12/13/23, 11:44 AM Wine - Wikipedia

Wine

Wine is an alcoholic drink made from fermented fruit. Yeast

consumes the sugar in the fruits and converts it to ethanol and Wine
carbon dioxide, releasing heat in the process. Though wine can
be made from a variety of fruit crops such as plum, cherry,
pomegranate, blueberry, currant and elderberry, it is most
often made from grapes, and the term "wine" generally refers
to grape wine when used without a qualifier.

Different varieties of grapes and strains of yeasts are major

factors in different styles of wine. These differences result from
the complex interactions between the biochemical
development of the grape, the reactions involved in
fermentation, the grape's growing environment (terroir), and
the wine production process. Many countries enact legal
appellations intended to define styles and qualities of wine. Glasses of red and white wine
These typically restrict the geographical origin and permitted Type Alcoholic
varieties of grapes, as well as other aspects of wine production. beverage

Wine has been produced for thousands of years. The earliest Country of origin Georgia
evidence of wine is from the present-day Georgia (6000 BCE), Alcohol by volume 5–16%[1]
Persia (5000 BCE), Italy and Armenia (4000 BCE). New Ingredients Varies; see
World wine has some connection to alcoholic beverages made
Winemaking
by the indigenous peoples of the Americas, but is mainly
connected to later Spanish traditions in New Spain.[2][3] Later, Variants Red · White ·
as Old World wine further developed viticulture techniques, Rosé ·
Europe would encompass three of the largest wine-producing Orange ·
regions. Today, the five countries with the largest wine- Sparkling ·
producing regions are in Italy, Spain, France, the United Dessert
States, and China.[4]

Wine has long played an important role in religion. Red wine was
associated with blood by the ancient Egyptians[5] and was used by
both the Greek cult of Dionysus and the Romans in their Bacchanalia;
Judaism also incorporates it in the Kiddush, and Christianity in the
Eucharist. Egyptian, Greek, Roman, and Israeli wine cultures are still
connected to these ancient roots. Similarly the largest wine regions in
Italy, Spain, and France have heritages in connection to sacramental
wine, likewise, viticulture traditions in the Southwestern United States
started within New Spain as Catholic friars and monks first produced
wines in New Mexico and California.[6][7][8]

History
16th-century wine press
The earliest known traces of wine are from Georgia (c. 6000
BCE),[3][2] Iran (Persia) (c. 5000 BCE),[9][10] Armenia
(c. 4100 BCE), [11] and Sicily (c. 4000 BCE).[12] Wine reached the Balkans by 4500 BC and was

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consumed and celebrated in ancient Greece, Thrace and Rome.

Throughout history, wine has been consumed for its
intoxicating effects.[13][14][15]

The earliest archaeological and archaeobotanical evidence for

grape wine and viniculture, dating to 6000–5800 BCE was
found on the territory of modern Georgia.[16][17] Both
archaeological and genetic evidence suggest that the earliest
production of wine elsewhere was relatively later, likely having
The Areni-1 cave in Armenia is
taken place in the Southern Caucasus (which encompasses
home to the world's oldest known
Armenia, Georgia and Azerbaijan), or the West Asian region winery.
between Eastern Turkey, and northern Iran.[18][19] The earliest
known winery from 4100 BCE is the Areni-1 winery in
Armenia.[11][20]

A 2003 report by archaeologists indicates a possibility that grapes

were mixed with rice to produce fermented drinks in ancient China in
the early years of the seventh millennium BCE. Pottery jars from the
Neolithic site of Jiahu, Henan, contained traces of tartaric acid and
other organic compounds commonly found in wine. However, other
fruits indigenous to the region, such as hawthorn, cannot be ruled
out.[21][22] If these drinks, which seem to be the precursors of rice
wine, included grapes rather than other fruits, they would have been
any of the several dozen indigenous wild species in China, rather than
Vitis vinifera, which was introduced 6000 years later.[21][23][24][25][3]
Detail of a relief of the
eastern stairs of the
In 2020, a 2,600-year-old well-preserved Phoenician wine press was
Apadana, Persepolis,
excavated at Tell el-Burak, south of Sidon in Lebanon, probably
depicting Armenians
bringing an amphora,
devoted to making wine for trading in their colonies.[26] The spread of
probably of wine, to the king
wine culture westwards was most probably due to the Phoenicians,
who spread outward from a base of city-states along the
Mediterranean coast centered around modern day Lebanon (as well as
including small parts of Israel/Palestine and coastal Syria);[27] however, the Nuragic culture in
Sardinia already had a custom of consuming wine before the arrival of the Phoenicians.[28][29] The
wines of Byblos were exported to Egypt during the Old Kingdom and then throughout the
Mediterranean. Evidence for this includes two Phoenician shipwrecks from 750 BCE, found with
their cargoes of wine still intact, which were discovered by Robert Ballard[30] As the first great
traders in wine (cherem), the Phoenicians seem to have protected it from oxidation with a layer of
olive oil, followed by a seal of pinewood and resin, similar to retsina.

The earliest remains of Apadana Palace in Persepolis dating back to 515 BCE include carvings
depicting soldiers from Achaemenid Empire subject nations bringing gifts to the Achaemenid king,
among them Armenians bringing their famous wine.

