.
One which supplies energy or controls the flow of energy. These are the Active components.
They require an external power source to be triggered and are generally used to amplify an
electrical signal. Let us see every component in detail.

3 Passive Linear Components:

Resistor: A resistor is an electronic component that is used to resist the flow of current
and cause a reduction in potential. It consists of a low conductive component joined by
conducting wires at both ends. When current flows through the resistor, the electrical energy is
absorbed by the resistor and dissipated in the form of heat. The resistor thus offers a resistance
or opposition to the flow of current. The resistance is given as
R = V/I, where V is the voltage drop across the resistance and I is the current flowing through
the resistor. The power dissipated is given by:

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P = VI.

Laws of Resistance:

The Resistance ‘R’ offered by a material depends on various factors:

1. Varies directly on its length, l

2. Varies inversely on its cross-section area, A
3. Depends on the nature of the material specified by its Resistivity or
Specific Resistance, ρ.
4. Also depends on the temperature
5. Assuming that the temperature is constant, the Resistance (R) can be expressed as R =
ρl / A, Where R is resistance in ohms ( Ω ), l is the length in meters, A is an area in square
meters and ρ is Specific Resistance in Ω-mts
A resistor’s value is calculated in terms of its resistance. Resistance is the opposition to the
flow of current.

Two methods to measure resistance values:

 Using color code: Each resistor consists of a 4 or 5 color band on its surface. The first
three (two) colors represent the resistor value, whereas the 4th (third) color represents the
multiplier value and the last one represents the tolerance.
 Using Multimeter: A simple way to measure resistance is by using a Multimeter to
measure the resistance value in ohms.

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2 Types of Resistors:

 Fixed Resistors: Resistors whose resistance value is fixed and are used to provide an
opposition to the flow of current.
 They can be carbon composition resistors which are made up of a mixture of
carbon and ceramic.
 They can be carbon film resistors which consist of carbon film deposited on an
insulating substrate.

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A Carbon Resistor

 They can be metal film resistor which consists of small ceramic rod coated with metal or
metal oxide, with the resistance value being controlled by the thickness of the coating.

Metal Resistors

 They can be a wire-wound resistor which consists of an alloy wrapped around a

ceramic rod and insulated.
 They can be surface mount resistors which consists of resistive material like
tin oxide deposited on a ceramic chip.

Variable Resistors: They provide a variation in their resistance value. They are generally used
in voltage division. They can be potentiometers or presets. The resistance can be varied by
controlling the wiper movement. The variable resistor or variable resistance, which consists
three connections. Generally used as an adjustable voltage divider. It is a resistor with a
movable element positioned by a manual knob or lever. The movable element is also called as
wiper; it creates a contact with a resistive strip at any point which is selected by the manual
control.

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Potentiometer

The potentiometer divides the voltage into different proportions depending on its
movable positions. It is used in different circuits where we require less voltage than the source
voltage.

Practical Application of Variable Resistors:

Sometimes it is necessary to design a variable dc bias circuit that should be able to very
precisely get some specific voltage to say 1.5 volts. Thus a potential divider with a variable
resistor is so chosen that one can vary the voltage from 1 volt to 2 volts from a 12 volt DC
battery. Not from 0 to 2 volt but 1 to 2 volt for a specific reason one can use a 10k pot across a
12-volt dc and can get that voltage but it becomes very difficult to adjust the pot as the full arc
angle of about 300 degrees. But if one follows a circuit below he can get easily that voltage
because the entire 300 degree is available for just 1volt to 2 volts to be adjusted. Shown in the
circuit below 1.52 volts. This how we get a better resolution. These onetime set variable
resistors are called preset.

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 Capacitors: A capacitor is a linear passive component that is used to store an electrical
charge. A capacitor generally provides reactance to the flow of current. A capacitor consists of a
pair of electrodes between which there is an insulating dielectric material.

