Module 2

Conducting need analysis

“From each according to his abilities, to each according to his needs.”
(Karl Marx)

By the end of this module, you will be able to: Code

ü Restate the definition of three core concepts MD2.1
“necessities”, “lacks” and “wants”;
ü Restate the definition of learning needs; MD2.2
ü List components of a target situation analysis framework MD2.3
ü List components of a learning situation analysis
framework MD2.4
ü Identify the procedure, different instruments and
stakeholders to gather information about needs; MD2.5
ü Draw relevant implications for your course design. MD2.6
Learning Target

Keywords:
Need(s) analysis, necessities, lacks, wants, target situation, learning situation, framework,
procedure, stakeholders.

Core reading material:

1. Hutchinson, T., & Waters. A. (1987). English for specific purposes. Cambridge
University Press. pp. 53-63
2. Richards, J. C. (2001). Curriculum development in language teaching. Ernst Klett
Sprachen, pp.59-71.

Conducting need analysis

In this chapter, we shall look at the more specific matter of needs analysis. We shall be seeking
answers to two questions: (1) what do we mean by 'needs'? (2) what kind of information should a
needs analysis tell us?
Probably, the most thorough and widely known work on needs analysis is John Munby's
Communicative Syllabus Design (1978). Munby presents a highly detailed set of procedures for
discovering target situation needs. He calls this set of procedures the Communication Needs
Processor (CNP). The CNP consists of a range of questions about key communication variables

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(topic, participants, medium, etc.) which can be used to identify the target language needs of any
group of learners.
The work marked a watershed in the development of English for Specific Purposes (ESP). With
the development of the CNP it seemed as if ESP had come of age. The machinery for identifying
the needs of any group of learners had been provided: all the course designer had to do was to
operate it. However, Communicative Syllabus Design proved to be a watershed in quite another
way. By taking the analysis of target needs to its logical conclusion, it showed the ultimate
sterility of a language-centred approach to needs analysis. It illustrated, in effect, not how much
could be learnt from a 'scientific' needs analysis, but rather how little. Why was this so?
The answer lies in the first of our questions about needs analysis: 'What do we mean by needs?'
In the language-centred approach, the answer to this question would be 'the ability to
comprehend and/or produce the linguistic features of the target situation', for example the ability
to understand the passive voice. Thus, what the CNP produces is a list of the linguistic features
of the target situation. But there is much more to needs than this.
In the first instance, we can make a basic distinction between target needs (i.e. what the learner
needs to do in the target situation) and learning needs (i.e. what the learner needs to do in order
to learn). We shall consider learning needs later, but even within the category of target needs we
can identify further divisions named necessaries, lacks and wants.
1. What are necessities, lacks and wants? MD2.1
Activity 1:
Read the following passage and match each of the concepts in Table 1 with its definition.
Table 1: Types of target needs
Type Definition
1. Necessities a. The gap between the existing proficiency and the target proficiency
2. Lacks b. Learners’ own view of their "necessities" and "lacks" and their own wishes,
which may conflict with perceptions of course designers, sponsors, or
teachers.
3. Wants c. What the learner has to know in order to function effectively in target
situation

a) Necessities
We can call 'necessities' the type of need determined by the demands of the target situation; that
is, what the learner has to know in order to function effectively in the target situation. For
example, a businessman or -woman might need to understand business letters, to communicate
effectively at sales conferences, to get the necessary information from sales catalogues and so on.
He or she will presumably also need to know the linguistic features - discoursal, functional,
structural, lexical - which are commonly used in the situations identified. This information is
relatively easy to gather. It is a matter of observing what situations the learner will need to
function in and then analysing the constituent parts of them.

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The following example of this procedure is adapted from Munby (1978), and it shows the
necessities for a learner who works as a head waiter in a hotel:
Table 2: A needs analysis using the CNP
Sample ‘communicative Related micro-functions Language form (productive)
activities’
7.1.1 Attending to 7.1.1 I will bring the menu.
customers’ arrival 1. intention
2. prohibit
3. direct, etc
7.1.2 Attending to 7.1.2 May I suggest the….?
customers’ order 1. suggestive May I recommend the …?
2. advise You may find the ….too
3. describe, etc hot/spicy
7.1.3 Serving the order, etc. 7.1.3 …..for you, sir/madam?
1. question The…..?