Literary references to wine are abundant in Homer (8th century BCE, but possibly relating earlier
compositions), Alkman (7th century BCE), and others. In ancient Egypt, six of 36 wine amphoras
were found in the tomb of King Tutankhamun bearing the name "Kha'y", a royal chief vintner. Five
of these amphoras were designated as originating from the king's personal estate, with the sixth
from the estate of the royal house of Aten.[31] Traces of wine have also been found in central Asian
Xinjiang in modern-day China, dating from the second and first millennia BCE.[32]

The first known mention of grape-based wines in India is from the late 4th-century BCE writings of
Chanakya, the chief minister of Emperor Chandragupta Maurya. In his writings, Chanakya
condemns the use of alcohol while chronicling the emperor and his court's frequent indulgence of a

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style of wine known as madhu.[33]

The ancient Romans planted vineyards near garrison towns so

wine could be produced locally rather than shipped over long
distances. Some of these areas are now world-renowned for
wine production.[34] The Romans discovered that burning
sulfur candles inside empty wine vessels kept them fresh and
free from a vinegar smell.[35] In medieval Europe, the Roman
Catholic Church supported wine because the clergy required it
for the Mass. Monks in France made wine for years, aging it in
caves.[36] An old English recipe that survived in various forms
until the 19th century calls for refining white wine from bastard
—bad or tainted bastardo wine.[37]
Pressing wine after the harvest;
Later, the descendants of the sacramental wine were refined for Tacuinum Sanitatis, 14th century
a more palatable taste. This gave rise to modern viticulture in
French wine, Italian wine, Spanish wine, and these wine grape
traditions were brought into New World wine. For example, Mission grapes were brought by
Franciscan monks to New Mexico in 1628 beginning the New Mexico wine heritage, these grapes
were also brought to California which started the California wine industry. Thanks to Spanish wine
culture, these two regions eventually evolved into the oldest and largest producers, respectively, of
wine of the United States.[38][39][40] Viking sagas earlier mentioned a fantastic land filled with wild
grapes and high-quality wine called precisely Vinland.[41] Prior to the Spanish establishing their
American wine grape traditions in California and New Mexico, both France and Britain had
unsuccessfully attempted to establish grapevines in Florida and Virginia respectively.[42]

In East Asia, the first modern wine industry was Japanese wine, developed in 1874 after grapevines
were brought back from Europe.[43]

Etymology

The English word "wine" comes from the Proto-Germanic

*winam, an early borrowing from the Latin vinum, Georgian
ღვინო (ghvee-no), "wine", itself derived from the Proto-Indo-
European stem *win-o- (cf. Armenian: գինի, gini; Ancient
Greek: οἶνος oinos; Aeolic Greek: ϝοῖνος woinos; Hittite:
wiyana; Lycian: oino).[44][45][46] The earliest attested terms
referring to wine are the Mycenaean Greek 𐀕𐀶𐀺𐄀𐀚𐀺 me-
tu-wo ne-wo (*μέθυϝος νέϝῳ),[47][48] meaning "in (the month)"
or "(festival) of the new wine", and 𐀺𐀜𐀷𐀴𐀯 wo-no-wa-ti-
si,[49] meaning "wine garden", written in Linear B Map showing the words for wine in
inscriptions.[50][51][52][53] Linear B also includes, inter alia, an European languages
ideogram for wine, i.e. 𐂖.

The ultimate Indo-European origin of the word is the subject of some continued debate. Some
scholars have noted the similarities between the words for wine in Indo-European languages (e.g.
Armenian gini, Latin vinum, Ancient Greek οἶνος, Russian вино [vʲɪˈno]), Kartvelian (e.g. Georgian
ღვინო [ˈɣvino]), and Semitic (*wayn; Hebrew ‫[ יין‬jajin]), pointing to the possibility of a common
origin of the word denoting "wine" in these language families.[54] The Georgian word goes back to
Proto-Kartvelian *ɣwino-,[55] which is either a borrowing from Proto-Indo-
European [55][56][57][58][59][60] or the lexeme was specifically borrowed from Proto-Armenian
*ɣʷeinyo-, whence Armenian gini.[61][62][63][64][55] An alternate hypothesis by Fähnrich supposes
*ɣwino-, a native Kartvelian word derived from the verbal root *ɣun- ('to bend').[65] See *ɣwino-
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for more. All these theories place the origin of the word in the same geographical location, South
Caucasus, that has been established based on archeological and biomolecular studies as the origin
of viticulture.

Types of wine
Wine types:

Red wine, made from blue grapes with skins.

White wine, made from green grapes or destemmed blue grapes.
Rosé wine, made from blue grapes, where the skins are sorted from early in the fermentation
process or rosé wine can also be made from rosé wine grape varieties.
Orange wine, made from white wine grapes where the grape skins are not removed
Sparkling wine, made from both green and blue grapes. Champagne is made from pinot noir,
pinot meunier and chardonnay around Reims.
Fortified wine, wine with a higher alcohol content than the other types.
Ice wine, wine with a characteristically sweet taste and low alcohol content.
Dessert wine, are sweet wines that are typically served with a dessert.

The types have such different properties that in practice they are considered different drinks.

Styles
Wine is made in many ways from different fruits, with grapes being the most common.

From grapes

The type of grape used and the amount of skin contact while the juice is being extracted determines
the color and general style of the wine. The color has no relation to a wine's sweetness—all may be
made sweet or dry.

Types of wine from grapes

Long contact with grape Short contact with grape No contact with grape
skins skins skins

Red grapes Red wine Rosé wine

White White wine

Orange wine
grapes

Red

Red wine gains its color and flavor (notably, tannins) from the grape skin, by allowing the grapes to
soak in the extracted juice. Red wine is made from dark-colored red grape varieties. The actual
color of the wine can range from violet, typical of young wines, through red for mature wines, to
brown for older red wines. The juice from most red grapes is actually greenish-white; the red color
comes from anthocyanins present in the skin of the grape. A notable exception is the family of rare
teinturier varieties, which actually have red flesh and produce red juice.

White

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To make white wine, grapes are pressed quickly with the juice immediately drained away from the
grape skins. The grapes used are typically white grape varieties, though red grapes may be used if
the winemaker is careful not to let the skin stain the wort during the separation of the pulp-juice.
For example, pinot noir (a red grape) is commonly used in champagne.