The stored charge is given by

Q = CV where C is the capacitive reactance and V is the applied voltage. Since current is the
rate of flow of charge. Therefore, the current through a capacitor is:

I = C dV/dt.

When a capacitor is connected in a DC circuit, or when a constant current flows through

it, which is constant with time (zero frequency), the capacitor simply stores the whole charge
and opposes the flow of current. Thus a capacitor blocks DC.

When a capacitor is connected in an AC circuit, or a time-varying signal flows through it

(with non-zero frequency), the capacitor initially stores the charge and later offers a resistance
to the flow of charge. It can thus be used as a voltage limiter in the AC circuit. The resistance
offered is proportional to the frequency of the signal.

2 Types of Capacitors

 Fixed Capacitors: They offer a fixed reactance to the flow of current. They can be the
Mica capacitor which consists of mica as the insulating material. They can be nonpolarized

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ceramic capacitors which consist of ceramic plates coated with silver. They can be electrolyte
capacitors that are polarized and used where a high value of capacitance is required.

Fixed Capacitors

 Variable Capacitors: They offer capacitance which can be varied by varying the distance
between the plates. They can be air gap capacitors or vacuum capacitors.
Capacitance value can be either read directly on the capacitor or can be decoded using
the given code. For ceramic capacitors, the 1st two letters denote the capacitance value. The
third letter denotes the number of zeros and the unit is in Pico Farad and the letter denotes the
tolerance value.
 Inductors: An inductor is a passive electronic component that stores energy in the form
of a magnetic field. It generally consists of a conductor coil, which offers a resistance to the
applied voltage. It works on the basic principle of Faraday’s law of inductance, according to
which a magnetic field is created when current flows through the wire and the electromotive
force developed opposes the applied voltage. The stored energy is given by:

E = LI^2. Where L is the inductance measured in Henries and I is the current flowing
through it.

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Inductor Coils

It can be used as a choke to offer resistance to the applied voltage and store the energy
or used in combination with a capacitor to form a tuned circuit, used for oscillations. In AC
circuits, the voltage leads the current as imposed voltage takes some time to build up the
current in the coil due to opposition.

2 Passive Non-Linear Components:

Diodes: A diode is a device that restricts current flow in only one direction. A diode is generally
a combination of two differently doped regions forming a junction at the intersection such that
the junction controls the flow of charge through the device.
6 Types of Diodes:

 PN Junction Diode: A simple PN junction diode consists of a p-type semiconductor

mounted on an n-type semiconductor such that a junction is formed between the p and n types.
It can be used as a rectifier that allows current flow in one direction through proper connection.

A PN Junction Diode

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 Zener Diode: It is a diode made up of heavily doped p region compared to the n-region,
such that it not only allows current flow in one direction but also allows current flow in the
opposite direction, on the application of sufficient voltage. It is generally used as a voltage
regulator.

A Zener diode

 Tunnel Diode: It is a heavily doped PN junction diode where the current decreases with
increasing forward voltage. The junction width is reduced with increasing impurity concentration.
It is made from germanium or Gallium Arsenide.

A Tunnel Diode

 Light Emitting Diode: It is a special type of PN junction diode made from semiconductors
like Gallium Arsenide, which emits light when a suitable voltage is applied. The light emitted by
the LED is monochromatic, i.e. of a single color, corresponding to a particular frequency in the
visible band of the electromagnetic spectrum.

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 A LED

 Photo Diode: It is a special type of PN junction diode whose resistance decreases when
light falls on it. It consists of a PN junction diode placed inside a plastic.

A Photodiode

 Switches: Switches are devices that allow the flow of current to the active devices. They
are binary devices, which when completely on, allows the flow of current and when completely
off, block the flow of current. It can be a simple toggle switch which can be a 2-contact or a 3
contact switch or a push-button switch.

2 Active Electronic Components:

Transistors: Transistors are devices which generally transform resistance from one part of the
circuit to another. They can be voltage controlled or current controlled. A transistor can work as
an amplifier or as a switch.