b) Lacks
To identify necessaries alone, however, is not enough, since the concern in a language course is
with the needs of particular learners. You also need to know what the learner knows already, so
that you can then decide which of the necessities the learner lacks. One target situation necessity
might be to read texts in a particular subject area. Whether or not the learners need instruction in
doing this will depend on how well they can do it already. The target proficiency, in other words,
needs to be matched against the existing proficiency of the learners. The gap between the two
can be referred to as the learner's lacks (Hutchinson, Waters and Breen 1979).
c) Wants
So far, we have considered target needs only in an objective sense, with the actual learners
playing no active role. But the learners too, have a view as to what their needs are. As Richterich
(1984 p. 29) comments: ' ... a need does not exist independent of a person. It is people who build
their images of their needs on the basis of data relating to themselves and their environment.'
We have stressed above that it is an awareness of needs that characterizes the target situation.
But awareness is a matter of perception, and perception may vary according to one's standpoint.
Learners may well have a clear idea of the 'necessities' of the target situation: they will certainly
have a view as to their ‘lacks’. But it is quite possible that the learners' views will conflict with
the perceptions of other interested parties: course designers, sponsors, teachers.
Activity 2:
Identify the “necessities”, the “lacks” and the “wants” (if any) of the following cases.
i) Karl Jensen is a German engineer who has a frequent and important need to read texts
in English. He also needs to talk to overseas colleagues occasionally; for example, at
the annual planning conference. The company he works for is a multi-national

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 company and the operating language for communication outside national boundaries
is English, although the majority of workers are nonnative speakers. By any
quantitative analysis Karl Jensen's need is for reading, because it is a much more
frequent activity for him. But he feels a far stronger need to spend his time in the
English -class improving his oral competence. Why? The answer lies in the way in
which he identifies his own personality with the use of a foreign language. He reads
in private and at his own speed: he can use a dictionary, if he wants. But when he is
speaking, his pride is on the line: his English competence (or lack of it, as he sees it)
is exposed for all to see and he is under pressure to participate at a speed determined
by the discourse. Therefore, Karl Jensen sees his greatest need as being the
improvement of his oral proficiency.
ii) Li Yu Zhen is a Chinese graduate in Chemistry, who is going to study in the United
States. She needs to be able to· survive socially and professionally in an English-
speaking community. Fluency is, therefore, her greatest need. Li Yu Zhen, however,
prefers to spend her time improving her knowledge of English grammar. Why? Her
answer lies in her own estimation of priorities. In order to be accepted for her course
of study she must first pass a test. The most important criterion in the test is
grammatical accuracy. Li Yu Zhen, therefore, sees her priority need as being to pass
the test.
iii) Jose Lima is a Brazilian salesman. He needs to be able to talk on the telephone to
customers and to other colleagues. He also needs to read catalogues and business
letters. Jose is an outgoing, sociable man, who gets on easily with people. His spoken
English is not very accurate, but is fluent. His employer feels that Jose's real need is
for greater accuracy in spoken conversation, because it reflects badly on the
company's image to have one of its representatives speaking very incorrect English.
However, Jose feels that his spoken English is very good, and he resents the
implication that it is not. After all, he communicates very well. He sees the English
classes as a criticism of his performance as a salesman. He, therefore, has little
motivation to attend classes.
As these case studies show, there is no necessary relationship between necessities as perceived
by sponsors or teachers and what the learners want or feel they need. (It is also quite likely that
the views of sponsors and teachers will similarly be at odds!). Bearing in mind the importance of
learner motivation in the learning process, learners’ perceived wants cannot be ignored.
Activity 3:
Read the following summary of a study into the motivation of students following ESP courses in
the faculties of Medicine, Agriculture and Veterinary Science at a university in the Middle East
by Richard Mead's (1980). Then complete the table.
The students were all given ESP courses based on texts from their subject specialisms:
Medical texts for the Medical students and so on. This, it was assumed, would motivate
the students because of the apparent relevance to their course of study. When Mead
enquired into the interest the students had in their specialisms, however, he discovered

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 that only the Medical students were really motivated by their subject-specific texts. The
Agriculture and Veterinary students were not motivated by their subject-specific texts,
because they didn't really want to study those subjects. They had wanted to be medical
doctors, but there were not enough places in the medical faculty to accommodate them
all. They had opted for their specialisms as very poor second bests. Agricultural and
Veterinary texts, therefore, were like salt in a wound. They had a de-motivating effect,
because they reminded the students of their frustrated ambitions.