Dry (low sugar) white wine is the most common, derived from the complete fermentation of the
juice, however sweet white wines such as Moscato d'Asti are also made.

Rosé

A rosé wine gains color from red grape skins, but not enough to qualify it as a red wine. It may be
the oldest known type of wine, as it is the most straightforward to make with the skin contact
method. The color can range from a pale orange to a vivid near-purple, depending on the varietals
used and wine-making techniques.

There are three primary ways to produce rosé wine: Skin contact (allowing dark grape skins to
stain the wort), saignée (removing juice from the must early in fermentation and continuing
fermentation of the juice separately), and blending of a red and white wine (uncommon and
discouraged in most wine growing regions). Rosé wines have a wide range of sweetness levels from
dry Provençal rosé to sweet White Zinfandels and blushes. Rosé wines are made from a wide
variety of grapes all over the world.[66][67]

Orange

Sometimes called amber wines, these are wines made with white grapes but with the skins allowed
to soak during pressing, similar to red and rosé wine production. They are notably tannic, and
usually made dry.[68]

Sparkling

These are effervescent wines, made in any of the above styles (ie, orange, red, rosé, white). They
must undergo secondary fermentation to create carbon dioxide, which creates the bubbles.[69]

Two common methods of accomplishing this are the traditional method, used for Cava,
Champagne, and more expensive sparkling wines, and the Charmat method, used for Prosecco,
Asti, and less expensive wines. A hybrid transfer method is also used, yielding intermediate
results, and simple addition of carbon dioxide is used in the cheapest of wines.[70]

The bottles used for sparkling wine must be thick to withstand the pressure of the gas behind the
cork, which can be up to 6 standard atmospheres (88 psi).[71]

Dessert

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This refers to sweet wines that have a high level of sugar remaining after fermentation. There are
various ways of increasing the amount of sugar in a wine, yielding products with different
strengths and names. Icewine, Port, Sauternes, Tokaji Aszú, Trockenbeerenauslese, and Vin Santo
are some examples.

From other fruits and foods

Fruit

Wines from other fruits, such as apples and berries, are usually named after the fruit from which
they are produced, and combined with the word "wine" (for example, apple wine and elderberry
wine) and are generically called fruit wine or country wine (similar to French term vin de pays).
Other than the grape varieties traditionally used for wine-making, most fruits naturally lack either
sufficient fermentable sugars, proper amount of acidity, yeast amounts needed to promote or
maintain fermentation, or a combination of these three materials. This is probably one of the main
reasons why wine derived from grapes has historically been more prevalent by far than other types,
and why specific types of fruit wines have generally been confined to the regions in which the fruits
were native or introduced for other reasons.

Honey

Mead, also called honey wine, is created by fermenting honey with water, sometimes with various
fruits, spices, grains, or hops. As long as the primary substance fermented is honey, the drink is
considered mead.[72] Mead was produced in ancient history throughout Europe, Africa and
Asia,[73] and was known in Europe before grape wine.[74]

Starch

Other drinks called "wine", such as barley wine and rice wine (e.g. sake, huangjiu and cheongju),
are made from starch-based materials and resemble beer more than traditional wine, while ginger
wine is fortified with brandy. In these latter cases, the term "wine" refers to the similarity in
alcohol content rather than to the production process.[75] The commercial use of the English word
"wine" (and its equivalent in other languages) is protected by law in many jurisdictions.[76]

Grape varieties
Wine is usually made from one or more varieties of the
European species Vitis vinifera, such as Pinot noir,
Chardonnay, Cabernet Sauvignon, Gamay and Merlot. When
one of these varieties is used as the predominant grape (usually
defined by law as minimums of 75% to 85%), the result is a
"varietal" as opposed to a "blended" wine. Blended wines are
not necessarily inferior to varietal wines, rather they are a
different style of wine-making.[77]
Grape vineyard
Wine can also be made from other species of grape or from
hybrids, created by the genetic crossing of two species. V.
labrusca (of which the Concord grape is a cultivar), V. aestivalis, V. rupestris, V. rotundifolia and
V. riparia are native North American grapes usually grown to eat fresh or for grape juice, jam, or
jelly, and only occasionally made into wine.

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Hybridization is different from grafting. Most of the world's vineyards are planted with European
Vitis vinifera vines that have been grafted onto North American species' rootstock, a common
practice due to their resistance to phylloxera, a root louse that eventually kills the vine. In the late
19th century, most of Europe's vineyards (excluding some of the driest in the south) were
devastated by the infestation, leading to widespread vine deaths and eventual replanting. Grafting
is done in every wine-producing region in the world except in Argentina and the Canary Islands –
the only places not yet exposed to the insect.[78]

In the context of wine production, terroir is a concept that encompasses the varieties of grapes
used, elevation and shape of the vineyard, type and chemistry of soil, climate and seasonal
conditions, and the local yeast cultures.[79] The range of possible combinations of these factors can
result in great differences among wines, influencing the fermentation, finishing, and aging
processes as well. Many wineries use growing and production methods that preserve or accentuate
the aroma and taste influences of their unique terroir.[80] However, flavor differences are less
desirable for producers of mass-market table wine or other cheaper wines, where consistency takes
precedence. Such producers try to minimize differences in sources of grapes through production
techniques such as micro-oxygenation, tannin filtration, cross-flow filtration, thin-film
evaporation, and spinning cones.[81]

About 700 grapes go into one bottle of wine, approximately 2.6 pounds.[82]

Classification
Regulations govern the classification and sale of wine in many regions
of the world. European wines tend to be classified by region (e.g.
Bordeaux, Rioja and Chianti), while non-European wines are most
often classified by grape (e.g. Pinot noir and Merlot). Market
recognition of particular regions has recently been leading to their
increased prominence on non-European wine labels. Examples of
recognized non-European locales include Napa Valley, Santa Clara
Valley, Sonoma Valley, Anderson Valley, and Mendocino County in
California; Willamette Valley and Rogue Valley in Oregon; Columbia
Valley in Washington; Barossa Valley in South Australia; Hunter
Valley in New South Wales; Luján de Cuyo in Argentina; Vale dos
Vinhedos in Brazil; Hawke's Bay and Marlborough in New Zealand;
Central Valley in Chile; and in Canada, the Okanagan Valley of British
Columbia, and the Niagara Peninsula and Essex County regions of
Wine grapes on a vine
Ontario are the three largest producers.