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2 Types of Transistor:

BJT or Bipolar Junction Transistor: A BJT is a current controlled device that consists of a
layer of n-type semiconductor material sandwiched between two layers of p-type
semiconductor material. It consists of three terminals – The emitter, base, and collector. The
collector-base junction is less doped compared to the emitter-base junction. The emitter-base
junction is forward biased whereas the collector-base junction is reverse biased in normal
transistor operation.

A Bipolar Junction Transistor

 FET or Field Effect Transistor: A FET is a voltage-controlled device. The ohmic contacts
are taken from the two sides of the n-type bar. It consists of three terminals – Gate, Drain, and
Source. The voltage applied across the Gate-Source and the Drain-Source terminal controls
the flow of current through the device. It is generally a high resistance device. It can be JFET
(junction Field effect transistor) which consists of an n-type substrate, on the side of which a bar
of the opposite type is deposited or a MOSFET (Metal Oxide Semiconductor FET) which
consists of an insulating layer of silicon oxide between the metallic Gate contact and the
substrate.

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 MOSFET

TRIACS or SCR: An SCR or Silicon Controlled Rectifier is a three-terminal device which

is generally used as a switch in power electronics. It is a combination of two back to back
diodes having 3 junctions. The current through the SCR flows because of the voltage applied
across anode and cathode and is controlled by the voltage applied across the Gate terminal. It
is also used as a rectifier in AC circuits.

An SCR

So these are some of the important components in any electronic circuit. Apart from
these active and passive components, there is one more component, which is of vital use in the
circuit. That is the Integrated Circuit.

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What is an Integrated Circuit?

A DIP IC

An Integrated Circuit is a chip or a microchip on which thousands of transistors,

capacitors, resistors are fabricated. It can be an Amplifier IC, a timer IC, a waveform generator
IC, a memory IC or a Microcontroller IC. It can be an analog IC with a continuous variable
output or a Digital IC operating at a few defined layers. The fundamental building blocks of
Digital ICs are the logic gates.

It can be available in different packages like Dual in Line Package (DIP) or Small Outline
Package (SOP) etc.

A Practical application of resistors – Potential Dividers

Potential dividers are frequently used in electronic circuits. Therefore it is desired that a
thorough understanding of the same would greatly help in designing electronic circuits. Instead
of deriving the voltages mathematically by applying Ohm’s law, the following example by
assessing in ratio way, one would be able to quickly get the approximate voltage while attending
to the R&D nature of work.

When two resistors of equal value (e.g. 6K both for R1 & R2) are connected across a
supply, the same current will flow through them. If a meter is placed across the supply shown in
the diagram it will register 12v concerning ground. If the meter is then placed between the
ground (0v) and the middle of the two resistors it will read 6v. The battery voltage is then divided
in half. Thus voltage across R2 for ground =6v

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Similarly
1. If the resistor values are changed to 4K (R1) and 8K (R2) the voltage at the center will be 8v
for ground.

2. If the resistor values are changed to 8K (R1) and 4K (R2) the voltage at the center will be 4v
for ground.

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 The voltage at the center is better determined by the ratio of the two resistor values,
though one can go by Ohms law to calculate to arrive at the same value. Case-1 the ratio was
6K: 6K = 1:1=6v:6v , Case-2 ratio 4k:8k= 1:2 =4v:8v and Case-3 ratio 8k:4k= 2:1=8v:4v

Conclusion:-In a potential divider, if the upper resistor value is lowered then the voltage at the
center goes up (concerning ground). If the lower resistor value is lowered then the voltage at the
center falls.
Mathematically but the voltage at the center can always be determined by the ratio of the two
resistor values which is time-consuming and is given by the famous Ohms law formula V=IR
Let us see the example-2

V = {supply voltage / (R1+R2)} X R2

V= {12v / (4K+8K)} R2

=(12/12000) x 8000

V = 8v

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