Table 3: Types of target needs in Mead’s analysis

Type OBJECTIVE (as perceived by course SUBJECTIVE (as perceived by
designers) learners)
1. Necessities

2. Lacks

3. Wants

Activity 4: Discuss the following question:

“What would you do if you were in Mead’s situation?

2. What are learning needs? MD2-2

Activity 5:
Complete the following analogy with “necessities, wants, learning needs”:
• Course = Journey
• The starting point = entry level
• Destination = ____________
• The disputes over which destination to take = ________
• The route = __________________
Till now we have considered needs only in terms of target situation needs. We have been
considering the question: 'What knowledge and abilities will the learners require in order to be
able to perform to the required degree of competence in the target situation?'. Using our analogy
of the language course as a journey, what we have done so far is to consider the starting point
and the destination (necessities), although we have also seen that there might be some dispute as
to what that destination should be (wants). What we have not considered yet is the route. How

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are we going to get from our starting point to the destination? This indicates another kind of
need: learning needs.
To understand what is meant by learning needs, let us look a little more closely at what happens
in the analysis of target situation.
In looking at the target situation, the language course designer is asking the question: 'What does
the expert communicator need to know in order to function effectively in this situation?' This
information may be recorded in terms of language items; skills, strategies, subject knowledge,
etc.
What the analysis cannot do, however, is show how the expert communicator learnt the language
items, skills and strategies that he or she uses (Smith, 1984). Analysing what people do tells you
little, if anything, about how they learnt to do it. Yet, the whole language learning process is
concerned not with knowing or doing, but with learning. It is naïve to base a course design
simply on the target objectives, just as it is naïve to think that a journey can be planned solely in
terms of the starting point and the destination. The needs, potential and constraints of the route
(i.e. the learning situation) must also be taken into account, if we are going to have any useful
analysis of learner needs.
An example of what this means may be seen in the matter of choosing texts.
Let us say, we are preparing materials for a group of learners who need to read texts on Systems.
Most of the available texts are long and dull. Should these texts be used for ESP? We would say
no. The learners' motivation in the target situation will not necessarily carry over to the ESP
classroom. They may well have to read very dull texts in their work or studies, but they probably
have some strong motivation to do so. This does not imply that they will accept or learn from
dull texts in ESP. It may be more appropriate to look for texts that are more interesting or
humorous in order to generate the motivation needed to learn English (Hutchinson and Waters,
1983). An imaginative example of a focus on the learning situation is James B. Herbolich's box
kite project (1979). Herbolich describes a scheme in which Engineering students at the
University of Kuwait had to build a box kite and write a manual explaining how to construct it.
Herbolich gives five reasons for choosing the box kite as the object of the project:
'The mechanism should be (1) relatively new to the students; (2) related to a field of
Engineering; (3) a device which allowed the attainment of new lexis; (4) a device which actually
would operate; and (5) enjoyable to construct and test.'
It is interesting to consider how far the activity reflects target situation needs and how far the
needs of the learning situation. The students would have to write manuals in the target situation
and this obviously explains the choice of this particular mode of expression. The students were
studying Engineering, hence reason (2) above. But this is the limit of the influence of the target
situation. All the other reasons given derive from the needs of the learning situation - the need
for a task that is enjoyable, fulfilling, manageable, generative etc. The project, in effect, is guided
in terms of its general orientation by the target situation, but its specific content is a response to
learning needs.