Some blended wine names are marketing terms whose use is governed
by trademark law rather than by specific wine laws. For example, Meritage is generally a Bordeaux-
style blend of Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot, but may also include Cabernet Franc, Petit Verdot,
and Malbec. Commercial use of the term Meritage is allowed only via licensing agreements with
the Meritage Association.

European classifications

France has various appellation systems based on the concept of terroir, with classifications ranging
from Vin de Table ("table wine") at the bottom, through Vin de Pays and Appellation d'Origine Vin
Délimité de Qualité Supérieure (AOVDQS), up to Appellation d'Origine Contrôlée (AOC) or
similar, depending on the region.[83][84] Portugal has developed a system resembling that of
France and, in fact, pioneered this concept in 1756 with a royal charter creating the Demarcated
Douro Region and regulating the production and trade of wine.[85] Germany created a similar
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scheme in 2002, although it has not yet achieved the authority of the
other countries' classification systems.[86][87] Spain, Greece and Italy
have classifications based on a dual system of region of origin and
product quality.[88]

Beyond Europe

New World wines—those made outside the traditional wine regions of

Europe—are usually classified by grape rather than by terroir or
region of origin, although there have been unofficial attempts to
classify them by quality.[89][90]

According to Canadian Food and Drug Regulations, wine in Canada is Italian Moscato d'Asti, a
an alcoholic drink that is produced by the complete or partial alcoholic DOCG wine
fermentation of fresh grapes, grape must, products derived solely from
fresh grapes, or any combination of them. There are many materials
added during the course of the manufacture, such as yeast, concentrated grape juice, dextrose,
fructose, glucose or glucose solids, invert sugar, sugar, or aqueous solutions. Calcium sulphate in
such quantity that the content of soluble sulphates in the finished wine shall not exceed 0.2 percent
weight by volume calculated as potassium sulphate. Calcium carbonate in such quantity that the
content of tartaric acid in the finished wine shall not be less than 0.15 percent weight by volume.
Also, sulphurous acid, including salts thereof, in such quantity that its content in the finished wine
shall not exceed 70 parts per million in the free state, or 350 parts per million in the combined
state, calculated as sulphur dioxide. Caramel, amylase and pectinase at a maximum level of use
consistent with good manufacturing practice. Brandy, fruit spirit or alcohol derived from the
alcoholic fermentation of a food source distilled to not less than 94 percent alcohol by volume.
Prior to final filtration may be treated with a strongly acid cation exchange resin in the sodium ion
form, or a weakly basic anion exchange resin in the hydroxyl ion form.[91]

Vintages
In the United States, for a wine to be vintage-dated and labeled with a
country of origin or American Viticultural Area (AVA; e.g., Sonoma
Valley), 95% of its volume must be from grapes harvested in that
year.[92] If a wine is not labeled with a country of origin or AVA the
percentage requirement is lowered to 85%.[92]

Vintage wines are generally bottled in a single batch so that each bottle
will have a similar taste. Climate's impact on the character of a wine Vintage French
can be significant enough to cause different vintages from the same Champagne
vineyard to vary dramatically in flavor and quality. [93] Thus, vintage
wines are produced to be individually characteristic of the particular
vintage and to serve as the flagship wines of the producer. Superior vintages from reputable
producers and regions will often command much higher prices than their average ones. Some
vintage wines (e.g. Brunello), are only made in better-than-average years.

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For consistency, non-vintage wines can be blended from more than one vintage, which helps wine-
makers sustain a reliable market image and maintain sales even in bad years.[94][95] One recent
study suggests that for the average wine drinker, the vintage year may not be as significant for
perceived quality as had been thought, although wine connoisseurs continue to place great
importance on it.[96]

Tasting
Wine tasting is the sensory examination and evaluation of
wine. Wines contain many chemical compounds similar or
identical to those in fruits, vegetables, and spices. The
sweetness of wine is determined by the amount of residual
sugar in the wine after fermentation, relative to the acidity
present in the wine. Dry wine, for example, has only a small
amount of residual sugar. Some wine labels suggest opening
the bottle and letting the wine "breathe" for a couple of hours
before serving, while others recommend drinking it
Judging color is the first step in
immediately. Decanting (the act of pouring a wine into a
tasting a wine.
special container just for breathing) is a controversial subject
among wine enthusiasts. In addition to aeration, decanting
with a filter allows the removal of bitter sediments that may have formed in the wine. Sediment is
more common in older bottles, but aeration may benefit younger wines.[97]

During aeration, a younger wine's exposure to air often "relaxes" the drink, making it smoother
and better integrated in aroma, texture, and flavor. Older wines generally fade (lose their character
and flavor intensity) with extended aeration.[98] Despite these general rules, breathing does not
necessarily benefit all wines. Wine may be tasted as soon as the bottle is opened to determine how
long it should be aerated, if at all.[99] When tasting wine, individual flavors may also be detected,
due to the complex mix of organic molecules (e.g. esters and terpenes) that grape juice and wine
can contain. Experienced tasters can distinguish between flavors characteristic of a specific grape
and flavors that result from other factors in wine-making. Typical intentional flavor elements in
wine—chocolate, vanilla, or coffee—are those imparted by aging in oak casks rather than the grape
itself.[100]