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Herbolich's project reminds us once more that ESP learners are people. They may be learning
about machines, but they are not the word-crunching machines which too many approaches to
ESP seem to imply.
In the target situation they may need, for example, to read long, dull or complex texts, but their
motivation to do so may be high because:
- they like the subject in general;
- examinations are looming;
- job/promotion prospects may be involved;
- they may be going on to do very interesting experiments or practical work based on the texts; ·
- they may like and/or respect the subject teacher or boss;
- they may be very good at their subject, but poor at English.
For all manner of possible reasons learners may be well motivated in the subject lesson or in
their work, but totally turned off by encountering the same material in an ESP classroom. The
target situation, in other words, is not a reliable indicator of what is needed or useful in the ESP
learning situation. The target situation analysis can determine the destination; it ·can also act as a
compass on the journey to give general direction, but we must choose our route according to the
vehicles and guides available (i.e. the conditions of the learning situation), the existing roads
within the learner's mind (i.e. their knowledge, skills and strategies) and the learners' motivation
for travelling.
3. A target situation analysis framework MD2.3
The analysis of target situation needs is in essence a matter of asking questions about the target
situation and the attitudes towards that situation of the various participants in the learning
process. There are a number of books and articles that may be referred to for this purpose, for
example Mackay (1978), Munby (1978), Cohen and Mannion (1980), Richterich and Chancerel
(1980). The simple framework below outlines the kind of information that the course designer
needs to gather from an analysis of target situation.
A target situation analysis framework
Why is the language needed?
- for study;
- for work;
- for training;
- for a combination of these;
- for some other purpose, e.g. status, examination, promotion.
How will the language be used?

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- medium: speaking, writing, reading etc.;
- channel: e.g. telephone, face to face;
- types of text or discourse: e.g. academic texts, lectures, informal conversations, technical
manuals, catalogues.
What will the content areas be?
- subjects: e.g. medicine, biology, architecture, shipping, commerce, engineering;
- level: e.g. technician, craftsman, postgraduate, secondary school.
Who will the learner use the language with?
- native speakers or non-native;
- 1evel of knowledge of receiver: e.g. expert, layman, student;
- relationship: e.g. colleague, teacher, custom r, superior, subordinate.
Where will the language be used?
- physical setting: e.g. office, lecture theatre, hotel, workshop, library;
- human context: e.g. alone, meetings, demonstrations, on telephone;
- linguistic context: e.g. in own country, abroad.
When will the language be used?
- concurrently with the ESP course or subsequently;
- frequently, seldom, in small amounts, in large chunks.
In view of what has been said earlier in this module about needs and wants, it is clear that
interpretations of needs can vary according to the point of view of the particular respondent.
English language education, like any educational matter, is concerned with people, and as such is
subject to all the vagaries and foibles of human behaviour. For example, in analysing the needs
of students, it would be normal practice to ask both the lecturers and the students about their
English needs. There may be a tendency on the part of the lecturers to exaggerate the need for
English, since English medium instruction is often considered to have higher status. The lecturer,
in other words, has a personal investment in giving the impression that the level of English
needed is high. The students, on the other hand, may give a much lower indication of the need
for English, because they know (or would prefer to believe) that it is not really necessary. They
might consider their interests to lie in English for their future employment, for social purposes or
even in not having English at all.
It is obviously necessary to obtain answers to the questions from a variety of sources, and then to
try and negotiate (delicately) a satisfactory compromise.
4. A learning situation analysis framework MD2.4

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To analyse learning situation, we can use a similar checklist to that used for target situation
analysis:
A learning situation analysis framework
Why are the learners taking the course?
- compulsory or optional;
- apparent need or not;
- Are status, money, promotion involved?
- What do learners think they will achieve?
- What is their attitude towards the language course? Do they want to improve their English or
do they resent the time they have to spend on it?
How do the learners learn?
- What is their learning background?
- What is their concept of teaching and learning?
- What methodology will appeal to them?
- What sort of techniques are likely to bore/ alienate them?
What resources are available?
- number and professional competence of teachers;
- attitude of teachers to a language course;
- teachers' knowledge of and attitude to the subject content;
- materials;
- aids;
- opportunities for out-of-class activities.
Who are the learners?
- age/sex/nationality;
- What do they know already about English?
- What subject knowledge do they have?
- What are their interests?
- What is their socio-cultural background?

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- What teaching styles are they used to?
- What is their attitude to English or to the cultures of the English -speaking world?
Where will the course take place?
- are the surroundings pleasant, dull, noisy, cold etc.?
When will the course take place?
- time of day;
- every day/ once a week;
- full-time/ part-time;
- concurrent with need or pre-need.