Vertical and horizontal tasting involves a range of vintages within the same grape and vineyard, or
the latter in which there is one vintage from multiple vineyards. "Banana" flavors (isoamyl acetate)
are the product of yeast metabolism, as are spoilage aromas such as "medicinal" or "Band-Aid" (4-
ethylphenol), "spicy" or "smoky" (4-ethylguaiacol),[101] and rotten egg (hydrogen sulfide).[102]
Some varieties can also exhibit a mineral flavor due to the presence of water-soluble salts as a
result of limestone's presence in the vineyard's soil. Wine aroma comes from volatile compounds
released into the air.[103] Vaporization of these compounds can be accelerated by twirling the wine
glass or serving at room temperature. Many drinkers prefer to chill red wines that are already
highly aromatic, like Chinon and Beaujolais.[104]

The ideal temperature for serving a particular wine is a matter of debate by wine enthusiasts and
sommeliers, but some broad guidelines have emerged that will generally enhance the experience of
tasting certain common wines. White wine should foster a sense of coolness, achieved by serving at
"cellar temperature" (13 °C (55 °F)). Light red wines drunk young should also be brought to the
table at this temperature, where they will quickly rise a few degrees. Red wines are generally
perceived best when served chambré ("at room temperature"). However, this does not mean the
temperature of the dining room—often around 21 °C (70 °F)—but rather the coolest room in the
house and, therefore, always slightly cooler than the dining room itself. Pinot noir should be

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brought to the table for serving at 16 °C (61 °F) and will reach its full bouquet at 18 °C (64 °F).
Cabernet Sauvignon, zinfandel, and Rhone varieties should be served at 18 °C (64 °F) and allowed
to warm on the table to 21 °C (70 °F) for best aroma.[105]

Collecting
Outstanding vintages from the best vineyards may sell for thousands
of dollars per bottle, though the broader term "fine wine" covers those
typically retailing in excess of US$30–50.[106] "Investment wines" are
considered by some to be Veblen goods: those for which demand
increases rather than decreases as their prices rise. Particular
selections such as "Verticals", which span multiple vintages of a
specific grape and vineyard, may be highly valued. The most notable
was a Château d'Yquem 135-year vertical containing every vintage
from 1860 to 2003 sold for $1.5 million. The most common wines
purchased for investment include those from Bordeaux and Burgundy;
cult wines from Europe and elsewhere; and vintage port.
Characteristics of highly collectible wines include:

1. A proven track record of holding well over time

2. A drinking-window plateau (i.e., the period for maturity and
approachability) that is many years long
3. A consensus among experts as to the quality of the wines
Château Margaux, a First
4. Rigorous production methods at every stage, including grape
Growth from the Bordeaux
selection and appropriate barrel aging
region of France, is highly
collectible.
Investment in fine wine has attracted those who take advantage of
their victims' relative ignorance of this wine market sector.[107] Such
wine fraudsters often profit by charging excessively high prices for off-vintage or lower-status

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wines from well-known wine regions, while claiming that they are offering a sound investment
unaffected by economic cycles. As with any investment, thorough research is essential to making
an informed decision.

Production
2014 wine production estimates[108]
Country Production
Rank
(with link to wine article) (tonnes)

1 Italy 4,796,600

2 Spain 4,607,850

3 France 4,293,466

4 United States 3,300,000 Grapes fermenting to make wine in

Western Australia
5 China 1,700,000

6 Argentina 1,498,380

7 Chile 1,214,000

8 Australia 1,186,343

9 South Africa 1,146,006

10 Germany 920,200

World* 30,806,000

* May include official, semi-official or estimated data.

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Wine grapes grow almost exclusively between 30 and 50 degrees latitude north and south of the
equator. The world's southernmost vineyards are in the Central Otago region of New Zealand's
South Island near the 45th parallel south,[109] and the northernmost are in Flen, Sweden, just
north of the 59th parallel north.[110]

Exporting countries

Top ten wine exporting 2013 export market

countries in 2022[111] shares[112]
1000 Market
Rank Country
tonnes share
Rank Country (% of
1 Italy 2,190 value in
US$)
2 2,120
Spain
1 30%
France
3 1,400
France 2 Italy 19%

4 830 3 10% Wine exports by country (2014) from Harvard

Chile Spain
Atlas of Economic Complexity ([Link]
5 640 [Link]/explore/tree_map/export/show/all/2204/
Australia 4 6%
Chile 2012/)

6 South 440 5 5%
Australia
Africa

7 350 6 United 4%
Germany States

8 330 7 4%
Portugal Germany
New New
9 300 8 3%
Zealand Zealand

10 United 280 9 3%
Portugal
States
World* 10,319 10 3%
Argentina

* May include official,

semi-official or estimated
data.

The UK was the world's largest importer of wine in 2007.[113]

Consumption
Wine-consumption data from a list of countries by alcohol consumption measured in liters of pure
ethyl alcohol consumed per capita in a given year, according to the most recent data from the
World Health Organization. The methodology includes persons 15 years of age or older.[116] About
40% of individuals above the legal drinking age consider themselves "wine drinkers", which is
higher than all other alcoholic beverages combined (34%) and those who do not drink at all
(26%).[117]

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Wine consumption per person, 2014[114]

Wine as a share of total alcohol consumption, 2010[115]

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Wine consumption Wine vs. beer consumption per capita

Liters per Wine/beer

Country Country Wine (l) Beer (l)
capita ratio
France 8.14 Equatorial
4.18 0.45 9.29
Guinea
Portugal 6.65
Italy 6.38 1.73 3.69
Italy 6.38
France 8.14 2.31 3.52
Croatia 5.80
Guatemala 3.92 1.12 3.50
Andorra 5.69
São Tomé
Switzerland 5.10 3.40 1.12 3.04
and Príncipe
Slovenia 5.10 Uruguay 3.95 1.33 2.97
Hungary 4.94 Tonga 2.29 0.89 2.57
Moldova 4.67 Greece 4.51 2.20 2.05
Argentina 4.62 Argentina 4.62 2.49 1.86

Portugal 6.65 3.75 1.77

Culinary uses
Wine is a popular and important drink that accompanies and
enhances a wide range of cuisines, from the simple and
traditional stews to the most sophisticated and complex haute
cuisines. Wine is often served with dinner. Sweet dessert wines
may be served with the dessert course. In fine restaurants in
Western countries, wine typically accompanies dinner. At a
restaurant, patrons are helped to make good food-wine
pairings by the restaurant's sommelier or wine waiter.
Individuals dining at home may use wine guides to help make Reduction of red wine for a sauce
food–wine pairings. Wine is also drunk without the by cooking it on a stovetop. It is
accompaniment of a meal in wine bars or with a selection of called a reduction because the heat
cheeses (at a wine and cheese party). Wines are also used as a boils off some of the water, leaving a
theme for organizing various events such as festivals around more concentrated, wine-flavoured
the world; the city of Kuopio in North Savonia, Finland is sauce.
known for its annual Kuopio Wine Festivals (Kuopion
viinijuhlat).[118]

Wine is important in cuisine not just for its value as a drink, but as a flavor agent, primarily in
stocks and braising, since its acidity lends balance to rich savory or sweet dishes.[119] Wine sauce is
an example of a culinary sauce that uses wine as a primary ingredient.[120] Natural wines may

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exhibit a broad range of alcohol content, from below 9% to above 16% ABV, with most wines being
in the 12.5–14.5% range.[121] Fortified wines (usually with brandy) may contain 20% alcohol or
more.

Religious significance

Ancient religions

The use of wine in ancient Near Eastern and Ancient Egyptian religious ceremonies was common.
Libations often included wine, and the religious mysteries of Dionysus used wine as a sacramental
entheogen to induce a mind-altering state.

Judaism

Baruch atah Hashem (Ado-nai) Eloheinu melech ha-olam, boray p'ree hagafen –
Praised be the Lord, our God, King of the universe, Creator of the fruit of the vine.

— The blessing over wine said before consuming the drink.

Wine is an integral part of Jewish laws and traditions. The Kiddush is a blessing recited over wine
or grape juice to sanctify the Shabbat. On Pesach (Passover) during the Seder, it is a Rabbinic
obligation of adults to drink four cups of wine.[122] In the Tabernacle and in the Temple in
Jerusalem, the libation of wine was part of the sacrificial service.[123] Note that this does not mean
that wine is a symbol of blood, a common misconception that contributes to the Christian beliefs of
the blood libel. "It has been one of history's cruel ironies that the blood libel—accusations against
Jews using the blood of murdered gentile children for the making of wine and matzot—became the
false pretext for numerous pogroms. And due to the danger, those who live in a place where blood
libels occur are halachically exempted from using red wine, lest it be seized as "evidence" against
them."[124]

Christianity

In Christianity, wine is used in a sacred rite called the Eucharist, which originates in the Gospel
account of the Last Supper (Gospel of Luke 22:19) describing Jesus sharing bread and wine with
his disciples and commanding them to "do this in remembrance of me." Beliefs about the nature of
the Eucharist vary among denominations (see Eucharistic theologies contrasted).

While some Christians consider the use of wine from the grape as essential for the validity of the
sacrament, many Protestants also allow (or require) pasteurized grape juice as a substitute. Wine
was used in Eucharistic rites by all Protestant groups until an alternative arose in the late 19th
century. Methodist dentist and prohibitionist Thomas Bramwell Welch applied new pasteurization
techniques to stop the natural fermentation process of grape juice. Some Christians who were part
of the growing temperance movement pressed for a switch from wine to grape juice, and the
substitution spread quickly over much of the United States, as well as to other countries to a lesser
degree.[125] There remains an ongoing debate between some American Protestant denominations
as to whether wine can and should be used for the Eucharist or allowed as an ordinary drink, with
Catholics and some mainline Protestants allowing wine drinking in moderation, and some
conservative Protestant groups opposing consumption of alcohol altogether.

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The earliest viticulture tradition in the Southwestern United States

starts with sacramental wine, beginning in the 1600s, with Christian
friars and monks producing New Mexico wine.[126]

Islam

Alcoholic drinks, including wine, are forbidden under most

interpretations of Islamic law.[127] In many Muslim countries,
possession or consumption of alcoholic drinks carry legal penalties.
Iran had previously had a thriving wine industry that disappeared
after the Islamic Revolution in 1979.[128] In Greater Persia, mey
(Persian wine) was a central theme of poetry for more than a thousand
years, long before the advent of Islam. Some Alevi sects – one of the
two main branches of Islam in Turkey (the other being Sunni Islam) –
use wine in their religious services.