5. How to gather information about needs? MD2-5

It follows from the above account that the analysis of target needs involves far more than simply
identifying the linguistic features of the target situation. There are a number of ways in which
information can be gathered about needs. The most frequently used are:
questionnaires;
interviews;
observation;
data collection e.g. gathering texts;
informal consultations with sponsors, learners and others.
In view of the complexity of needs which we have seen, it is desirable to use more than one of
these methods. The choice will obviously depend on the time and resources available. It is also
important to remember that needs analysis is not a once-for-all activity. It should be a continuing
process, in which the conclusions drawn are constantly checked and re-assessed (see e.g.
Drobnic, 1978).
Procedures for conducting needs analysis
A variety of procedures can be used in conducting needs analysis and the kind of information
obtained is often dependent on the type of procedure selected. Since any one source of
information is likely to be incomplete or partial, a triangular approach (i.e., collecting
information from two or more sources) is advisable. Many sources of information should be
sought (Richards, 2001, p.59). For example, when a needs analysis of the writing problems
encountered by foreign students enrolled in America universities is conducted, information could
be obtained from the following source:
• samples of student writing

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 • test data on student performance
• reports by teachers on typical problems students face
• opinions of expert
• information from students via interviews and questionnaires
• analysis of textbook teaching academic writing
• survey of related literature
• examples of writing programs from other institutions
• examples of writing assignments given to first-year university students
Procedures for collecting information during a needs analysis can be selected from among
following:
Questionnaires
Questionnaires are one of the most common instruments used. They are relatively easy to
prepare, they can be used with a large number of subjects, and they obtain information that is
relatively easy to tabulate and analyze. They can be also used to elicit information about many
different kinds of issues, such as language use, communication difficulties, preferred learning
styles, preferred classroom activities, attitudes and beliefs.
Questionnaires are either based on a set of structured items (in which the respondent students
choose from a limited number of responses) or unstructured (in which open-ended questions are
given that a respondent can answer as he or she chooses). Structured items are much easier to
analyze and are hence normally preferred. A questionnaire designed as a basis for planning
courses in Cantonese for non-Chinese residents of Hong Kong seeks information on the
following:
• situations in which Cantonese could be used
• self-assessment of current proficiency level in Cantonese
• previous experience of Cantonese courses
• views on textbooks for learning Cantonese
• views on approach to teaching Cantonese
• learning-style preferences
• views on Cantonese as a language
A disadvantage of questionnaires, however, is that the information obtained may be fairly
superficial or imprecise and will often need a follow-up interview to gain a fuller understanding
of what respondents intend. It should also be recognized that there are many badly designed

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questionnaires in educational research, and it is advisable to become familiar with the principles
of good questionnaires is essential to identify ambiguities and other problems before
questionnaires is administered.
Self-ratings
These consist of scales that students or others use to rate their knowledge or abilities. (Self-
ratings may be included as part of a questionnaire). For example, a student might rate how well
he or she can handle a job interview in English. The disadvantage of such an instrument is that it
provides only impressionistic information and information that is not very precise.
Interviews
Interviews allow for a more in-depth exploration of issues than is possible with a questionnaire,
though they take longer to administer and are only feasible for smaller groups. An interview may
often be useful at the preliminary stage of designing a questionnaire, since it will help the
designer get a sense of what topics and issues can be focused on in the questionnaire. A
structured interview in which a set series of question is used allows more consistency across
responses to be obtained. Interviews can be conducted face-to-face or over the telephone.
Meetings
A meeting allows a large amount of information to be collected in a fairly short time. For
example, a meeting of teachers on the topic “students’ problems with listening comprehension”
might generate a wide range of ideas. However, information obtained in this way may be
impressionistic and subjective and reflect the ideas of more outspoken members of a group.
Observation
Observations of learners’ behavior in a target situation is another way of assessing their needs.
For example, observing clerks performing their jobs in a bank will enable the observer to arrive
at certain conclusions about their language needs.
However, people often do not perform well when they are being observed, so this has to be taken
into account. In addition, observation is a specialized skill. Knowing how to observe, what to
look for, and how to make use of the information obtained generally requires specialized
training.
Collecting learners language samples
Collecting data on how well learners perform on different language tasks (e.g., business letters,
interviews, telephone calls) and documenting the typical problems they have is a useful and
direct source of information about learners’ language needs. Language samples may be collected
through the following means:
• written or oral tasks: Examples of students written or oral work are collected
• simulations or role plays: Students are given simulations to carry out and their
performance is observed and recorded