Certain exceptions to the ban on alcohol apply. Alcohol derived from a

source other than the grape (or its byproducts) and the date[129] is
allowed in "very small quantities" (loosely defined as a quantity that
does not cause intoxication) under the Sunni Hanafi madhab, for
specific purposes (such as medicines), where the goal is not
intoxication. However, modern Hanafi scholars regard alcohol Jesus making wine from
consumption as totally forbidden.[130] water in The Marriage at
Cana, a 14th-century fresco

Packaging from the Visoki Dečani

monastery

Most wines are sold in glass bottles and sealed with corks (50% of
which come from Portugal).[131] An increasing number of wine
producers have been using alternative closures such as screwcaps and
synthetic plastic "corks". Although alternative closures are less
expensive and prevent cork taint, they have been blamed for such
problems as excessive reduction.[132]

Some wines are packaged in thick plastic bags within corrugated

fiberboard boxes, and are called "box wines", or "cask wine". Tucked
inside the package is a tap affixed to the bag in box, or bladder, that is
later extended by the consumer for serving the contents. Box wine can
stay acceptably fresh for up to a month after opening because the
bladder collapses as wine is dispensed, limiting contact with air and,
thus, slowing the rate of oxidation. In contrast, bottled wine oxidizes
All alcohol is prohibited
more rapidly after opening because of the increasing ratio of air to
under Islamic law, although
wine as the contents are dispensed; it can degrade considerably in a there has been a long
few days. Canned wine is one of the fastest-growing forms of
tradition of drinking wine in
alternative wine packaging on the market.[133] some Islamic areas,
especially in Iran.
Environmental considerations of wine packaging reveal the benefits
and drawbacks of both bottled and box wines. The glass used to make
bottles is a nontoxic, naturally occurring substance that is completely recyclable, whereas the
plastics used for box-wine containers are typically much less environmentally friendly. However,
wine-bottle manufacturers have been cited for Clean Air Act violations. A New York Times
editorial suggested that box wine, being lighter in package weight, has a reduced carbon footprint
from its distribution; however, box-wine plastics, even though possibly recyclable, can be more

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labor-intensive (and therefore expensive) to process than glass bottles.

In addition, while a wine box is recyclable, its plastic bladder most
likely is not.[134] Some people are drawn to canned wine due to its
portability and recyclable packaging.[133]

Some wine is sold in stainless steel kegs and is referred to as wine on

tap.
Assorted wine corks
Storage
Wine cellars, or wine rooms, if they are above-ground, are places
designed specifically for the storage and aging of wine. Fine
restaurants and some private homes have wine cellars. In an active
wine cellar, temperature and humidity are maintained by a climate-
control system. Passive wine cellars are not climate-controlled, and so
must be carefully located. Because wine is a natural, perishable food
product, all types—including red, white, sparkling, and fortified—can
spoil when exposed to heat, light, vibration or fluctuations in Oak wine barrels
temperature and humidity. When properly stored, wines can maintain
their quality and in some cases improve in aroma, flavor, and
complexity as they age. Some wine experts contend that the optimal temperature for aging wine is
13 °C (55 °F),[135] others 15 °C (59 °F).[136]

Wine refrigerators offer a smaller alternative to wine cellars and are available in capacities ranging
from small, 16-bottle units to furniture-quality pieces that can contain 500 bottles. Wine
refrigerators are not ideal for aging, but rather serve to chill wine to the proper temperature for
drinking. These refrigerators keep the humidity low (usually under 50%), below the optimal
humidity of 50% to 70%. Lower humidity levels can dry out corks over time, allowing oxygen to
enter the bottle, which reduces the wine's quality through oxidation.[137] While some types of
alcohol are sometimes stored in the freezer, such as vodka, it is not possible to safely freeze wine in
the bottle, as there is insufficient room for it to expand as it freezes and the bottle will usually
crack. Certain shapes of bottle may allow the cork to be pushed out by the ice, but if the bottle is
frozen on its side, the wine in the narrower neck will invariably freeze first, preventing this.

Professions
There are a large number of occupations and professions that are part of the wine industry, ranging
from the individuals who grow the grapes, prepare the wine, bottle it, sell it, assess it, market it and
finally make recommendations to clients and serve the wine.

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Related professions
Name Description

Cellar master A person in charge of a wine cellar

Cooper A craftsperson of wooden barrels and casks. A cooperage is a facility that produces such casks
A wine merchant who purchases the product of smaller growers or wine-makers to sell them
Négociant
under its own name

A wine scientist or wine chemist; a student of oenology. In the 2000s, BSc degrees in oenology
Oenologist and viticulture are available. A wine-maker may be trained as an oenologist, but often hires one
as a consultant

Also called a "wine steward", this is a specialist wine expert in charge of developing a
Sommelier restaurant's wine list, educating the staff about wine, and assisting customers with their
selections (especially food–wine pairings)
Vintner or
A wine producer; a person who makes wine
winemaker

A specialist in the science of grapevines; a manager of vineyard pruning, irrigation, and pest
Viticulturist
control

Wine critic A wine expert and journalist who tastes and reviews wines for books and magazines
Wine taster A wine expert who tastes wines to ascertain their quality and flavour

A restaurant or wine bar server with a basic- to mid-level knowledge of wine and food–wine
Wine waiter
pairings

Forgery and manipulation

Incidents of fraud, such as mislabeling the origin or quality of wines, have resulted in regulations
on labeling. "Wine scandals" that have received media attention include:

The 1985 diethylene glycol wine scandal, in which diethylene glycol was used as a sweetener
in some Austrian wines.
In 1986, methanol (a toxic type of alcohol) was used to alter certain wines manufactured in
Italy.
In 2008, some Italian wines were found to include sulfuric acid and hydrochloric acid.[138]
In 2010, some Chinese red wines were found to be adulterated, and as a consequence China's
Hebei province shut down nearly 30 wineries.[139][140]
In 2018, million bottles of French wine was falsely sold as high quality Côtes-du-Rhône
wine[141][142]

Health effects
Red table wine
Short-term
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)

Wine contains ethyl alcohol, the Energy 355 kJ (85 kcal)

chemical in beer and distilled Carbohydrates 2.6 g
spirits. The effects of wine depend Sugars 0.6 g
on the amount consumed, the
span of time over which Fat 0.0 g
consumption occurs, and the Protein 0.1 g
amount of alcohol in the wine, Other constituents Quantity
among other factors. Drinking Alcohol (ethanol) 10.6 g

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enough to reach a blood alcohol

concentration (BAC) of 10.6 g alcohol is 13%vol.
0.03%-0.12% may cause an 100 g wine is approximately 100 ml (3.4 fl oz.)
overall improvement in mood, Sugar and alcohol content can vary.
increase self-confidence and Units
sociability, decrease anxiety,
μg = micrograms • mg = milligrams
flushing of the face, and impair
judgment and fine motor IU = International units
coordination. A BAC of 0.09% to
0.25% causes lethargy, sedation, Source: USDA FoodData Central ([Link]
balance problems and blurred
vision. A BAC from 0.18% to
0.30% causes profound confusion, impaired speech (e.g. slurred speech), staggering, dizziness and
vomiting. A BAC from 0.25% to 0.40% causes stupor, unconsciousness, anterograde amnesia,
vomiting, and death may occur due to respiratory depression and inhalation of vomit during
unconsciousness. A BAC from 0.35% to 0.80% causes coma, life-threatening respiratory
depression and possibly fatal alcohol poisoning. The operation of vehicles or machinery while
drunk can increase the risk of accident, and many countries have laws against drinking and
driving. The social context and quality of wine can affect the mood and emotions.[143]

Long-term

The main active ingredient of wine is ethanol. A 2016

systematic review and meta-analysis found that moderate
ethanol consumption brought no mortality benefit compared
with lifetime abstention from ethanol consumption.[144] A
systematic analysis of data from the Global Burden of Disease
study found that consumption of ethanol increases the risk of
cancer and increases the risk of all-cause mortality, and that
the most healthful dose of ethanol is zero consumption.[145]
Most significant of the possible long- Some studies have concluded that drinking small quantities of
term effects of ethanol, one of the alcohol (less than one drink daily in women and two drinks
constituents of wine. Consumption daily in men) is associated with a decreased risk of heart
of alcohol by pregnant mothers may disease, stroke, diabetes mellitus, and early death.[146] Ethanol
result in fetal alcohol spectrum consumption increases the risk of heart disease, high blood
disorders. pressure, atrial fibrillation, and stroke. Some studies that
reported benefits of moderate ethanol consumption erred by
lumping former drinkers and life-long abstainers into a single
group of nondrinkers, hiding the health benefits of life-long abstention from ethanol.[146] Risk is
greater in younger people due to binge drinking which may result in violence or accidents.[146]
About 3.3 million deaths (5.9% of all deaths) annually are due to ethanol use.[147][148][149]

Alcohol use disorder is the inability to stop or control alcohol use despite harmful consequences to
health, job, or relationships; alternative terms include alcoholism, alcohol abuse, alcohol
dependence, or alcohol addiction.[150][151][152][153][154] and alcohol use is the third leading cause of
early death in the United States.[146] No professional medical association recommends that people
who are nondrinkers should start drinking wine.[146][155]

Excessive consumption of alcohol can cause liver cirrhosis and alcoholism.[156] The American
Heart Association "cautions people NOT to start drinking ... if they do not already drink alcohol.
Consult your doctor on the benefits and risks of consuming alcohol in moderation."[157]

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Although red wine contains more of the stilbene resveratrol and of other polyphenols than white
wine, the evidence for a cardiac health benefit is of poor quality and at most, the benefit is
trivial.[158][159][160] Grape skins naturally produce resveratrol in response to fungal infection,
including exposure to yeast during fermentation. White wine generally contains lower levels of the
chemical as it has minimal contact with grape skins during this process.[161]

See also
Wine portal

Outline of wine
Glossary of wine terms
Classification of wine
Winemaking
List of grape varieties
Health effects of wine
Storage of wine
Maceration (wine)
Pressing (wine)
Vidal blanc
Hybrid grape
Wine warehouses of Bercy

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Further reading
Colman, Tyler (2008). Wine Politics: How Governments, Environmentalists, Mobsters, and
Critics Influence the Wines We Drink ([Link]
University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-25521-0.
Foulkes, Christopher (2001). Larousse Encyclopedia of Wine. Larousse. ISBN 978-2-03-
585013-3.
Johnson, Hugh (2003). Hugh Johnson's Wine Companion (5th ed.). Mitchell Beazley.
ISBN 978-1-84000-704-6.

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McCarthy, Ed; Mary Ewing-Mulligan; Piero Antinori (2006). Wine for Dummies ([Link]
rg/details/winefordummiesfo00edmc). HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-470-04579-4.
MacNeil, Karen (2001). The Wine Bible ([Link] Workman.
ISBN 978-1-56305-434-1.
Oldman, Mark (2004). Oldman's Guide to Outsmarting Wine. Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-200492-
0.
Parker, Robert (2008). Parker's Wine Buyer's Guide. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-
7198-1.
Pigott, Stuart (2004). Planet Wine: A Grape by Grape Visual Guide to the Contemporary Wine
World. Mitchell Beazley. ISBN 978-1-84000-776-3.
Robinson, Jancis (2006). The Oxford Companion to Wine ([Link]
paniont00janc) (3rd ed.). Oxford: OUP. ISBN 978-0-19-860990-2.
Simpson, James (2011). Creating Wine: The Emergence of a World Industry, 1840–1914 (http
s://[Link]/books?id=vAqWNLQkkwUC). Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-
4008-3888-2. online review ([Link]
eviews/creating-wine-emergence-world-industry-1840-1914)
Zraly, Kevin (2006). Windows on the World Complete Wine Course. Sterling. ISBN 978-1-
4027-3928-6.

External links
The Guardian & Observer Guide to Wine ([Link]
sep/04/1)

Retrieved from "[Link]

[Link] 33/33