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 • achievement tests: Students are tested for their abilities in different domains of language
use
• performance tests: Students are tested on job-related or task-related behaviours, such as
“how well a job interview can be carried out in English”
Task analysis
This refers to analysis of the kinds of tasks the learners will have to carry out in English in a
future occupational or educational setting and assessment of the linguistic characteristics and
demands of the tasks. For example, a hotel employee might have to perform the following tasks
in English
• greet hotel guests
• inquire about their accommodation needs
• inform them of accommodation available in the hotel
• help them make a suitable choice of accommodation
• handle check-in procedures
Berwick (1889, p.57) observes: “The emphasis of target situation analysis is on the nature and
effect of target language communications in particular situations (in offices, on assembly lines,
in meeting rooms, in content-based classrooms, for example). Expert analysis of communication
establishes standards against which current performance can be gauged”. Once target tasks have
been identified, their linguistic characteristics are determined as a basis for designing a language
course or training materials.
Case studies
With a case study, a single student or a selected group of students is followed through a relevant
work or educational experiences in order to determine the characteristics of that situation. For
example, a newly arrived immigrant might be studied for three months, during which time the
student keeps a log of his or her daily language experiences in English, the situations in which
the language is used, and the problems he or she encounters. Although it is generally not possible
to generalize from a case study, it provides a very rich source of information that may
complement information obtained from other sources.
In any situation where a needs analysis is needed, a large amount of relevant information is
generally available in various sources. These include:
• books
• journal articles
• reports and surveys
• records and files

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An analysis of available information is normally the first step in a needs analysis because there
are very few problems in language teaching that have not been written about or analyzed
somewhere.
Designing the needs analysis
Designing a needs analysis involves choosing from among the various options discussed above
and selecting those that are likely to give a comprehensive view of learners’ needs and that
represent the interests of the different stakeholders involved. Decisions have to be made on the
practical procedures involved in collecting, organizing, analyzing, and reporting the information
collected. It is important to make sure that the needs analysis does not produce an information
overload. There needs to be a clear reason for collecting different kinds of information so as to
ensure that only information that will actually be used in collected. In investigating the language
needs of non-English-background students at a New Zealand university (Gravatt, Richards, and
Lewis 1997), the following procedures were used:
1. literature survey
2. analysis of a wide range of survey questionnaires
3. contact with others who had conducted similar surveys
4. interviews with teachers to determine goals
5. identification of participating departments
6. presentation of project proposal to participating departments and identification of liaison
person in each department
7. development of a pilot student and staff questionnaires
8. review of the questionnaires by colleagues
9. piloting of the questionnaires
10. selection of staff and student subjects
11. developing a schedule for collecting data
12. administration of questionnaires
13. follow-up interviews with selected participants
14. tabulation of responses
15. analysis of responses
16. writing up of report and recommendations
In smaller–scale needs analysis such as that of a teaher or group of teachers assessing the needs
of new groups of students in a language program, need analysis procedures may consist of:

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 • initial questionnaire
• follow-up individual and group interviews
• meetings with students
• meetings with other teachers
• ongoing classroom observation
• tests
Making use of the information obtained
The results of a needs analysis will generally consist of information taken from several different
sources and summarized in the form of ranked lists of different kinds. For example, it might
result in a list of the following kinds:
• situations in which English is frequently used
• situations in which difficulties are encountered
• comments most often made by people on learners’ performance
• frequencies with different transaction are carried out
• perceive difficulties with different aspects of language use
• preferences for different kinds of activities in teaching
• frequencies of errors made in different types of situations or activities
• common communication problems in different situations
• suggestions and opinions about different aspects of learners’ problems
• frequencies of linguistic items or units in different texts or situations
In the course of carrying out a needs analysis, a large number of potential needs may be
identified. However, these needs will have to be prioritized because not all of them may be
practical to address in a language program, or perhaps the time frame available in the program is
suitable for addressing only a portion of them. And the mere fact that needs have been identified
does not automatically imply that changes will have to made in the curriculum. First, the existing
curriculum (when there is one) has to be examined to see to what extent the needs that have been
identified are being met. Decisions will therefore have to be made concerning which of the needs
are critical, which are important, and which are merely desirable. In addition, some needs will be
feasible; for others; they may be impractical.
Various stakeholders of needs analysis

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It is also important to remember that because needs are not objective facts but subjective
interpretations of information from a large variety of sources, a great deal of consultation is
needed with the various stakeholders to ensure that the conclusion drawn from a needs analysis
are appropriate and relevant. It often happens that some of the information may be
contradictory, Stufflebeam et al. (1985,111) remind us:
The process of analysis [of the results of a needs analysis] involves efforts that are thoughtful,
investigatory, systematic, and carefully recorded so that they can be replicated and reviewed. The
primary goal of analysis is to bring meaning to the obtained information and to do so in the
context of some philosophy, relevant perspectives, and the value positions that may be in
conflict.
Thus, for example, in a needs analysis as part of curriculum renewal in a state education system,
different views of problems in curriculum emerged. A number of different points of view
emerged as to what should be changed:
• learners’ view: more support for learning needed and reduction of the amount of
materials they had to study
• academics’ view: better preparation for tertiary studies needed in terms of reading and
writing skills
• employers’ view: better preparation for employment required in terms of basic
communication skills
• teachers’ view: better grasp of grammar needed by learners
Brindley (1989) discusses differences between learners’ and teachers’ views of needs and
suggests the need for a negotiation process in order to satisfy and clarify each other’s
assumptions. The same is true of other stakeholders in the curriculum.
Where there are several different audiences for the needs analysis (e.g., teachers, administrators,
a funding body), the information obtained will have to be analyzed – and analyzed in a form that
suits each group’s interests. One group may require a brief overview of the findings while
another may be interested in detailed findings. The format for reporting the findings may also
vary. For example, it might include:
• a full written document
• a short summary document
• a meeting
• a group discussion
• a newsletter
Needs analysis thus produces information that can be used in different ways. For example:

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 • It may be provide the basis for the evaluation of an existing program or a component of a
program.
• It may provide the basis for planning goals and objectives for a further program.
• It may assist with developing tests and other assessment procedures.
• It can help with the selection of appropriate teaching methods in a program
• It may provide the basis for developing a syllabus and teaching materials for a course.
• It may provide information that can be used as part of a course or program report to an
external body or organization.
In none of these cases, however, is there a direct route from needs analysis to application.
Although a major application of needs analysis is in the design of language programs, before a
program can be designed, additional information is needed on factor that can have an impact on
the program.

Quiz and Performance Task

1. Quiz MD2.1-5
Activity 6:
For each question from 1 – 5, choose the best answer, and write A, B, C in the correspondingly
numbered line on the right.
1. Learners’ own view of their "necessities" and "lacks" and their own wishes, which may
conflict with perceptions of course designers, sponsors, or teachers is called:
A. wishes B. lacks C. wants
1. The gap between the existing proficiency and the target proficiency is called ________.
A. wish B. lack C. want
2. “What learners need to do in order to learn” is known as _________.
A. target needs B. present needs C. learning needs
4. A questionnaire that gives respondents open-ended questions is called a____________
A. structured questionnaire
B. unstructured questionnaire
C. semi-structured questionnaire
5. Interviews allow for a more in-depth exploration of issues than is possible with a
questionnaire, though they take longer to administer and are only feasible for _______ groups.
A. smaller B. bigger C. similar

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Activity 7:
Find at least 5 differences of the target situation analysis framework and learning situation
analysis framework.

Activity 8:
Fill each gap in the following reading passage with NO MORE THREE WORDS OR A
NUMBER
Needs analysis is a complex process, involving much (1)…………….. than simply looking at what
the learners will have to do in the target situation. Most of all, we have tried to stress that both
target situation needs and (2)…………………….must be taken into account. Analysis of target
situation needs is concerned with (3)…………….. . But language use is only part of the story. We
also need to know about (4) …………………... Analysis of the target situation can tell us what
people do with language. What we also need to know is how people learn to do what they do with
(5)……………….. We need, in other words, a learning-centred approach to needs analysis.

2. Performance Task MD1.1-5

Activity 9:
Study the following case and suggest relevant instrument(s) to collect data about needs.
Context
The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand, the largest of New Zealand ‘s seven
universities with a student population of some 26,000.
Background
The number of students for whom English is a second language has increased steadily recently.
In some faculties as many as 30 percent of the students are ESL students.
• The English competence of these students on entry varies considerably.
• A previous small-scale report within the university, addressing the issue of English-
language skills of students and entrance requirements, strongly indicated that more data
were needed regarding the problems experienced by ESL students.
• This prompted studies to look at the language demands placed on ESL students,
problems, experiences, and suggestions for improving the situation.

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